The Effect of Background Music to College Students' Academic Performance
An Empirical Paper presented to Faculty of the Economics Department School of Economics
In Partial Requirements of Econometrics 1 (ECONMET)
Submitted to: Dr. Cesar C. Rufino
Submitted by: Kimberlyn T. Tiu September 6, 2013
Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 2 Executive Summary The study explained whether there is a significant relationship between background music to academic performance of college students. The relationship was studied based from thirty-five (35) respondents in the Philippines taken through a survey questionnaire. The data analysis was done using the statistical software namely: Stata 12th and Gretl. For the data gathering, the proponent used Google form and Google spreadsheet. Initially, only two out of four variables were deemed to be significant which were hours listening to music and pop music genre. However, sex and hours studying were not significant. But after testing the model, the model was not suffering from any violations.
Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 6 1.1 Background ............................................................................................................ 6 1.2 Statement of Research Problem ............................................................................ 6 1.3 Significance of the Study ........................................................................................ 7 1.4 Scope and Limitation .............................................................................................. 7
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .................................................... 8 2.1 Music ...................................................................................................................... 8 2.1.1 Type of Music Genre .................................................................................... 8 2.1.1.1Pop .................................................................................................. 8 2.1.1.2 Rock ............................................................................................... 9 2.1.1.3 Classical ....................................................................................... 10 2.1.1.4 R&B .............................................................................................. 10 2.1.1.5 Country ......................................................................................... 10 2.1.1.6 Jazz/Blues .................................................................................... 11 2.1.1.7 Hip-hop ......................................................................................... 11 2.1.1.8 Modern Folk ................................................................................. 12 2.1.1.9 Electronic ..................................................................................... 12 2.1.1.10 Asian .......................................................................................... 12 2.1.1.11 Comedy ...................................................................................... 13 2.1.1.12 Caribbean and Latin American ................................................... 13 2.2 Academic Performance ........................................................................................ 14 2.3 Biological sex (Gender) ........................................................................................ 15 2.4 Listening to Music ................................................................................................ 15 2.5 Studying ............................................................................................................... 15 2.6 Research Gap ...................................................................................................... 17
Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 4 CHAPTER 3: OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK ............................................................. 18 3.1 Variable Used in the Study ................................................................................... 18 3.2 A-priori Expectation .............................................................................................. 20 3.3 Introduction of Hypothesized Econometric Model ................................................ 21 3.4 Statement of Hypothesis Testing ......................................................................... 22
CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY ................................................................................... 23 4.1 Research Design.................................................................................................. 23 4.2 Sampling Plan ...................................................................................................... 23 4.3 Method of Data Analysis ...................................................................................... 26
CHAPTER 5: EMPIRICAL RESULTS AND INTEPRETATION ........................................ 29 5.1 Data Collection Summary and Regression .......................................................... 29 5.2 Testing ................................................................................................................. 31 5.2.1 Testing for Multicollinearity ......................................................................... 31 5.2.2 Testing for Heteroskedasticity .................................................................... 33 5.2.3 Testing for Mis-Specification ...................................................................... 37
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ........................................... 40 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... 41
Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 5 List of Figures Figure 3.1: Operational Framework ........................................................................... 19 Figure 3.2: Model specification .................................................................................. 22 Figure 4.1: Flowchart ................................................................................................. 23 Figure 4.2: Survey Form ............................................................................................ 24 Figure 5.1: Data Collection Summary ........................................................................ 29 Figure 5.2: Initial Ordinary Least Square (OLS) Regression ...................................... 29 Figure 5.3: Initial Econometric Ordinary Least Square (OLS) Regression Model ...... 30 Figure 5.4: Ballantine Diagram ................................................................................... 31 Figure 5.5: VIF Criteron .............................................................................................. 32 Figure 5.6: Graphical Illustrations of the Differences between Homoscedasticity and Heteroskedasticity (Imdadullah, 2013) ....................................................................... 33 Figure 5.7: Breusch-Pagan-Godfrey (BPG) Test for heteroskedasticity ..................... 34 Figure 5.8: Whites Test ............................................................................................. 35 Figure 5.9: Koenker and Basset Test ......................................................................... 36 Figure 5.10: Ramseys RESET Test (squares only) ................................................... 37 Figure 5.11: Testing for Normality .............................................................................. 38 Figure 5.12: Summary of the Testing ......................................................................... 39
List of Tables Table 2.1: Grading system of De La Salle University-Manila ..................................... 14 Table 4.1: Data Collection .......................................................................................... 26 Table 4.2: Assumption of CLRM ................................................................................ 27 Table 4.3: Type of Violation ....................................................................................... 28
Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 6 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background Everyone has music. It can be different from one person to another (Titon, 2009). Music had been part of people's lives from generations to generations. It affected the body unconsciously and consciously. People, when listening to music, may have a series of action that can be a combination of tapping, nodding, swaying, clapping, stamping and many more (Daunow, 1977). It thought to be as a form of entertainment, however, it can be used to affects behaviour (Milliman, 1982). In addition, music can be used as a form of therapy for a mental illness such as anxiety. It can increase productivity and minimize boredom (Peretti & Swenson, 1974). Meyer (as cited in Peretti & Swenson, 1974) said that music could affect emotions, while Lidz (as cited in Peretti & Swenson, 1974) can help relieve the person of their own tensions and frustrations. The study focused on the effect of background music to college students' academic performance whether it is positive or negative in the Philippine setting. 1.2 Statement of the Research Problem The study attempts to identify whether background music has an effect to the academic performance of the selected random college students. In this study, the dependent variable is the academic performance of the students, while the independent variables are sex (gender), length of time studying per week, length of time listening to music per week and pop music genre as dummy variable. The result will be shown later. Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 7 1.3 Significance of the Study The study intends to show whether students' performance in terms of cGPA are affected by independent variable such as the degree of level in listening to music, studying time. Lastly, biological sex (gender) and music genre (pop) were used as dummy variables. 1.4 Scope and Limitation The dataset obtained for study was taken from thirty-five (35) random college students who were based in the Philippines. The data collection was completed through survey, while the data was analysed using Stata 12th and Gretl. The nature is cross- sectional which the data are observations from subjects with or without the difference in time (Gujarati & Porter, 2009). The result of the study cannot be used to generalize, however it is true for those who have taken the survey.
Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 8 CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE In the review of related literature, there were studies about music and academic performance. In addition, there were information about biological sex (gender), listening to music and studying. 2.1 Music Music is something that is produce by man that can be form into a work of art or complement the activities (Titon, 2009). Music was defined as a form of entertainment that lessens boredom (Milliman, 1982). Music can be generalized as type of genre such as Pop, Rock, Classical, R&B, Country, Jazz/Blues, Hip-Hop, Modern Folk, Electronic, Asian, Comedy, Caribbean and Latin American music. 2.1.1 Type of Music Genre 2.1.1.1 Pop Music Pop music is different from popular music. Popular music is the same as music which is for the urban middle class that include different music from classical to heavy metal. However, pop music had come from the roll n' roll evolution (Lamb, 2013). Pop music appealed to teenagers that focus on rhythms and romance (thefreedictionary, 2013). The lyric for pop song contained verses that are repeatative that has usually a duration of 2.50 minutes to 5.50 minutes. Pop music were influenced by other genres in many ways for the past years (Lamb, 2013).
Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 9 2.1.1.2 Rock During the 1960s, rock music progressed into three type of metal as follows: country rock, progress rock, and heavy metal (Bennett, 2001). According to Straw (as cited from Bennett, 2001), heavy metal represented a return to the more gritty aesthetic of rock n roll while at the same time retaining from psychedelia an emphasis on technological effect and instrumental virtuosity. The origin of heavy metal were still debated among writers that one argued that one US band in the 1960s created the form compared to another author who said that Britain started heavy metal sound. By mid-1980s, there was an expansion of heavy metal to pop music which can be called soft metal due to the popularity of Bon Jovi, that the band diversified the classic heavy metal into a combination of guitar-based sound with keyboard and string sound of pop music. It featured romantic love and upbeat sound which enticed the female audience. Yet again, it was short lived and changed into more hardcore Extreme Metal that glorified sex, drugs, and rock n roll. More people, who turned into extreme metal fans, were encouraged to be more rebellious. They were at risk of having the state of loneliness, or depression, which people were likely to become the worshipper of Satan (Bennett, 2001).
Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 10 2.1.1.3 Classical According to Cooley (2009), classical music is a model that has support of institutions like the governments and social organizations. It often based on the "written sources such as music notation and written treatises about the music". Frequently heard in churches, festivals, celebrations, and more, classical music considered to be renown around the world. 2.1.1.4 R&B R&B or rhythms and blues music, formerly called "race music" had musical rhythms from other genre such as jazz, gospel and blues. Originally, for black people, it used to focus on disco dance rhythms. After 1950s, it evolved into a type of upbeat sound rather than the original that used the classical instruments such as violin (Nero, 2013; Urban Dictionary, 2013). Notably for its sexual suggestive lyrics and dancing, famous artists like Rihanna, Bruno Mars, Chris Brown and Beyonce are good example of this (Artist Direct, 2013) 2.1.1.5 Country Country music contained a mixture of various musical forms such as old English ballads, heart songs, guitar tunes, breakdowns and novelty songs. In addition to that, it also included country blues and religious songs. It had a distinctive sound which gave out a special feeling, the closeness to reality. The influences of the country music were represented by the contemporary sounds of the violins, brass, and more (Rublowsky, 1967). Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 11 2.1.1.6 Jazz/Blues Jazz music is from African-American origin that has characteristics of rhythms and improvisation that uses idioms which exist in numbers of styles like Blues. Blues is one of the genres under Jazz (thefreedictionary, 2013). Not only that, it was considered to have the combination of all melodies and rhythms by the people of the New World. The examples of the artists were as follows: Louis "Satchmo" Armstrong, the Supremes, and Bert Keyes (Rublowsky, 1967). Jazz started before the 1850s when some of its characteristics were parts of previous musical traditions (All About Jazz, 2013). It was considered to be a secular music which evolved around emotional and spiritial demand of the people. It represented the Negro people's style. Jazz's ways had been influencing the people on all aspects of popular music today and beyond (Rublowsky, 1967). 2.1.1.7 Hip-Hop During the 1970s in New York City, a group of people were fighting because of the tension from urban renewal programs and recession. The person namely Afrika Bambaataa made a group that helped people to channel their anger into music and dance rather than physical brawls. Rap music (or hip-hop music) that can be narrative vocal which was spoken in rhythm continuously had become a way to communicate in their place. Across the globe and in time, hip-hop music was incorporated into their local culture that had become the means of cultural expression (Bennett, 2001).
Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 12 2.1.1.8 Modern Folk Modern Folk examples were as follows: Bella Hardy's Songs Lost & Stolen, considered to be beautiful and simple, and Christy Moore's Folk Tale, helping people to address issues of the day with his voice (Matthews, 2012). 2.1.1.9 Electronic In the past, electronic was defined to be acoustic in nature that live performers pluck the strings and more. But in the 1940s, Pierre Schaeffer created first ever studio for electronic music which helped him process pre-recorded sounds. Now, electronic music meant having synthetic sounds, manipulated by the electronics, not anymore acoustic (Types of music, 2013). Top dance/club play songs as of September 1, 2013 to September 7, 2013 were from electronic music. Examples of these songs were Avicii's "Wake Me Up!", and Enrique Iglesias's "Turn The Night Up" (Billboard, 2013). 2.1.1.10 Asian Asian music is diverse from different cultures from parts of Asia such as India, Indonesia, Philippines, China, Japan, Korea and more. In India when they were colonized by the British rule to date, valuing art (including music) is their tradition. With the support from their government, Indian musician have many connection to improve their skills and talents. There is even an academy namely Sangeet Natak Academy that gives out prestigious awards to those deserving it. Indian music has inspired people such as Ravi Shankar and George Harrison of the Beatles, one of his student. Some of Indian-based songs from Beatles' album were "Within You, Without You" and My sweet Lord" (Reck, 2009). Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 13 Those have the influence of the raga (the melodic system) that has its own personality. It can be associated with emotions, colors, seasons, animals, and more (Reck, 2009). Another type of Asian music is Korean pop music, or commonly known as K-pop. It is very popular among teenagers, Asian or non-Asian. It has started shortly after the hit of pop music in Korea. K-pop can be identified easily by entertainers with their trendy outfits and songs with electrifying tones (Tesol, 2013). 2.1.1.11 Comedy The comedy genre was closely associated with amusing actions that partake in plays, parody videos, comedy rock, and more (thefreedictionary, 2013). 2.1.1.12 Caribbean and Latin American From the Latin American countries such as Cuba, Latin music was born. It contained sounds that were from the African religious ceremonies. It is commonly known for its rhythm. It has elements and styles from Salsa, Tango and Brazilian music (Quintana, n.d.).
Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 14 2.2 Academic Performance The academic performance was based on the grading system of De La Salle University which can be seen below. Table 2.1: Grading system of De La Salle University - Manila Grade Point Grade range Description 4.0 97 to 100 Excellent 3.5 93 to 96 Superior 3.0 89 to 92 Very Good 2.5 85 to 88 Good 2.0 80 to 84 Satisfactory 1.5 75 to 79 Fair 1.0 70 to 74 Passed 0.0 Below 70 Failed Audit - Audit 6.5 - Withdrawn 7.0 - Passed (For Pass/Fail Courses) 8.0 - Failed (For Pass/Fail Courses) 9.9 - Deferred (For Thesis and Practicum) For the cumulative GPA, it referred to the weighted average of the grades for all academic courses taken during his/her stay at the University (De La Salle University - Manila , 2012).
Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 15 2.3 Biological sex (Gender) Biological sex, or simply, sex and gender were similar yet different. Sex pertained to the biological aspect of the human body whether they were categorize as either male or female or intersex (that meant the person was combined with the features that separate male from female and vice versa). However, for gender, it was said that it refers to the behaviour and feelings of the person associated to their biological sex (American Psychological Association, 2011). 2.4 Listening to Music Listening to Music while doing something like studying helped people to relax, reduce blood pressure, remedy for headaches and migraines, improve intelligence and concentration, and lastly good coordination (Eastday.com, 2010) 2.5 Studying Studying methods can be different one person to another. But, according to Duff, Boyle, Dunleavy, & Ferguson (2002), there were three approaches (deep processing approach, surface approach, and strategic approach. If a person is using the deep processing approach, that person related it to their personal experiences in life critically. However, surface approach used more on memorization, while, strategic approach rely more in organized and study skills to achieve the highest grade possible. Two of them, deep processing and strategic, were more likely to help boost up academic performance, but not surface approach. Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 16 In related to studying, the environment including educational institutions might have an effect on their performance. According to Rufino (2006), the institutions for higher education (College & University Level) differ from public and private. One evident fact was that more people enroll in private schools compared to public. When more people are together in a class, they might be pressured to study or not depending on their company. For Gneezy and Rustichini (as cited in Bellemare, Lepage, & Shearer, 2010), they said that male, not female, were more affected by peer pressure negatively which their working producivity deteriorate. In addition to that, teenagers who were more influenced by peer pressure were low achievers that they overestimate their skills, yet underestimated others. It is the opposite for high achievers (Sung, Chang, Chang, & Yu, 2010). Studying skills depends on their field. People who were engaged in physical education or sport teaching may be different from people engaged in classroom teaching. Yet, both get distracted while in class and do listen to music while studying. Also, students from physical education and sports teaching procrastinate more than student from classroom teaching (Pepe, 2012). Not only that, DiVesta and Gray (as cited in Hassanbeigi, et al., 2011) alleged that students who have good studying skills such as taking down notes and reviewing it benefit more than getting the notes from other people. Reasoned out by Cogmen & Saracaloglu (as cited in Hassanbeigi, et al., 2011), students must "use reading comprehension strategies while reading academic materials for an effective learning." Doing this would help anyone to have a higher cGPA and be more motivated and happier. With all of those factors, the students would decide on their studying skills to attain their target cGPA (academic performance). Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 17 2.6 Research Gap There were numerous studies about music in general, the music genre, and studying around the world. However, there seem to be no study of music to academic performance in the Philippines setting. The study aims to determine whether there is a relationship between music and academic performance.
Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 18 CHAPTER 3: OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK 3.1 Variables Used in the Study These are the variables used in the study to check the relationship between background music to academic performance of the students which can be seen below: Variable Label Measurement Definition
Cumulative Grade Point Average (cGPA)
cGPA
Highest is 4.0, while the lowest is 1.0.
