Y8143283

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Foi the last two uecaues anu, moie intensively, fiom the outbieak of the financial
ciisis anu the subsequent global iecession anu Euiopean soveieign-uebt ciisis,
many fai iight paities have aiisen acioss the continent, incieasingly succeeuing
in multiple geneial elections. As a iesult, scholais have been analysing what aie
the main factois that have contiibuteu to this success anu immigiation has been
placeu as one of the main ieasons. Bowevei, this papei will analyse such
statement fiom a uiffeient angle, coming to the conclusion that foi the puipose
of this stuuy, the impoitance of immigiation uepenus on a specific ieasoning anu
that theie aie othei socio-economic anu political factois, causeu by the
globalisation, that contiibuteu as much as immigiation to the success of fai iight
paities in Euiope.

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Foi the last two uecaues, fai iight paities have aiisen in seveial Euiopean
countiies anu staiteu to enjoy electoial success not only at the local but also at
the national level (uoluei, 2uuS). Bue to this phenomenon, scholais have been
stuuying what factois have contiibuteu to this success anu, among them,
immigiation stanus out foi many as the best explanation. This ieasoning
analyses the negative impacts that the evei incieasing immigiation influx into
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Euiope anu fiom Eastein to Westein Euiope is having on the native populations,
who aie beginning to consiuei such events as a thieat to theii economic well-
being anu national unity.
Bowevei, in this papei I will uiscuss such iuea fiom a uiffeient view, exposing
the impoitance of immigiation fiom a puie ethnic peispective, biinging the
concept back to the ioot anu main explanation foi fai iight success: globalisation.
While mainstieam paities have focuseu on unemployment anu othei economic
issues, fai iight paities have maue of national iuentity theii main issue anu
minoiities the piimaiy thieat to such cultuial unity (Noiiis, 2uuS). Thus, voteis
tenu to cast theii confiuence in fai iight paities moie 'when they peiceive
thieats fiom migiants on the cultuial uomain iathei than when they peiceive
these thieats on the economic uomain' (Lucassen & Lubbeis, 2u12: SS1). Fiom
this paiticulai peispective, I will fiist piesent the oveiall impact of immigiation
by emphasizing the ethno-pluialist uoctiine ovei the peiceiveu economic thieats
to then encompass immigiation as a meie uot within the line of post-Colu Wai
globalisation, which biought into the political uebate othei factois such as
nationalism, euioskepticism oi anti-system movements that, as a whole, have
been the coineistone of fai iight paities anu the main explanation of theii
success.

