Psychoactive drugs plant and poisonous plant

R.R Tshikororo
Department of Botany and plant Biotechnology, University of Johannesburg
P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa
Email address: rudzani.ralph@yahoo.com
Student no: 201048036
Abstract
This report will be discussing psychoactive drug and poisonous plants. Psychoactive drugs are substances that are used by living organisms
which have impact in thinking, moods and behaviour. Poisonous plants are plants that can be used for protection against predator or hunting.
Some of these plants are used for medical purposes such as Atropa belladonna which can control inflammation and pain and also used as
antinodes against mushroom poisoning. These plants are important for economic use. The psychoactive drug plants can be classified into three
grouping stimulants, hallucinogens and depressants. Poisonous plant can be grouped under protection/hunting and insecticides/pesticides. The
finding shows that these plants can be for economic use especially in medicine.
Keywords: Psychoactive drug plants; poisonous plants; hallucinogens; stimulants; medicinal plants



1. Introduction
Psychoactive drugs are chemical substances from plant which can be used to alter or modify the emotional, intellectual or behavioural function
of organisms (Hindmarch, 2004). The psychoactive drug functions when absorbed into the bloodstream and affect neurotransmitters in human
body. The substance influences the release of neurotransmitters (chemical messengers within the nervous system, such as dopamine), which
can mimic action or inhibit action (Hindmarch, 2004). Most chemicals that contain psychoactive properties have nitrogen and are classified
under one of alkaloids classes. The angiosperm families are widely known for their characteristics of having psychoactive properties (Seymour,
& Smith, 2011). The psychoactive drug can be classified as follows: stimulants, hallucinogens and depressants. This grouped is classified
based on the effect on the living organisms such as hallucinogens marijuana (Cannabis sativa), stimulants an example of plants is
Erythroxylum coca, and depressant example of plant is Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum).The psychoactive drug can be used in medicine for
Anaesthetic pain management and psychiatric medication (Hindmarch, 2004).
Plant defend themselves by producing chemical substance to prevent being browsed by predators. Compound like tannins act like defence
mechanisms in plants. This plant are classified as poisonous plant because different toxins such as alkaloids, cyanogenic glycosides,
coumarins, terpenoids, saponins, heart gylcosides, lectins, oxalates and miscellaneous compounds (Van Wyk et al., 2005). Animals can
accidentally swallow the poisons plant when grazing which can cause fatal disease and result in heavy stock losses (Botha & Penrith,
2008).Some poisonous plant can be accidentally swallowed as plant food such as wild tobacco (Nicotiana gluaca) and purging nut (Jatropha
curcas) seed ( Van Wyk B.E. & Gericke, N. 2000). Furthermore, when accidentally swallowed by humans, it can result into symptoms like
nausea, vomiting, delirium or hallucinations, loss of consciousness and difficulty in breathing (Van Wyk et al., 2005). Some plants are used for
medical purposes such as Atropa belladonna which can control inflammation and pain and also used as antinode against mushroom poisoning
(Singh, 2006). The people of Caribs of the Caribbean has used poisons made from the latex to kill their wild beast and even hurt other animals
from (Hippomane mancinella) Manchineel tree (Mayor, 2009).


2. Results and discussion
2.1 Psychoactive drug plants
Psychoactive drug plants have been used by humankind for a variety of reasons. Some plants are used for religious and spiritual reasons such
as marijuana (Cannabis sativa).The effect differ on living organism depending on the psychoactive drug plant properties. The psychoactive
drug plants have been grouped according to their effects such as hallucinogens, stimulants and depressants.
2.1.1 Hallucinogens
A variety of plants may contain chemical species of hallucinogens. This word comes from Greek word meaning to wander in mind or attention.
Plants that contains hallucinogenic properties have been used in religious ceremonies, entertainment and also for healing eg jimsonweed,
psilocybin mushrooms, and cannabis (Mehling & Triggle , 2003). The counterculture movements used hallucinogens as Lysergic acid
diethylamide for Spiritual ceremonies. When this psychoactive drug is taken by human it can reduce fatigue, suppress hunger and alter vision.

