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Remote Sensing of Environment 113 (2009) 197–212

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Remote Sensing of Environment

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / r s e

Ground deformation due to tectonic, hydrothermal, gravity, hydrogeological, and

anthropic processes in the Campania Region (Southern Italy) from Permanent
Scatterers Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry
G. Vilardo a, G. Ventura b,⁎, C. Terranova c, F. Matano c, S. Nardò c
a
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Osservatorio Vesuviano, Napoli, Italy
b
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Department Seismology and Tectonophysics, Via di Vigna Murata 605, 00143 Roma, Italy
c
Unità di Supporto Locale n° 6 Regione Campania-Progetto Operativo Difesa Suolo (PODiS)-Ministero per l'Ambiente e la Tutela del Territorio e del Mare (MATTM) c/o Ufficio dell'Autorità
Ambientale, Regione Campania, Napoli, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: We apply the Permanent Scatterers Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry (PS-InSAR) technique to the
Received 23 May 2008 Campania Region (Southern Italy), which includes the Southern Apennines chain and Plio-Quaternary
Received in revised form 16 September 2008 structural depressions, with the aim to detect ground displacements at a regional scale. The study area,
Accepted 16 September 2008
which extends for 13,600 km2, is characterized by intense urbanization, active volcanoes (Phlegraean Fields,
Vesuvius and Ischia), seismogenic structures, landslides, hydrogeological instability. PS-InSAR technique
Keywords:
PS-InSAR
allows us to identify a set of radar benchmarks (PS) where accurate displacement measurements can be
Deformation carried out. About 1.7·106 PS are identified by processing Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images acquired in
Tectonics ascending and descending orbits from 1992 to 2001 by the European Remote Sensing satellites (ERS). The PS-
Volcanism InSAR application at regional scale detected ground deformations ranging from +28 to −39 mm/yr. The
Gravity calculated velocity values are consistent with the available GPS and levelling data from selected areas. We
Anthropic processes identify volcanic areas in which the deformation is mainly related to the depressurization of the local
hydrothermal systems, and recognize deformations along seismogenic and aseismic NNW–SSE and NW–SE
faults. The deformations localized along the Southern Apennines chain are mainly related to landslides while
those occurring in the plains are due to subsidence processes induced by intensive drainage from wells, i.e.
anthropic activity. The review of 9 years of SAR data shows that tectonic, volcanic/hydrothermal, gravity, and
anthropic processes are responsible for the ground deformation of Campania. The proposed joint
interpretation of deformation fields related to natural and anthopogenic factors provides a comprehensive
view of the dynamics of the Earth’s surface.
© 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction capabilities (e.g., high spatial resolution and temporal frequency

Remote sensing data by SAR interferometry (InSAR) have been used
to detect and monitor ground deformations induced by landslides,
volcanism, tectonics and anthropic processes in urbanized areas
(Achache et al., 1995; Berardino et al., 2002; Carnec et al., 1996; Corsini
et al., 2006; Fruneau et al., 1996; Kimura & Yamaguchi, 2000; Lin et al.,
2006; Massonnet et al., 1993; Rott & Siegel, 1999; Singhroy et al., 1998;
Tizzani et al., 2007). SAR imagery has been also utilized to analyze glacial
features (Mark et al., 2005), climate changes (Beer et al., 2000), and land
resources (Legesse & Ayenew, 2006). InSAR provides a one-dimensional
measurement of change in distance along the look direction of the radar
spacecraft (Line Of Sight, LOS). Recent advances in radar satellite
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 06 51860221; fax: +39 06 5041303.
E-mail address: ventura@ingv.it (G. Ventura).
acquisitions) and the development of new techniques based on the
interferometric analysis of large datasets such as the Permanent
Scatterers (PS) technique (Ferretti et al., 2001), the Small Baseline
(SBAS) (Berardino et al., 2002) and Differential SAR Interferometry
approach (DInSAR), have significantly increased the potential of SAR
remote sensing for ground deformation detection.
Here, we apply the Permanent Scatterers Synthetic Aperture Radar
Interferometry (PS-InSAR) to investigate the ground deformations of
the Campania Region (Fig. 1; Southern Italy), which covers a surface of
13,600 km2. The processing technique (Ferretti et al., 2000, 2001)
bases on the identification of Permanent Scatterers (PS), which are
man-made objects (statues, heating and ventilating structures on the
roofs of buildings, utility poles, dams, etc.) or natural (rock outcrops)
reflectors characterized by stable individual radar-bright and radar-
phase over long temporal series of interferometric SAR images. The
phase data from PS are used to detect topographic changes by

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198 G. Vilardo et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 113 (2009) 197–212

Fig. 1. Geological sketch map of the Campania Region. Data are from the SISCAM database (Nappi et al., 2008 and reference therein). The reported faults are Early Pleistocene to
Holocene normal to oblique faults. Focal mechanisms of earthquakes are from Milano et al. (2004).