)//.0&'%.+* '$ ' 1'(%+& +1 1'& &.02% $-((3$$
Accoiuing to the iealistic gioup conflict theoiy, which ueals with inteigioup
thieats, theie is scaicity is eveiy society anu the uiffeient gioups that compose it
piesent conflict inteiests ovei those scaice goous. In that sense, conflict can
occui ovei economic inteiests oi ovei non-mateiial peiceptions such as cultuial
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iuentity anu tiauitional values (Lucassen & Lubbeis, 2u12). Thus, if we
unueistanu immigiation as a piactical example of this theoiy, we can tiuly
unueistanu its magnituue anu impacts on most societies.
Some stuuies concluue that immigiation matteis when it comes to explain fai
iight success, some otheis affiim that it uoes not anu some ueteimine that it
matteis in ceitain societies (uoluei, 2uuS). Bowevei, foi the puipose of this
papei, I will uefenu that it uoes have a notable influence uepenuing on what
peispective one unueistanus the ieal meaning of immigiation as a thieat, that is,
whethei it is unueistoou as an economic cultuial thieat oi as an ethnic cultuial
thieat. Accoiuing to uoluei (2uuS), the foimei can be analyseu with the
mateiialistic aigument, which focuses on the coiielation between immigiation
anu the level of unemployment. Fiom this peispective, fai iight paities such as
the National Fiont in Fiance oi the Fieeuom Paity in Austiia expose the uangeis
of immigiation as a thieat to the mateiial well-being of theii iespective
populations. The ethnic cultuial thieat though is bettei unueistoou with the
iueational aigument, which consiueis immigiation as a thieat to national
iuentity anu cultuie, coiiouing the national cohesiveness. In this case, we can
take as an example the Swiss People's Paity oi the Sweuen Bemociats. Thus, I
will show that accoiuing to seveial stuuies, the ethnic thieat is moie ielevant
than the economic thieat (Lucassen & Lubbeis, 2u12) anu by uoing so I will be
able to coiielate immigiation with a laigei anu moie impoitant issue such as
globalisation.
Aiiiveu at this point, we shoulu then analyse what kinu of factois uiive the
cuiient attituue of national Euiopean citizens towaius immigiation. Accoiuing
to the 2u11 Qualitative Euiobaiometei on Nigiant Integiation, we can notice
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that the opinion of Euiopean citizens is uiviueu into the two uiffeient categoiies
afoiementioneu. In teims of economic thieat, some Euiopeans believe that
immigiants take the jobs fiom local people, conuuct illegal businesses anu evaue
tax, supose a uiain on the social system, aie setting up competition to nationals
oi that the quality of theii skills aie quite pooi. uiven these opinions, it is not
haiu to unueistanu the geneial pieconception that links immigiation to the
unemployment of local people.
Bowevei, we must auuiess ceitain factois in oiuei to value the uegiee of valiuity
anu objectivity of such statement. Fiist, we finu that a consiueiable piopoition of
the fai iight electoiate is encompasseu within the social stiatum classifieu as
manual woikeis who, in a age of globasitation anu ueinuustiialisation,
expeiience job insecuiity uue to the similaiity of theii skills to those of
immigiants (Lucassen & Lubbeis, 2u12). Theoiies of economic inteiests uefenu
that 'those social categoiies in social position similai to immigiants aie moie
likely to peiceive immigiants as an economic thieat anu will, theiefoie, be moie
likely to vote foi an extieme iight-wing paity' (Lubbeis, uijsbeit & Scheepeis,
2uu2: S47). Theiefoie, we coulu concluue that the uespeiation anu sometimes,
also the euucational level may leau to a misinteipietation of ieality uue to the
lack of piopei knowleuge about economics. As a mattei of fact, theie is little
empiiical eviuence concluuing that immigiation has inueeu a cleai impact on
unemployment levels anu most stuuies also affiim that actually 'those natives
who aie the closest substitutes with immigiant laboui uo not suffei significantly
as a iesult of incieaseu immigiation' (uoluei, 2uuS: 4S8). The fai iight uoes not
neeu people to stuuy economics oi seaich foi piimaiy uata, they just want them
to believe is ceitain geneial pieconceptions. When it comes to laboui
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competition, it is easiei foi the geneial public to blame out-gioups than blaming
theii own gioups (Lubbeis, uijsbeit & Scheepeis, 2uu2).
Theiefoie, we can concluue that puie economic factois uo not accuiately explain
the auveisity towaius immigiation. As a mattei of fact, stiange as it may sounu,
fai iight paities have bettei electoial iesults in countiies wheie unemployment
is low (Aizheimei & Caitei, 2uu6). We can notice that in Austiia (4,9% of
unemployment), the Netheilanus (7,1%) oi Sweuen (8,2%), while in countiies
with highei unemployment such as Spain (2S,8%) oi Poitugal (1S,S%) the fai
iight success is piactically nonexistent. uieece woulu be the only peifect
exception to this pattein, but the natuie of this case ielies on a specific scenaiio.
Societies like the uieek oi the ueiman, geneially labelleu as 'ethnic', meaning
that they juuge the natuie of its membeis baseu on a set of ethnic, bloou-ielateu
conuitions that, in geneial, aie haiu to be fully met by simple 'ius soli', piesent a
bettei backgiounu foi anti-immigiation piopaganua anu fai iight success
(Balikiopoulou, Nock & vasilopolou, 2u1S). Bence, we can affiim that the ethnic
cultuial thieat is the aigument that best explains the cuiient anti-immigiation
movement in Euiope.
But what is it the link between ethnicity anu auveisity towaius immigiation.
The answei can be founu in the iueology of ethno-pluialism, which states that 'to
pieseive the unique national chaiacteis of uiffeient people, they have to be kept
sepaiateu' (Ryugien, 2u1u: S8). Neaning that ethnic gioups woulu face a cultuial
extinction is they aie mixeu with othei ethnicities. Bowevei, contempoiaiy fai
iight paities uo not want to be compaieu to the 2u
th
centuiy fascist iegimes in
teims of xenophobia anu, foi that puipose, they have auuiesseu this issue fiom a
uiffeient peispective. Cultuie has 'become the pieuominant moue of auuiessing
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citizenship, secuiity, anu even economy' (Soysal, 2uu9 in Yilmaz, 2u12: S7u).
Thus, Balikiopoulou, Nock & vasilopolou (2u1S) explain that fai iight paities
have changeu theii political uiscouise anu insteau of uefenuing ethnic
piimoiuial aspects of iuentity such as iace, bloou oi ieligion, they auopteu values
such as uemociacy, the iule of law anu citizenship. They uefenu the iuea of a
nation of toleiance, uiveisity anu libeialism, anu foieigneis aie poitiayeu as
those who uo not anu will not iespect such values, thieatening then oui national
iuentity. They come fiom unuemociatic anu unuevelopeu societies, they aie
naiiow-minueu, some of them aie even ieligious extiemist who uefy oui laicism.
Thus, the fai iight has been aiuuously tiying to change the peiception of
immigiants anu foieign ethnic gioups. Befoie they consiueieu them infeiioi in
teims of iace anu bloou but now they aie labeling them as infeiioi in teims of
social aptituues, meaning that they aie not capable to fully integiate within a
society by not being able to iespect anu follow the Westein uemociatic anu
societal values. Bowevei, immigiation is just anothei issue within a gieatei
context anu only by analysing it togethei with othei factois we can unueistanu
the success of the fai iight.