Fig 1: Jimson weed as an example of Hallucinogens (www.carrborocitizen.com)
Table 1: Hallucinogens sub-class of plants indigenous and exotic to South Africa
Category of
use
Species Commercial
name
Family Region of
origin
Main use/main
effect
Google hits on
(08/08/13 )
Indigenous species


Hallucinogen
s
Boophone disticha
(L.f.) Herb
Umdlandlovu
(Zulu)
Amaryllidaceace Africa For hunting 15,400
Boscia albitrunca
(Burch.) Gilg & Gilg-
Ben.
Muvhombwe
venda
Sherperdstree
Capparaceae South Africa Medicinal use 10,400
Chamaecrista
mimosoides
(L.) Greene

Bonisele(zulu-
seeing)
Convolvulaceae tropics of
Asia and
Africa and S
Africa
Medicinal use 8,490
Crabbea hirsuta
Harv
(Carl Linnaeus)

letsoejane/mere
ko (Sotho)
Acanthaceae Africa 1,420
Ipomoea oblongata
(E.Mey. ex Choisy)
Ubhoqo Convolvulaceae southern
Africa
Turbinaspecies
are culturally
important New
World
hallucinogens
81,100
Brachylaena
discolour
(de Candolle,
Augustin Pyramus)
Coast silver oak Asteraceae southern
Africa
Traditional
medicina use
and oranametal
31,400
Sceletium tortuosum
(L.) Bron,Nicholas
Edward


Channa Mesembryanthem
aceae
South Africa Smoked with
Cannibas
130,000
Category of
use

Species Commercial
name
Family Region of
origin
Main use/main
effect
Google hits on
(08/08/13)
Exotic species
Hallucinogen
s
Lophophora
williamsii
( Salm-Dyck )
J.M.Coult.
Peyote Cactaceae Northern
America
Breast pain and
rheumatism
6,080,000
Cannabis sativa
L.var.Indica(Lam)W
Ehmer
Marijuana Cannabaceae Central Asia Nonmedical
drug used for
smoking
1, 440 000 000
Brunfelsia
grandiflora
(D.Don)
royal purple
brunfelsia
Solanaceae South
America
Traditional
medicine to treat
fever,
rheumatism,
syphilis.
59,200
Ipomoea tricolor
Cav
Morning
glory
Convolvulaceae New world
tropics
Pharmaceutical
compounds
207,000
Atropa belladonna
(Carl Linnaeus)
Belladonna Solanaceae Europe Pharmaceutical
anticholinergics
452,000
Rivea corymbosa
(L. ) Hallier f.
Ololiuqui Convolvulaceae Mexico ornamental
plant
47,900
Mandragora
officinarum
(Carl Linnaeus)
Mandrake Solanaceae Europe 103,000





2.1.2. Stimulants
Psychoactive drug plants have been primarily used in treating attention-deficit /hyperactivity disorder and narcolepsy in which person fall into a
deep sleep (Solanton et al., 2001). Humans have used some of these plants for consumption as well as for ornamental purposes, for example
Catha edulis (khat) (Simpson and Ogorzaly, 2001). The stimulants are also helpful in medicine Ephreda sinica for example, can be used to
treat patients with cancer.

Fig 2: Catha edulis (www.imagejuicy.com) Fig 3: Ephreda sinica (www.henriettesherbal.com)
Table 2: Stimulants sub-class of indigenous and exotic species to South Africa
Category of
use
Species Commerc
ial name
Family Region of origin Main use/main
effect
Google hits on
(08/08/13)
Indigenous species
Stimulants Nymphaea
Nouchali
Burm. f.
red/blue
water lilly
Nymphaeaceae South Africa Decorate pond and
gardens
32,600
Helinus
integrifolius
((Lam.) Kuntze)
Ubhubhub
hu(Xhosa)
Rhamnaceae South Africa Produce foam 34,000
Category of
use
Species Commerc
ial name
Family Region of origin Main use/main
effect
Google hits on
(8/8/13)
Exotic species
Stimulants Erythroxylum
coca
(de Lamarck,
Jean-Baptiste
Pierre Antoine
de Monet)
Cocaine Erythroxylaceae western South
America
used anthetheic 121,000
Ilex guayusa
(Loesener,
Ludwig Eduard
Theodor)
Guayusa Aquifoliaceae Ecuadorian Amazion Cultivation and use
as a beverage
24,100
Ephedra sinica
(Stapf in Farw.)
ma huang Ephredraceae Chinese Treatment of cancer 165,000
Catha edulis(
(Vahl ) Forssk.
ex Endl.)
Khat Celastraceae Africa and the Arabian
Peninsula
Used as coffee 179,000



