Ports and Shipping

LLeadship level 3
Ports and Shipping Student Guide

Level 3
Version 1.0 (February 2013)

1 Ports and Shipping Level 3
Table of Contents

1.0 Ports and Shipping ....................................................................... 2
2.0 Introduction .................................................................................. 4
3.0 The Importance of Different Types of Port. ................................... 5
Activity 1 ....................................................................................................... 8
Activity 1 ....................................................................................................... 9
5.0 The Impact of Globalisation on the Shipping Sector ................... 11
6.0 How Increased Competition has influenced Shipping. ................ 12
7.0 The Impact of Containerisation on Ports and Shipping ............... 15
Activity 2 ..................................................................................................... 17
Activity 2 ..................................................................................................... 24
12.0 Unit Summary ............................................................................ 31
13.0 Glossary of Terms ...................................................................... 32
14.0 Suggested Reading.................................................................... 33

1.0 Ports and Shipping
LEARNING OUTCOMES ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
The learner will: The learner can:
1. Understand importance
of different types of
ports

1.1. Explain how ports serve as a
connection between maritime and
inland modes of transport
1.2. Explain how some large seaports
serve as a centre for connection and
transhipment
1.3. Explain how some large seaports
serve as a centre for connection and
transhipment

2. Understand the role of shipping on an
international scale.
2.1. Explain how globalisation has impacted
on the development of the shipping
sector
2.2. Describe how increased competition
has influenced development in the
shipping sector
2.3. Analyse the impact that containerisation
has had on ship and port selection

3. Understand the main aspects of port
development
3.1. Explain the role government has on
port development
3.2. Explain three external factors that
could influence port development

4. Understand the importance of port
infrastructure and equipment
requirements
4.1. Explain five infrastructural
requirements within a port
4.2. Explain the importance of the five
infrastructural requirements
identified
4.3. Explain five equipment requirements
within a port
4.4. Explain the importance of the five
equipment requirements identified

LEARNING OUTCOMES ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
The learner will: The learner can:
5. Understand the challenges of port
operations

5.1 Explain the challenges associated
with marine operations (conservancy,
dredging, navigation aids, avoidance of
congestion)
5.2 Explain the importance of statutory
bodies (customs, immigration, port
health and marine safety)
5.3 Explain the challenges associated
with the statutory bodies identified

2.0 Introduction
2.1 This unit is designed to give you an overall understanding of ports and
shipping. The unit contains five sections. Each section contains sufficient
information and learning opportunities to give you a level of understanding of
how ports and shipping have developed are closely interlinked.
2.2 The introductory section of the unit identifies the importance of different ports
and how they act as an interface.
2.3 The following section covers the growth of international shipping and the
development and impact of containerisation.
2.4 The unit continues with a study of the aspects of port development and the
associated requirements.
2.5 The unit concludes with the modern day challenges of ports and shipping.

3.0 The Importance of Different Types of Port.
3.1 Maritime transport is the movement of goods (also known as cargo0 by sea
and other waterways. Ports and shipping operations is an essential element of
facilitating maritime trade.
3.2 In 2007, 80% of goods were carried by sea and statistics show the annual
growth of maritime transport at about 3%.
3.3 Although that statistics show that the costs of international maritime transport
tend to be on average two to three times as high as custom duties of
importing countries, it is still the most economical way of transporting goods
compared to other transport modes.
3.4 With these statistics in mind, it is worth taking a closer look at the different
types of port in operation.
3.5 A seaport is generally defined as a harbour or town that is able to receive
boats and ships to unload or unload cargo. Other types of ports include inland
ports, dry ports, warm water ports, and cruise home ports. Seaports can be
further divided into cargo and cruise ports. Harbours can be natural or
manmade shelters for ships and boats. A good example of a natural harbour
which is 12 miles long is San Diego Bay in the USA and the worlds largest
manmade harbour is Rotterdam in the Netherlands and then it was overtaken
by Shanghai. A warm water port is one that is not subject to plummeting
temperatures and the water does not freeze over allowing use all year round
and an example of a warm water port is Valdez in Mexico.
3.6 A fishing port generally serves as a commercial centre for the harbouring of
fishing vessels and the landing of catches. An example of a fishing port is
Portrush in Northern Ireland.
3.7 An inland port is one that is located on a river or a lake and can have river or
canal access to the sea. The City of Gloucester is the furthest inland port in
the UK, based on the River Severn.
3.8 A dry port is an inland terminal, typically used for cargo storage and transport
exchange. It is generally located near a seaport with additional road, rail and
air links nearby.
3.9 Cruise home ports are embarkation and disembarkation points for cruise
ships where they also take on supplies for voyages. Southampton and
Harwich are examples of two cruise ports in the UK.
3.10 Cargo ports are ports that handle a variety of goods such as petrochemicals,
dry goods, minerals, cars and grains. These ports need deep water channels