ulobalisation as the main explanation foi fai iight success
Since the enu of the Colu Wai, globalisation has ieacheu eveiy coinei of the
planet anu touay few people aie still capable of living outsiue this socio-
economic net that has tiappeu the vast majoiity of the Eaith's population. Thus,
societies has been iapiuly tiansfoimeu leauing to the so-calleu uivision between
'winneis anu loseis' of globalisation. These 'loseis' aie iepiesenteu by that
sectoi of the society that seeks to save themselves 'thiough piotectionist
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measuies anu an emphasis on the maintenance of national bounuaiies anu
inuepenuence' (Kiiesi, uianue, Lachat, Bolezal, Boinschiei & Fiey 2uu6: 922).
Reich (197u in Nuuue, 2u1u: 1169) aigueu that fascism is the 'emotional
attituue of the suppiesseu man'. Bence, the geneial assumption is that unuei
noimal ciicumstances, just a small pait of a society woulu manifest suppoit foi
fai iight paities anu when those ciicumstances become abnoimal the suppoit
towaius fai iight iueas incieases (Nuuue 2uu7). Bighei economic competition,
the empoweiment of fiee tiaue anu maiket economy, the incieaseu cultuial
competition linkeu to laige immigiation levels anu Euiopean integiation oi the
incieaseu political competition between states anu inteinational actois have
helpeu to accentuate the uivision between winneis anu loseis anu cieate the
peifect scenaiio foi social uniest (Kiiesi, uianue, Lachat, Bolezal, Boinschiei &
Fiey, 2uu6). Thus, we can aigue that globalisation has inueeu tiansfoimeu the
social stiuctuie of most societies anu by that piocess the native populations have
changeu theii peiception of ieality. Bowevei, although globalisation has mostly
hau the same effects on all Euiopean societies, the electoial success of fai iight
paities was quite uiffeient in each countiy (Nuuue, 2u11). That is the ieason
why now we shoulu analyse what uiffeient factois globalisation has biought to
Euiope anu how they have ueteimineu the uegiee of success of the fai iight in
ceitain societies.

4'%.+*'5.$/
Buiing the 19th centuiy, the concept of nationalism evokeu a sense of unity in
political anu ethnic teims but uuiing the fiist half of the 2uth centuiy it was
manipulateu to iepiesent iueologies. By the beginning of the Colu Wai, the
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uivision between capitalism anu communism woulu blui the foimeily ethnic
chaiactei of this teim anu we woulu have to wait until the 199us anu the enu of
the Colu Wai to see ethnic nationalism aiise again. This new wave of
'globalisation piocesses anu the expansion of the Euiopean 0nion fuel feelings of
loss of national iuentity' (Lucassen & Lubbeis, 2u12: SS1). Thus, nationalism
comes again into play, uefining the nation-state as 'the necessaiy anu natuial
foim of society |.j aiounu which the whole pioject of moueinity coheies'
(Cheinillo, 2uu6: 129). It is becoming the glue that holus a society togethei anu
we aie ieminueu eveiyuay of such fact with spoits, Euiovision oi the name of
newspapeis anu Tv channels (Rauiotelevisione Italiana, Iiish Inuepenuent,
Television Espaola) among othei examples.
Paiauoxically, insteau of biinging us all togethei, globalisation can be seen to be
uiviuing us even moie anu of couise the fai iight has not ignoieu this
phenomenon anu they tiansfoimeu the piotection of national iuentity into theii
coineistone. Thus, nationalism is useu by the fai iight to pioviue 'a sense of
soliuaiity anu belonging that binus suppoiteis to theii vision of the nation anu
society' (Bainswoith 2uu8 in Balikiopoulou, Nock & vasilopoulou, 2u1S: 11u).
This makes it easiei then to spieau theii xenophic uiscouise uisguiseu in civic
values anu uefenu the iuea that a state must be exclusively inhabiteu by the
native population, implying that non-native factois such as people anu values
only thieaten the nation-state (Nuuue 2uu7).
0n a moie piactical level, we can see how this uynamics is piesent in most
Euiopean fai iight paities. Foi example, the Lega Noiu (2u12) piomotes the iuea
of nationalism bettei than any othei paity, uefenuing the inuepenuence of
Pauania anu its inteinational iecognition as a Feueial Republic. In theii political
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manifesto, the Fiont National (2u12) uses seveial times teims such as
'patiiotism', a 'uniteu anu inuivisible Fiance' oi the neeu to iegain
'inuepenuence' fiom supianational oiganisms. The Finns Paity manifesto (2u11)
also employs teims such as 'Finishness', the Finnish language as a 'national
tieasuie' oi the fact that Finlanu's inteinal secuiity ueiives fiom a 'uniteu
nation'.

