Paul The Apostle

Paul the Apostle
1
Paul the Apostle
"Saint Paul" redirects here. For other uses, see Saint Paul (disambiguation).
Paul
Apostle
Saint Paul by Bartolomeo Montagna
Personal details
Birth name Saul of Tarsus
Born
c. AD 5
[1]
in Tarsus in Cilicia
(south-central Turkey)
Died
c. AD 67
[2]
probably in Rome
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Paul the Apostle
2
v
t
e
[3]
Paul the Apostle (Greek: Paulos; c. 5 c. 67), original name Saul of Tarsus (Greek:
Saulos Tarseus), was an apostle (though not one of the Twelve Apostles) who taught the gospel of Christ to
the first-century world.
[4]
He is generally considered one of the most important figures of the Apostolic Age.
[5][6]
In
the mid-30s to the mid-50s, he founded several churches in Asia Minor and Europe. Paul used his status as both a
Jew and a Roman citizen to advantage in his ministry to both Jewish and Roman audiences.
Fourteen of the twenty-seven books in the New Testament have traditionally been attributed to Paul, and
approximately half of the Acts of the Apostles deals with Paul's life and works. Seven of the epistles are undisputed
by scholars as being authentic, with varying degrees of argument about the remainder. The Pauline authorship of the
Epistle to the Hebrews, already doubted in the 2nd and 3rd centuries
[7]
but almost unquestioningly accepted from
the 5th to the 16th centuries,
[8]
is now almost universally rejected by scholars. The other six are believed by some
scholars to have come from followers writing in his name, using material from Paul's surviving letters and letters
written by him that no longer survive.
[9]
Other scholars argue that the idea of a pseudonymous author for the
disputed epistles raises many problems.
[10]
Today, his epistles continue to be vital roots of the theology, worship, and pastoral life in the Roman and Protestant
traditions of the West, as well as the Orthodox traditions of the East.
[11]
Among the many other apostles and
missionaries involved in the spread of the Christian faith, his influence on Christian thought and practice has been
characterized as being as "profound as it is pervasive". Augustine of Hippo developed Paul's idea that salvation is
based on faith and not "works of the law".
[12]
Martin Luther's interpretation of Paul's writings heavily influenced
Luther's doctrine of sola fide.
Available sources
Further information: Historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles
The Conversion of Saul, a fresco by Michelangelo, 154245
The main source for information about Paul's life is the
material found in his epistles and in the book of Acts.
However, these epistles contain little information about
Paul's past. The book of Acts also recounts Paul's
career but leaves several parts of Paul's life out of its
narrative, such as his probable but undocumented
execution in Rome.
[13]
Sources outside the New Testament that mention Paul
include:
Pope Clement I's epistle to the Corinthians (late
1st/early 2nd century);
Ignatius of Antioch's letter To the Romans (early
2nd century);
Polycarp's letter to the Philippians (early 2nd
century);
The 2nd-century document Martyrdom of Polycarp.
Names
Paul the Apostle
3
Although it has been popularly assumed that his name was changed when he converted from Judaism to Christianity,
that is not the case.
[14]
His Jewish name was "Saul" (Hebrew: , ModernSha'ul Tiberianl; "asked for, prayed
for, borrowed"), perhaps after the biblical King Saul, a fellow Benjamite and the first king of Israel. The testimony of
the book of Acts is that he inherited Roman citizenship from his father. As a Roman citizen, he also bore the Latin
name of "Paul"
[15]
in biblical Greek: (Paulos),
[16]
and in Latin: Paulus.
[17] [Acts 16:37]

[18]

[22:25-28]

[19]
It
was quite usual for the Jews of that time to have two names, one Hebrew, the other Latin or Greek.
In the book of Acts, when he had the vision that led to his conversion on the Road to Damascus, Jesus called him
"Saul, Saul", in the Hebrew tongue, Aramaic.
[20]
Later, in a vision to Ananias of Damascus, "the Lord" referred to
him as "Saul, of Tarsus". When Ananias came to restore his sight, he called him "Brother Saul".
In Acts 13:9
[21]
, Saul is called Paul for the first time on the island of Cyprus much later than the time of his
conversion. The author (Luke) indicates the names were interchangeable: "...Saul, who also is called Paul...". He
thereafter refers to him as Paul, apparently Paul's preference since he is called Paul in all other Bible books where he
is mentioned, including those he authored. Adopting his Roman name was typical of Paul's missionary style. His
method was to put people at their ease and to approach them with his message in a language and style to which they
could relate.
Life
Summary
A native of Tarsus, the capital city in the Roman province of Cilicia, Paul wrote that he was "a Hebrew born of
Hebrews", a Pharisee, and one who advanced in Judaism beyond many of his peers. He also wrote that he was
"unmarried", at least as early as his writing of I Corinthians 7:8, however some hold that he may have been married
prior to that, due to certain textual analyses of his writings,
[22]
and other similar rationale. His initial reaction to the
newly formed Christian movement was to zealously persecute its early followers and to violently attempt to destroy
the movement. Paul's dramatic conversion while on the road to Damascus was clearly a life-altering event for him,
changing him from being one of the early movement's most ardent persecutors to being one of its most fervent
supporters.
After his conversion, Paul began to preach that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God. His leadership, influence, and
legacy led to the formation of communities dominated by Gentile groups that worshiped Jesus, adhered to the
"Judaic moral code", but relaxed or abandoned the ritual and dietary teachings of the Law of Moses. He taught that
these laws and rituals had either been fulfilled in the life of Christ or were symbolic precursors of Christ, though the
exact relationship between Paul the Apostle and Judaism is still disputed. Paul taught of the life and works of Jesus
Christ and his teaching of a New Covenant established through Jesus' death and resurrection. The Bible does not
record Paul's death.
Paul the Apostle
4
Early life
Geography relevant to Paul's life, stretching from Jerusalem to Rome
The two main sources of information
by which we have access to the earliest
segments of Paul's career are the
Bible's Book of Acts and the
autobiographical elements of Paul's
letters to the early church
communities. Paul was likely born
between the years of 5 BC and 5 AD.
The Book of Acts indicates that Paul
was a Roman citizen by birth, more
affirmatively describing his father as
such, but some scholars have taken
issue with the evidence presented by the text.
[Acts 16:37]

[18] [Acts 22:25-29]

[23]
His was a devout Jewish family in the city of Tarsusone of the largest trade centers on the Mediterranean coast.
[24]
It had been in existence several hundred years prior to his birth. It was renowned for its university, one in which
students could receive a superior education. During the time of Alexander the Great, Tarsus was the most influential
city in Asia Minor.
[25]
In his letters, Paul reflected heavily from his knowledge of Stoic philosophy, using Stoic terms and metaphors to
assist his new Gentile converts in their understanding of the revealed word of God.
[26]
He would also rely heavily on the training he received concerning the law and the prophets, utilizing this knowledge
to convince his Jewish countrymen of the unity of past Old Testament prophecy and covenants with the fulfilling of
these in Jesus Christ.
[27]
His wide spectrum of experiences and education gave the "Apostle to the Gentiles"
[Rom. 1:5]
[28]

[11:13]

[29]

[Gal. 2:8]

[30]
the tools which he later would use to effectively spread the Gospel and to establish the
church solidly in many
[31]
parts of the Roman Empire.
Paul referred to himself as being "of the stock of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew of the Hebrews; as
touching the law, a Pharisee".
[Phil. 3:5]

[32]
The Bible reveals very little about Paul's family. Paul's nephew, his sister's son, is mentioned in Acts 23:16
[33]
. Acts
also quotes Paul indirectly referring to his father by saying he, Paul, was "a Pharisee, the son of a Pharisee".
[Acts
23:6]

[34]
Paul refers to his mother in Romans 16:13
[35]
as among those at Rome. In Romans 16:7
[36]
he states that
his relatives, Andronicus and Junia, were Christians before he was and were prominent among the apostles.
The family had a history of religious piety.
[2 Timothy 1:3]

[37][38]
Apparently the family lineage had been very
attached to Pharisaic traditions and observances for generations.
[Philippians 3:5-6]

[39]
Young Saul learned how to
make the mohair with which tents were made.
[Acts 18:1-3]

[40]
Later as a Christian missionary, that trade became a
means of support for him, one that he could practice anywhere. It also was to become an initial connection with
Priscilla and Aquila with whom he would partner in tentmaking
[Acts 18:3]

[41]
and later become very important
teammates as fellow missionaries.
[Rom. 16:4]

[42]
While he was still fairly young, he was sent to Jerusalem to receive his education at the school of Gamaliel,
[Acts 22:3]
[43]
one of the most noted rabbis in history. The Hillel school was noted for giving their students a balanced
education, likely giving Paul broad exposure to classical literature, philosophy, and ethics. Some of his family may
have resided in Jerusalem since later the son of one of his sisters saved his life there.
[Acts 23:16]

[33]
Nothing more is
known of his background until he takes an active part in the martyrdom of Stephen.
[Acts 7:58-60;22:20]

[44]
Paul
confesses that "beyond measure" he persecuted the church of God prior to his conversion.
[Gal. 1:13-14]

[45]

[Phil. 3:6]
[46]

[Acts 8:1-3]

[47]
Although Acts claims Paul could speak Hebrew, modern scholarship indicates that Koine Greek
was his first language, and in his own letters Paul makes no claims to knowing Hebrew.
[48]
Paul the Apostle
5
Conversion
Main article: Conversion of Paul
Conversion on the Way to Damascus (1601), by
Caravaggio
Paul's conversion can be dated to 3136 by his reference to it in one of
his letters. There are three accounts of his conversion (Greek:
metanoia) in the Acts of the Apostles: Acts 9:1-31
[49]
,
22:1-22
[50]
, and 26:9-24
[51]
.
It took place on the road to Damascus where he reported having
experienced a vision of the resurrected Jesus. The account in Acts 9:4
[52]
says that "he [Saul] fell to the earth, and heard a voice saying unto
him, Saul, Saul, why persecutest thou me?" Saul replied in 9:5
[53]
,
"Who art thou, Lord? And the Lord said, I am Jesus whom thou
persecutest: [it is] hard for thee to kick against the pricks." (The
account in Acts 22:9
[54]
says his companions saw the light, but did not
understand the voice of him who was speaking to Saul.)
From that experience he was blinded for three days and had to be led
into Damascus by the hand. His sight was restored by Ananias of
Damascus. This life-changing experience and revelation convinced
Paul that God indeed had chosen Jesus to be the promised messiah.
Luke, the author of Acts of the Apostles, likely learned of his
conversion from Paul, from the church in Jerusalem, or from the church in Antioch.
There remain skeptics who dispute that Paul ever received such a revelation. Religious scholar Reza Aslan states,
"The story of Pauls dramatic conversion on the road to Damascus is a bit of propagandistic legend created by the
evangelist Luke; Paul himself never recounts the story of being blinded by the sight of Jesus." In Galatians 1:16
[55]
he writes that God "was pleased to reveal his son to me." In 1Corinthians15:8
[56]
, in listing the order in which
Jesus appeared to his disciples after his resurrection, Paul says "last of all, as to one untimely born, He appeared to
me also."(NASB) These passages from his epistles, coupled with the two separate accounts he is reported to have
given to both Jewish and Roman authorities in Acts, have been interpreted to refer to his road-to-Damascus
conversion experience which he elsewhere had described as the resurrected Jesus appearing to him.
Post-conversion
At once he began to preach in the synagogues that Jesus is the Son of God. All those who heard him were
astonished and asked, "Isn't he the man who raised havoc in Jerusalem among those who call on this name?
And hasn't he come here to take them as prisoners to the chief priests?" Yet Saul grew more and more
influential and baffled the Jews living in Damascus by proving that Jesus is the Messiah.
Acts 9:20-22
[57]
Paul said that he received the Gospel not from any man, but by "the revelation of Jesus Christ".
[Gal 1:11-16]

[58]
Paul
declared his independence from the Jerusalem community
:pp.316320
(possibly in the Cenacle), but agreed with it on
the nature and content of the gospel.
[Gal 1:22-24]

[59]
In the opening verses of Romans 1
[60]
, Paul provides a litany of his own apostolic appointment to preach among the
Gentiles
[Gal. 1:16]

