The Effect of Background Music To College Students' Academic Performance

De La Salle University Manila
The Effect of Background Music to College Students' Academic Performance

An Empirical Paper presented to
Faculty of the Economics Department
School of Economics

In Partial Requirements of
Econometrics 1 (ECONMET)

Submitted to:
Dr. Cesar C. Rufino

Submitted by:
Kimberlyn T. Tiu
September 6, 2013

Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu
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Executive Summary
The study explained whether there is a significant relationship between
background music to academic performance of college students. The relationship was
studied based from thirty-five (35) respondents in the Philippines taken through a survey
questionnaire. The data analysis was done using the statistical software namely: Stata
12th and Gretl. For the data gathering, the proponent used Google form and Google
spreadsheet. Initially, only two out of four variables were deemed to be significant which
were hours listening to music and pop music genre. However, sex and hours studying
were not significant. But after testing the model, the model was not suffering from any
violations.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 6
1.1 Background ............................................................................................................ 6
1.2 Statement of Research Problem ............................................................................ 6
1.3 Significance of the Study ........................................................................................ 7
1.4 Scope and Limitation .............................................................................................. 7

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .................................................... 8
2.1 Music ...................................................................................................................... 8
2.1.1 Type of Music Genre .................................................................................... 8
2.1.1.1Pop .................................................................................................. 8
2.1.1.2 Rock ............................................................................................... 9
2.1.1.3 Classical ....................................................................................... 10
2.1.1.4 R&B .............................................................................................. 10
2.1.1.5 Country ......................................................................................... 10
2.1.1.6 Jazz/Blues .................................................................................... 11
2.1.1.7 Hip-hop ......................................................................................... 11
2.1.1.8 Modern Folk ................................................................................. 12
2.1.1.9 Electronic ..................................................................................... 12
2.1.1.10 Asian .......................................................................................... 12
2.1.1.11 Comedy ...................................................................................... 13
2.1.1.12 Caribbean and Latin American ................................................... 13
2.2 Academic Performance ........................................................................................ 14
2.3 Biological sex (Gender) ........................................................................................ 15
2.4 Listening to Music ................................................................................................ 15
2.5 Studying ............................................................................................................... 15
2.6 Research Gap ...................................................................................................... 17

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CHAPTER 3: OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK ............................................................. 18
3.1 Variable Used in the Study ................................................................................... 18
3.2 A-priori Expectation .............................................................................................. 20
3.3 Introduction of Hypothesized Econometric Model ................................................ 21
3.4 Statement of Hypothesis Testing ......................................................................... 22

CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY ................................................................................... 23
4.1 Research Design.................................................................................................. 23
4.2 Sampling Plan ...................................................................................................... 23
4.3 Method of Data Analysis ...................................................................................... 26

CHAPTER 5: EMPIRICAL RESULTS AND INTEPRETATION ........................................ 29
5.1 Data Collection Summary and Regression .......................................................... 29
5.2 Testing ................................................................................................................. 31
5.2.1 Testing for Multicollinearity ......................................................................... 31
5.2.2 Testing for Heteroskedasticity .................................................................... 33
5.2.3 Testing for Mis-Specification ...................................................................... 37

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ........................................... 40
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... 41

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List of Figures
Figure 3.1: Operational Framework ........................................................................... 19
Figure 3.2: Model specification .................................................................................. 22
Figure 4.1: Flowchart ................................................................................................. 23
Figure 4.2: Survey Form ............................................................................................ 24
Figure 5.1: Data Collection Summary ........................................................................ 29
Figure 5.2: Initial Ordinary Least Square (OLS) Regression ...................................... 29
Figure 5.3: Initial Econometric Ordinary Least Square (OLS) Regression Model ...... 30
Figure 5.4: Ballantine Diagram ................................................................................... 31
Figure 5.5: VIF Criteron .............................................................................................. 32
Figure 5.6: Graphical Illustrations of the Differences between Homoscedasticity and
Heteroskedasticity (Imdadullah, 2013) ....................................................................... 33
Figure 5.7: Breusch-Pagan-Godfrey (BPG) Test for heteroskedasticity ..................... 34
Figure 5.8: Whites Test ............................................................................................. 35
Figure 5.9: Koenker and Basset Test ......................................................................... 36
Figure 5.10: Ramseys RESET Test (squares only) ................................................... 37
Figure 5.11: Testing for Normality .............................................................................. 38
Figure 5.12: Summary of the Testing ......................................................................... 39