Table 1
ERS1 and ERS2 tracks, frames and scene utilized for SAR image processing and PS
separating time-dependent surface motions, atmospheric delays, and extraction
elevation-error components of the range-change measurement. This
technique has proved to be a powerful tool for exploring the slow Track Frame Used scenes Time Range

movement of the earth’s surface at local (Dixon et al., 2006; Ferretti Ascending dataset
129 801 61 10 January 1993–13 December 2000
et al., 2000; Hilley et al., 2004) and at sub-regional scale (Bűrgmann
129 819 69 14 June 1992–13 December 2000
et al., 2006; Farina et al., 2006; Meisina et al., 2006). 358 819 46 8 September 1992–24 November 2000
Our study on the Campania area focuses on the June 1992–January 358 801 47 8 September 1992–24 November 2000
2001 time interval and SAR data acquired from both ascending and
descending tracks by ERS-1 and ERS-2 satellites. The availability of Descending dataset
36 2763 81 8 June 1992–11 January 2001
ascending and descending datasets allow us to discriminate the 36 2781 79 8 June 1992–11 January 2001
vertical and east–west displacement components. The large spatial 265 2765 67 11 November 1992–23 December 2000
scale features of the investigated area, in which volcanic, tectonic, 265 2783 72 24 June 1992–23 December 2000
exogenous and anthropic processes coexist, are examined and 494 2799 79 10 July 1992–8 January 2001
494 2781 81 10 July 1992–8 January 2001
interpreted in light of the available geological and geophysical
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G. Vilardo et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 113 (2009) 197–212

Fig. 2. Map view of June 1992–January 2000 range-change rate measurements of PS with coherence ≥0.65. (Left) ascending orbit; (right) descending orbit. The underlying image is a shaded relief from a 20 m pixel Digital Terrain Model of the
area.

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G. Vilardo et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 113 (2009) 197–212
Fig. 3. Map view of June 1992–January 2000 range-change rate measurements of PS with coherence ≥ 0.85. (Left) ascending orbit; (right) descending orbit. The underlying image is a shaded relief from a 20 m pixel Digital Terrain Model of the
area.
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Table 2 the Tyrrhenian Sea. This sector of Southern Italy experienced late Cenozoic
Number of Permanent Scatterers for the full PS dataset (coherence ≥ 0.65; C65) and the contraction (Southern Apennines chain) and hinterland extension
dataset of PSs with coherence ≥ 0.85 (C85)
(Tyrrhenian Sea) (Hippolyte et al., 1994; Oldow et al., 1993). A progressive
Dataset C65 C85 NE-vergent thrust propagation over the Apulian foreland and rifting in the
Ascending orbit 693110 115859 back-arc region of the Tyrrhenian area have coexisted up to Quaternary
Descending orbit 998640 99168 (Doglioni, 1991; Patacca et al., 1990). From Early Pleistocene, the
Tyrrhenian margin of Southern Italy was affected by a NE–SW extension
that formed the Campanian plain (Ferranti & Oldow, 2005). Volcanism
information. To our knowledge, studies jointly discussing these developed in the plain in Quaternary time at Roccamonfina, Ischia,
processes in a single area are still lacking in literature. Vesuvius and Phlegraean Fields volcanoes (Fig. 1). Historical eruptions
occurred at Vesuvius (1944 A.D.), Ischia (1302 A.D.) and Phlegraean Fields
2. Geological setting (1538 A.D.) (Rosi & Sbrana, 1987; Santacroce, 1987). Diffuse degassing
areas, fumarole fields, hot springs and thermal anomalies affect these
The Campania Region includes the Campanian plain, which is a NW–SE volcanoes and their sea sectors (e.g., Chiodini et al., 2001; de Lorenzo et al.,
elongated structural depression, and the NW–SE elongated Southern 2001; Rosi & Sbrana, 1987). The dynamics of the hydrothermal systems
Apennines chain (Fig. 1). To the west, the Campania Region is bounded by play a key-role in triggering seismicity at Vesuvius (Ventura & Vilardo,

Fig. 4. Interpolated LOS deformation velocity maps from PS with coherence ≥0.85 (C85 dataset). a) ascending orbit; b) descending orbit.

