Birds have nucleated Erythrocytes

erythrocytes. The cell

is oval with an oval
centrally positioned
nucleus.
Avian hematology
Avian erythrocytes
are much larger than
Marie Gunnarsson most mammalian
Institute for Clinical Chemistry erythrocytes. The
Swedish Agricultural University size varies among
species.

This 1.5 year old African grey parrot had a

problem with feather plucking but had The chromatin Erythrocytes
normal appearing erythrocytes. in the nucleus is
uniformly
clumped and
becomes more
condensed with
age. The
cytoplasm has a
uniform texture
and stains
orange-pink.

These are normal erythrocytes from a In avian blood

healthy 11 year old African grey parrot. smears variations
Erythrocytes
from the typical
erythrocyte are
occasionally seen.
The shape can vary
(poikilo-cytosis)
from irregular to
round or elongated.
Changes limited to
certain areas are
often artifactual.

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 The occasional abnormally formed
erythrocyte was from the same normal Erythrocytes
African grey parrot seen previously.
It is important to
seperate artifact from
true morphologic
changes.
Erythrocytes missing
nuclei are called
erythroplastids. They
are often due to
preparation artifact.

Occasional This blood is from a healthy 11 year old

immature
Erythrocytes African grey parrot.
polychromatophilc
erythrocytes are
normally seen.
Their cytoplasm is
more basophilic
and chromatin
more dispersed
than in mature
erythrocytes.

Erythrocytes Erythrocytes
Immature Answer:
erythrocytes are also This is the most
more round than immature
mature erythrocytes. erythrocyte.

Question: The blood is from

Which one of these a healthy African
erythrocytes is the grey parrot.
most immature?

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 Anemia
An indication of erythrocyte regeneration
(bone marrow response to an anemia) is
the degree of polychromasia. 1-5 %
erythrocyte polychromasia is normal in a
healthy bird. In a blood smear from a bird
with regenerative anemia the degree of
polychromasia will increase.
This is blood from a 3 month old male red
Anemia
This is an example of
regenerative anemia.
Notice that about
half of the
erythrocytes are
immature
polychromatophilic
cells.
Anemia
Nonregenerative anemia has no or little
increase immature erythrocytes and a low
degree of polychromasi which indicates a
lack of effective bone marrow response.
One should identify the underlaying
cause to allow a better prognosis.
Anemia
Anisocytosis (variability in cell size)
occurs normally in blood smears from
healthy birds. With an active bone
marrow response to anemia, anisocytosis
increases and it is characterized by
younger larger and rounder erythrocytes.
fronted kakariki with hemolytic anemia.
Anemia
Increased erythrocyte destruction,
decreased erythrocyte production or
blood loss can result in anemia.
Blood loss anemia may result from
trauma, bloodsucking ectoparasites,
gastrointestinal parasitism,
coagulopathies, ulcerated neoplasms or
rupture of internal organs.
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 This is blood from the red fronted kakariki
Anemia with hemolytic anemia.
Increased
erythrocyte
destruction may be
associated with
bacterial
septicemias, acute
aflatoxicosis,
toxemias or blood
parasites.

Anemia Anemia
Decreased erythrocyte production may be
associated with chronic infectious diseases This picture
such as tuberculosis, chlamydiosis, present anemia
aspergillosis and chronic hepatic disease.
and hypochromic
erythrocytes
Other causes are nutritional deficiencies (iron, caused by lead
folic acid), chemicals and toxins (lead,
poisoning.
aflatoxin). It may also be associated with
neoplasias, such as lymphoid neoplasia.

Thrombocytes are Thrombocytes Compared to Thrombocytes

nucleated and the erythrocyte
function like nuclei,
mammalian thrombocyte Thrombocyte
platelets in nuclei are more
hemostasis. rounded and
Thrombocytes are have a higher
smaller and more nuclear/
rounded than Lymphocyte
mature cytoplasmic
erythrocytes. ratio.

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Avian
thrombocytes Thrombocytes Thrombocytes
are often The cytoplasm is
mistaken for clear but not
lymphocytes homogenous.
by beginning Thrombocytes
hematologists contain specific
and even granules in
automated variable number,
hematology size and position
Lymphocyte in the cell. They
analyzers.
take a pink to
reddish color.