to enable the large commercial cargo vessels to gain entry. The UKs largest
cargo port is Felixstowe.
4.0 Different Functions of Ports
4.1 The functions of ports are:
Transport (circulation) function
Commercial function
Industrial function
Distributional function

Transport (circulation) function of ports
The most important port function is transport (circulation) function. Without this
function, business would cease to exist. In order to ensure that ports are effective in
this function, ports need to ensure that they have:
Proper facilities (port infrastructure and superstructure)
Good transport links with hinterland
Extended sea transport links
Commercial function of ports -
Commercial function depends on transport (circulation) function of ports. For efficient
commercial work, ports must follow:
Good continental and sea links
String focus of goods on the port area
Proper warehousing facilities
The commercial function includes purchase and sale activities.
Industrial function of ports -
European ports and in other parts of the world have been developing industrial areas
that provide perfect conditions for increasing business activity. Because of that,
products are more competitive on global markets. Examples of such areas are
Antwerp and Rotterdam.
The economical advantages of having strategic industrial zones in ports are of
strategic industrial zones in ports are:
Increasing trade and employment
The countrys active involvement in international trade
Expanding the competitive abilities of port industry

Distributional function of ports
The previous functions were cause for development of distribution and consideration
should be given to the concept of distribution. Active cooperation of transport
(circulation), commercial and industrial functions had stimulated the beginning of
distributional function of ports and its proper organisation. The distributional role of
ports is a vital element of a supply chain. It is noticeable that some bigger shippers
are also operators on separate container terminals that have also become
consolidation points (logistic-distributional centres).
The two types of distributional centres inside the ports, which are:
Distributional centres, where shipments are sent to some smaller centres,
from where it is easier to distribute the goods to the final customer
Distributional centres, from where goods are shipped directly to the final
customer

Successful development of distributional function in ports is highly dependent on all
other mentioned functions and efficient infrastructural links.. The main advantage is
the ability to prepare goods for direct delivery, with all belonging administrative work
at one place (in port area).


Activity 1

1. Identify the following types of port on the map supplied:
Fishing port
An inland port
A dry port
A cruise home port
A cargo port

Source: Google images


Activity 1

2. Explain the following:

How ports serve as a connection between inland modes of transport and
maritime transport
How the seaport selected, serves as a centre for connection and
transhipment
How the seaport selected is multifunctional when goods are not in transit

Notes:

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Student Notes

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5.0 The Impact of Globalisation on the Shipping
Sector
5.1 The term globalisation describes the increased mobility of goods,
services, labour, technology and capital throughout the world.
5.2 The increased impact of globalisation on both shipping and economic world
trade has produced a more competitive market, lower freight prices and
shipping businesses having to seriously review their business plans. Larger
vessels were required to cope with bulkier loads and longer journeys.

5.3 Statistics show that almost 90% of all global trade is transported via the sea
and the maritime industry is linked to global trading patterns. Global
production has grown by approximately 6-7 times since 1950, global
merchandise trade has grown by over 100 times and global manufacturing
trade by 200 times with a correlating growth in the international maritime
transport industry.
5.4 Chinas entry into the World Trade Organisation in 2001 had a significant
impact on the global economy. Low cost locations were rapidly moving
eastwards. This opened the floodgate for shipping opportunities with the
delivery of raw materials and basic produce. Developments in China,
including increasing demands for materials and energy to supply both
domestic industries and export industries is reflected in the strong
performance levels of the shipping industry. Chemical, tanker and bulk
container trading witnessed significant growth.
5.5 Transport is one of the four cornerstones of globalisation, alongside
information technology, standardisation and regulation. Technological
advancement, the development of containerisation and vessels enables the
efficient transfer of goods and information across the world. Often two or
more countries are involved in shipping e.g. a Greek vessel owner may
subcontract to a Norwegian sea farer who in turn hires a Philippine crew for a
cargo delivery in Argentina.