Fig. 5. Map of PS density (number of PS/km2) for (a) ascending and (b) descending orbits of the C85 dataset.
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1999), uplift and subsidence episodes at Phlegraean Fields (Bonafede &
Mazzanti, 1998), and Ischia (Sepe et al., 2007).
NW–SE striking normal faults delimit the western margin of the
Campanian plain and NE–SW faults bound its northern and southern
margins (Fig. 1; Bruno et al., 2000; Ferranti et al., in press). NW–SE and
NE–SW striking faults delimit strongly subsiding basins (e.g. Volturno,
Campania and Sele plains) along the Campanian Tyrrhenian belt as
well as the volcanic complexes of Vesuvius, Phlegraean Fields, Ischia
and Roccamonfina.
The most energetic historical earthquakes in the area occurred
along the Southern Apennines chain and are related to NW–SE normal
faults (Fig. 1). In the last century, destructive earthquakes occurred in
1930 (Ms = 6.7), 1962 (Ms = 6.2) and 1980 (Ms = 6.9). The focal
mechanisms of these events show normal to oblique (normal-strike-
slip) solutions with the T-axis striking NE–SW (Frepoli & Amato,
2000). Seismic sequences (MDmax = 4.6) and isolated events occurred
along the chain axis (e.g. the 1990, 1996 and 1997–98 sequences;
Milano et al., 2002 and reference therein) with hypocenters within the
first 15 km of the crust. These earthquakes roughly depict a NW–SE
striking seismic belt along the Southern Apennines (Fig. 1). With the
exception of the local seismicity of the Vesuvius and Phlegraean
Fields, the background seismicity of the Campanian plain is char-
acterized by temporally and spatially isolated events with magnitudes
less than 3.5 (Fig. 1), and some events located along the Campanian
plain-Southern Apennines boundary (Milano et al., 2004).
According to Ferranti & Oldow (2005), vertical displacements
documented by marine terraces, shallow-marine regression surfaces,
and continental erosional surfaces evidenced a Pleistocene uplift rate
of the southwestern sector of the Campania Region of 0.24 mm/year.
The Campanian sector of the Southern Apennines chain uplifted during
Pleistocene at about 0.51 mm/year. A few GPS data show present-day
southwestward velocities between 2 and 4 mm/year at the south-
western corner of the Campanian plain (Oldow & Ferranti, 2005).
The available deformation data from leveling lines, GPS, and
previous SAR interferometry studies concentrate on the volcanic areas
and evidence subsidence at Vesuvius and Ischia (Manzo et al., 2006;
Sepe et al., 2007). At Phlegraean Fields, a general subsidence between
1985 and 2007 has been interrupted by four, short duration (4–
5 months), uplift phases (Lanari et al., 2004; see also http://www.ov.
ingv.it/campi_flegrei_en.html).
ments (Ferretti et al., 2000, 2001; Rocca et al., 2000) ranges from 3 to
5 mm for a coherence of 0.65, whereas PSs showing coherence higher
than 0.85 are affected by errors lower than 1 mm.
The Line of Sight (LOS) displacement rates vary from 27 to −38 mm/
year (Fig. 2) and are relative to reference points assumed motionless.
Most of the PSs are in the plain area, where the density of man-made
structures is high. Smaller amount of PS were detected in the
mountain sectors because of the unfavourable land-cover (vegetation
and agricultural fields) and morphological (steep slopes) features.
4. PS processing
When interpreting the velocity values obtained by interferometric
processing it must be kept in mind that InSAR technique provides a
measurement of change in distance along the look direction (LOS) of
the radar spacecraft, which is on average 23° from the vertical, and a
linear rate of movement is assumed. However, the availability of both
ascending and descending datasets allows us to separate the vertical
and horizontal components of the deformation for the sampled areas
that are common to both the acquisition geometries.
Mean deformation velocity maps have been produced in order to
examine the large spatial scale features of the investigated area and, to
achieve this task, three processing stages have been applied. These
include: a) data selection based on the coherence value; b) computa-
tion of mean deformation velocity maps in SAR coordinates;
c) separation of east–west and vertical deformation components.
To minimize the effects due to displacement estimations accuracy,
a data selection has been performed on both ascending and