List of Tables
Table 2.1: Grading system of De La Salle University-Manila ..................................... 14
Table 4.1: Data Collection .......................................................................................... 26
Table 4.2: Assumption of CLRM ................................................................................ 27
Table 4.3: Type of Violation ....................................................................................... 28

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Everyone has music. It can be different from one person to another (Titon, 2009).
Music had been part of people's lives from generations to generations. It affected the
body unconsciously and consciously. People, when listening to music, may have a
series of action that can be a combination of tapping, nodding, swaying, clapping,
stamping and many more (Daunow, 1977). It thought to be as a form of entertainment,
however, it can be used to affects behaviour (Milliman, 1982). In addition, music can be
used as a form of therapy for a mental illness such as anxiety. It can increase
productivity and minimize boredom (Peretti & Swenson, 1974). Meyer (as cited in
Peretti & Swenson, 1974) said that music could affect emotions, while Lidz (as cited in
Peretti & Swenson, 1974) can help relieve the person of their own tensions and
frustrations.
The study focused on the effect of background music to college students'
academic performance whether it is positive or negative in the Philippine setting.
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem
The study attempts to identify whether background music has an effect to the
academic performance of the selected random college students. In this study, the
dependent variable is the academic performance of the students, while the independent
variables are sex (gender), length of time studying per week, length of time listening to
music per week and pop music genre as dummy variable. The result will be shown later.
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1.3 Significance of the Study
The study intends to show whether students' performance in terms of cGPA are
affected by independent variable such as the degree of level in listening to music,
studying time. Lastly, biological sex (gender) and music genre (pop) were used as
dummy variables.
1.4 Scope and Limitation
The dataset obtained for study was taken from thirty-five (35) random college
students who were based in the Philippines. The data collection was completed through
survey, while the data was analysed using Stata 12th and Gretl. The nature is cross-
sectional which the data are observations from subjects with or without the difference in
time (Gujarati & Porter, 2009).
The result of the study cannot be used to generalize, however it is true for those
who have taken the survey.

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CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
In the review of related literature, there were studies about music and academic
performance. In addition, there were information about biological sex (gender), listening
to music and studying.
2.1 Music
Music is something that is produce by man that can be form into a work of art or
complement the activities (Titon, 2009). Music was defined as a form of entertainment
that lessens boredom (Milliman, 1982). Music can be generalized as type of genre
such as Pop, Rock, Classical, R&B, Country, Jazz/Blues, Hip-Hop, Modern Folk,
Electronic, Asian, Comedy, Caribbean and Latin American music.
2.1.1 Type of Music Genre
2.1.1.1 Pop Music
Pop music is different from popular music. Popular music is the same as music
which is for the urban middle class that include different music from classical to heavy
metal. However, pop music had come from the roll n' roll evolution (Lamb, 2013). Pop
music appealed to teenagers that focus on rhythms and romance (thefreedictionary,
2013). The lyric for pop song contained verses that are repeatative that has usually a
duration of 2.50 minutes to 5.50 minutes. Pop music were influenced by other genres in
many ways for the past years (Lamb, 2013).

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2.1.1.2 Rock
During the 1960s, rock music progressed into three type of metal as follows:
country rock, progress rock, and heavy metal (Bennett, 2001).
According to Straw (as cited from Bennett, 2001), heavy metal represented a
return to the more gritty aesthetic of rock n roll while at the same time retaining
from psychedelia an emphasis on technological effect and instrumental
virtuosity.
The origin of heavy metal were still debated among writers that one argued that
one US band in the 1960s created the form compared to another author who said that
Britain started heavy metal sound. By mid-1980s, there was an expansion of heavy
metal to pop music which can be called soft metal due to the popularity of Bon Jovi,
that the band diversified the classic heavy metal into a combination of guitar-based
sound with keyboard and string sound of pop music. It featured romantic love and
upbeat sound which enticed the female audience. Yet again, it was short lived and
changed into more hardcore Extreme Metal that glorified sex, drugs, and rock n roll.
More people, who turned into extreme metal fans, were encouraged to be more
rebellious. They were at risk of having the state of loneliness, or depression, which
people were likely to become the worshipper of Satan (Bennett, 2001).