6.0 How Increased Competition has influenced
Shipping.
6.1 Marketing in overseas freight is applied in the same way as other
organisations market their products and services. The customers have
different needs therefore the transport mode they choose will differ. There is
the scheduled transportation or ad hoc service. Operators will opt to use
regular services, such as flights or sailings, but there are operators that
choose and prefer to use ad hoc services, especially where the freight
volumes are not large, occasional or a low priority.
6.2 If the market was to be divided into smaller areas, then we could call these
areas segments, market segments is a subgroup of people or an
organisation that share one or more of the characteristics that cause them to
have a similar product need, customers will also have different needs and
this will determine the type of transport that they will require. As an example
the rail road market will include the movement of goods by rail, such as
containers, livestock, hazardous waste or raw materials, these items may
also be moved locally or internationally.
6.3 Another market segment may be road freight transport, they will move by
road perishable goods, general haulage, live stock and dangerous goods,
and as like the rail they will also deliver goods locally and internationally.
6.4 There are many businesses which collect freight and deliver it to the
customer with local domestic or international flights however weight and size
becomes an issue when moving large items by air. Aircraft were first put to
use carrying mail as cargo but eventually manufacturers started designing
planes just for freight.
6.5 Sea transport is similarly broken down into containers (ISO) dry bulk
powders, bulk liquids, engineering equipment, hazardous waste, or non-
hazardous etc. The load that is to be carried will make an impact on the type
of vessel that is to be used, time restraints will also need to be considered.
Another important factor to consider is the delivery location and unloading of

the goods, access for the vessel or vehicle once it arrives at its delivery
point. These restraining factors have led to a position where we often see a
high proportion of certain goods being carried only by one mode of transport.

6.6 When sending goods there are important decision factors that will need to be
addressed such as deciding your mode of transport, the priority, when would
you need the goods to arrive at its destination, the distance, this will dictate
when you need to send your goods and on what type of transport, air or road,
your cargo, will it be frozen foodstuff, hazardous material or perishable goods,
these are just some of the factors that you.
6.7 We must also remember the demand for products as this will have an impact
on the mode we use, a daily delivery of milk or dairy products for example, will
need to be at a shop for a daily set time as it is unlikely that if these items are
late them they will not be able to be used at a later date, unlike a delivery of
cloths or electrical goods that may have a non time sensitive period and are
likely to be sold at a later date and time. Therefore the different segments that
are within the different markets will have a different cargo demand and it is our
job to maximise the full potential on what is offered at the best price for the
best delivery time and delivery date. Different cargo will need to have different
transport modes, in order that the transport can be moved.


7.0 The Impact of Containerisation on Ports and
Shipping
7.1 The use of the intermodal shipping container for the transportation of goods
by ship, truck, train and on the odd occasion plane has had a lasting impact
on the social environment and the global economy. In its simplest form the
container is a steel box which comes in a variety of sizes.
7.2 In the 1960s, the intermodal shipping container increased in popularity
because US companies like Mcleans profited from cost efficiency savings.
The other reason why containerisation was becoming increasingly popular
was that standardisation of container sizes opened the floodgates for more
aggressive investment in ships and container handling equipment across the
shipping sector.
7.3 In the first few years of using shipping containers, containers were used that
suited that organisations requirements however standardisation of sizes, the
types of goods being transported, the limits on the length and the weight of
goods being carried impacted on port labour, ports and cities, other
technology and business practices and far reaching consequences for the
global economy.
7.4 Using more and larger containers in ports meant that the efficiencies in
loading and loading goods were increased. Larger containers needed fewer
port workers, therefore redundancies occurred.
7.5 In addition to a reduced workforce, increased loads and container sizes
resulted in shipping companies needed to train port workers with the technical
skills to operate heavy machinery. The design of ships was revisited by
companies, to enable new vessels to cope with the increased container size.
Previous insecurities about the shipping sector were now being overcome,
with shipping companies being able to calculate the speed of loading and
unloading containers.
7.6 Lower costs in labour, faster loading and unloading and increased ship size
saw increased port development as a direct consequence. Lets consider that
larger ships need deeper waters and larger containers require more space.
Containers are self contained storage therefore the need for portside
warehouses were diminished. There was a distinct shift of port operations
from near city centres to less developed locations.
7.7 The greatest impact of the container is the effect it has had on the global
economy. It is estimated that in the early 2000s, over three hundred million

20 foot containers were moved by sea each year and over a quarter of those
shipments were coming from China. Slack (p.25) states that:
Globalisation and container shipping enjoy a reciprocal
relationship. There is little doubt that the expansion of
international commerce and the expansion of global
manufacturing systems would have been possible without the
efficiencies and economies that containerisation has brought.
Container shipping is a facilitator of globalisation.