3. The Campania InSAR data

By the analysis of images of ESA archive, the whole Campania

territory is covered by 5 ERS1–ERS2 Tracks (3 descending orbits and 2
ascending orbits) and 10 Frames (Table 1). In order to limit the effects
of geometrical distortions induced by the side-looking view of SAR
sensors and to couple the analysis of both acquisition geometries, data
were acquired from both ascending and descending orbits.
A total of 1078 ERS 1 and ERS 2 satellites SAR scenes between
8 June 1992 and 11 January 2001 was collected from the ESA archive
and interferometrically processed by means of the PSinSAR™ standard
(SPSA) technique by the T.R.E. s.r.l., a POLIMI spin-off company. The
results of this analysis consisted of the yearly average velocity of
1,691,740 PS with coherence higher than 0.65 (998,640 in descending
orbit and 693,110 in ascending orbit) covering the whole territory of
the Campania Region (Fig. 2). The 0.65 coherence threshold has been
selected to obtain a dataset with errors less than 3 to 5 mm/year
(see below). The precision on single PS LOS measurements depends on
both the number of available SAR images and the PS multi-
interferogram coherence (Rocca et al., 2000). The PS coherence is a
normalised index of the local signal-to-noise ratio of the interfero- Fig. 6. Simplified ascending and descending radar geometry. The ascending and
metric phase and reflects the contribution of all the effects affecting the descending radar LOS directions are assumed belonging to the East-Z plane.
θ represents the look-angle, assumed the same for both ascending and descending
accuracy of individual PS measurements (Colesanti & Wasowski, 2006; geometries. The displacement vector (d) of an investigated PS, its projections along the
Colesanti et al., 2002; Colesanti et al., 2003; Hanseen, 2001). In our different LOS's (dLOS Desc and dLOS Asc) and along the Cartesian axes (dz and dEast) are also
dataset, the estimated precision on single LOS displacement measure- shown.
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G. Vilardo et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 113 (2009) 197–212 203

descending datasets. A PS selection was done by excluding the ascending orbit (Figs. 2a, 3a) and for the descending orbit (Figs. 2b,
reflectors characterized by a lower signal-to-noise ratio (pixel 3b), we observe that the distribution of positive and negative values
coherence b 0.85; C85 dataset). Results are reported in Fig. 3. By confirm the same sub-regional patterns showing different amplitude.
comparing the velocity maps of FULL and C85 datasets for the For the C85 dataset (Table 2), the mean deformation velocity maps,