[61]
and his post-conversion convictions about the risen Christ.
Paul described himself as
a servant of Jesus Christ;
having experienced an unforeseen, sudden, startling change, due to all-powerful gracenot the fruit of his
reasoning or thoughts;
[Gal. 1:12-15]

[62] [1Cor.15:10]

[63]
Paul the Apostle
6
having seen Christ as did the other apostles when Christ appeared to him
[1Cor.15:8]

[64]
as he appeared to
Peter, to James, to the Twelve, after his Resurrection;
[1Cor.9:1]

[65]
called to be an apostle;
set apart for the gospel of God.
Paul described Jesus as
having been promised by God beforehand through his prophets in the holy Scriptures;
being the true messiah and the Son of God;
having biological lineage from David ("according to the flesh");
[66]
having been declared to be the Son of God in power according to the Spirit of holiness by his resurrection from
the dead;
being Jesus Christ our Lord;
the One through whom we have received grace and apostleship to bring about the obedience of faith for the
sake of his name among all the nations, "including you who are called to belong to Jesus Christ".
Jesus
lives in heaven;
is God's Son;
would soon return.
The Cross
he now believed Jesus' death was a voluntary sacrifice that reconciled sinners with God.
[Rom. 5:6-10]

[67]

[Phil.
2:8]

[68]
The Law
he had believed the law (Jewish Torah) kept people in a right relationship with God;
[Gal. 2:16]

[69]

[Gal. 3:12]

[70]
he now believed the law only reveals the extent of people's enslavement to the power of sina power that
must be broken by Christ.
[Rom. 3:20b]

[71]

[7:7-12]

[72]
Gentiles
he had believed Gentiles were outside the covenant that God made with Israel;
he now believed Gentiles and Jews were united as the people of God in Christ Jesus.
[Gal. 3:28]

[73]
Circumcision
had believed circumcision was the rite through which males became part of Israel, an exclusive community of
God's chosen people;
[Phil. 3:3-5]

[74]
he now believed that neither circumcision nor uncircumcision means anything, but that the new creation is
what counts in the sight of God,
[Gal. 6:15]

[75]
and that this new creation is a work of Christ in the life of
believers, making them part of the church, an inclusive community of Jews and Gentiles reconciled with God
through faith.
[Rom. 6:4]

[76]
Persecution
had believed his violent persecution of the church to be an indication of his zeal for his religion;
[Phil. 3:6]

[46]
he now believed Jewish hostility toward the church was sinful opposition that would incur God's wrath;
[1Thess.2:14-16]

[77]

:p.236
he believed he was halted by Christ when his fury was at its height;
[Acts 9:1-2]

[78]
It
was "through zeal" that he persecuted the Church,
[Philippians 3:6]

[79]
and he obtained mercy because he had
"acted ignorantly in unbelief".
[1Tim.1:13]

[80]
The Last Days
had believed God's messiah would put an end to the old age of evil and initiate a new age of righteousness;
he now believed this would happen in stages that had begun with the resurrection of Jesus, but the old age
would continue until Jesus returns.
[Rom. 16:25]

[81] [1Cor.10:11]

[82]

[Gal. 1:4]

[83]

:p.236
Paul the Apostle
7
Paul's writings give some insight into his thinking regarding his relationship with Judaism. He is strongly critical
both theologically and empirically of claims of moral or lineal superiority
[Rom. 2:16-26]

[84]
of Jews while conversely
strongly sustaining the notion of a special place for the Children of Israel.
[9-11]

[85]
What is remarkable about such a conversion is the changes in the thinking that had to take place. He had to change
his concept of who the messiah was, particularly what he had perceived as the absurdity of accepting a crucified
messiah.
[1 Cor. 1:21-25]

[86]
Perhaps more challenging was changing his conception of the ethnic superiority of the
Jewish people. There are debates as to whether Paul understood himself as commissioned to take the gospel to the
Gentiles at the moment of his conversion.
Early ministry
The house believed to be of Ananias of Damascus in Damascus
Bab Kisan, believed to be where Paul escaped from persecution in
Damascus
After his conversion, Paul went to Damascus, where
Acts states he was healed of his blindness and baptized
by Ananias of Damascus.
[87]
Paul says that it was in
Damascus that he barely escaped death.
[2Cor.11:32]

[88]
Paul also says that he then went first to Arabia, and
then came back to Damascus.
[Gal. 1:17]

[89][90]
Paul's
trip to Arabia is not mentioned anywhere else in the
Bible, and some suppose he actually traveled to Mt.
Sinai for meditations in the desert.
[91][92][93]
He
describes in Galatians how three years after his
conversion he went to Jerusalem. There he met James
and stayed with Simon Peter for 15 days.
[Gal. 1:13-24]
[94]
Afterwards, Paul proclaims that Mount Sinai is
located in Arabia.
[Gal. 4:24-25]

[95]
Paul asserted that he received the Gospel not from an
apostle, but directly by the revelation of Jesus Christ.
[Gal. 1:11-12]

[96]
Paul said he was almost totally
independent from the Jerusalem community.
:pp.316320
He appeared eager to bring material support to
Jerusalem from the various budding Gentile churches
that he planted. In his writings, Paul used the
persecutions he endured, in terms of physical beatings
and verbal assaults, to avow proximity and union with
Jesus and as a validation of his teaching.
Paul's narrative in Galatians states that 14 years after
his conversion he went again to Jerusalem.
[Gal. 2:1-10]
[97]
It is not completely known what happened during
these 'unknown years', but both Acts and Galatians
provide some partial details.
[98]
At the end of this time, Barnabas went to find Paul and brought him back to Antioch.
[Acts 11:26]

[99]
When a famine occurred in Judea, around 4546,
[100]
Paul and Barnabas journeyed to Jerusalem to deliver financial
support from the Antioch community.
[101]
According to Acts, Antioch had become an alternative center for
Christians following the dispersion of the believers after the death of Stephen. It was in Antioch that the followers of
Jesus were first called "Christians".
[Acts 11:26]

[99]
Paul the Apostle
8
First missionary journey
The author of the Acts arranges Paul's travels into three separate journeys. The first journey,
[Acts 13-14]

[102]
led
initially by Barnabas,
[103]
takes Paul from Antioch to Cyprus then southern Asia Minor (Anatolia), and back to
Antioch. In Cyprus, Paul rebukes and blinds Elymas the magician
[Acts 13:8-12]

[104]
who was criticizing their
teachings. From this point on, Paul is described as the leader of the group.
They sail to Perga in Pamphylia. John Mark leaves them and returns to Jerusalem. Paul and Barnabas go on to
Pisidian Antioch. On Sabbath they go to the synagogue. The leaders invite them to speak. Paul reviews Israelite
history from life in Egypt to King David. He introduces Jesus as a descendant of David brought to Israel by God. He
said that his team came to town to bring the message of salvation. He recounts the story of Jesus' death and
resurrection. He quotes from the Septuagint
[105]
to assert that Jesus was the promised Christos who brought them
forgiveness for their sins. Both the Jews and the 'God-fearing' Gentiles invited them to talk more next Sabbath. At
that time almost the whole city gathered. This upset some influential Jews who spoke against them. Paul used the
occasion to announce a change in his mission which from then on would be to the Gentiles.
[Acts 13:13-48]

[106]
Antioch served as a major Christian center for Paul's evangelizing.
Council of Jerusalem
Main article: Council of Jerusalem
See also: Circumcision controversy in early Christianity
Most scholars agree that a vital meeting between Paul and the Jerusalem church took place some time in the years 48
to 50, described in Acts 15:2
[107]
and usually seen as the same event mentioned by Paul in Galatians 2:1
[108]
. The
key question raised was whether Gentile converts needed to be circumcised.
[109]
At this meeting, Paul states in his
letter to the Galatians that Peter, James, and John accepted Paul's mission to the Gentiles.
Jerusalem meetings are mentioned in Acts, in Paul's letters, and some appear in both. For example, the Jerusalem
visit for famine relief
[Acts 11:27-30]

[110]
apparently corresponds to the "first visit" (to Cephas and James only).
[Gal.
1:18-20]

[111]
F. F. Bruce suggested that the "fourteen years" could be from Paul's conversion rather than from his first
visit to Jerusalem.
[112]
Incident at Antioch
Main article: Incident at Antioch
Despite the agreement achieved at the Council of Jerusalem, as understood by Paul, Paul recounts how he later
publicly confronted Peter in a dispute sometimes called the "Incident at Antioch", over Peter's reluctance to share a
meal with Gentile Christians in Antioch because they did not strictly adhere to Jewish customs.
[113]
Writing later of the incident, Paul recounts, "I opposed [Peter] to his face, because he was clearly in the wrong", and
says he told Peter, "You are a Jew, yet you live like a Gentile and not like a Jew. How is it, then, that you force
Gentiles to follow Jewish customs?"
[Gal. 2:11-14]

[114]
Paul also mentions that even Barnabas, his traveling
companion and fellow apostle until that time, sided with Peter.
[115]
The final outcome of the incident remains uncertain. The Catholic Encyclopedia
[116]
suggests that Paul won the
argument, because "Paul's account of the incident leaves no doubt that Peter saw the justice of the rebuke". However
Paul himself never mentions a victory and L. Michael White's From Jesus to Christianity draws the opposite
conclusion: "The blowup with Peter was a total failure of political bravado, and Paul soon left Antioch as persona
non grata, never again to return".
The primary source account of the Incident at Antioch is Paul's letter to the Galatians.
Paul the Apostle
9
Second missionary journey
Saint Paul delivering the Areopagus sermon in Athens, by Raphael,
1515. This sermon addressed early issues in Christology.
[117][118]
Paul left for his second missionary journey from
Jerusalem, in late Autumn 49,
[119]
after the meeting of
the Council of Jerusalem where the circumcision
question was debated. On their trip around the
Mediterranean sea, Paul and his companion Barnabas
stopped in Antioch where they had a sharp argument
about taking John Mark with them on their trips. The
book of Acts said that John Mark had left them in a
previous trip and gone home. Unable to resolve the
dispute, Paul and Barnabas decided to separate;
Barnabas took John Mark with him, while Silas joined
Paul.
Paul and Silas initially visited Tarsus (Paul's
birthplace), Derbe and Lystra. In Lystra, they met
Timothy, a disciple who was spoken well of, and
decided to take him with them. The Church kept growing, adding believers, and strengthening in faith daily.
[Acts
16:5]

[120]
In Philippi, Paul cast a spirit of divination out of a servant girl, whose masters were then unhappy about the loss of
income her soothsaying provided. (Acts 16:1624
[121]
) They turned the city against the missionaries, and Paul and
Silas were put in jail. After a miraculous earthquake, the gates of the prison fell apart and Paul and Silas could have
escaped but remained; this event led to the conversion of the jailor.(Acts 16:2540
[122]
) They continued traveling,
going by Berea and then to Athens where Paul preached to the Jews and God-fearing Greeks in the synagogue and to
the Greek intellectuals in the Areopagus.
Around 5052, Paul spent 18 months in Corinth. The reference in Acts to Proconsul Gallio helps ascertain this date
(cf. Gallio inscription). In Corinth, Paul met Priscilla and Aquila who became faithful believers and helped Paul
through his other missionary journeys. The couple followed Paul and his companions to Ephesus, and stayed there to
start one of the strongest and most faithful churches at that time. In 52, the missionaries sailed to Caesarea to greet
the Church there and then traveled north to Antioch where they stayed for about a year before leaving again on their
third missionary journey.
[123]
Third missionary journey
Paul began his third missionary journey by traveling all around the region of Galatia and Phrygia to strengthen, teach
and rebuke the believers. Paul then traveled to Ephesus, an important center of early Christianity, and stayed there
for almost three years. He performed numerous miracles, healing people and casting out demons, and he apparently
organized missionary activity in other regions.
[124]
Paul left Ephesus after an attack from a local silversmith resulted
in a pro-Artemis riot involving most of the city. During his stay in Ephesus, Paul wrote four letters to the church in
Corinth admonishing them for their pagan behavior.
Paul went through Macedonia into Achaea and made ready to continue on to Syria, but he changed his plans and
traveled back through Macedonia because of Jews who had made a plot against him. At this time (5657), it is likely
that Paul visited Corinth for three months. In Romans 15:19
[125]
Paul wrote that he visited Illyricum, but he may
have meant what would now be called Illyria Graeca, which lay in the northern part of modern Albania, but was at
that time a division of the Roman province of Macedonia.
[126]
Paul and his companions visited other cities on their way back to Jerusalem such as Philippi, Troas, Miletus, Rhodes,
and Tyre. Paul finished his trip with a stop in Caesarea where he and his companions stayed with Philip the
Paul the Apostle
10
Evangelist before finally arriving at Jerusalem.
[127]