Activity 2

In groups of three or four, produce a presentation which includes the
following aspects:
How globalisation has impacted on the ports and shipping sector ,
How increased development has influenced the development of the
shipping sector,
An analysis of how containerisation has impacted on the shipping
sector.

Be prepared to present your findings back to the rest of the group.

Student Notes

8.0 The Role of Government on Port Development
and External Factors influencing Port Development.
8.1 Even though there have been a lot of private concerns within port
developments, to a certain degree the majority of maritime trade is handled in
ports where financial investment, pricing and other matters is greatly
influenced by public organisations.
8.2 The nature of the transport business, in particular shipping, dictates that
Government intervention is inevitable. The Government is constantly involved
in policies and initiatives relating to port safety and security, port authorities,
and port pricing.
8.3 Most European ports operate on a competitive market and subsequently any
pricing and financing decisions impact on other ports immediately. The aim of
the European Commission is to create fair and transparent competition
between countries and to generate a more cohesive approach.
8.4 Although it is the intention to unify the trading countries within Europe, the
fundamental aims of the European Commission may not necessarily be in
alignment with national interests. The highly competitive nature of port pricing
and conflicting interests within different countries has led the European
Commission to attempt to create more efficient port competition.
8.5 It is worth noting that Governments and port authorities have become less
influential in recent years to the growth in privatisation.
8.6 Ports are often managed by port authorities (also known as administrative
bodies) who have a tendency to maintain an independent position between
state and the shipping market. They endeavour to maintain collaborative
working relationships with central and local government and private
companies operating within the port area. It is estimated that 90% of the
shipping trade handled in the European Union is handled in ports where
financing and other major managerial decisions are greatly influenced by local
and national government. Recent attention to the importance of health and
safety, the role of Governments in port activity will remain paramount.
8.7 In attempt to create port unity in terms of financing, the European Commission
discovered disparities between financing ports and the pricing of port
infrastructure. The European Commission now gives priority to the
development of a framework to provide a level playing field for the port sector
as opposed to dealing with the differences between financial flows.
8.8 In the competing shipping and port market place, government involvement
may have serious consequences for competitive ports and has the potential to
hinder efficient operation of the market. National and local governments are
most often involved in the following aspects of port development:

Health and safety
Environmental concerns
Economic issues, particularly employment
8.9 The national government is very often responsible for investments in port
infrastructure, especially when it comes to maritime access. The Dutch
government for example was recently involved in the financing of the Betuwe
freight railway from Rotterdam to Germany. Financial support was required in
this case because it may have had a detrimental impact on inter port
competition.
8.10 Distribution of government funds for port subsidies is extremely complex, as is
the whole area of infrastructure pricing. In the situation of the European
Commission, consideration should be given to national [policies and whether
conflict arises between the two.

9.0 Infrastructural and Equipment Requirements of
a Port

Source: http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans
Configuration of a Maritime Container Terminal

9.1 The above figure illustrates a common layout for a large container terminal. As
you can see, the terminal covers quite a large area, mainly because of
storage requirements, even if this storage is short term (3 to 5 days). The
main components of a container terminal are:
Docking area. Represents a berth where a containership can dock.
Specifications include the length and width of the container. A standard post-
panamax containership requires about 325 meters of docking space as well
as a draft of about 45 feet (13 meters). Some terminals have separate
facilities for handling barges (such as Antwerp and Rotterdam.
Container crane (Portainer). Represents the interface between the
containership and the dock. Cranes have technical specifications in terms of
number of movements per hour, and maximum weight . A modern container