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2.1.1.3 Classical
According to Cooley (2009), classical music is a model that has support of
institutions like the governments and social organizations. It often based on the "written
sources such as music notation and written treatises about the music". Frequently heard
in churches, festivals, celebrations, and more, classical music considered to be renown
around the world.
2.1.1.4 R&B
R&B or rhythms and blues music, formerly called "race music" had musical
rhythms from other genre such as jazz, gospel and blues. Originally, for black people, it
used to focus on disco dance rhythms. After 1950s, it evolved into a type of upbeat
sound rather than the original that used the classical instruments such as violin (Nero,
2013; Urban Dictionary, 2013). Notably for its sexual suggestive lyrics and dancing,
famous artists like Rihanna, Bruno Mars, Chris Brown and Beyonce are good example
of this (Artist Direct, 2013)
2.1.1.5 Country
Country music contained a mixture of various musical forms such as old English
ballads, heart songs, guitar tunes, breakdowns and novelty songs. In addition to that, it
also included country blues and religious songs. It had a distinctive sound which gave
out a special feeling, the closeness to reality. The influences of the country music were
represented by the contemporary sounds of the violins, brass, and more (Rublowsky,
1967).
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2.1.1.6 Jazz/Blues
Jazz music is from African-American origin that has characteristics of rhythms
and improvisation that uses idioms which exist in numbers of styles like Blues. Blues is
one of the genres under Jazz (thefreedictionary, 2013). Not only that, it was considered
to have the combination of all melodies and rhythms by the people of the New World.
The examples of the artists were as follows: Louis "Satchmo" Armstrong, the Supremes,
and Bert Keyes (Rublowsky, 1967).
Jazz started before the 1850s when some of its characteristics were parts of
previous musical traditions (All About Jazz, 2013). It was considered to be a secular
music which evolved around emotional and spiritial demand of the people. It
represented the Negro people's style. Jazz's ways had been influencing the people on
all aspects of popular music today and beyond (Rublowsky, 1967).
2.1.1.7 Hip-Hop
During the 1970s in New York City, a group of people were fighting because of
the tension from urban renewal programs and recession. The person namely Afrika
Bambaataa made a group that helped people to channel their anger into music and
dance rather than physical brawls. Rap music (or hip-hop music) that can be narrative
vocal which was spoken in rhythm continuously had become a way to communicate in
their place. Across the globe and in time, hip-hop music was incorporated into their local
culture that had become the means of cultural expression (Bennett, 2001).

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2.1.1.8 Modern Folk
Modern Folk examples were as follows: Bella Hardy's Songs Lost & Stolen,
considered to be beautiful and simple, and Christy Moore's Folk Tale, helping people to
address issues of the day with his voice (Matthews, 2012).
2.1.1.9 Electronic
In the past, electronic was defined to be acoustic in nature that live performers
pluck the strings and more. But in the 1940s, Pierre Schaeffer created first ever studio
for electronic music which helped him process pre-recorded sounds. Now, electronic
music meant having synthetic sounds, manipulated by the electronics, not anymore
acoustic (Types of music, 2013). Top dance/club play songs as of September 1, 2013 to
September 7, 2013 were from electronic music. Examples of these songs were Avicii's
"Wake Me Up!", and Enrique Iglesias's "Turn The Night Up" (Billboard, 2013).
2.1.1.10 Asian
Asian music is diverse from different cultures from parts of Asia such as India,
Indonesia, Philippines, China, Japan, Korea and more. In India when they were
colonized by the British rule to date, valuing art (including music) is their tradition. With
the support from their government, Indian musician have many connection to improve
their skills and talents. There is even an academy namely Sangeet Natak Academy that
gives out prestigious awards to those deserving it. Indian music has inspired people
such as Ravi Shankar and George Harrison of the Beatles, one of his student. Some of
Indian-based songs from Beatles' album were "Within You, Without You" and My sweet
Lord" (Reck, 2009).
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Those have the influence of the raga (the melodic system) that has its own
personality. It can be associated with emotions, colors, seasons, animals, and more
(Reck, 2009). Another type of Asian music is Korean pop music, or commonly known as
K-pop. It is very popular among teenagers, Asian or non-Asian. It has started shortly
after the hit of pop music in Korea. K-pop can be identified easily by entertainers with
their trendy outfits and songs with electrifying tones (Tesol, 2013).
2.1.1.11 Comedy
The comedy genre was closely associated with amusing actions that partake in
plays, parody videos, comedy rock, and more (thefreedictionary, 2013).
2.1.1.12 Caribbean and Latin American
From the Latin American countries such as Cuba, Latin music was born. It
contained sounds that were from the African religious ceremonies. It is commonly
known for its rhythm. It has elements and styles from Salsa, Tango and Brazilian music
(Quintana, n.d.).