[Acts 21:8-10]

[128]

[21:15]

[129]
Journey to Rome and beyond
After Paul's arrival in Jerusalem at the end of his third missionary journey, he became involved in a serious conflict
with some "Asian Jews" (most likely from Roman Asia). The conflict eventually led to Paul's arrest and
imprisonment in Caesarea for two years. Finally, Paul and his companions sailed for Rome where Paul was to stand
trial for his alleged crimes. Acts states that Paul preached in Rome for two years from his rented home while
awaiting trial. It does not state what happened after this time, but some sources state that Paul was freed by Nero and
continued to preach in Rome, even though that seems unlikely based on Nero's historical cruelty to Early Christians.
It is possible that Paul also traveled to other countries like Spain and Britain.
[130]
See His final days spent in Rome
section below.
Among the writings of the early Christians, Clement of Rome said that Paul was "Herald (of the Gospel of Christ) in
the West", and that "he had gone to the extremity of the west".
[131][132]
Chrysostom indicated that Paul preached in
Spain: "For after he had been in Rome, he returned to Spain, but whether he came thence again into these parts, we
know not".
[133]
Cyril of Jerusalem said that Paul, "fully preached the Gospel, and instructed even imperial Rome,
and carried the earnestness of his preaching as far as Spain, undergoing conflicts innumerable, and performing Signs
and wonders".
[134]
The Muratorian fragment mentions "the departure of Paul from the city [of Rome] [5a] (39) when
he journeyed to Spain".
[135]
Visits to Jerusalem in Acts and the epistles
This table is adapted from White, From Jesus to Christianity. Note that the matching of Paul's travels in the Acts and
the travels in his Epistles is done for the reader's convenience and is not approved of by all scholars.
Acts Epistles
First visit to Jerusalem
[Acts 9:26-27]
[136]
"after many days" of Damascus
conversion
preaches openly in Jerusalem
with Barnabas
meets apostles
First visit to Jerusalem
[Gal. 1:18-20]

[111]
three years after Damascus conversion
[Gal. 1:17-18]

[137]
sees only Cephas (Peter) and James
Second visit to Jerusalem
[Acts
11:29-30]

[138]

[12:25]

[139]
for famine relief
There is debate over whether Paul's visit in Galatians 2 refers to the visit for famine relief
[Acts 11:30,
12:25]

[140]
or the Jerusalem Council.
[Acts 15]

[141]
If it refers to the former, then this was the trip
made "after an interval of fourteen years".
[Gal. 2:1]

[142]
Third visit to Jerusalem
[Acts 15:1-19]
[143]
with Barnabas
"Council of Jerusalem"
followed by confrontation with
Barnabas in Antioch
[Acts 15:36-40]
[144]
Another
[145]
visit to Jerusalem
[Gal. 2:1-10]

[97]
14 years later (after Damascus conversion?)
with Barnabas and Titus
possibly the "Council of Jerusalem"
Paul agrees to "remember the poor"
followed by confrontation with Peter and Barnabas in Antioch
[Gal. 2:11-14]

[114]
Fourth visit to Jerusalem
[Acts 18:21-22]
[146]
to "greet the church"
Apparently unmentioned.
Paul the Apostle
11
Fifth visit to Jerusalem
[Acts 21:17ff]
[147]
after an absence of several years
[Acts 24:17]

[148]
to bring gifts for the poor and to
present offerings
Paul arrested
Another
[149]
visit to Jerusalem
[150]
to deliver the collection for the poor
Saint Paul arrested, early 1900s Bible illustration
Last visit to Jerusalem and arrest
Paul arrived in Jerusalem on his fifth and final visit to Jerusalem
[Acts
21:17ff]

[147]
in 57 with a collection of money for the community there.
Acts reports that he was warmly received. But Acts goes on to recount
how Paul was warned by James and the elders that he was gaining a
reputation for being against the Law, "teaching all the Jews living
among the gentiles to forsake Moses, and that you tell them not to
circumcise their children or observe the customs".
[Acts 21:21]

[151]
Paul
underwent a purification ritual in order to give the Jews no grounds to
bring accusations against him for not following their law. Paul caused
a stir when he appeared at the Temple, and he escaped being killed by
the crowd by voluntarily being taken into Roman custody. When a plot
to kill Paul on his way to an appearance before the Jews was
discovered, he was transported by night to Caesarea. He was held as a
prisoner there for two years, until a new governor reopened his case in
59. When the governor suggested that he be sent back to Jerusalem for further trial, Paul exercised his right as a
Roman citizen to "appeal unto Caesar".
Selmunett off the coast of Malta, known as "St
Paul's Island" and reputed to be the scene of his
shipwreck
His final days spent in Rome
Acts recounts that on the way to Rome for his appeal as a Roman
citizen to Caesar, Paul was shipwrecked on "Melita" (Malta),
[Acts 28:1]
[152]
where he was met by Publius
[Acts 28:7]

[153]
and the islanders who
showed him "unusual kindness".
[Acts 28:2]

[154]
He arrived in Rome
c.60 and spent another two years under house arrest (beyond his two
years in prison in Caesarea).
[Acts 28:16]

[155]
Irenaeus of Lyons in the 2nd century believed that Peter and Paul had been the founders of the church in Rome and
had appointed Linus as succeeding bishop.
[156]
Paul was not a bishop of Rome, nor did he bring Christianity to
Rome since there were already Christians in Rome when he arrived there.
[Acts 28:14-15]

[157]
Also, Paul wrote his
letter to the church at Rome before he had visited Rome.
[Romans 1:1,7,11-13;15:23-29]

[158]
However, Paul would have
played an important role in the life of the early church at Rome.
[159]
Paul the Apostle
12
The Beheading of Saint Paul by Enrique Simonet,
1887
Neither the Bible nor other sources say how or when Paul died, but
Ignatius, probably around 110, writes that Paul was martyred.
[160]
Christian tradition holds that Paul was beheaded in Rome during the
reign of Nero around the mid-60s at Tre Fontane Abbey (English:
Three Fountains Abbey).
[161]
By comparison, tradition states that
Peter, who was not a Roman citizen, was given the more painful death
of being crucified upside-down.
[162]
In June 2009, Pope Benedict XVI announced excavation results
concerning the tomb of Paul at the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the
Walls. The sarcophagus was not opened but was examined by means
of a probe, which revealed pieces of incense, purple and blue linen, and small bone fragments. The bone was
radiocarbon dated to the 1st or 2nd century. According to the Vatican, these findings are consistent with the tradition
that the tomb is Paul's.
[163]
The sarcophagus was inscribed in Latin saying, "Paul apostle martyr".
Hardships
In 2 Corinthians 11:20-32
[164]
Paul provided a sampling of some of his adversities as a missionary. In comparing his
experiences to those of some of the "most eminent apostles", he wrote that he:
worked much harder.
was in prison more frequently.
was flogged more severely.
had been exposed to death again and again (five times he received from the Jews the forty lashes minus one, three
times was beaten with rods, once he was pelted with stones).
was shipwrecked three times, spending a night and a day in the open sea.
was constantly on the move.
had been in danger from rivers, in danger from bandits, in danger from his fellow Jews, in danger from Gentiles;
in danger in the city, in danger in the country, in danger at sea; and in danger from false believers
had labored and toiled and had often gone without sleep
had known hunger and thirst and had often gone without food
had been cold and naked
to escape arrest by the governor of Damascus, he was lowered in a basket from a window in the wall and got
away
He concluded: "Besides everything else, I face daily the pressure of my concern for all the churches".
[2 Cor. 11:28]
[165]
Paul the Apostle
13
Writings
Main article: Pauline Epistles
Statue of St. Paul in the Archbasilica of St. John
Lateran by Pierre-tienne Monnot.
Of the 27 books in the New Testament, 14 have been attributed to
Paul; 7 of these are widely considered authentic and Paul's own, while
the authorship of the other seven is disputed. The undisputed letters are
considered the most important sources since they contain what
everyone agrees to be Paul's own statements about his life and
thoughts. Theologian Mark Powell writes that Paul directed these 7
letters to specific occasions at particular churches. As an example, if
the Corinthian church had not experienced problems concerning its
celebration of the Lord's Supper,
[1 Cor. 11:17-34]

[166]
today we would
not know that Paul even believed in that observance or had any
opinions about it one way or the other. He asks if we might be ignorant
of other matters simply because no crises arose that promoted Paul to
comment on them.
:p.234
Although approximately half of the Book of Acts deals with Paul's life
and works, the Book of Acts does not refer to Paul writing letters.
Historians believe that the author of Acts did not have access to any of
Paul's letters. One piece of evidence suggesting this is that Acts never
directly quotes from the Pauline epistles. Discrepancies between the
Pauline epistles and Acts would further support the conclusion that the
author of Acts did not have access to those epistles when composing Acts.
[167][168]
In Paul's writings, he provides the first written account of what it is to be a Christian and thus a description of
Christian spirituality. His letters have been characterized as being the most influential books of the New Testament
after the Gospels of Matthew and John.
Paul...only occasionally had the opportunity to revisit his churches. He tried to keep up his converts' spirit,
answer their questions, and resolve their problems by letter and by sending one or more of his assistants
(especially Timothy and Titus).
Paul's letters reveal a remarkable human being: dedicated, compassionate, emotional, sometimes harsh and
angry, clever and quick-witted, supple in argumentation, and above all possessing a soaring, passionate
commitment to God, Jesus Christ, and his own mission. Fortunately, after his death one of his followers
collected some of the letters, edited them very slightly, and published them. They constitute one of history's
most remarkable personal contributions to religious thought and practice.
Basic message
E.P. Sanders finds three major emphases in Paul's writings:
His strongest emphasis was on the death, resurrection, and lordship of Jesus Christ. He preached that one's faith in
Jesus assures that person a share in Jesus' life (salvation). He saw Jesus' death as being for the believers' benefit,
not a defeat. Jesus died so that believers' sins would be forgiven.
The resurrection of Jesus was of primary importance to Paul as may be seen in his first letter to the Thessalonians
[1Thes.1:9-10]

[169]
which is the earliest surviving account of Paul's conversion.
The resurrection brought the promise of salvation to believers. Paul taught that those who died in Christ would be
raised when Christ returned, while those still alive would be "caught up in the clouds together with them to meet
the Lord in the air".
[1Thes.4:14-18]

[170]
Sanders concludes that Paul's writings reveal what he calls the essence of the Christian message:
Paul the Apostle
14
1. 1. God sent his Son.
2. 2. The Son was crucified for the sins of humanity.
3. 3. After being dead three days, the Son was raised from the dead defeating death.
4. 4. The Son would soon return.
5. 5. Those in Christ will live with him forever.
6. Followers are urged to live by a set apart (sanctified) standard"And the very God of peace sanctify you wholly;
and I pray God your whole spirit and soul and body be preserved blameless unto the coming of our Lord Jesus
Christ".
[1Thes.5:23]

[171]
Authorship
Paul Writing His Epistles, painting probably by Valentin de
Boulogne, 17th century
Main article: Authorship of the Pauline Epistles
Seven of the 13 letters that bear Paul's name Romans,
1st Corinthians, 2nd Corinthians, Galatians,
Philippians, 1st Thessalonians and Philemon are
almost universally accepted as being entirely authentic
(dictated by Paul himself).
[][]
They are considered the
best source of information on Paul's life and especially
his thought.
Four of the letters (Ephesians, 1 and 2 Timothy and
Titus) are widely considered pseudepigraphical, while
the authorship of the other two is subject to debate.
[]
Colossians, and 2ndThessalonians are thought by some
to be "Deutero-Pauline" meaning they may have been
written by Paul's followers after his death. Similarly,
1stTimothy, 2ndTimothy, and Titus may be "Trito-Pauline" meaning they may have been written by members of
the Pauline school a generation after his death. According to their theories, these disputed letters may have come
from followers writing in Paul's name, often using material from his surviving letters. These scribes also may have
had access to letters written by Paul that no longer survive.
Paul's letters were largely written to churches which he had visited; he was a great traveler, visiting Cyprus, Asia
Minor (modern Turkey), mainland Greece, Crete, and Rome. His letters are full of expositions of what Christians
should believe and how they should live. His most explicit references to the life of Jesus are of the Last Supper
[1Cor.
11:17-34]