Fig. 7. Mean deformation velocity components computed from the C85 dataset ascending and descending velocities maps for the pixels which are common to both maps. (a) vertical
deformation component; positive values indicate uplift and negative values subsidence. (b), east–west deformation component; positive values indicate eastward displacements and
negative values indicate westward displacements. In both maps, the faults (black lines) are from Fig. 1.
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204 G. Vilardo et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 113 (2009) 197–212
from both the ascending and descending orbit data sets, were derived
by inverse distance interpolation weighted (IDW) method. IDW
method is commonly used to interpolate scatter points that not
necessarily have relationship or influence over neighbouring data
values, and allows us to preserve local data variations yielding suitable
results (Franke, 1982; Haber et al., 2001; Mueller et al., 2004). We used
a quadratic weighting power to within a 1 km radius neighbourhood
to obtain 100 m regularly spaced grids, referenced to UTM zone 33 and
to WGS-84 (Fig. 4). In the grid, we do not use faults like discontinuities
because data on the activity of the faults within the analyzed time
period are not available. The density of PS, i.e. the number of PS/km2 of
the C85 dataset, is reported in Fig. 5.
The estimate of the east–west and vertical deformation compo-
nents has been performed by properly combining the radar LOS mean
displacement velocity maps computed from the ascending and
descending orbits on pixels common to both maps (Lanari et al.,
2007; Lundgren et al., 2004; Manzo et al., 2006). To separate the
vertical and horizontal components of the deformation has been
assumed that the ascending and descending radar LOS directions
belonging to the East-Z plane and the look-angle is the same for both
ascending and descending geometries. Based on these assumptions,
simple geometric considerations (Fig. 6) allow us to retrieve the
vertical (Fig. 7a) and the east–west (Fig. 7b) displacement components
as follows:
ðdLOSDesc −dLOSAsc Þ=2
dEast f
sinðθÞ
ðdLOSDesc þ dLOSAsc Þ=2
dz f
cosðθÞ
where d is the displacement vector of an investigated PS, θ is the look-
angle, dz and dEast are the projections along the Cartesian axes, and
dLOS Desc and dLOS Asc are the projections along different LOSs.
5. Comparison with other deformation data
The comparison of our data with those from other independent
datasets [Small Baseline Subset (SBAS), GPS, and levelling] available
for some sectors of the investigated area generally confirms the
deformation trends recognized by our PS-InSAR processing. In
particular, the map views of vertical and east–west velocity
components obtained by PS-InSAR technique in the Napolitan
volcanic area, which includes the Phlegraean Fields, Ischia Island
and Vesuvius (Figs. 1 and 7), well agree with the velocity pattern
retrieved using the SBAS technique (Berardino et al., 2002; Casu et al.,
2006; Lanari et al., 2007; Tesauro et al., 2000). The mean vertical
deformation velocity of −32 mm/year observed for the 1992–2001
period at Phlegraean Fields caldera is in full agreement with the value
Fig. 8. LOS (sensor-target) deformation time series for six selected PS (3 PS from ERS ascending orbit are identified in the plots by black dots, and 3 PS from ERS descending orbit by
triangles) compared to levelling measurements (open circles) at benchmark 100 (BM 100) of the Ischia levelling network (Sepe et al., 2007). The selected PS fall in a circle of 200 m
radius centred on the BM 100 benchmark and show coherence larger than 0.85. The linear interpolations show constant subsidence rates of 12.7 mm/year at BM 100, 10.7 and
10.6 mm/year for PS from ascending and descending orbit geometries, respectively.
of −33 mm/year obtained from high precision levelling and InSAR data
during the subsidence phase that the area experienced in the same
time period (e. g. Lanari et al., 2004). A further comparison between
our data (Fig. 7) and the available GPS measurements (Ferranti &
Oldow, 2005; Ferranti et al., in press) shows a good agreement along
the southern Tyrrhenian coastline. The velocity field derived from GPS
campaigns spanning a 5-year interval (1995–2000) in sites located in
southern Campania gives southwestward velocities of ~ 2 to 3.5 mm/
year, which are values in the range of those estimated by us in the
same area (1 to 3 mm/year; Fig. 7). This latter rate is consistent with
regionally integrated rates estimated from VLBI data (Ward, 1994) and
combination of secular levelling and GPS observations (Hunstad et al.,
2003). A further comparison between our data (Fig. 7) and levelling
lines at Ischia Island (Sepe et al., 2007) is reported in Fig. 8. In this plot,
the vertical velocity of the benchmark BM 100 is 12.7 mm/year. We
select PS with coherence larger than 0.85 located in a circle of 200 m
radius centred on the BM 100 benchmark. These PS from ascending
and descending orbit geometries give 10.7 and 10.6 mm/year,
respectively. The small difference between the mean deformation
velocities estimated for the two geometries in SAR coordinates (LOS)
reflect the presence a small component of the deformation velocity in
the east direction (1 to 3 mm/year; Fig. 7).
6. Discussion
In the following, we report the large scale deformation pattern of
Campania Region by PS-InSAR processing and discuss in detail the
results in light of the available tectonic, volcanological and geomor-
phological information.
The vertical velocity value distribution (Fig. 7a) shows a regional
pattern similar to that of LOS velocity values (Figs. 3 and 4), thus
confirming that ERS is highly sensitive to vertical motion of ground
deformations (Bűrgmann et al., 2006). The zones with the highest
negative values (−18 to −4 mm/year) identify areas affected by significant
subsidence. These zones include (Figs. 1 and 7a): the Volturno plain,
Ischia Island, Phlegraean Fields and the coastline of the Sele plain. The
sectors characterized by positive values (N4 mm/year), which testify
uplift, are located on the Vesuvius northern apron, in the central sector
of the Campanian plain, in the inner Sele plain, in the western and
eastern sectors of the Cilento and Alburni Massif structural highs.
The horizontal component of velocity in the east–west direction
(Fig. 7b) shows the largest area of negative values (westward
displacement) in the Alburni Massif and in the eastern sector of
Phlegraean Fields, where the highest negative values concentrate.
Positive values (eastward displacement) are between Vesuvius and
the Apennines sector of Campania. The highest positive values affect
the western sector of Phlegraean Fields.
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G. Vilardo et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 113 (2009) 197–212 205