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2.2 Academic Performance
The academic performance was based on the grading system of De La Salle
University which can be seen below.
Table 2.1: Grading system of De La Salle University - Manila
Grade Point Grade range Description
4.0 97 to 100 Excellent
3.5 93 to 96 Superior
3.0 89 to 92 Very Good
2.5 85 to 88 Good
2.0 80 to 84 Satisfactory
1.5 75 to 79 Fair
1.0 70 to 74 Passed
0.0 Below 70 Failed
Audit - Audit
6.5 - Withdrawn
7.0 - Passed (For Pass/Fail Courses)
8.0 - Failed (For Pass/Fail Courses)
9.9 - Deferred (For Thesis and Practicum)
For the cumulative GPA, it referred to the weighted average of the grades for all
academic courses taken during his/her stay at the University (De La Salle University -
Manila , 2012).

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2.3 Biological sex (Gender)
Biological sex, or simply, sex and gender were similar yet different. Sex pertained
to the biological aspect of the human body whether they were categorize as either male
or female or intersex (that meant the person was combined with the features that
separate male from female and vice versa). However, for gender, it was said that it
refers to the behaviour and feelings of the person associated to their biological sex
(American Psychological Association, 2011).
2.4 Listening to Music
Listening to Music while doing something like studying helped people to relax,
reduce blood pressure, remedy for headaches and migraines, improve intelligence and
concentration, and lastly good coordination (Eastday.com, 2010)
2.5 Studying
Studying methods can be different one person to another. But, according to Duff,
Boyle, Dunleavy, & Ferguson (2002), there were three approaches (deep processing
approach, surface approach, and strategic approach. If a person is using the deep
processing approach, that person related it to their personal experiences in life critically.
However, surface approach used more on memorization, while, strategic approach rely
more in organized and study skills to achieve the highest grade possible. Two of them,
deep processing and strategic, were more likely to help boost up academic performance,
but not surface approach.
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In related to studying, the environment including educational institutions might
have an effect on their performance. According to Rufino (2006), the institutions for
higher education (College & University Level) differ from public and private. One evident
fact was that more people enroll in private schools compared to public. When more
people are together in a class, they might be pressured to study or not depending on
their company. For Gneezy and Rustichini (as cited in Bellemare, Lepage, & Shearer,
2010), they said that male, not female, were more affected by peer pressure negatively
which their working producivity deteriorate. In addition to that, teenagers who were more
influenced by peer pressure were low achievers that they overestimate their skills, yet
underestimated others. It is the opposite for high achievers (Sung, Chang, Chang, & Yu,
2010).
Studying skills depends on their field. People who were engaged in physical
education or sport teaching may be different from people engaged in classroom
teaching. Yet, both get distracted while in class and do listen to music while studying.
Also, students from physical education and sports teaching procrastinate more than
student from classroom teaching (Pepe, 2012). Not only that, DiVesta and Gray (as
cited in Hassanbeigi, et al., 2011) alleged that students who have good studying skills
such as taking down notes and reviewing it benefit more than getting the notes from
other people. Reasoned out by Cogmen & Saracaloglu (as cited in Hassanbeigi, et al.,
2011), students must "use reading comprehension strategies while reading academic
materials for an effective learning." Doing this would help anyone to have a higher
cGPA and be more motivated and happier. With all of those factors, the students would
decide on their studying skills to attain their target cGPA (academic performance).
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2.6 Research Gap
There were numerous studies about music in general, the music genre, and
studying around the world. However, there seem to be no study of music to academic
performance in the Philippines setting. The study aims to determine whether there is a
relationship between music and academic performance.