2.1.3 Depressants
Depressant drugs are drugs that are taken to calm nerves and relax muscles (www.linkingcare.org) .It work in normal function of nervous
system which can slow it.
Plants like kava, opium, tobacco and false horseweed have depressants occurring naturally.

Fig 4: Piper methysticum (www.botany.hawaii.edu)





Table 3: Depressants sub-category of indigenous and exotic species to South Africa
Category of
use
Species Commercial
name
Family Region of
origin
Main
use/main
effect
Google
hits on
(8/8/13)
Indigenous species
Depressants Indigofera
flavicans
(Baker)
naiego(San) Fabaceae Some part
of Africa
facilitate the
induction of
trance
states
3,350
Hippobromus
pauciflorus
((L.f.) Radlk.)
False
horsewood
Sapindaceae South
africa
Roots used
as love
charms
1,890
Category of
use
Species Commercial
name
Family Region of
origin
Main
use/main
effect
Google
hits on
(8/813)
Exotic species
Depressants Piper
methysticum
(G.Forst.)

Kava Piperaceae Western
pacific
Used as
beverage
266,000
Nicotiana Tobacco Solanaceae Tropical smoking 111,000
rustica
(Linn, Carl von)
Americas
Papaver
somniferum
(Linn, Carl von)
Opium
poppy
Papaveraceae Asia Converted
to heroin
42,800,000
Nicotiana
tabacum
(Linn, Carl von)
Tobacco Solanaceae tropical
and
subtropical
America
Commercial
use
1,580,000
Corydalis
ambigua
(Cham. &
Schltdl.)
Corydalis
Rhizome
Papaveraceae China Help with
pain
54,800

2.2 Poisonous plants
Poisonous plant has mechanisms to produce toxins in their roots, leaves or berries which are harmful to living organisms as defence
mechanisms (Gould, 2012). People have used them for hunting purpose like hunter gatherers and Amazonian people to poison their arrows.
Ptaeroxylon obliquum has been traditionally used for ritual purposes and also used as insecticides (Signh, 2006).

Fig 5: Ptaeroxylon obliquum (www.kumbulanursery.co.za)
2.2.1. Insecticides/pesticides
Table 4: Insecticides/pesticides sub-catergory species indigenous and exotic to South Africa

Category of
use
Species Commercial
name
Family Region of
origin
Main use/main
effect
Google hits
on (08/8/13)
Indigenous species
Insecticides/
pesticides

Ricinus communis
(L. var. communis)
Castor oil Euphorbiaceae Eastern
Africa
Antimicrobial 2,260,000
Chrysanthemum
cinerariifolium
((Trevir.) Sch.Bip.)
pyrethrum Asteraceae Natural
Insecticide
38,000
Ptaeroxylon obliquum
((Thunb.) Radlk.)

Sneezewood
tree
Rutaceae South Africa
& zimbabwe
Ritual purpose &
repel moth
22,500

Exotic species
Insecticides/
pesticides

Tsuga Canadensis
(Carrire)
Eastern hemlock Pinaceaa North
America
Natural source of
insecticide
279,000
Capsicum annuum
(Linnaeus, Carl)
Green chill Solanace ae North
America
Source
insecticide of
2,110,000
Allium sativum
(Linnaeus, Carl)
garlic Amaryllidacea
e
Central Asia Used as pesticide
and insectide
1,820,000
Azadirachta indica
(A.Juss)
Neem Meliaceae India Insecticide and
fungicide
982,00


Table 5: Protection/hunting sub-category of use for species indigenous and exotic to South Africa