crane can have a 18-20 wide coverage, implying that it can service a
containership having a width of 18 to 20 containers. A gantry crane can
perform about two movements (loading or unloading) per minute. The larger
the number of cranes assigned to the transhipment process the faster it can
take place.
Loading / unloading area. Directly adjacent to the piers and under the gantry
cranes, it is the zone of interaction between the cranes and the storage areas
where containers are either brought in to be lifted on the containership or
unloaded to be immediately picked up and brought to storage areas. This is
mainly done with straddlers or holsters. In the case of straddlers, the
containers are left on the ground while with holsters the containers are loaded
from or unloaded to a chassis. The usage of straddlers is more common as it
enables to move a container directly from dockside to the stack (or vice
versa).
Container storage. Represents a temporary buffer zone where containers
are left while the assigned containership is available to be loaded or while
picked up for inland distribution. The larger the containerships handled by a
port, the larger the required container storage area. Container storage can be
arranged by shipbound (export) and landbound (import) stacks of containers.
For shared terminal facilities, stacks can even be sub-divided according to
shippers. Stacks are commonly up to 3 containers in height which enables
straddlers to operate on top of them. Commonly, a terminal has also a storage
area where reefers (refrigerated containers) can be plugged. About 5% of a
terminal's stacking area is commonly devoted to the storage of reefers.
Specific storage areas are also attributed to empties, which can be stacked up
to 7 or 8 containers in height due to less stringent weight limitations. Empty
container stacks are therefore easily recognisable from loaded container
stacks because of different stacking configurations; empty stacks are higher
and denser. For terminals facing capacity pressures, the tendency has been
to have empty container depots outside terminal facilities. For a higher
stacking density, up to 5 full containers, overhead gantry cranes are used, but
this is linked with additional repositioning and rechanneling. Stacking areas
tend to be linear since straddlers or overhead gantry cranes are circulating
over a row of containers.
Gate. It is the terminal's entry and exit point able to handle in many cases up
to 25 trucks at once for a large terminal facility. The gate is where the truck
driver presents proper documentation (bill of lading) for pick up or delivery.
Most of the inspection is done remotely with cameras and intercom systems
where an operator can remotely see for instance the container identification
number and verify if it corresponds to the bill of lading. Modern management
systems no longer require paperwork since all the documentation is kept in an
electronic format interchangebale through secure connections. The priority is
to verify the identity of the truck driver, the truck, the container and the
chassis. For a delivery, the truck is assigned to a specific slot at the truck
loading or unloading area where the chassis holding the container will be
left to be picked up by a holster or a straddler. For a pickup, the truck will be
assigned to a slot in a waiting area while the container is been picked up from
a storage area, put on a chassis (if the truck does not bring its own chassis)
and brought to the proper slot. The truck will then head out of the terminal, be
inspected to insure that the right container has been picked up and head

inland. If well managed (such as using an appointment system), the container
will already be available for pick up (on a chassis in the truck loading /
unloading area). In the past considerable delays have occurred with loading
and unloading and port operations managers have been making concerted
efforts to reduce this throughput.
Chassis storage. Area where empty chassis are stored while waiting to be
allocated to a truck or a holster. In inland freight distribution, there are on
average three chassis available per container. While in the past freight
haulers such as maritime shipping companies maintained their own chassis
fleets, the tendency has been the setting of chassis pools, enabling better
asset utilisation levels.
Administration. The management facility of the terminal, often having a
control tower to ensure a level of visibility of the whole terminal area. This is
where many complex logistical functions are performed such as the
assignment of delivered containers to a storage space location as well as the
location and the loading or unloading sequence of containers by straddlers
and holsters. Additionally, the complex task of designing the loading and
unloading sequence of a containership is performed.
On-dock rail terminal. Many large container terminals have an adjacent rail
terminal to which they are directly connected to. This enable the composition
of large containerized unit trains to reach long distance inland markets
through inland ports. An important advantage of on-dock rail facilities
compared with near-dock rail facilities is that the container does not require to
clear the gate of the marine terminal.
Repair / maintenance. Area where the regular maintenance of the terminal's
heavy equipment is performed.
Areas nearby container terminals tend to have a high concentration of activities
linked to freight distribution such as distribution centres, empty container storage
depots, trucking companies and large retailers.


Activity 2

The information provided in the previous section has skimmed the surface
of infrastructural and equipment requirements in a port. Wider reading is
required see the suggested list for further advice.

In five teams, select one infrastructural requirement and one equipment
requirement.

Once both requirements are selected, provide an explanation of the
importance of each.

Be prepared to feed back your fellow students.