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CHAPTER 3: OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK
3.1 Variables Used in the Study
These are the variables used in the study to check the relationship between
background music to academic performance of the students which can be seen below:
Variable Label Measurement Definition

Cumulative Grade
Point Average
(cGPA)

cGPA

Highest is 4.0,
while the lowest is
1.0.

Measurement of academic
performance in his or her
stay at the University

Biological Sex
(Gender)

SEX

1 if Male
0 if Female

Biological Aspect of the
human body, not the
behaviour of the person
pertaining to the biological
form of the person

Music in a Week

MWk

Time - Unit of
Hours

Duration of the person
listening to music in a week

Studying in a
Week

SWk

Time - Unit of
Hours

Duration of college
students' studying time in a
week

Pop Music Genre

Dgmpop

1 if pop music
0 if otherwise
(such as rock,
classical, blues,
and many more)

Person that listens to pop
music
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All of the variables were separate into groups of independent and one dependent
variable that is cGPA which can be seen below (Figure 3.1).
Figure 3.1: Operational Framework

Independent Variables
Independent Variables, such as sex, listening to music per week, studying per
week, and pop music genre, are the factors that can stand on its own. It was used as
the controlled variables.
Dependent Variable
One dependent variable, cumulative Grade Point Average (cGPA), relied on its
relationship to the independent variables regarding it is positive or negative.
Dummy Variables
Dummy variables capture quantitative variables, seasonality and interaction. For
the case of the study, sex and pop music genre are the dummy variables
College Students

Independent
Variables
Sex
Listening to Music per
week
Studying per week
Pop music genre

Dependent
Variable
Cumulative Grade
Point Average
(cGPA)
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3.2 Apriori Expectation
The A-priori Expectation showed the independent variables, its description and
sign expectation which can be seen below.
INDEPENDENT
Variables
Variable Description Sign Expectation

SEX

According to American
Psychological Association
(2011), biological sex has a
effect on the mindset on the
person. For Sung et al (2010),
men and women who are
hardworking and humble were
more likely to achieve their
goals while underestimating it
lead to the downfall.

Positive (+) Relationship

MuWK

According to Pepe (2012),
students listen to music while
studying. For the researcher, It
may help boosting up their
academic performance.


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StAct

Hours studying may have a
significant effect on the grade
since the person is more
prepared rather than cramming.


Dgmpop

According to Milliman (1982),
slow tempo music, while
comparing to fast tempo music,
have higher gross sales
increase. It may be the same
for people listening to pop
music genre while studying.

Negative (-) Relationship

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3.3 Introduction of Hypothesized Econometric Model
Figure 3.2: Model specification
Model For Background Music Affecting The Academic Performance
cGPA =
0
+
1
SEX +
2
MuWk+
3
StWk -
4
Dgmpop + u

With the signs expectation, the model was grouped together by variables which
can be seen at Figure 3.2: Model Specification. The (beta's) represented the
coefficient for the independent variables. The u is known to be the random stochastic
variable or disturbance term, which represented the factors that were not taken account
in the model but affect the dependent variable. The cGPA equation (seen at Figure 3.2)
was categorized as classical linear regression model (Gujarati & Porter, 2009).
3.4 Statement of Hypothesis Testing
Null Hypothesis (Ho): There is no significant relationship between background music
and academic performance of college students.
Alternative Hypothesis (Ha): There is a significant relationship between background
music and academic performance of college students.