A complex pattern of horizontal and vertical displacement related
to the interplay among different deformation processes emerges from
the visual inspection of Fig. 7.
6.1. Phlegraean Fields, Ischia, Vesuvius and central sector of the
Campanian plain
Our data clearly show that the eastern sector of Phlegraean Fields is
characterized by westward velocities with a maximum in the caldera,
whereas the western sector is characterized by eastward velocity
values (Fig. 9). This deformation picture, as well as the occurrence of
negative vertical velocity, i.e. subsidence (Fig. 9), indicates a contrac-
tion (deflation) of Phlegraean Fields, possibly due to a depressuriza-
tion of the hydrothermal system (Todesco et al., 2004 and references
therein). Here, we do not analyze the short duration (few months)
uplift episodes recognized in the 1992–2001 time span because they
are discussed in detail in previous studies (e.g., Lanari et al., 2004).
Ischia Island shows a subsidence centered in the inner sector of the
volcanic complex (Fig. 10). The horizontal velocity field suggests a
general eastward movements with a component of contraction

Fig. 9. Mean deformation velocity components at Phlegraean Fields (Fig. 1) computed from the C85 dataset. (a) vertical deformation component; positive values indicate uplift and
negative values subsidence. (b), east–west deformation component; positive values indicate eastward displacements and negative values indicate westward displacements. In both
maps, the faults (black lines) are from Fig. 1.
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206 G. Vilardo et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 113 (2009) 197–212

Fig. 10. Mean deformation velocity components at Ischia Island (Fig. 1) computed from the C85 dataset. (a) vertical deformation component; positive values indicate uplift and
negative values subsidence. (b), east–west deformation component; positive values indicate eastward displacements and negative values indicate westward displacements. In both
maps, the faults (black lines) are from Fig. 1.

evidenced by the higher eastward velocity (3 to 25 mm/year) of the
western sector of the island with respect to the eastern one, which is
characterized by maximum velocities of 3 mm/year. Very localized
areas with westward velocity are probably related to gravity
phenomena, as well-known for the Fango area (Fig. 10), where an
active gravity slide occurs (Sepe et al., 2007). According to results from
geological investigations (De Vita et al., 2006) and models from
levelling line data (Sepe et al., 2007), the Ischia deformation pattern is
related to a combination of endogenous and exogenous processes that
include (a) depressurization of the local hydrothermal system and
(b) landslides due to gravity instability on steep slopes.
The vertical velocity field in the area of the Vesuvius volcano
indicates an uplift rate between 1 and 3 mm/year of the northern
aprons of the edifice, whereas the surrounding sectors appear to be
quite stable even if spots of subsidence, mainly between 1 and 3 mm/
year, occur to the north of the uplift zone (Fig. 11). Historical events,
hydrothermal manifestations and ring-faults are lacking on the apron
of the volcano (Bianco et al., 1998; Santacroce, 1987). We have no data
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G. Vilardo et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 113 (2009) 197–212 207

Fig. 11. Mean deformation velocity components at Vesuvius volcano and surroundings (Fig. 1) computed from the C85 dataset. (a) vertical deformation component; positive values
indicate uplift and negative values subsidence. (b), east–west deformation component; positive values indicate eastward displacements and negative values indicate westward
displacements. In both maps, the faults (black lines) are from Fig. 1.