[172]
and the crucifixion and resurrection.
[1Cor. 15]

[173]
He provides few references to Jesus' teachings,
[1Cor. 7:10-11]

[174]

[9:14]

[175]
leading some theologians to question
how consistent was his account of the faith with that of the four canonical Gospels, the Book of Acts, and the Epistle
of James.
The authenticity of Colossians has been questioned on the grounds that it contains an otherwise unparalleled
description (among his writings) of Jesus as "the image of the invisible God", a Christology found elsewhere only in
John's gospel.
[176]
However, the personal notes in the letter connect it to Philemon, unquestionably the work of Paul.
Internal evidence shows close connection with Philippians.
Ephesians is a letter that is very similar to Colossians, but is almost entirely lacking in personal reminiscences. Its
style is unique. It lacks the emphasis on the cross to be found in other Pauline writings, reference to the Second
Coming is missing, and Christian marriage is exalted in a way which contrasts with the reference in 1Cor. 7:8-9
[177]
. Finally, according to R.E. Brown, it exalts the Church in a way suggestive of a second generation of Christians,
'built upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets' now past.
[178]
The defenders of its Pauline authorship argue
that it was intended to be read by a number of different churches and that it marks the final stage of the development
Paul the Apostle
15
of Paul's thinking. It has been said, too, that the moral portion of the Epistle, consisting of the last two chapters, has
the closest affinity with similar portions of other Epistles, while the whole admirably fits in with the known details of
Paul's life, and throws considerable light upon them.
Russian Orthodox icon of the
Apostle Paul, 18th century
(Iconostasis of Transfiguration
Church, Kizhi Monastery, Karelia,
Russia)
Three main reasons have been advanced by those who question Paul's authorship
of 1Timothy, 2Timothy, and Titusalso known as the Pastoral Epistles.
First, they have found a difference in these letters' vocabulary, style, and
theology from Paul's acknowledged writings. Defenders of the authenticity
say that they were probably written in the name and with the authority of the
Apostle by one of his companions, to whom he distinctly explained what had
to be written, or to whom he gave a written summary of the points to be
developed, and that when the letters were finished, Paul read them through,
approved them, and signed them.
Second, some believe there is a difficulty in fitting them into Paul's biography
as we have it.
[179]
They, like Colossians and Ephesians, were written from
prison but suppose Paul's release and travel thereafter.
Third, 2Thessalonians, like Colossians, is questioned by some on stylistic
grounds, with some noting, among other peculiarities, a dependence on
1Thessaloniansyet a distinctiveness in language from the Pauline corpus.
This, again, is explainable by the possibility that Paul requested one of his
companions to write the letter for him under his dictation.
Atonement
Main article: Atonement in Christianity
Paul wrote down much of the theology of atonement.
[180]
Paul taught that
Christians are redeemed from the Law (see Supersessionism) and from sin by
Jesus' death and resurrection. His death was an expiation as well as a
propitiation, and by Christ's blood peace is made between God and man. By baptism, a Christian shares in Jesus'
death and in his victory over death, gaining as a free gift a new, justified status of sonship.
Relationship with Judaism
Main article: Paul the Apostle and Judaism
Some scholars see Paul (or Saul) as completely in line with 1st-century Judaism (a Pharisee and student of Gamaliel
as presented by Acts),
[181]
others see him as opposed to 1st-century Judaism (notably Marcionism), while the
majority see him as somewhere in between these two extremes, opposed to "Ritual Laws" (for example the
circumcision controversy in early Christianity) but in full agreement on "Divine Law". These views of Paul are
paralleled by the views of Biblical law in Christianity.
Paul's theology of the gospel accelerated the separation of the messianic sect of Christians from Judaism, a
development contrary to Paul's own intent. He wrote that faith in Christ was alone decisive in salvation for Jews and
Gentiles alike,
Paul the Apostle
16
Saint Paul, Byzantine ivory relief,
6th early 7th century (Muse de
Cluny)
making the schism between the followers of Christ and mainstream Jews
inevitable and permanent. He argued that Gentile converts did not need to
become Jews, get circumcised, follow Jewish dietary restrictions, or otherwise
observe Mosaic laws to be saved. Nevertheless, in Romans he insisted on the
positive value of the Law, as a moral guide.
E.P. Sanders' publications
[182]
have since been taken up by Professor James
Dunn who coined the phrase "The New Perspective on Paul".
[183]
N.T. Wright,
the Anglican Bishop of Durham, notes a difference in emphasis between
Galatians and Romans, the latter being much more positive about the continuing
covenant between God and his ancient people than the former. Wright also
contends that performing Christian works is not insignificant but rather proof of
having attained the redemption of Jesus Christ by grace (free gift received by
faith).
[Rom. 2:13ff]

[184]
He concludes that Paul distinguishes between performing
Christian works which are signs of ethnic identity and others which are a sign of
obedience to Christ.
World to come
See also: Christian eschatology, Second Coming, End times and World to Come
According to Ehrman, Paul believed that Jesus would return within his
lifetime.
[185]
He states that Paul expected that Christians who had died in the
mean time would be resurrected to share in God's kingdom, and he believed that
the saved would be transformed, assuming supernatural bodies.
Paul's teaching about the end of the world is expressed most clearly in his letters to the Christians at Thessalonica.
Heavily persecuted, it appears that they had written asking him first about those who had died already, and,
secondly, when they should expect the end. He assures them that the dead will rise first and be followed by those left
alive.
[1Thes. 4:16ff]

[186]
This suggests an imminence of the end but he is unspecific about times and seasons, and
encourages his hearers to expect a delay.
[187]
The form of the end will be a battle between Jesus and the man of
lawlessness
[2Thess. 2:3]

[188]
whose conclusion is the triumph of Christ.
Role of women
Main article: Paul the Apostle and women
See also: 1 Timothy 2:12 ("I suffer not a woman")
The second chapter of the first letter to Timothyone of the six disputed lettersis used by many churches to deny
women a vote in church affairs, reject women from serving as teachers of adult Bible classes, prevent them from
serving as missionaries, and generally disenfranchise women from the duties and privileges of church leadership.
[189]
9 In like manner also, that women adorn themselves in modest apparel, with shamefacedness and sobriety; not
with broided hair, or gold, or pearls, or costly array;
10 But (which becometh women professing godliness) with good works.
11 Let the woman learn in silence with all subjection.
12 But I suffer not a woman to teach, nor to usurp authority over the man, but to be in silence.
13 For Adam was first formed, then Eve.
14 And Adam was not deceived, but the woman being deceived was in the transgression.
Paul the Apostle
17
15 Notwithstanding she shall be saved in childbearing, if they continue in faith and charity and holiness with
sobriety.
1Timothy2:9-15
[190]
The KJV translation of this passage taken literally says that women in the churches are to have no leadership roles
vis--vis men.
[191]
Whether it also forbids women from teaching children and women is dubious as even those
Catholic churches that prohibit female priests permit female abbesses to teach and exercise authority over other
females.
Fuller Seminary theologian J. R. Daniel Kirk
[192]
finds evidence in Paul's letters of a much more inclusive view of
women. He writes that Romans 16
[193]
is a tremendously important witness to the important role of women in the
early church. Paul praises Phoebe for her work as a deaconess and Junia who is described by Paul in Scripture as
being respected among the Apostles.
[Romans 16:7]

[36]
It is Kirk's observation that recent studies have led many
scholars to conclude that the passage in 1Corinthians 14
[194]
ordering women to "be silent" during worship was a
later addition, apparently by a different author, and not part of Paul's original letter to the Corinthians.
Other scholars, such as Giancarlo Biguzzi, believe that Paul's restriction on women speaking in 1Corinthians14 is
genuine to Paul but applies to a particular case where there were local problems of womenwho were not allowed
in that culture to become educatedasking questions or chatting during worship services. He does not believe it to
be a general prohibition on any woman speaking in worship settings since in 1 Corinthians Paul affirms the right
(responsibility) of women to prophesy.
[1 Cor. 11]

[195]

[196]
Biblical prophecy is more than "fore-telling": two-thirds of its inscripturated form involves
"forth-telling", that is, setting the truth, justice, mercy, and righteousness of God against the backdrop of
every form of denial of the same. Thus, to speak prophetically was to speak boldly against every form of
moral, ethical, political, economic, and religious disenfranchisement observed in a culture that was
intent on building its own pyramid of values vis-a-vis God's established system of truth and ethics.
[197]
There were women prophets in the highly patriarchal times throughout the Old Testament. The most common term
for prophet in the Old Testament is nabi [ayib"n] in the masculine form, and nab""a(h) [h'ayibn] in the Hebrew
feminine form, is used six times of women who performed the same task of receiving and proclaiming the message
given by God. These women include Miriam, Aaron and Moses' sister,
[Exod 15:20]

[198]
Deborah,
[Judges 4:4]

[199]
the
prophet Isaiah's wife,
[Isa. 8:3]

[200]
and Huldah, the one who interpreted the Book of the Law discovered in the temple
during the days of Josiah.
[2 Kings 22:14]

[201]

[2 Chron. 34:22]

[202]
There were false prophetesses just as there were false
prophets. The prophetess Noadiah was among those who tried to intimidate Nehemiah.
[Neh 6:14]

[203]
Apparently
they held equal rank in prophesying right along with Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, Elisha, Aaron, and Samuel.
Kirk's third example of a more inclusive view is Galatians 3:28
[204]
:
There is neither...
...Jew nor Greek,
...slave nor free,
...male nor female,
for you are all one in Christ Jesus.
Galatians 3:28 (ital. added)
In pronouncing an end within the church to the divisions which are common in the world around it, he concludes by
highlighting the fact that "...there were New Testament women who taught and had authority in the early churches,
that this teaching and authority was sanctioned by Paul, and that Paul himself offers a theological paradigm within
which overcoming the subjugation of women is an anticipated outcome".
[205]
Classicist Evelyn Stagg and theologian Frank Stagg believe that Paul was attempting to "Christianize" the societal
household or domestic codes that significantly oppressed women and empowered men as the head of the household.
The Staggs present a serious study of what has been termed the New Testament domestic code, also known as the
Paul the Apostle
18
Haustafel.
[206]
The two main passages that explain these "household duties" are Paul's letters to the Ephesians
5:22-6:5
[207]
and to the Colossians 3:18-4:1
[208]
. An underlying Household Code is also reflected in four additional
Pauline letters and 1 Peter: 1Timothy2:1ff., 8ff.; 3:1ff., 8ff.; 5:17ff.; 6:1f.; Titus 2:1-10
[209]
and 1Peter2:13-3:9
[210]
. Biblical scholars have typically treated the Haustafel in Ephesians as a resource in the debate over the role of
women in ministry and in the home.
[211]
Margaret MacDonald argues that the Haustafel, particularly as it appears in Ephesians, was aimed at reducing the
tension between community members and outsiders.
[212]
E.P. Sanders has labeled the Apostle's remark in 1Cor.14:34-36
[213]
about women not making any sound during
worship as "Paul's intemperate outburst that women should be silent in the churches". Women, in fact, played a very
significant part in Paul's missionary endeavors:
He became a partner in ministry with the couple Priscilla and Aquila who are specifically named seven times in
the New Testamentalways by their couple name and never individually. Of the seven times they are named in
the New Testament, Priscilla's name appears first in five of those instances, suggesting to some scholars that she
was the head of the family unit.
[214]
They lived, worked, and traveled with the Apostle Paul, becoming his
honored, much-loved friends and coworkers in Christ Jesus.
[215]
In Romans 16:3-4
[216]
, thought to have been
written in 56 or 57, Paul sends his greetings to Priscilla and Aquila and proclaims that both of them "risked their
necks" to save Paul's life.
Chloe was an important member of the church in Corinth
[1Cor.1:11]