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CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY
4.1 Research Design
The research design is descriptive, the type of study which needs to collected
data without manipulation. It can be also called as co-relational or observational studies.
It can be used to demonstrate relationship between the independent and dependent
variables. For this study, it is cross-sectional in nature, which means relationships of the
variables (e.g. group of people) with or without the sense of time (U.S. Department of
Health and Human Service - Office of Research Integrity, 2013).
4.2 Sampling Plan
For the collection of data, survey form was used. The responses were taken from
a group of thirty-five (35) college students. The process of the data collection and
analysis can be seen in Figure 4.1: Flowchart.
Figure 4.1: Flowchart

Present Analysis of
Data Results
End
Answer
questionnaire
survey
Get respondents
Start
Process Data
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The survey form contained five (5) questions about biological sex (gender),
music and academic performance that can be seen below (Figure 4.2).
Figure 4.2: Survey form

25

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4.3 Method of Data Analysis
The data collected from thirty-five (35) respondents was gathered using Google
form and Google spreadsheet. The results can be seen below.
Table 4.1: Data Collection
SEX MuWk StWk Dgmpop cGPA SEX MuWk StWk Dgmpop cGPA
1 6 2 1 3.5 0 6 6 1 3.5
0 6 4 1 3.5 1 6 4 1 3
0 6 6 0 3 1 6 4 1 3
0 6 4 1 3 0 6 6 1 3
1 6 6 0 4 0 4 2 0 3.5
1 6 6 1 3.5 0 5 4 1 3
1 3 4 1 3.5 0 3 6 1 2.5
0 3 4 1 3 1 6 6 1 2.5
0 6 6 1 3 1 6 4 1 2.5
1 6 2 0 3.5 1 6 4 1 3
1 1 4 1 2 1 5 4 1 3
0 1 4 1 3 0 6 6 1 2.5
0 6 4 1 3.5 0 6 6 1 3
1 6 4 1 3.5 0 6 2 1 3
0 6 4 1 3 0 4 6 0 3
0 6 2 1 3.5 0 5 4 1 2.5
1 6 4 1 3 1 6 4 1 2.5
1 6 4 1 3.5

The statistical software to be used are Stata 12th and Gretl. The model must
undergo testing whether the model has explanatory power or not. First, before all of
these to happen, the analysis to be done is regression analysis method (Gujarati &
Porter, 2009).

27
CLRM is the basic framework of regression analysis. The model would be check
whether it satisfies the assumptions of the Classical Linear Regression Model or CLRM.
According to Gujarati & Porter (2009), CLRM was thought to be the cornerstone of
econometric theory that was represented by seven (7) basic assumptions.
Table 4.2: Assumption of CLRM
Assumption Number Assumption Name Description

1

Linear
Regression
Model

Linear in parameter whether the
model shows linear or not linear in the
variables

2

Fixed X Values or X
Values Independent of
the Error Term

X variable(s) and the error term are
independent, that can seen below:
cov (X
i
, u
j
)=0

3

Zero Mean Value of
Disturbance u
i

Value of the Disturbance is zero
regardless it being expected or
nonstochastic.

4

Homoscedasticity or
Constant Variance of u
i

Variance of the error and disturbance
are similar to each other in the
absence of X value.

var(u
i
) = E[u
i
- E (u
i
| X
j
)
2
var =
2

5

No Autocorrelation
between the
Disturbances

Correlation between
any X variables is zero.

6

The Number of
Observations n Must
Be Greater than the
Number of Parameters
to Be Estimated.

Reason
28

7

The Nature of X
Variables

Values in the sample should not be
the same. The model must have a
positive variance. In addition to that,
there must be no outliers in the X
variables.

Based on Gujarati & Porter's (2009) Basic Econometrics Chapter 3

To process the data, Ordinary Least Square (OLS) estimation was used.
Through the estimation, it must show However, if the one of the assumption is not
satisfied, the violation depending on the assumption that was violated (see table 4.3)
are present.
Table 4.3: Type of Violation
Assumption
Number
Type of Violation Assumption
Number
Type of Violation

1

Nonlinearity in
parameters

6

Sample observations
less than the number
of regressors

2

Stochastic regressor(s)