covering the upper flanks and crater of Vesuvius, however, the
available levelling data indicate a subsidence of 5 mm/year of these
sectors of the edifice (Pingue et al., 2003). Therefore, the observed
uplift cannot be related to volcanic/hydrothermal phenomena.
According to De Vita and Vallario (1996), the Vesuvius northern
apron is affected by frequent, and in some cases destructive (e.g., in
1969, 1979 and 1982), floods episodes related to raining. At the
mouths of the Vesuvius valleys, which are characterized by artificial
channelling, the water flux may reach 50 m3/s and velocity up to 8 m/s.
On the northern apron, this water permeates the soil and increases the
pore pressure. In our opinion, this process of soil oversaturation, i.e.
increase in pore pressure, is able to explain the observed uplift of the
Vesuvius northern apron (Fig. 11).
The above mentioned subcircular areas (spots) of subsidence
locate north of the uplifting sector over the main urban centers around
Vesuvius. These include the towns of Pomigliano D'Arco, Marigliano,
and Palma Campana, and their agricultural and industrial districts
(e.g. Fig. 12). Here, the rate of water deficit in the local water table due
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208 G. Vilardo et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 113 (2009) 197–212
Fig. 12. Mean vertical velocity in the area of Pomigliano d'Arco town computed from the C85 dataset ascending and descending velocities maps for the pixels which are common to
both maps. The underlying aerial photo is from Google Earth (http://earth.google.it/). Note the overlap between the subsiding area and the industrial district and city area.
to drainage from wells is of about 55·106 m3/year (ENEA, 2002).
Therefore, the observed subsidence could reflect a decrease of pore
pressure in the soil related to the intense, artificial drainage.
The horizontal deformation in the Vesuvius area does not appear
related to the vertical one (Fig. 11). The horizontal velocity field, which
reach values of 3 mm/year, shows a marked discontinuity striking
NNW–SSE that crosses the Vesuvius volcano and extend 20 km north–
nothwestward in the Campanian plain (Fig. 7b). The horizontal
velocity field is consistent with divergent movements between the
western and eastern sectors of Vesuvius and Campanian plain. In the
Vesuvius area, this discontinuity in velocity overlaps a ‘blind’ NNW–
SSE tectonic structure, which, according to the available seismological
data (Bianco et al., 1998) crosses the volcano. Our data suggest that
(a) this structure also crosses the eastern sector of the Campanian
plain and extends southward up to the Lattari Mountains, and (b) a
prevailing Mode I (pure extension) fracturing, even if a strike-slip
component of motion cannot be fully excluded. Our data also suggest
the occurrence of a roughly N–S striking structural discontinuity
located between the Vesuvius edifice and the Napoli area (Fig. 11),
possibly characterized by extension. However, field evidence of this
discontinuity is lacking. Further geophysical investigations should be
done to better constraint the geometry of this discontinuity.
6.2. Southeastern sector of the Campanian plain
A subsidence velocity with values up to 6 mm/year characterizes
some sectors of the lowland area located between of the Sarno
Mountains and the Lattari Mountains (Figs. 1 and 7a). The velocity
pattern is characterized by irregular areas of higher subsidence. Here,
according to Celico and Guadagno (1998), the outcropping volcanic
soils cover highly fractured carbonatic rocks in which karst-type
processes develop. Shallow waters are not retained and the pore
pressure in the soil is low. In addition, several artificial wells for the
water extraction occur in this area. On the basis of these considera-
tions, we suggest that gradual removal of slightly soluble bedrock
(such as limestone) by percolating water, possibly coupled with
lowering of the water table and anthropic processes are responsible
for the observed subsidence.
6.3. Sele plain
The western sector of the Sele plain is characterized by a complex
vertical velocity pattern (Figs. 1 and 13). NNW–SSE striking areas
characterized by a subsidence rate of ~4 to 6 mm/year (to the west,
near the coastline) and by an uplift rate of 1 to 4 mm/year (to the east)
occur. The horizontal velocity pattern shows a general westward
movement of the area located near the coastline. To the east of this
area, eastward movements may be recognized. The vertical velocity
pattern is not consistent with sea water wedging phenomena
(e.g. marine ingression) or erosion processes along the coast because,
in both cases, the uplift of the western stripe is not justified.
Outcropping tectonic structures are lacking in the western sector of
the Sele plain, however, the deformation pattern suggests prevailing
dip–slip movements along a NNW–SSE striking, ‘blind’ fault. The
average, cumulative vertical slip rate along this structure is estimated
to be in the range 5 to 10 mm/year. The available geological and
morphological data do not allow us to better constraint this fault and
further detailed studies must be done in this sector of the Sele plain.
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G. Vilardo et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 113 (2009) 197–212 209

Fig. 13. Mean deformation velocity components of the Sele Plain (Fig. 1) computed from the C85 dataset. (a) vertical deformation component; positive values indicate uplift and
negative values subsidence. (b), east–west deformation component; positive values indicate eastward displacements and negative values indicate westward displacements. In both
maps, the faults (black lines) are from Fig. 1.