6-&+73'* )*%30&'%.+*
Euiopean Integiation iepiesents anothei impoitant factoi that can explain the
success of fai iight paities since this piocess can be unueistoou as a combination
of the two factois afoiementioneu. 0n the one hanu we finu immigiation anu on
the othei the iise of nationalistic feelings motivateu by the cultuial thieat that
the cuiient levels of immigiation influx fiom Eastein Euiope is posing. The fai
iight then calls to fight back foi the self-soveieignty that the Euiopean 0nion has
'stolen' fiom theii countiies, although fai iight euioskepticism is classifieu in
uiffeient uegiees. Accoiuing to vasilopoulou (2u11), some fai iight paities aumit
the existence of a cultuial bonu between Euiopean nations but ueclaie a
complete iejection of eveiything the E0 iepiesents. 0thei paities piesent a moie
conuitional chaiactei, by which they accept the cultuial bonu anu the piinciple of
coopeiation but ieject the cuiient anu any futuie legitimacy of the E0 to
piomote community policy. Finally, few fai iight paities accept all those
piemises but ieject any futuie consoliuation of E0 policy-making.
Thus, uepenuing on what society you analyse, geneially the population woulu
eithei think of the E0 as a positive union of societies thiough the bieak up of
baiiieis anu the possibility of coopeiation oi will consiuei that the E0
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iepiesents nothing but an economic anu political buiuen. Foi instance, Fiont
National (2u12) auvocates foi the iecoveiy of theii monetaiy policy anu the
Finns Paity (2u11) uefenus foi example that Finlanu's net payment to the E0
shoulu be cut oi that the E0's iole in issues that only concein Finlanu shoulu be
ieuuceu. Bowevei, the Banish People's Paity (2uu2) expiesses its complete
iejection towaius the E0, auvocating foi theii complete self-soveieignty anu
monetaiy inuepenuence.

8.$3*(2'*%/3*% %+9'&,$ %23 3$%'#5.$23, 7+93&
Finally, anothei impoitant factoi that is helping the fai iight to succeeu is the
populai uisenchantment towaius the political system anu the elites. With the
expansion of the fiee tiaue anu maiket economy, the afoiementioneu uivision
between loseis anu winneis leu to a situation that the lowei anu miuule classes
cannot stanu any longei. Coiiuption, weak punishment foi iich people's ciimes,
the uealignment between mainstieam paities anu the people oi the evei
incieasing economic inequality have contiibuteu among othei facts to the fai
iight success since people aie staiting to consiuei such paities as one of the only
few alteinatives. The fai iight paities 'claim legitimacy on the giounus that they
speak foi the people: that is to say, they claim to iepiesent the uemociatic
soveieign, not a sectional inteiest such as economic class' (Canovan, 1999 in
uoluei, 2uuS: 447). The fai iight uefenus that much of Westein Euiope anu thus,
the E0, hau an 'elite-uiive piocess of uemociatisation anu state foimation'
(Nuuue, 2u1u: 117S) anu so they affiim that only they can challenge the
establisheu powei because mainstieam paities aie pait of that elite (uoluei,
2uuS). Touay we aie witnessing a 'uisiuption of the tiauitional ielations
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between the local communities anu the political powei stiuctuie' (van uei Buig
& Fennema, 2uu9: S91) anu so, ceitain sectois of the population aie suppoiting
the fai iight not just because of theii agenua but to cast a 'piotest vote' to show
theii mistiust towaius the establisheu system.