This is blood from a 3 month old female

Thrombocytes kakariki with signs of liver disease. The
Thrombocytes tend thrombocytes look normal.
to clump, so it is
difficult to do a
thrombocyte count.
A subjective
estimation can be
made. Seeing 1-2
thrombocytes in an
average monolayer
oil immersion field is
normal.

Thrombocytes Leukocytes
Enlargement of the thrombocyte’s
cytoplasm indicates a reactive change.
Thrombocytes have a phagocytic defense
function and the reactive changes are
thought to be associated with this
function.

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 Leukocytes Leukocytes
Differential white Disease or physiologic changes such as
cell count: ”stress” may cause leukocytosis
Interspecies Heterophils 30-75%
(increased number of leukocytes in
variations are great Lymphocytes 20-65%
blood). Infection is the most common
and these Monocytes 0-5%
cause to disease related leukocytosis.
reference values Basophils 0-5%
are only a very Eosinophils 0-4%
rough guide.

Leukocytes
Stress leukocytosis occur in species like
macaws, cockatoos, African greys and
ratites. Stress causes endogenous release
of cortisone which has many effects on
blood and other tissues. Treatment with
corticosteroids can also result in stress
hemograms. Elevated leukocyte counts
are common although the bird may not be
diseased.
Leukocytes
Mild leukocytosis: bacterial, fungal and
chlamydial infections.
Moderate leukocytosis: yolk peritonitis,
granulomatous disease, some phases of
septicemia.
Severe leukocytosis: active chlamydiosis,
aspergillosis, tuberculosis, leukemia.

Leukocytes
Leukopenia is reduced leukocyte
numbers which are often an artifact
related to sample handling such as:
• Blood clots before placement in
anticoagulant
• Lysis due to excessive shipping and
storage time
• Poor quality blood films
Leukocytes
True leukopenia is usually a result of
overwhelming bacterial infection, severe
viral disease or toxic substances.
Consider the variation of leukocyte count
between species. Smaller birds tend to
have lower leukocyte count than larger
birds.

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 This is a heterophil from an 11 year old
Heterophils, the
Heterophils African grey parrot.
cells analogous
with mammalian
neutrophils, are the
most common
leukocyte in avian
blood. They are
round with
colorless
cytoplasm and
eosinophilic rod-
shaped granules.

The nucleus is This is another heterophil from the same 11

lobed in mature Heterophils
year old African grey parrot as seen
heterophils with
clumped
previously.
chromatin that
stains purple. The
cytoplasmic
granules often
hide the nucleus.
Heterophils show
a little variability
in size.

These are two toxic heterophils from a 17

Toxic heterophils year old Amazon parrot with respiratory
disease.
Heterophils may
exhibit toxic
changes, including
cytoplasmic
basophilia, nuclear
hypersegmentation,
vacuolization and
basophilic
cytoplasmic
granules.

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Toxic heterophils Toxic Left shift
are seen with heterophils
septicemias, Immature heterophils
viremias and when seen indicates
severe inflammation.
chlamydial Both toxic
infections. More heterophils and
severe toxic immature heterophils
change indicates have cytoplasmic
basophilia and it is
more severe and easy to confuse these
often infectious two.
disease.

It is important to These heterophils were from a cockatoo

recognize a Artifacts with no clinical signs of disease.
normal cell even if
there is a
technique artifact
involved. Stain
that is too old may
cause this artifact
where heterophil
granules fail to
stain. This is an
artifact and not
toxic change in
these heterophils.

This is a eosinophil from an 1.5 year old

Eosinophils male African grey parrot.
Eosinophils tend to
be more irregular
than heterophils.
They are typically
round and have
round granules.
Eosinophil
cytoplasm is pale
blue. Granules may
be red, blue or clear.
Cell size varies quite
a lot.

8
 This is an eosinophil from a healthy
Eosinophils African grey parrot.
The nucleus of the
eosinophil often
stains more blue and
is more noticeable
than the heterophil
nucleus. Eosinophil
nuclei are lobed with
clumped chromatin
that stains purple.