[217]
Phoebe was a "deacon" and a "benefactor" of Paul and others
[Rom. 16:1-2]

[218]
Romans 16
[193]
names eight other women active in the Christian movement, including Junia ("prominent among
the apostles"), Mary ("who has worked very hard among you"), and Julia
Women were frequently among the major supporters of the new Christian movement
Views on homosexuality
See also: Homosexuality in the New Testament
Most Christian denominations say Paul clearly portrays homosexuality as sinful in two specific locations: Romans
1:26-27
[219]
, and 1 Corinthians 6:9-10
[220]
. Another well-known passage addresses the topic more obliquely: 1
Timothy 1:8-11
[221]
. Since the nineteenth century, however, virtually all mainstream scholars have concluded that
First Timothy, along with Second Timothy and Titus, are not original to Paul, but rather an unknown Christian
writing in Paul's name some time in the late-first-to-mid-2nd century.
[222][223]
Influence on Christianity
Main article: Pauline Christianity
Paul's influence on Christian thinking arguably has been more significant than any other New Testament author. Paul
declared that faith in Christ made the Torah unnecessary for salvation, exalted the Christian church as the body of
Christ, and depicted the world outside the Church as under judgment.
Lord's Supper
Paul's writings include the earliest reference to the "Lord's Supper", a rite traditionally identified as the Christian
communion or Eucharist.
Paul the Apostle
19
Eastern tradition
In the East, church fathers attributed the element of election in Romans 9
[224]
to divine foreknowledge. The themes
of predestination found in Western Christianity do not appear in Eastern theology.
Western tradition
Augustine's foundational work on the gospel as a gift (grace), on morality as life in the Spirit, on predestination, and
on original sin all derives from Paul, especially Romans.
In the Reformation, Martin Luther expressed Paul's doctrine of faith most strongly as justification by faith alone.
John Calvin developed Augustine's predestination into double predestination.
Modern theology
In his commentary The Epistle to the Romans (Ger. Der Rmerbrief; particularly in the thoroughly re-written second
edition of 1922) Karl Barth argued that the God who is revealed in the cross of Jesus challenges and overthrows any
attempt to ally God with human cultures, achievements, or possessions. Some theologians believe this work to be the
most important theological treatise since Friedrich Schleiermacher's On Religion: Speeches to its Cultured
Despisers.
As in the Eastern tradition in general, Western humanists interpret the reference to election in Romans 9 as reflecting
divine foreknowledge.
Church tradition
Statue of Paul in Damascus
Paul the Apostle
20
Saint Paul the Apostle
Apostle to the Gentiles
Honored in All Christianity
Major shrine Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls
Feast January 25 (The Conversion of Paul)
February 10 (Feast of Saint Paul's Shipwreck in Malta)
June 29 (Feast of Saints Peter and Paul)
June 30 (former solo feast day, still celebrated by some religious orders)
November 18 (Feast of the dedication of the basilicas of Saints Peter and Paul)
Attributes Sword
Patronage Missions; Theologians; Gentile Christians
Various Christian writers have suggested more details about Paul's life.
1 Clement, a letter written by the Roman bishop Clement of Rome, around the year 90 reports this about Paul:
[225]
"By reason of jealousy and strife Paul by his example pointed out the prize of patient endurance. After
that he had been seven times in bonds, had been driven into exile, had been stoned, had preached in the
East and in the West, he won the noble renown which was the reward of his faith, having taught
righteousness unto the whole world and having reached the farthest bounds of the West; and when he
had borne his testimony before the rulers, so he departed from the world and went unto the holy place,
having been found a notable pattern of patient endurance".
Commenting on this passage, Raymond Brown writes that while it "does not explicitly say" that Paul was martyred
in Rome, "such a martyrdom is the most reasonable interpretation". Eusebius of Caesarea, who wrote in the 4th
century, states that Paul was beheaded in the reign of the Roman Emperor Nero.
[226]
This event has been dated either
to the year 64, when Rome was devastated by a fire, or a few years later, to 67. According to one tradition, the
church of San Paolo alle Tre Fontane marks the place of Paul's execution. A Roman Catholic liturgical solemnity of
Peter and Paul, celebrated on June 29, commemorates his martyrdom, and reflects a tradition (preserved by
Eusebius) that Peter and Paul were martyred at the same time.
[227]
The Roman liturgical calendar for the following
day now remembers all Christians martyred in these early persecutions; formerly, June 30 was the feast day for St.
Paul.
[228]
Persons or religious orders with special affinity for St. Paul can still celebrate their patron on June 30.
[229]
The apocryphal Acts of Paul and the apocryphal Acts of Peter suggest that Paul survived Rome and traveled further
west. Some think that Paul could have revisited Greece and Asia Minor after his trip to Spain, and might then have
been arrested in Troas, and taken to Rome and executed.
[2Tim. 4:13]

[230]
A tradition holds that Paul was interred
with Saint Peter ad Catacumbas by the via Appia until moved to what is now the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the
Walls in Rome. Bede, in his Ecclesiastical History, writes that Pope Vitalian in 665 gave Paul's relics (including a
cross made from his prison chains) from the crypts of Lucina to King Oswy of Northumbria, northern Britain. Paul is
considered the patron saint of London.
The Feast of the Conversion of Saint Paul is celebrated on January 25.
Paul the Apostle
21
Islamic view
The Islamic view of Paul is generally negative. Paul's Arabic name (Paulus, ) is mentioned in several Islamic
hadiths of the Sunni sect of Islam, narrated in Musnad Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, Jami al-Tirmidhi and other books, as the
name of a jail in Hell especially prepared for the arrogant.
[231][232]
According to Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary, the name "Paulus" means "Least" in Latin. This gives an
explanation why the jail of the arrogant in Hell is named "Paulus/" according to the Hadith.
Paul's name is also mentioned in several Islamic hadiths of the Shia sect of Islam as the deceiver of the Christians,
and along with people like Cain, Nimrod, Fir'aun and Samiri, is punished in a stage of Hell called Saqar. Another
hadith mentions demons that mislead people after prophets, and names Paul as the demon that misled people after
Jesus.
[233][234]
Moreover, Matthew 16:6-12 & Mark 8:15 tell that Jesus warned his disciples of the Pharisees & the teachings of the
Pharisees:
Matthew 16:6 Be careful, Jesus said to them. Be on your guard against the yeast (Paul was actually the yeast
of the Pauline Christianity) of the Pharisees and Sadducees.
Matthew 16:12 Then they understood that he was not telling them to guard against the yeast used in bread, but
against the teaching of the Pharisees and Sadducees.
Mark 8:15 Be careful, Jesus warned them. Watch out for the yeast of the Pharisees and that of Herod.
Paul himself said about himself:

"I am a Pharisee, the son of Pharisees."
Acts 23:6
"For if the truth of God hath more abounded through my lie unto his glory; why yet am I also judged as a sinner?"
said Paul, Romans 3:7