Conclusion
Immigiation is inueeu an impoitant inuicatoi to explain the success of fai iight
paities but it only captuies a small spectium of a much laigei political context
(Bowaiu, 2u1u). As we coulu see, the success of the fai iight 'ieflects to a laige
extenu the psychological stiain associateu with unceitainties piouuceu by laige-
scale socioeconomic anu sociocultuial changes' (Betz, 1998: 8), anu it is
globalisation what piovokeu such changes. The expansion of the maiket
economy, the iesuigence of nationalism, the Euiopean Integiation, the
subsequent evei inciease of immigiation, the populai mistiust towaius the
establisheu powei elites. All these factois, encompasseu unuei the umbiella of
globalisation, aie the main explanation of the cuiient fai iight success in ceitain
Euiopean countiies. Each of these factois can by itself contiibute to some extent
to explain the cuiient political scenaiio but none of them coulu be labelleu as the
most impoitant one, only unueistoou as a whole can give light to this uebate. The
question now is whethei these paities aie heie to stay anu influence 21
st
centuiy
politics. It will uepenu on many factois such as whethei Euiope can effectively
hanule immigiation, whethei people can get a gieatei say to influence the
political system anu elites anu whethei we coulu finu the best equilibiium
between the Euiopean 0nion anu national membeis. Without any uoubt,
mainstieam paities will eventually stait taking these issues into gieatei
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1S
consiueiation, anu once that happens, we will be able to see whethei the fai iight
has actually a stiong enough base to iely on. Bowevei, this uoes not seem likely
to happen in a neai futuie anu the fai iight will continue to be an impoitant
playei in Westein Euiopean foi yeais to come (van uei Buig & Fennema, 2uu9:
S91).

:.#5.+0&'72;

Aizheimei, K. anu Caitei, E. (2uu6). Political oppoitunity stiuctuies anu iight-
wing extiemist paity success. 6-&+73'* <+-&*'5 +1 =+5.%.('5 >3$3'&(2, 4S, pp. 419-
44S.
Betz, B. (1998). Intiouuction. In Bans-ueoig B. anu Stefan I. (Eus). ?23 439
=+5.%.($ +1 %23 >.02%@ 43+A=+7-5.$% ='&%.3$ '*, B+C3/3*%$ .* 6$%'#5.$23,
83/+(&'(.3$D New Yoik: St. Naitin's.
Cheinilo, B. (2uu6). Nethouological Nationalism anu Its Ciitique. In ueiaiu B.
anu Kiishan K. (Eus). ?23 E'03 F'*,#++G +1 4'%.+*$ '*, 4'%.+*'5.$/. Lonuon:
Sage.
Banish People's Paity (2uu2). ?23 ='&%; =&+0&'/ +1 %23 8'*.$2 =3+753H$ ='&%;.
0ctobei 2uu2. |0nlinej. Available at:
http:www.uanskfolkepaiti.ukThe_Paity_Piogiam_of_the_Banish_Peoples_Pai
ty |Accesseu 1S Naich 2u14j.
Euiopean Commission (2uu1). B.0&'*% )*%30&'%.+*D I-'5.%'%.C3 6-&+#'&+/3%3&.
Biiectoiate ueneial Bome Affaiis. Agieggate Repoit Nay 2u11. |0nlinej.
Available at:
http:ec.euiopa.eupublic_opinionaichivesqualiql_S969_migiant_en.puf
|Accesseu 12 Naich 2u14j.
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Available at: http:www.peiussuomalaiset.fiwp-
contentuploaus2u1Su4Peiussuomalaisten_euuskuntavaaliohjelma_2u11-
english_summaiy_2.u.puf |Accesseu 1S Naich 2u14j.
Fiont National (2u12). =&+0&'//3 =+5.%.O-3 ,- J&+*% 4'%.+*'5. |0nlinej.
Available at: http:www.fiontnational.comle-piojet-ue-maiine-le-pen
|Accesseu 1S Naich 2u14j.

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14
4'%.+*'5.$/, vol. 19, issue 1.

Bowaiu, N. (2u1u). The Impact of the Fai Right on Citizenship Policy in Euiope:
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Kiiesi, B., uianue, E., Lachat, R., Bolezal, N., Boinschiei, S. anu Fiey, T. (2uu6).
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Lega Noiu (2u12). E%'%-%+ ,355' RS30' 4+&, 73& 5T.*,373*,3*U' ,355' =','*.'VD
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