Student Notes

10.0 The Challenges associated with Marine
Operations.
10.1 In an era of economic globalisation ports are evolving rapidly from being
traditional land/sea interfaces to providers of complete logistics networks.
This means that ports have had to face many challenges due to
unpredictable environmental changes and trends in the shipping, port and
logistics industries.
10.2 Most ports in the world have paid (or should pay) attention to these
challenges and emerging issues, such as:
Globalisation of manufacturing and outsourcing
Global trends of logistics network restructuring and reposition of
regional and/or local distribution centre
Rapid growth in volume of world seaborne freight, especially container
Emerging hub and spoke system in global shipping service
Increase of transhipment cargo and competition among ports and
terminal operators
Introduction of the super mega size containership
Increasing competition towards hub ports
Emerging global terminal operators and their growing market share
One stop shopping concept and intermodal transport linking
strategically between ocean, railway, road and inland waterway
Increasing role of ports in global supply chain management and
logistics network structures
Increase of productivity and efficiency in ports
High cost and constraints for developing port facilities.
To cope with these challenges and emerging issues ports across the
world have been trying to develop their physical infrastructures,
especially container terminals and related facilities, and to expand their
port hinterland through introducing free trade zones with a hope of
developing hub ports and international logistics centres.
10.3 The aforementioned challenges are all indicative of the trends in the ports and
shipping sector however other challenges such as conservation, dredging,

navigation aids and congestion present themselves to the ports and shipping
sector.
10.4 Conservation in Shipping - whales, dolphins and porpoises rely on sound to
navigate and to communicate over large distances. Human activities such as
shipping can create high levels of noise which may affect the marine
mammals ability to communicate with each other and use sonar to find their
way around the ocean. Groups of marine researchers and the International
Fund for Animal Welfare undertake studies to investigate the noise levels
produced by ships. The researchers used hydrophones to measure how much
noise was coming from passing ships. These hydrophones are microphones
that are designed to work underwater. This allows the scientists to hear what
the marine mammals in the area are hearing. Then conservationists can
suggest ways to decrease the noise being made by ships and so reduce the
harm caused in parts of the sea which are particularly important to marine
mammals.
10.5 Dredging - is an excavation activity or operation usually carried out at least
partly underwater, in shallow seas or fresh water areas with the purpose of
gathering up dregs and depositing them at a different location. This technique
is often used to keep waterways navigable. Uses for dredging are as follows:
Capital: dredging carried out to create a new harbour, or waterway, or to
deepen existing facilities in order to allow larger ships access.
Preparatory: work and excavation for future bridges, piers or docks/wharves,
often connected with foundation work.
Maintenance: dredging to deepen or maintain navigable waterways or
channels which are threatened to become silted with the passage of time, due
to sedimented sand and mud, possibly making them too shallow for
navigation.
Contaminant remediation: to reclaim areas affected by chemical spills, storm
water surges (with urban runoff), and other soil contaminations. Disposal
becomes a proportionally large factor in these operations.
Removing trash and debris: often done in combination with maintenance
dredging, this process removes non-natural matter from the bottoms of rivers
and canals and harbors.
Flood prevention: this can help to increase channel depth and therefore
increase a channel's capacity for carrying water.
Without the many and almost non-stop dredging operations world wide, much
of the world's commerce would be impaired, often within a few months, since
much of world's goods travel by ship, and need to access harbours or seas via
channels.
10.6 The activity of dredging can create the following principal impacts to the
environment:

Release of toxic chemicals
The metabolism of aquatic species can be affected, therefore impacting on
spawning
Possible contamination of dredge spoils sites
The nature of dredging operations and possible environmental impacts cause
the industry to be closely regulated. Port organisations often need to
undertake the process of dredging however they must adhere to the
regulations and expect adverse responses from environmental pressure
groups (adapted from www.wikipedia.org)

Source: www.dredging.com

10.7 Navigation Aids navigation aids are extremely important to the marine
world as you can imagine sailing in masses of blue ocean, or even navigating
smaller water ways could prove to be extremely hazardous. When it comes to
endangering human lives, there is no room for compromise with navigational
aids. A navigation aid is quite simply a structure which is specifically
designed to help the ship or sailing vessel make its journey safely. The aid
will serve as a guide an importantly forewarn the ship of any potential danger.

The oldest form of marine navigation mainly relied on aids like the constellations
which were always constant and helped the sailors to find out the general direction
by reading the position of sun and stars Lighthouses were next that helped ships
greatly. These structures, which showed the nearest land to a ship so that the crew
could estimate the distance from land and plan their anchoring etc. proved quite
helpful to the sailors in the earlier days of shipping. The lighthouses, as the name
suggests, flash light constantly especially during night which can be easily noticed by
ships in distance. The most important function of a navigation aid is to enhance the
safety of a ship.