13 But woe unto you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! for ye shut up the kingdom of heaven against men:
for ye neither go in yourselves, neither suffer ye them that are entering to go in.
14 Woe unto you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! for ye devour widows' houses, and for a pretence make
long prayer: therefore ye shall receive the greater damnation.
15 Woe unto you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! for ye compass sea and land to make one proselyte, and
when he is made, ye make him twofold more the child of hell than yourselves.
said Jesus, according to Matthew 23
Literary analysis
Writing styles
British Jewish scholar Hyam Maccoby contended that the Paul as described in the book of Acts and the view of Paul
gleaned from his own writings are very different people. Some difficulties have been noted in the account of his life.
Paul as described in the Book of Acts is much more interested in factual history, less in theology; ideas such as
justification by faith are absent as are references to the Spirit, according to Maccoby. He also pointed out that there
are no references to John the Baptist in the Pauline Epistles, although Paul mentions him several times in the book of
Acts.
Paul the Apostle
22
Others have objected that the language of the speeches is too Lukan in style to reflect anyone else's words.
Moreover, George Shillington writes that the author of Acts most likely created the speeches accordingly and they
bear his literary and theological marks. Conversely, Howard Marshall writes that the speeches were not entirely the
inventions of the author and while they may not be accurate word-for-word, the author nevertheless records the
general idea of them.
A statue of Paul holding a scroll (symbolising the
Scriptures) and the sword (symbolising his
martyrdom)
F. C. Baur (17921860), professor of theology at Tbingen in
Germany, the first scholar to critique Acts and the Pauline Epistles, and
founder of the Tbingen School of theology, argued that Paul, as the
"Apostle to the Gentiles", was in violent opposition to the original 12
Apostles. Baur considers the Acts of the Apostles were late and
unreliable. This debate has continued ever since, with Adolf
Deissmann (18661937) and Richard Reitzenstein (18611931)
emphasising Paul's Greek inheritance and Albert Schweitzer stressing
his dependence on Judaism.
Gnosticism
A significant second and, possibly, late first century impact on
Christianity was the development of Gnosticism, a mystery religion,
which among other things, rejected the god of the Jews as the Father of
Jesus. Gnostics assert that the former is a lesser, creative being and
stands in contrast to the supreme deity as taught by Jesus.
[235][236]
It
was a religious movement that appealed to many of its time. Mark
Powell says it became the bane of many prominent church leaders as
they sought to defend, what they believed to be the orthodox faith, from what they labeled the "gnostic heresy". He
compares the difficulty in describing it to trying to describe what is meant today by "new age" religion or
thinking.
:pp.3941
SomeWikipedia:Avoid weasel words believe the Apostle Paul attacked Gnosticism in Colossians. Many subsequent
Church Fathers and councils attacked the Gnostics.Wikipedia:Citation needed Yet, according to Powell, throughout
the second, third, and fourth centuries Gnostic versions of Christianity constituted the primary alternatives to what is
usually thought of as "mainstream" Christianity.Wikipedia:Citation needed
Elaine Pagels, professor of religion at Princeton University and an authority on Gnosticism, declined to judge (in her
book The Gnostic Paul) whether Paul was actually a Gnostic. Instead, she concentrated on how the Gnostics
interpreted Paul's letters and how evidence from gnostic sources may challenge the assumption that Paul wrote his
letters to combat "gnostic opponents" and to repudiate their statement that they possess secret wisdom.
[237]
Maccoby theorized that Paul synthesized Judaism, Gnosticism, and mysticism to create Christianity as a cosmic
savior religion. According to Maccoby, Paul's Pharisaism was his own invention, though actually he was probably
associated with the Sadducees. Maccoby attributed the origins of Christian antisemitism to Paul and said that Paul's
view of women, though inconsistent, reflects his Gnosticism in its misogynist aspects.
Professor Robert Eisenman of California State University, Long Beach argues that Paul was a member of the family
of Herod the Great.
[238]
Eisenman makes a connection between Paul and an individual identified by Josephus as
"Saulus", a "kinsman of Agrippa".
[239]
Another oft-cited element of the case for Paul as a member of Herod's family
is found in Romans 16:11
[240]
where Paul writes, "Greet Herodion, my kinsman".
According to Timo Eskola, early Christian theology and discourse was influenced by the Jewish Merkabah
tradition.
[241]
Similarly, Alan Segal and Daniel Boyarin regard Paul's accounts of his conversion experience and his
ascent to the heavens as the earliest first person accounts we have of a Merkabah mystic in Jewish or Christian
Paul the Apostle
23
literature. Conversely, Timothy Churchill has argued that Paul's Damascus road encounter does not fit the pattern of
Merkabah.
[242]
Among the critics of Paul the Apostle was Thomas Jefferson, a Deist, who wrote that Paul was the "first corrupter of
the doctrines of Jesus."
[243]
Christian anarchists, such as Leo Tolstoy and Ammon Hennacy, take a similar view.
F.F. Powell argues that Paul, in his epistles, made use of many of the ideas of the Greek philosopher Plato,
sometimes even using the same metaphors and language. For example, in Phaedrus, Plato has Socrates saying that
the heavenly ideals are perceived as though "through a glass dimly", closely mirroring Paul's language in 1
Corinthians 13.
Controversy
See also Pauline Christianity vs: Jesuism
In addition to the many questions about the true origins of some of Paul's teachings posed by historical figures as
noted above, some modern theologians also hold that the teachings of Paul differ markedly from those of Jesus as
found in the Gospels.
[244]
Barrie Wilson states that Paul differs from Jesus in terms of the origin of his message, his
teachings and his practices. Some have even gone so far as to claim that, due to these apparent differences in
teachings, that Paul was actually no less than the "second founder" of Christianity (Jesus being its first).
[245][246]
Robert M. Price, in his book The Amazing Colossal Apostle: The Search for the Historical Paul, says "the Pauline
epistles reveal themselves to the discerning reader to have exactly the same sort of limitation as the Gospels do: both
are collections of fragments and pericopae contributed and fabricated by authors and communities of very different
theological leanings".
[247]
References
Citations
[1] Peter and Paul . In the Footsteps of Paul . Tarsus . 1 (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ empires/ peterandpaul/ footsteps/ footsteps_1_1. html). PBS.
Retrieved 20101119.
[2] Harris, Stephen L. Understanding the Bible. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=KcIqAQAAMAAJ& focus=searchwithinvolume&
q=Paul+ Jerusalem+ independence) Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. ISBN 978-1-55934-655-9
[3] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Christianity& action=edit
[4] Powell, Mark A. Introducing the New Testament. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. 2009. ISBN 978-0-8010-2868-7
[5] Sanders, E.P. "Saint Paul, the Apostle". Encyclopdia Britannica. Encyclopdia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopdia
Britannica Inc., 2013. Web. 08 Jan. 2013.
[6] "The Canon Debate", McDonald & Sanders editors, 2002, chapter 32, page 577, by James D. G. Dunn: "James, the brother of Jesus, and Paul,
the two other most prominent leading figures (besides Peter) in first-century Christianity"
[7] Tertullian knew the Letter to the Hebrews as being "under the name of Barnabas" (De Pudicitia, chapter 20 where T. quotes Heb. 6:4-8);
Origen, in his now lost Commentary on the Epistle to the Hebrews is reported by Eusebius (Hist. Eccl. 6, 25, 13f.) as having written ". . if any
Church holds that this epistle is by Paul, let it be commended for this. For not without reason have the ancients handed it down as Pauls. But
who wrote the epistle, in truth, God knows. The statement of some who have gone before us is that Clement, bishop of the Romans, wrote the
epistle, and of others, that Luke, the author of the Gospel and the Acts, wrote it
[8] The New Jerome Biblical Commentary, publ. Geoffrey Chapman, 1989, chapter 60:2 (at p.920, col.2)
[9] Paul's undisputed epistles are 1st Thessalonians, Galatians, 1st and 2nd Corinthians, Romans, Philippians, and Philemon. The six letters
believed by some but not all to have been written by Paul are Ephesians, Colossians, 2Thessalonians, 1Timothy, 2Timothy, and Titus. Paul
and His Influence in Early Christianity (United Methodist Church) (http:/ / gbgm-umc. org/ umw/ corinthians/ paul. stm)
[10] Carson, D.A.;Moo, D.G. An Introduction to the New Testment. Nottingham: Apollos/Inter-Varsity Press. 2005 ISBN 978-1-84474-089-5
[11] Aageson, James W. Paul, the Pastoral Epistles, and the Early Church. Hendrickson Publishers, 2008. ISBN 978-1-59856-041-1 p.1
[12] Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church ed. F.L. Lucas (Oxford) entry on Paul
[13] [13] "Paul, St" Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
[14] "Why did God change Saul's name to Paul?" Catholic Answers. (http:/ / www. catholic. com/ quickquestions/
why-did-god-change-sauls-name-to-paul) 2 Apr 2013
[15] Prat, Ferdinand. "St. Paul". The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 11. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. 2 Apr. 2013 (http:/ / www.
newadvent.org/ cathen/ 11567b.htm).
Paul the Apostle
24
[16] Greek lexicon G4569 (Saul) (http:/ / studybible. info/ strongs/ G4569)
Greek lexicon G3972 (Paul) (http:/ / studybible. info/ strongs/ G3972)
Hebrew lexicon H7586 (Shaul/Saul) (http:/ / studybible. info/ strongs/ H7586)
[17] Paulus autem et Barnabas demorabantur Antiochiae docentes et evangelizantes cum aliis pluribus verbum Domini
[18] http:/ / www.biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Acts+ 16%3A37& version=ESV
[19] http:/ / www.biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Acts+ 22%3A25-28& version=ESV
[20] [20] Note: This is the only place in the Bible where the reader is told what language Jesus was speaking.
[22] Was the Apostle Paul Married? (http:/ / www.dennyburk. com/ was-the-apostle-paul-married/ ) Textual analysis points to possible earlier
marriage of Paul.
[24] Montague, George T. The Living Thought Of St. Paul. Milwaukee: Bruce Publishing Co. 1966. AISN: B0006CRKIC
[25] Wright, G. Ernest , Great People of the Bible and How They Lived, (Pleasantville, New York: The Reader's Digest Association, Inc., 1974.
ASIN: B000OEOKL2
[26] Kee, Howard and Franklin W. Young, Understanding The New Testament, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice Hall, Inc. 1958, pg 208.
ISBN 978-0139365911
[27] Wallace, Quency E. "The Early Life and Background of Paul the Apostle". The American Journal of Biblical Theology.
[28] http:/ / www.biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Rom. + 1%3A5& version=ESV
[29] http:/ / www.biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Rom+ 11%3A13& version=ESV
[30] http:/ / www.biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Gal. + 2%3A8& version=ESV
[31] [31] The author's claim of Paul's becoming able to establish the church solidly in "all" parts of the Roman Empire has been changed to "many" in
this article since "all" could not be substantiated by other credible sources.
[32] http:/ / www.biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Phil. + 3%3A5& version=ESV
[35] http:/ / www.biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Romans+ 16%3A13& version=ESV
[36] http:/ / www.biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Romans+ 16%3A7& version=ESV
[37] http:/ / www.biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=2Tim+ 1%3A3& version=ESV
[38] [38] 1stTimothy, 2ndTimothy, and Titus may be "Trito-Pauline", meaning they may have been written by members of the Pauline school a
generation after his death.
[39] http:/ / www.biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Philippians+ 3%3A5-6& version=ESV
[44] http:/ / www.biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Acts+ 7%3A58-60%3B22%3A20& version=ESV
[45] http:/ / www.biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Gal. + 1%3A13-14& version=ESV
[48] Dale Martin 2009. Introduction to New Testament History and Literature, lecture 14 "Paul as Missionary" (http:/ / m. youtube. com/ ?#/
watch?v=3V8NeoY2qB4). Yale University.
[52] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ bibleversefinder/ ?book=Acts& verse=9:4& src=9
[53] http:/ / www.biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Acts+ 9%3A5& version=9
[55] http:/ / www.biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Galatians+ 1%3A16& version=ESV
[56] http:/ / www.biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=1cor+ 15%3A8& version=NASB
[58] http:/ / www.biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Gal+ 1%3A11-16& version=ESV
[59] http:/ / www.biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Gal+ 1%3A22-24& version=ESV
[60] http:/ / www.biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Romans+ 1& version=ESV
[62] http:/ / www.biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Gal. + 1%3A12-15& version=Gal. %26nbsp%3B1%3A12-15
[63] http:/ / www.biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=1cor+ 15%3A10& version=ESV
[66] [66] through his mother Mary;
Paul the Apostle
25
[67] http:/ / www.biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Rom. + 5%3A6-10& version=ESV
[71] http:/ / www.biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Rom. + 3%3A20b& version=ESV
[74] http:/ / www.biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Phil. + 3%3A3-5& version=ESV
[77] http:/ / www.biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=1Thes+ 2%3A14-16& version=ESV
[79] http:/ / www.biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Philippians+ 3%3A6& version=ESV
[80] http:/ / www.biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=1tim+ 1%3A13& version=ESV
[85] http:/ / www.biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Rom. + 9-11& version=ESV
[86] http:/ / www.biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=1+ Cor. + 1%3A21-25& version=ESV