Category of
use
Species Commercial
name
Family Region of
origin
Main use/main
effect
Google hits on
(08/8/13)
Indigenous species
Protection/
hunting




Acokanthera
oppositifolia
(Lam.) Codd
Bushmans
poison bush
Apocynaceae Africa Arrow poison 68,100

Adenium
Multiflorum

(Klotzsch)
Impala lilly Apocynaceae Extreme
Eastern parts
of SA
Fish and Arrow
poison
27,000

Cissampelos
capensis

(Thunb)
Dawidjies Menispermacea
e
Western parts
of SA &
northern
Namibia
Arrow poison 13,300



















Strophanthus
speciosus
((Ward & Harv.)
Reber)
Poison rope Apocynaceae Zimbabwe,
South Africa
and
Swaziland.
Arrow poison 9,220









Exotic species
Protection/
hunting

Chondrodendron
tomentosum
(Ruiz & Pavon)
Curare Menispermaceae South America Arrow poison 357,000
Strychnos nux-
vomica
(Carl Linnaeus)

Poison nut Loganiaceae Southeast Asia Fish poison 141,000
Derris elliptica
(Lour)
Poison
vine, tuba
Fabaceae Southeast Asia Fish poison 45,900
Lonchocarpus
urucu
(Killip &
A.C.Smith)
Barbasco Fabaceae Peru Poison for fishing 7,490
Nerium oleander

(Carl Linnaeus)
Oleander Apocynaceae South Asia Toxicity ingested 599,000
3. Conclusion
Over 80 percentage of human population around the globe relies on medicinal plants for their daily fight for better health. In Africa, access to
modern medical treatment is very limited mostly due to lack of facilities or when hospital do exist and their service are unaffordable for majority.
As a results psychoactive drugs are used to meet peoples needs for their health care. These plants has special meaning to many people in
terms of custom, livelihood and financial income.
Furthermore, psychoactive drugs and poisonous plants are used mostly for medicinal purposes. Different cultures and customs have their own
unique plant species which they can use for medicinal purpose, spiritual rituals and for protection.
Some people misuse the use of psychoactive drug for pleasure which results in hallucination and brain damage. The knowledge about this
plants can be used to educate the society and the awareness of their effect in term of being poisonous as well as conserving the plants.

4. References
Depressant: http://linkingcare.org/docs/depressants.
Gould, M. 2012. Poisonous plants. New York: The Rosen publishing group
Hanson, G.R., Venterelli, D.J & Fleckenstein, A.E. 2012. Drugs and Society.11th ed. Canada: Jones & Bullet learning publisher. pp. 168-180
Hindmarch, I. (2004), Psychomotor function and psychoactive drugs: British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 58: pp720740.
Mayor, A (2009). Greek Fire, Poison Arrows and Scorpion Bombs: Biological and Chemical Warfare in the Ancient World (Revised ed.). The
Overlook Press. ISBN 978-1-59020-177-0
Mehling, R. Trigger, D.J. 2003. Hallcinogens.USA :infobase .pp.6-8,50-62
Seymour, R.B. & Smith, D.E. 2011. Guide to Pyschoative Drugs: An Up-to-the-Minute Reference to Mind-Altering Substances. New York :
Harrington Park Press. pp.1-86
Simpson, B.B., Ogorzaly, M.C., 2001. Economic Botany: Plants in our world. 3
rd
edition London: Mc Graw Hill. pp. 286-312.
Singh, R. (2006). Psychoactive medicinal plants: Hallucinogenic and Narcotic drugs. New Delhi: Global vision publishing house.pp.1-76
Solanton, M.V., Arnsten, A.F.T. & Catellans, F.X. 2007. Stimulants drugs and ADHD: Basic and Clinical Neurosciences. New York: Oxford
University Press. pp. 3-31
Van Wyk B.E, Van Heerden F.and Van Oudtshoorn B. (2005). Poisons plants of South Africa. South Africa: Briza Publications.pp.10-15, 30-50.
Van Wyk B.E. & Gericke, N. 2000. Peoples Plants: A Guide to Useful Plants of Southern Africa. Briza Publications. pp.19-32