Source: www.marineinsight.com

However, with changing times, the need of marine navigation changed as well. While
earlier the sole purpose of a ship was to successfully complete a journey without
being lost, hence the aids used then were more focused towards helping with just
that. But today, it is also about speed, efficiency, economic output, carrying capacity
and lots of other things. As such, the aids to navigation or ATON, as they are also
called, were upgraded accordingly to meet these needs.


ATON help the sailors today with the special navigational needs they have
which can include maintaining an unobstructed sailing to doing so at a desired
speed. A navaid, today, can include structures like lighthouses, beacons, and
buoys. These structures when combined with special patterns like color
codes, lighting patterns or positioning can indicate special meanings which
can be understood by other ships easily. This helps in easy relaying of
important messages like a ship being in danger or locating a particular ship or
warning another ship with a message like I am stuck in the water, go slow or
trying to start the propellers, keep caution. These things can avoid major
accidents. International regulations strive to set standards for a navaid like
buoys (color, lighting, positioning) which can be understood all over the world
to prevent any confusion and save lots of lives.
So while it may look like navigational aids help a ship in finding the general
direction, their main purpose is to aid navigation so that every ship can
complete every voyage safely. (Adapted from: www.marineinsight.com)
10.8 Avoidance of Congestion - The term port congestion is fairly self-
explanatory. Anyone who drives in an urban area is familiar with traffic
congestion. Port congestion is the equivalent of this regarding large ships and
the loading and offloading of cargo. Port congestion is the term used for
situations where ships have to queue up and wait for a spot so they can load
or offload. Ports only have a limited amount of dockage, and only so many
cargo or container cranes. Vehicles that have been moved by ship can only
be driven off so fast, and it takes time to do this. Ships usually have to "wait in
line" to get to the cranes or the pier because there is a high demand on the
limited resources of a port. The high traffic volume causes port congestion.
Source: wikianswers.com

11.0 Customs and Immigration in Shipping
11.1 Within the UK, the UK Border Agency has been specifically created to
enforce immigration, customs regulations and border control. Robust
processes are in place in terms of making stringent checks regarding who
and what is entering the country.
11.2 The UK Border Agency also has the responsibility for considering the
applications for permission to enter or stay in the UK, citizen ship and
asylum.
11.3 Ports and shipping authorities have to ensure that they fulfil the legal
requirements in order to prevent system abuse. In the first instance, the
bureaucracy may appear onerous but failure to comply with the requirements
could result in disaster.
12.0 Unit Summary
12.1 At the outset, the unit examined the importance of different types of port.
12.2 A study of ports and shipping on an international scale was then introduced.
12.3 Aspects of port development (including infrastructural requirements and
equipment requirements) were then covered.
12.4 The current challenges that port and shipping operators face were explored.
12.5 It is worth noting that due to the specialist nature of the unit that additional
research and reading is recommended.

13.0 Glossary of Terms
Ai d Help of a practical nature
Buoy An anchored float serving as a navigation mark
Commercial Concerned with or engaged in business
Congestion A gathering, accumulation, heap or pile
Containerisation To package cargo in large containers for shipping
Distributional The movement of goods or services via a specific channel
Dredging
Clean out the bed of (a harbuor, river, or other area of water)
by scooping out mud, weeds, and rubbish

Globalisation
The worldwide movement toward economic, financial, trade,
and communications integration.
Industrial The development of an industry on an extensive scale
Interface
A surface forming a common boundary between adjacent
regions, bodies, substances, or phases
Intermodal
Movement of containerised (unitised) cargo over air, land, or
sea through the use of different transport modes (aircraft,
truck, rail, boats)
Multifunctional Being able to perform one or many functions
Navigation To plan, record and track the course of an aircraft or a ship

14.0 Suggested Reading
Meersman, H. et al (2009) Future Challenges for Ports and Shipping
Notteboom, T. (2011) Current Issues in Shipping, Ports and Logistics, University Press,
Antwerp, Brussels.

Websites:
www.dttas.ie
www.euraopa.eu/legislationure
www.gfptt.org/entities/topicprofile
www.marineinsight.com
www.transportation-logistics.net


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Email: info@ioscm.com

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LLeadship level 3

Ports and Shipping Student Guide

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