[87] Hengel, Martin and Anna Maria Schwemer, trans. John Bowden. Paul Between Damascus and Antioch: The Unknown Years (http:/ / books.
google.com/ books?id=PRIKVslqctkC& pg=PA43& vq="the+ baptism+ of+ Saul/ Paul+ in+ Damascus"& dq=paul+ baptized+ damascus&
as_brr=3& sig=DLbwPWBw-HL4JYp6MmR3ZsIxoqg) Westminster John Knox Press, 1997. ISBN 0-664-25736-4
[88] http:/ / www.biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=2Cor. + 11%3A32& version=ESV
[90] Kirsopp Lake, The earlier Epistles of St. Paul, their motive and origin (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ earlierepistleso00lakeuoft#page/
320/ mode/ 2up) (London 1911), pp. 320323.
[91] (PDF) N.T. Wright, "Paul, Arabia and Elijah" (http:/ / www. ntwrightpage. com/ Wright_Paul_Arabia_Elijah. pdf)
[92] [92] Why did Paul go to Arabia?
[93] Martin Hengel, "Paul in Arabia" Bulletin for Biblical Research 12.1 (2002) pp. 4766 (http:/ / www. ibr-bbr. org/ IBRBulletin/ BBR_2002/
BBR_2002a_04_Hengel_PaulInArabia. pdf)
[98] Barnett, Paul The Birth Of Christianity: The First Twenty Years (Eerdmans Publishing Co. 2005) ISBN 0-8028-2781-0 p. 200 (http:/ /
books.google. com/ books?id=iEfBfYC5NU4C& pg=PA200& vq="Paul's+ Unknown+ Years"& dq=paul+ fourteen+ years+
unknown& as_brr=3& sig=T8cKbW6QxSY-NEYkWsPszP_14ws)
[100] Ogg, George, Chronology of the New Testament in Peake's Commentary on the Bible (Nelson, 1963)
[101] Barnett p. 83 (http:/ / books. google.com/ books?id=iEfBfYC5NU4C& pg=PA83& vq="famine+ relief+ sent+ by+ members+ of+ the+
church+ of+ Antioch"& dq=paul+ fourteen+ years+ unknown& as_brr=3& sig=Riugmq-417hSFp4dQYcIhk301Rc)
[102] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Acts+ 13-14& version=ESV
[103] [103] The only indication as to who is leading is in the order of names. At first, the two are referred to as Barnabas and Paul, in that order. Later
in the same chapter the team is referred to a Paul and his companions.
[104] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Acts+ 13%3A8-12& version=ESV
[105] [105] "His quotations from Scripture, which are all taken, directly or from memory, from the Greek version, betray no familiarity with the
original Hebrew text (..) Nor is there any indication in Paul's writings or arguments that he had received the rabbinical training ascribed to him
by Christian writers (..)"
[107] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Acts+ 15%3A2& version=NIV
[108] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Galatians+ 2%3A1& version=NIV
[109] [109] ff; ff
[111] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Gal. + 1%3A18-20& version=ESV
[112] Paul: Apostle of the Free Spirit, F. F. Bruce, Paternoster 1980, p.151
[113] Catholic Encyclopedia: Judaizers (http:/ / www.newadvent. org/ cathen/ 08537a. htm) see section titled: "The Incident At Antioch"
Paul the Apostle
26
[115] Catholic Encyclopedia: Judaizers (http:/ / www.newadvent. org/ cathen/ 08537a. htm): "On their arrival Peter, who up to this had eaten
with the Gentiles, 'withdrew and separated himself, fearing them who were of the circumcision,' and by his example drew with him not only
the other Jews, but even Barnabas, Paul's fellow-labourer".
[116] Newadvent.org (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 08537a. htm)
[117] Christianity: an introduction by Alister E. McGrath pages 2006 ISBN 1-4051-0901-7 137141
[118] Mercer Commentary on the New Testament by Watson E. Mills 2003 ISBN 0-86554-864-1 pages 11091110
[119] Andreas J. Kstenberger, L. Scott Kellum and Charles Quarles (2009). The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New
Testament. Nashville, Tennessee, B&H Publishing Group. p. 400 (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=g-MG9sFLAz0C& pg=PA400&
dq="second+ missionary+ journey",+ paul,+ date,+ 49& hl=en& ei=3ti_Te2NAoabtwfvv8CvBQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result&
resnum=3& ved=0CEUQ6AEwAg#v=onepage& q="second missionary journey", paul, date, 49& f=false)
[120] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Acts+ 16%3A5& version=KJV
[121] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Acts+ 16%3A16-24& version=9
[122] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Acts+ 16%3A25-40& version=9
[123] Biblestudy.org (http:/ / www. biblestudy.org/ maps/ pauls-secd-journey-map. html)
[124] [124] "Paul, St". Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
[125] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Romans+ 15%3A19& version=ESV
[126] Catholic Encyclopedia: Durazzo (Albania) (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 05209a. htm). Newadvent.org (19090501). Retrieved
20101119.
[127] Biblestudy.org (http:/ / www. biblestudy.org/ maps/ pauls-third-journey-map. html)
[129] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Acts+ 21%3A15& version=ESV
[130] 4th missionary journey (http:/ / www.biblestudy.org/ maps/ paul-to-rome-map. html) and 5th missionary journey (http:/ / www.
biblestudy.org/ maps/ apostle-paul-fifth-missionary-journey-map. html)
[131] A study in scarlet (Judah sceptre Joseph birthright) (http:/ / www. biblestudy. org/ bibleref/ judah-sceptre-joseph-birthright/
a-study-in-scarlet. html)
[132] 1st Clement Lightfoot translation (http:/ / www. earlychristianwritings. com/ text/ 1clement-lightfoot. html)
1 Clem 5:5 "By reason of jealousy and strife Paul by his example pointed out the prize of patient endurance. After that he had been seven
times in bonds, had been driven into exile, had been stoned, had preached in the East and in the West, he won the noble renown which was the
reward of his faith, [5:6] having taught righteousness unto the whole world and having reached the farthest bounds of the West; and when he
had borne his testimony before the rulers, so he departed from the world and went unto the holy place, having been found a notable pattern of
patient endurance".
Where Lightfoot has "had preached" above, the Hoole (http:/ / www. earlychristianwritings. com/ text/ 1clement-hoole. html) translation has
"having become a herald".
See also the endnote(#3) by Arthur Cleveland Coxe on the last page of wikisource 1st Clement regarding Paul's preaching in Britain.
[133] Chrysostom on 2 Tim.4:20 (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series I Volume XIII)
[134] Cyril on Paul and gifts of the Holy Ghost (Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II Volume VII, Lecture 17, para.26)
[135] The Muratorian Fragment (http:/ / www. bible-researcher. com/ muratorian. html) lines 3839
[140] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Acts+ 11%3A30%2C12%3A25& version=ESV
[141] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Acts+ 15& version=ESV
[142] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Gal. + 2%3A1& version=ESV
[145] [145] Paul does not exactly say that this was his second visit. In Galatians, he lists three important meetings with Peter, and this was the second
on his list. The third meeting took place in Antioch. He does not explicitly state that he did not visit Jerusalem in between this and his first
visit.
[147] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Acts+ 21%3A17ff& version=ESV
[149] [149] Note that Paul only writes that he is on his way to Jerusalem, or just planning the visit. There might or might not have been additional visits
before or after this visit, if he ever got to Jerusalem.
[150] [150] ,,
Paul the Apostle
27
[156] Ireneaus Against Heresies 3.3 (http:/ / www. ccel.org/ ccel/ schaff/ anf01. ix. iv. iv. html).2: the "...Church founded and organized at Rome
by the two most glorious apostles, Peter and Paul; as also [by pointing out] the faith preached to men, which comes down to our time by
means of the successions of the bishops. ...The blessed apostles, then, having founded and built up the Church, committed into the hands of
Linus the office of the episcopate".
[158] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Romans+ 1%3A1%2C7%2C11-13%3B15%3A23-29& version=ESV
[159] MaGee Greg. "The Origins of the Church at Rome". bible.org (http:/ / bible. org/ article/ origins-church-rome) Accessed 18 Mar 2013
[160] Ignatius of Antioch, Letter to the Ephesians, Chapter XII (http:/ / www. ccel. org/ ccel/ schaff/ anf01. v. ii. xii. html)
[161] Serena De Leonardis and Stefano Masi (1999). Art and history: Rome and the Vatican. Casa Editrice Bonechi. p. 21 (http:/ / books. google.
ca/ books?id=owS4gojfggEC& pg=PA21& dq=paul+ beheaded+ "Tre+ Fontane+ Abbey"& hl=en& ei=o_W_TdHmAcOdgQfk-5XcBQ&
sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=paul beheaded "Tre Fontane Abbey"& f=false)
[162] Lashway, Calvin. "HOW and WHERE did the Apostle Paul die?" Web: HOW and WHERE did the Apostle Paul die? (http:/ / www.
biblestudy.org/ question/ sauldie.html)
[163] St Paul's tomb unearthed in Rome (http:/ / news.bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ europe/ 6219656. stm) from BBC News (20061208); dw-world.de
(http:/ / www. dw-world. de/ dw/ article/ 0,,4442169,00. html?maca=en-rss-en-all-1573-rdf)
[164] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=2Cor+ 11%3A20-32& version=NIV
[165] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=2+ Cor. + 11%3A28& version=ESV
[166] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=1cor+ 11%3A17-34& version=ESV
[167] Peter, Paul, and Mary Magdelene: the followers of Jesus in history and legend (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Tlvgp7WggvEC&
lpg=PA98& dq=discrepancies paul acts& pg=PA98#v=onepage& q=discrepancies paul acts& f=false) By Bart Ehrman, p.98-100
[168] A commentary on the Acts of the Apostles (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?ei=wQaFTvaZDdKatwexocxL& ct=result&
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[169] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=1Thes+ 1%3A9-10& version=ESV
[170] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=1Thes+ 4%3A14-18& version=ESV
[171] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=1Thes+ 5%3A23& version=ESV
[172] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=1Cor+ 11%3A17-34& version=ESV
[173] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=1Cor+ 15& version=ESV
[175] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=1Cor+ 9%3A14& version=ESV
[176] MacDonald, Margaret Y. Sacra Pagina: Colossians and Ephesians. Liturgical Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-8146-5819-2
[178] Brown, R.E., The Churches the Apostles left behind p.48.
[179] Barrett, C.K. the Pastoral Epistles p.4ff.
[180] [180] "Atonement". Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
[181] [181] The International standard Bible encyclopaedia (1915), Volume 4, page 2276 edited by James Orr
[182] Paul and Palestinian Judaism in 1977; Paul, the Law, and the Jewish People in 1983
[183] J.D.G. Dunn's Manson Memorial Lecture (4.11.1982): 'The New Perspective on Paul' BJRL 65(1983), 95122.
[184] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Rom. + 2%3A13ff& version=ESV
[185] Ehrman, Bart. Peter, Paul, and Mary Magdalene: The Followers of Jesus in History and Legend. Oxford University Press, USA. 2006.
ISBN 0-19-530013-0
[186] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=1Thes+ 4%3A16ff& version=ESV
[187] Rowlands, Christopher. Christian Origins (SPCK 1985) p.113
[188] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=2Thess. + 2%3A3& version=ESV
[189] Kroeger, Richard C. and Catherine C. I Suffer Not a Woman. Baker Book House, 1992. ISBN 0-8010-5250-5
[190] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=1Tim+ 2%3A9-15& version=KJV
[191] [191] Wright, N.T. "The Biblical Basis for Women's Service in the Church". Web: Dec. 16, 2009
[192] Kirk, J. R. Daniel. Fuller Theological Seminary (http:/ / www. fuller. edu/ academics/ faculty/ daniel-kirk. aspx)
[193] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Romans+ 16& version=ESV
[194] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=1Corinthians+ 14& version=TNIV
[195] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=1Cor+ 11& version=ESV
[196] Giguzzi, Giancarlo "Paolo, un apostolo contro le donne?" in Credere Oggi: in dialogo con San Paolo e le sue lettere no. 124, Edizioni
Messaggero Padova, 2004, pp. 95107. credereoggi.it (http:/ / www. credereoggi. it/ upload/ 2004/ articolo143_95. asp)
[197] [197] "Prophet, Prophetess, Prophecy". Baker's Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology.
[198] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Exod+ 15%3A20& version=ESV
[199] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Judges+ 4%3A4& version=ESV
[200] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Isa. + 8%3A3& version=ESV
[201] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=2Ki+ 22%3A14& version=ESV
[202] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=2Chr+ 34%3A22& version=ESV
Paul the Apostle
28
[203] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Neh+ 6%3A14& version=ESV
[204] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Galatians+ 3%3A28& version=NIV
[205] [205] Kirk, J.R. Daniel. "Jesus I Have Loved. But Paul?" Baker, 2011. ISBN 978-1-4412-3625-8
[206] Stagg, Evelyn and Frank Stagg. Woman in the World of Jesus. Westminster Press, 1978. ISBN 0-664-24195-6
[207] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Ephesians+ 5%3A22-6%3A5& version=ESV
[208] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Colossians+ 3%3A18-4%3A1& version=ESV
[209] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Titus+ 2%3A1-10& version=ESV
[210] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=1Pet+ 3%3A1-9& version=ESV
[211] Gombis, Timothy. " A Radically Different New Humanity: The Function of the Haustafel in Ephesians (http:/ / www. etsjets. org/ files/
JETS-PDFs/ 48/ 48-2/ 48-2-pp317-330_JETS. pdf)". Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society. 48/2 (June 2005) 31730. Accessed 14
February 2013.
[212] MacDonald, Margaret. The Pauline Churches: A Socio-historical Study of Institutionalization in the Pauline and Deutero-Pauline
Writings. SNTSMS 60; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. p109
[214] [214] Achtenmeier, P.J. HarperCollins Bible Dictionary (revised ed.). HarperCollins. pp. 882. ISBN 0-06-060037-3.
[215] [215] Keller, Marie Nol. Priscilla and Aquila: Paul's Coworkers in Christ Jesus. Liturgical Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-8146-5284-8.
[216] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Romans+ 16%3A3-4& version=ESV
[217] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=1Cor+ 1%3A11& version=ESV
[218] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Rom. + 16%3A1-2& version=ESV
[219] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Romans+ 1%3A26-27& version=ESV