7

Insufficient variability
in regressors

3

Nonzero mean of u
i

8

Multicollinearity

4

Heteroscedasticity

9

Specification bias

5

Autocorrelated
disturbances

10

Nonnormality of
disturbances
To check, the model would undergo testing of Multicollinearity, testing for mis-
specification and testing of Heteroskedasticity, but not testing for autocorrelation. The
data is cross-sectional which autocorrelation is not present.
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CHAPTER 5: EMPIRICAL RESULTS AND INTEPRETATION
5.1 Data Collection Summary and Regression
With all of the variables put to the model, it was determined to be linear-linear
type of model. There were a total of thirty-five (35) respondents.
Figure 5.1 Data Collection Summary

As seen in Figure 5.1, the average mean of sex was 0.4571429 which meant that
there were more female than male respondents. People, having 3.071429 cGPA,
normally listen to pop music for 5 hours and more and study for 4 hours and more. With
the standard deviation ranged from 0.422 to 1.42, the proponent can say that

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Figure 5.2: Initial Ordinary Least Square (OLS) Regression

The OLS or Ordinary Least Square, by Carl Fredrich Gauss, was used widely in
regression analysis. It is the procedure that was used to estimate the CLRM. OLS must
be BLUE or Best Linear Unbiased Estimator (Gujarati & Porter, 2009).
According to Gujarati & Porter (2009), "Higher the R
2
, better the explanatory
power of the model." It shows the proportion of the dependent variable by the
independent (explanatory) variables. With the overall coefficient of determination or R
2

as 0.2537, the model has explanatory power and fit.
Figure 5.3: Initial Econometric Ordinary Least Square (OLS) Regression Model
cGPA = 3.21004 - 0.00698632 SEX + 0.0975183 MuWk
- 0.0714411 StWk - 0.394132 Dgmpop
For the initial Econometric OLS regression model and based on the Apriori table,
sex and pop music genre really have negative relationship with cGPA. Listening to
Music per week is positive. Contrary to the table, it assumed that the person who study
more has worse cGPA compared to the person who study less but better cGPA.
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5.2 Testing
To know if the model do not suffer from the violations of the assumption, the
model undergo testing.
5.2.1 Testing for Multicollinearity
The testing for Multicollinearity check the model if it violated the critical
assumption of non-multicollinearity. The model must show no high correlation among
the Xs variables. If violated, it faced a grave consequence that the model is misleading.
There are four types of multicollinearity based on Ballantine Diagram.
Figure 5.4: Ballantine Diagram

No Multicollinearity can never ever happen in real life since it is made in heaven.
It meant that X
2
is independent of X
3

Perfect Multicollinearity is an academic type that is synonymous with dummy
variable trap.
Dangerous (Imperfect) Multicollinearity is the worst kind of multicollinearity that
X
2
and X
3
are highly correlated.

Perfect
Multicollinearity

Dangerous
Multicollinearity

No Multicollinearity
Made in Heaven

Tolerable
Multicollinearity
y
X
2
X
3
y

X
2
X
3
y

X
2
X
3
y

X
2
X
3
32
Tolerable Multicollinearity is the type of multicollinearity that the people can
accept. The reason for its acceptance was that the X
2
and X
3
are lightly
correlated.
To check if the model suffers multicollinearity, the proponent used Variance-
Inflating Factor (VIF) criterion, rather than Auxiliary F test or L. Klein Rule. The VIF
criterion rules that if the variable has value more than 10, then it has dangerous
multicollinearity. If there is dangerous multicollinearity, the person must remove the
variable that has the highest VIF. It is the variable that has many relationships in the
model. In order to correct the model, there are various measures such as usage of
advanced tools (e.g. Ridge Regression and Principal Components Analysis), adding
observation or replate sample, and make variable transformation.
For the study, all of the variables have the value below 10 (see Figure 5.5) so the
model has tolerable multicollinearity. Since it is not dangerous, there is no need to drop
the Highest VIF variable. No need to do anything, since it is tolerable.
Figure 5.5: VIF Criteron

33
5.2.2 Testing for Heteroskedasticity
Heteroskedasticity is the violation of the CLRM assumption for homoscedasticity.
This type of violation is often found in cross-sectional (CS) dataset. A graphical
illustration by Mr. Muhammad Imdadullah (2013) shows the difference of homo and
hetero graphically below at Figure 5.7.
Figure 5.6: Graphical Illustrations of the Differences between Homoscedasticity
and Heteroskedasticity (Imdadullah, 2013)