Basophils Lymphocytes
In some avian
Avian basophils are
species
round with a round
lymphocytes are
nucleus. The
the most common
nucleus is centrally
leukocyte. They are
located and light
round but can
blue. The
sometimes look
cytoplasmic
irregular due to
granules stain
molding around
deeply basophilic
other adjacent
and often hide the
cells. The nucleus
nucleus.
is round.

Antigenic Reactive
Lymphocytes stimulation
transforms lymphocytes
lymphocytes into
The amount of reactive
cytoplasm may vary lymphocytes.
from a narrow band Viral and
to abundant chlamydial
cytoplasm in large infections may be
lymphs. The nuclear responsible but
to cytoplasmic ratio the
is high. The nonspecifically
cytoplasm is light indicate an
immune
blue and hyaline. response.

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 This is a reactive lymphocyte from a 15
year old parrot.
Reactive lymphocytes
The cytoplasm of
reactive
lymphocyes is
darker blue
reflecting protein
synthesis. The
nucleus often has
an immature
appearance.

This is another reactive lymphocyte from a Avian monocytes

15 year old parrot. are large and round Monocytes
or irregular. The
nucleus is
eccentrically placed
in many monocytes
and may be round
or bilobed. The
chromatin is
delicate and
lacelike, but
chromatin clumps
can be present.

This is a monocyte from an 1.5 year old

male African grey parrot.
Monocytes
The cytoplasm has
a finely granular
appearance and
stains blue-gray.
Sometimes it
contains vacuoles.

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This is a monocyte from an 11 year old
male African grey parrot.
Question

One of these
leukocytes is a
heterophil. Which
one is the
heterophil and
what type of
leukocytes is the
other one?

Answer Question
One of these
This is the leukocytes is a
heterophil (arrow) monocyte.
and the other Which one is the
leukocyte is a monocyte and
lymphocyte. what type of
leukocytes is the
other one?

Answer Question

This is the
monocyte (arrow) How many
and the other lymphocytes do
leukocyte is a you see in this
heterophil. picture?

11
 Answer Question
There are four What caracterize an immature
lymphocytes in erythrocyte?
this picture. It´s
easy to get
confused by the
immature
erythrocyte
(arrow).

Answer Question
Immature erythrocytes are
polychromatophilic with basophilic
cytoplasm. They are also rounder than What kind of
mature erythrocytes. leukocytes can you
see in this picture?

Answer Question

This is a
monocyte Identify
(arrow). The these
other two leukocytes.
leukocytes are
lymphocytes.

12
 Answer Question
The two
leukocytes to Name a disease that causes severe
the left are leukocytosis.
heterophils
(arrows) and
the two
leukocytes to
the right are
lymphocytes.

Answer Question
Active chlamydiosis, aspergillosis,
tuberculosis and leukemia are some
examples of diseases that causes severe Identify these
leukocytosis. blood cells.

Answer Question

All the cells are This blood is from a

erythrocytes. The bird with anemia.
one in the upper How can you
left corner is the differentiate between
most immature. non-regenerative
anemia and
regenerative anemia
in a blood smear?

13
 Answer Question

In regenerative
anemia the degree What kind of
of polychromasi leukocyte is this?
and anisocytosis
increases.

Answer Question

This is an Identify these

eosinophil (arrow). leukocytes.

Answer Question

The two
leukocytes are What kind of
normal leukocyte is
heterophils. Their this?
abnormal
appearance is due
to an artifact.

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 Answer Question

This is a basophil What kind of cell

(arrow). is this?

Answer Question

What is the cause

This is a reactice of reactive
lymphocyte. lymphocytes?

Answer Question

Antigenic
stimulation causes Identify these
the transformation blood cells.
of resting
lymphocytes to
reactive
lymphocytes.

15
 Answer Question

The two smaller

cells in the middle Identify this
are thrombocytes leukocyte.
and the cells
surrounding them
are erythrocytes.

Answer Good luck!

This is a toxic This was a good

heterophil. Notice start but continue
the dark and round reading the
and irregularly litterature for more
shaped granules. information about
avian hematology.

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