[220] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=1Cor+ 6%3A9-10& version=9
[221] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=1Tim+ 1%3A8-11& version=9
[222] Ehrman, Bart. The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings. Oxford University Press. 2003. p. 393 ISBN
0-19-515462-2
"when we come to the Pastoral epistles, there is greater scholarly unanimity. These three letters are widely regarded by scholars as
non-Pauline."
[223] Collins, Raymond F. 1 & 2 Timothy and Titus: A Commentary. Westminster John Knox Press. 2004. p. 4 ISBN 0-664-22247-1
"By the end of the twentieth century New Testament scholarship was virtually unanimous in affirming that the Pastoral Epistles were written
some time after Paul's death. ... As always some scholars dissent from the consensus view."
[224] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Romans+ 9& version=ESV
[225] The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians, 5:56, translated by J.B. Lightfoot in
[226] [226] Hist. Eccl., II.25 -
[227] [227] Eusebius, Hist. Eccl., II.25, where he quotes Dionysius of Corinth to this effect
[228] Alban Butler's Lives of the saints, available at http:/ / www. bartleby. com/ 210/ 6/ 301. html
[229] Such as the Daughters of St. Paul, a women's missionary order at http:/ / www. paulines. ph/ ?p=3935
[230] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=2Ti+ 4%3A13& version=NIV
[231] Musnad Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, vol 11, p 260; Jami al-Tirmidhi,vol 4, p 236; Sunan al-Kubra, al-Nasa'i, vol 10, p 398. Scholars like
al-Tirmidhi categorize the hadith as Hasan and Sahih.
[232] [232] Christ(PBUH): a Salafi study, 2008, Rafa'ei Sorur, Chapter 3, Article 7.
[233] Noor al-Thaqalain, vol 1, p 85; Bihar al-Anwar, vol 8, pp. 310, 311.
[234] [234] Encyclopedia of Quran, Tehran, vol 6, pp. 543 to 547.
[235] An Introduction to Gnosticism and The Nag Hammadi Library. nhlintro.html at gnosis.org (http:/ / gnosis. org/ naghamm/ nhlintro. html)
[236] ANTITHESIS : Contradictions Between the Old Testament Deity and the New Testament God. antithes.htm at gnosis.org (http:/ / gnosis.
org/ library/ marcion/ antithes. htm)
[237] Pagels, Elaine. The Gnostic Paul: Gnostic Exegesis of the Pauline Letters. Continuum International Publishing, 1992. ISBN
978-1563380396
[238] See " Paul as Herodian (http:/ / depts. drew.edu/ jhc/ eisenman. html)", JHC 3/1 (Spring, 1996), 110122.
[239] Antiquities, Book XX, Chapter 9:4. ccel.org (http:/ / www. ccel. org/ j/ josephus/ works/ ant-20. htm)
[240] http:/ / www.biblegateway.com/ passage/ ?search=Romans+ 16%3A11& version=ESV
[241] Timo Eskola. Messiah and the Throne: Jewish Merkabah Mysticism and Early Exaltation Discourse Tubingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2001.
[242] [242] Churchill, Timothy W. R. "Divine Initiative and the Christology of the Damascus Road Encounter", Eugene: Pickwick, 2010.
[243] The Writings of Thomas Jefferson: Being his Autobiography, Correspondence, Reports, Messages, Addresses, and Other Writings, Official
and Private. Published by the Order of the Joint Committee of Congress on the Library, from the Original Manuscripts, Deposited in the
Department of State, With Explanatory Notes, Tables of Contents, and a Copious Index to Each Volume, as well as a General Index to the
Whole, by the Editor H. A. Washington. Vol. VII. Published by Taylor Maury, Washington, D.C., 1854.
[244] Maccoby, Hyam, The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity (Harpercollins, October 1987), pg. 14.
[245] Dwyer, John C., Church History: Twenty Centuries of Catholic Christianity (Paulist Press, July 1985 ), pg. 27.
[246] Wrede, William, Paul (trans. Edward Lummis; London: Philip Green, 1907), pg. 179.
[247] Robert M. Price, The Amazing Colossal Apostle, (Signature books, 2012), pg. viii. ISBN 978-1-56085-216-2
Paul the Apostle
29
Bibliography
Auln, Gustaf. Christus Victor (SPCK 1931)
Brown, Raymond E. An Introduction to the New Testament. Anchor Bible Series, 1997. ISBN 0-385-24767-2
Brown, Raymond E. The Church the Apostles left behind(Chapman 1984)
Bruce, F.F. "Is the Paul of Acts the Real Paul?" Bulletin John Rylands Library 58 (1976) 283305
Bruce, F.F., Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free (ISBN 0-8028-4778-1)
Carson, D.A.;Moo, D.J. An Introduction to the New Testament ISBN 978-1-84474-089-5
Conzelmann, Hans, The Acts of the Apostlesa Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles (Augsburg Fortress
1987)
Davies, W.D. Paul and Rabbinic Judaism: Some Rabbinic Elements in Pauline Theology. S.P.C.K., 3rd ed., 1970.
ISBN 0-281-02449-9
Davies, W.D. "The Apostolic Age and the Life of Paul" in Matthew Black, ed. Peake's Commentary on the Bible.
London: T. Nelson, 1962. ISBN 0-8407-5019-6
Dunn, James D.G., Jesus, Paul, and the Gospels (Grand Rapids (MI), Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2011)
Dunn, James D.G., Jesus, Paul and the Law Louisville,KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1990. ISBN
0-664-25095-5
Hanson, Anthony T. Studies in Paul's Technique and Theology. Eerdmans, 1974. ISBN 0-8028-3452-3
Holzbach, Mathis Christian, Die textpragmat. Bedeutung d. Kndereinsetzungen d. Simon Petrus u.d. Saulus
Paulus im lukan. Doppelwerk, in: Jesus als Bote d. Heils. Stuttgart 2008, 166172.
Horrell, David G. "An Introduction to the Study of Paul". T&T Clark Approaches to Biblical Studies. 2nd edition.
London: T&T Clark, 2006
Irenaeus, Against Heresies, i.26.2
Kim, Yung Suk. A Theological Introduction to Paul's Letters. Eugene, Oregon: Cascade Books, 2011. ISBN
978-1-60899-793-0
Maccoby, Hyam. The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity. New York: Harper & Row, 1986. ISBN
0-06-015582-5
MacDonald, Dennis Ronald, 1983. The Legend and the Apostle: The Battle for Paul in Story and Canon
Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1983. ISBN 978-0664244644
Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, Jesus and Paul: Parallel lives (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 2007) ISBN
0-8146-5173-9
Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, Paul the Letter-Writer: His World, His Options, His Skills (Collegeville, Minn.:
Liturgical Press, 1995) ISBN 0-8146-5845-8
Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, Paul: A Critical Life (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996) ISBN 0-19-826749-5
Ogg, George. "Chronology of the New Testament". Matthew Black, ed. Peake's Commentary on the Bible.
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Rashdall, Hastings, The Idea of Atonement in Christian Theology (1919)
Ruef, John, Paul's First letter to Corinth (Penguin 1971)
Sanders, E.P., Paul and Palestinian Judaism (1977)
Segal, Alan F. Paul, the Convert, (New Haven/London, Yale University Press, 1990) ISBN 0-300-04527-1
Segal, Alan F., "Paul, the Convert and Apostle" in Rebecca's Children: Judaism and Christianity in the Roman
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Paul the Apostle
30
Further reading
Bart D Ehrman. Peter, Paul and Mary Magdalene: The Followers of Jesus in History and Legend; 304 pages,
Oxford University Press (March, 2008)
Bart D. Ehrman. The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings; 608 pages,
Oxford University Press (July, 2011); ISBN 978-0-19-975753-4
Hyam MacCoby. The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity; 238 pages, Barnes & Noble Books
(1998); ISBN 978-0-7607-0787-6
Hans Joachim Schoeps. Paul: The Theology of the Apostle in the Light of Jewish Religious History (Library of
Theological Translations); 34 pages, Lutterworth Press (July, 2002); ISBN 978-0-227-17013-7
Pinchas Lapide, Peter Stuhlmacher. Paul: Rabbi and Apostle; 77 pages, Augsburg Publishing House; (December
1984)
Pinchas Lapide, Leonard Swidler, Jurgen Moltmann. Jewish Monotheism and Christian Trinitarian Doctrine; 94
pages, Wipf & Stock Publishers (May, 2002)
External links
Lecture on Paul of Tarsus (http:/ / jewishhistorylectures. org/ 2013/ 10/ 17/
paul-of-tarsus-the-origins-of-christianity-in-jewish-context/ ) s by Dr. Henry Abramson
St Paul (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ programmes/ b00kjk8z) on In Our Time at the BBC. ( listen now (http:/ / www.
bbc. co. uk/ iplayer/ console/ b00kjk8z/ In_Our_Time_St_Paul))
Jewish Encyclopedia: Saul of Tarsus (known as Paul, the Apostle of the Heathen) (http:/ / www.
jewishencyclopedia. com/ articles/ 11952-paul-of-tarsus)
Catholic Encyclopedia: Paul of Tarsus (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 11567b. htm)
Catholic Perspective on Paul (http:/ / pauliscatholic. com)
Documentary film on Apostle Paul (http:/ / www. zenit. org/ rssenglish-20538)
Encyclopdia Britannica: Paul (http:/ / www. 1911encyclopedia. org/ Paul), 1911
Maps of Paul's three missionary journeys and final captive journey (http:/ / www. biblestudy. org/ maps/
pauls-first-journey-map. html)
Novena to Saint Paul Apostle (http:/ / www. catholic. net/ index. php?option=dedestaca& id=703)
Paul's mission and letters (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ pages/ frontline/ shows/ religion/ first/ missions. html)
From PBS Frontline series on the earliest Christians.
Representations of Saint Paul (http:/ / www. cattoliciromani. com/ forum/ showthread. php/
iconografia_paolo_tarso-18221. html)
"Saint Paul, the Apostle". (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 447019/ Saint-Paul-the-Apostle)
Encyclopdia Britannica Online. 2009.
The Apostle and the Poet: Paul and Aratus (http:/ / spindleworks. com/ library/ rfaber/ aratus. htm) Dr. Riemer
Faber
The Apostle Paul's Shipwreck: An Historical Examination of Acts 27 and 28 (http:/ / www. parsagard. com/
shipwreck. htm)
Works by or about Paul the Apostle (http:/ / worldcat. org/ identities/ lccn-n79-64565) in libraries (WorldCat
catalog)
Why Paul Went West: The Differences Between the Jewish Diaspora (http:/ / www. bib-arch. org/ bar/ article.
asp?PubID=BSBA& Volume=37& Issue=1& ArticleID=10) Biblical Archaeology Review
Article Sources and Contributors
31
Paul the Apostle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=609324356 Contributors: .marc., 2007apm, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, 4twenty42o, 5flames5, A Geek Tragedy, A J Hay, A
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Bartolomeo Montagna - Saint Paul - Google Art Project.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bartolomeo_Montagna_-_Saint_Paul_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg
License: Public Domain Contributors: Jfhutson
File:StJohnsAshfield StainedGlass GoodShepherd Portrait.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:StJohnsAshfield_StainedGlass_GoodShepherd_Portrait.jpg License:
Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Stained glass: Alfred Handel, d. 1946, photo:Toby Hudson
File:P christianity.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:P_christianity.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Booyabazooka, NuclearWarfare,
Rocket000, Wst
File:Conversion of Saint Paul (Michelangelo Buonarroti).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Conversion_of_Saint_Paul_(Michelangelo_Buonarroti).jpg License:
Public Domain Contributors: Airon90, Beyond My Ken, FA2010, Irmgard, Kilom691, Mattes, Sailko, Steinsplitter, Warburg, Winterkind, 2 anonymous edits
File:Broad overview of geography relevant to paul of tarsus.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Broad_overview_of_geography_relevant_to_paul_of_tarsus.png
License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Ciaurlec, Monozigote
File:Conversion on the Way to Damascus-Caravaggio (c.1600-1).jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Conversion_on_the_Way_to_Damascus-Caravaggio_(c.1600-1).jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Denghi-Comm, Masur, Staszek99
File:Ananias house.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ananias_house.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: AnRo0002,
Arbitrarily0, Patrickneil, 3 anonymous edits
File:Damascus-Bab Kisan.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Damascus-Bab_Kisan.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported
Contributors: AnRo0002, Aphaia, Heretiq, Stegop, Wst, Xenophon
File:V&A - Raphael, St Paul Preaching in Athens (1515).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:V&A_-_Raphael,_St_Paul_Preaching_in_Athens_(1515).jpg License:
Public Domain Contributors: Ferbr1, Johnbod, Kilom691, M.chohan, Man vyi, Sailko, Shakko, Tyrenius, Wst
File:Paul arrested.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Paul_arrested.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Publisher of Bible Cards
File:Selmunett Island.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Selmunett_Island.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Jeffrey Sciberras
File:Decapitacin de San Pablo - Simonet - 1887.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Decapitacin_de_San_Pablo_-_Simonet_-_1887.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: Ixtzib, Jbribeiro1, Smnt, 1 anonymous edits
File:Paulus San Giovanni in Laterano 2006-09-07.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Paulus_San_Giovanni_in_Laterano_2006-09-07.jpg License: Creative Commons
Attribution 2.5 Contributors: Jastrow
File:Probably Valentin de Boulogne - Saint Paul Writing His Epistles - Google Art Project.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Probably_Valentin_de_Boulogne_-_Saint_Paul_Writing_His_Epistles_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Lotje,
Primaler
File:Paul Apostle.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Paul_Apostle.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: 18 century icon painter
File:Saint-Paul.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Saint-Paul.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: AnRo0002, Bibi
Saint-Pol, Clio20, Sailko
File:Statue of Saint Paul, Damascus.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Statue_of_Saint_Paul,_Damascus.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike
3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Bernard Gagnon
File:Saint Paul with a Scroll and a Sword.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Saint_Paul_with_a_Scroll_and_a_Sword.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0
Contributors: Jayzl Nebre-Villfania (talk)
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Paul The Apostle

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Paul The Apostle

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Paul the Apostle

Paul himself said about himself:

said Paul, Romans 3:7

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