34
When the model has heteroskedasticity, then it face a graver consequences
compared to multicollinearity. Everything is wrong from the OLS to the standard errors.
It would be the breakdown of inference. To check if the model is diagnosed with
heteroscedasticity, there are two approaches: graphical approach and formal statistical
test. In the graphical approach, homo graph shows scattered sample, while the hetero
graph display a pattern. The formal statistical tests used for the study were the Breusch-
Pagan-Godfrey (BPG) via Stata 12
th
, Koenker and Basset Test and Whites Test via
Gretl. There are other tests like Parks Test and Goldfeld-Quandt (GQ) Procedure. The
procedure for the BPG was first done by running the model and getting the average
likelihood estimator. To pass the BPG which meant to have no heteroskedasticity, the
null and alternative hypothesis was proposed. The null shows the homoscedasticity of
the model and the alternative as heteroskedasticity.
Figure 5.7: Breusch-Pagan-Godfrey (BPG) Test for heteroskedasticity

With the p-value of 0.3104 in the BPG test, the model satisfied the condition of
homoscedasticity. Using Gretl software, the model was once again tested for
heteroskedasticity.

35
Figure 5.8: White's Test

The Whites Test, compared to other tests, have the advantage of unbiasedness
since it does not assume any functional forms of heteroskedasticity. It evaluated it on
the auxiliary regression with squared dependent variable from the independent
variables (Laura, 2012). The Whites test was given a nickname of specification-robust
test because of its approximating many possibilities of the square powers and crosss-
products of the independent variables (Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, 2013). The p-
value overall and per variable shows that it exceed the 0.05 that support the model
having no heteroskedasticity.

36
Figure 5.9: Koenker and Basset Test

The Koenker and Basset Test, by Roger Koenker and Gilbert Bassett, Jr., used
random coefficients which specifically used a functional form for heteroskeadsticity. The
difference between this test and the Breusch-Pagan-Godfrey (BPG) test was that the
residuals were made to be studentized. With the p-value as 0.075100, the model is truly
free of heteroskedasticity.

37
5.2.3 Testing for Mis-Specification
Mis-specification is the violation of the model being bias. It might have problems
such as omitted variable bias, irrelevant variable bias, and incorrect transformation. The
model was checked through the Ramseys RESET Test via Gretl to check whether the
omitted or incorrect or both are present in the model.
The statement of the hypothesis for the testing of mis-specification was that the
null hypothesis is correctly specified and alternative is not correctly specified.
Figure 5.10: Ramseys RESET Test (squares only)

With all of the variables having the p-value higher than 0.05 (level of significance),
the null hypothesis is true. The model is correctly specified.

38
5.2.4 Normality Testing
Figure 5.11: Testing for Normality

The testing for normality checks whether the terms in the datasets were normally
distributed. Another definition is that the test computes on what degree does the
underlying random variable normal. The null hypothesis indicated that the data set
terms are normal; otherwise, reject it since it shows irregularity in the model.
As shown in Figure 5.12, the p-value is 0.75474. It shows that the model has
been normally distributed.

39
Figure 5.12: Summary of the Testing

Through a series of testing, the model has proved true that it is tolerable,
normally distributed and correctly specified. No violation has occurred. The model has
shown to have no bias. The OLS regression has the Best Linear Unbiased Estimator.
The initial model is now the final model for OLS.

40
Chapter 6: Conclusion and Recommendation
In the result and discussion, two variables (listening to music per week and pop
music genre) have shown to have significant effect on the students academic
performance. The biological sex whether the student is a male or a female do not really
matter when it relate itself to their academic performance.
Also, the number of hours studying is insignificant. According to Thompson (2013)
that shows the amount of time studying do not affect the performance but the strategies.
How the person copes up with the studies like reading the whole book or notes twice or
thrice or answering the homework can help the person increase their mastery that help
keep up their academic performance.
The proponent suggested the study can be improve by add more variables since
there can be factors that might be beneficiary which the proponent did not cover.
Studies such as one music genre (Rock, Classical and more) to academic performance
can be one example. The sampling can be focused in one educational institution.

41
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