6.4. Volturno plain 6.5. Southern Apennines

The Volturno plain is affected by a significant subsidence with a
rate ≥6 mm/year (Figs. 1 and 7a). This subsidence concentrates along
the Volturno river and its estuary, and, according to ENEA (2008), is
related to the negative balance between the recharge of the Volturno
basin and the artificial draining channels related to industrial and
intense agricultural activity.
The Southern Apennines sector of the Campania Region, where the
seismic activity concentrates, appears to be a relatively stable area with
vertical velocity values mainly in the range −1 to 1 mm/year (Figs.1 and 7).
In Fig. 7a, restricted areas with slightly higher negative vertical velocities
occur. The subsidence of these areas is probably related to local gravity
instability processes (e.g. landslides), which, in Campania, concentrate in
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210 G. Vilardo et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 113 (2009) 197–212
Fig. 14. Spatial distribution of well-mapped gravity slides (IFFI, 2008) and 1992–2001 mean vertical velocity in four selected sectors (A–D) of Southern Apennines (data from Fig. 7).
White areas indicate deformations less than−1 mm/year. Note that the landslides mainly overlap areas with negative velocity values larger than 1 mm/year.
the Apenninic sector (IFFI, 2008). This hypothesis is corroborated by
results from Fig.14, which shows the spatial distribution of landslides from
IFFI (2008) in four selected areas of Apennines where the spatial extent of
slides is well-known and the C85 velocity field is constrained by a good
SAR coverage (50 to 200 PS/km2). Fig. 14 shows that most of the mapped
landslides overlap the areas with subsidence between 1 and 4 mm/year or
4 to 6 mm/year.
The horizontal velocity pattern in Southern Apennines is char-
acterized by prevailing westward movements with rates within 3 mm/
year (Fig. 7b). Areas with eastward velocities of 1 to 3 mm/year or
westward velocities of 3 to 10 mm/year are also present and scattered
within Southern Apennines. For these restricted areas, we propose
local, mainly translational movements possibly related to gravity
instability phenomena, i.e. landslides (IFFI, 2008). The combined
vertical and horizontal velocity patterns at the boundary between the
Southern Apennines and the Campanian plain clearly show that the
eastern sector of the Campanian plain is affected by null to vertical
(uplift) and eastward deformations, whereas the Southern Apennines
are characterized by null vertical deformation and westward move-
ments (Fig. 7b). The spatial discontinuity between these two velocity
fields overlaps the Campanian plain-Southern Apennines boundary,
which is marked by NW–SE to WNW–ESE striking faults (Fig. 1). As a
result, we propose that these faults, along which some earthquakes
occur, move with prevailing strike-slip movements. This conclusion is
supported by the available seismic data (Milano et al., 2004; Solaro
et al., 2007), which show strike-slip to oblique-slip focal mechanisms
for the events located at the boundary between the Campanian plain
and Southern Apennines (Fig. 1).
The Alburni Massif, which is located in the southeastern sector of
Campania, is characterized by a significant uplift (1 to 4 mm/year) and
a westward component of motion (−3 to −10 mm/year) (Figs. 1 and 7).
The Alburni Massif is delimited by NW–SE striking faults, which, on
the basis of our data, could act as strike-slip structures with a reverse
component of motion.
7. Conclusions
The PS-InSAR application at regional scale shows that the
Campania deformation field is related to a complex interplay
among tectonic, hydrothermal, gravity and anthropic processes. In
addition to the well-known deformation of Phlegraean Fields and
Ischia, other areas are affected by significant deformation. These
areas include the Sele plain, the central sector of the Campania plain,
the boundary between the Campanian plain and Southern Apennines
and the Alburni Massif. Our data suggest the occurrence and
activation of ‘blind’ tectonic structures crossing the Vesuvius volcano,
the central sector of the plain, and the western Sele plain. The NNW–
SSE and NW–SE outcropping faults dividing the eastern sector of the
Campanian plain from the Southern Apennines chain are also active,
according to the occurrence of low magnitude earthquakes. The lack
of significant vertical or horizontal movements in the sector where
the Southern Apennines seismic activity concentrates (Fig. 1)
suggests that, on the surface, (a) active faulting-like processes are
virtually lacking and (b) stress is accumulating without significant
release.
We underline that the Volturno plain, as well as the area between
the Lattari and Sarno Mountains and the northern sector of the
Vesuvius northern plain, are affected by deformations mainly related
to concentrated anthropic activity.
As a result, the monitoring of the areas subjected to active
deformation could provide data useful for the evaluation of the
natural and anthropic hazard. Further studies on the dataset used here
are in progress to analyze the temporal variation of the velocity
field in selected areas and to model the recognized structural
discontinuities.
The analytical approach proposed here, i.e. the joint interpreta-
tion of deformation fields related to natural and anthopogenic
factors, may be extended to other areas and provides a comprehen-
sive view of the dynamics of the Earth’s surface.
 Author's personal copy
G. Vilardo et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 113 (2009) 197–212
Acknowledgments
We thank the two anonymous RSE referees for the useful
comments and suggestions and M. Bauer for the editorial handling.
This study has been implemented under the TELLUS project
(Telerilevamento Laboratori Unità di Supporto), which has been
developed in the framework of the PODIS project (Progetto Operativo
Difesa Suolo) of the Ministero dell'Ambiente e per la Tutela del
Territorio e del Mare, and has been founded by the European Union
QCS 2000–2006 PON-ATAS.
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