Measurement of academic performance in his or her stay at the University
Biological Sex (Gender)
SEX
1 if Male 0 if Female
Biological Aspect of the human body, not the behaviour of the person pertaining to the biological form of the person
Music in a Week
MWk
Time - Unit of Hours
Duration of the person listening to music in a week
Studying in a Week
SWk
Time - Unit of Hours
Duration of college students' studying time in a week
Pop Music Genre
Dgmpop
1 if pop music 0 if otherwise (such as rock, classical, blues, and many more)
Person that listens to pop music Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 19 All of the variables were separate into groups of independent and one dependent variable that is cGPA which can be seen below (Figure 3.1). Figure 3.1: Operational Framework
Independent Variables Independent Variables, such as sex, listening to music per week, studying per week, and pop music genre, are the factors that can stand on its own. It was used as the controlled variables. Dependent Variable One dependent variable, cumulative Grade Point Average (cGPA), relied on its relationship to the independent variables regarding it is positive or negative. Dummy Variables Dummy variables capture quantitative variables, seasonality and interaction. For the case of the study, sex and pop music genre are the dummy variables College Students
Independent Variables Sex Listening to Music per week Studying per week Pop music genre
Dependent Variable Cumulative Grade Point Average (cGPA) Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 20 3.2 Apriori Expectation The A-priori Expectation showed the independent variables, its description and sign expectation which can be seen below. INDEPENDENT Variables Variable Description Sign Expectation
SEX
According to American Psychological Association (2011), biological sex has a effect on the mindset on the person. For Sung et al (2010), men and women who are hardworking and humble were more likely to achieve their goals while underestimating it lead to the downfall.
Positive (+) Relationship
MuWK
According to Pepe (2012), students listen to music while studying. For the researcher, It may help boosting up their academic performance.
Positive (+) Relationship
Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 21
StAct
Hours studying may have a significant effect on the grade since the person is more prepared rather than cramming.
Positive (+) Relationship
Dgmpop
According to Milliman (1982), slow tempo music, while comparing to fast tempo music, have higher gross sales increase. It may be the same for people listening to pop music genre while studying.
Negative (-) Relationship
Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 22 3.3 Introduction of Hypothesized Econometric Model Figure 3.2: Model specification Model For Background Music Affecting The Academic Performance cGPA = 0 + 1 SEX + 2 MuWk+ 3 StWk - 4 Dgmpop + u
With the signs expectation, the model was grouped together by variables which can be seen at Figure 3.2: Model Specification. The (beta's) represented the coefficient for the independent variables. The u is known to be the random stochastic variable or disturbance term, which represented the factors that were not taken account in the model but affect the dependent variable. The cGPA equation (seen at Figure 3.2) was categorized as classical linear regression model (Gujarati & Porter, 2009). 3.4 Statement of Hypothesis Testing Null Hypothesis (Ho): There is no significant relationship between background music and academic performance of college students. Alternative Hypothesis (Ha): There is a significant relationship between background music and academic performance of college students.
Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 23 CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY 4.1 Research Design The research design is descriptive, the type of study which needs to collected data without manipulation. It can be also called as co-relational or observational studies. It can be used to demonstrate relationship between the independent and dependent variables. For this study, it is cross-sectional in nature, which means relationships of the variables (e.g. group of people) with or without the sense of time (U.S. Department of Health and Human Service - Office of Research Integrity, 2013). 4.2 Sampling Plan For the collection of data, survey form was used. The responses were taken from a group of thirty-five (35) college students. The process of the data collection and analysis can be seen in Figure 4.1: Flowchart. Figure 4.1: Flowchart
Present Analysis of Data Results End Answer questionnaire survey Get respondents Start Process Data Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 24 The survey form contained five (5) questions about biological sex (gender), music and academic performance that can be seen below (Figure 4.2). Figure 4.2: Survey form
Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 25
The statistical software to be used are Stata 12th and Gretl. The model must undergo testing whether the model has explanatory power or not. First, before all of these to happen, the analysis to be done is regression analysis method (Gujarati & Porter, 2009).
Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 27 CLRM is the basic framework of regression analysis. The model would be check whether it satisfies the assumptions of the Classical Linear Regression Model or CLRM. According to Gujarati & Porter (2009), CLRM was thought to be the cornerstone of econometric theory that was represented by seven (7) basic assumptions. Table 4.2: Assumption of CLRM Assumption Number Assumption Name Description
1
Linear Regression Model
Linear in parameter whether the model shows linear or not linear in the variables
2
Fixed X Values or X Values Independent of the Error Term
X variable(s) and the error term are independent, that can seen below: cov (X i , u j )=0
3
Zero Mean Value of Disturbance u i
Value of the Disturbance is zero regardless it being expected or nonstochastic.
4
Homoscedasticity or Constant Variance of u i
Variance of the error and disturbance are similar to each other in the absence of X value.
var(u i ) = E[u i - E (u i | X j ) 2 var = 2
5
No Autocorrelation between the Disturbances
Correlation between any X variables is zero.
6
The Number of Observations n Must Be Greater than the Number of Parameters to Be Estimated.
Reason Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 28
7
The Nature of X Variables
Values in the sample should not be the same. The model must have a positive variance. In addition to that, there must be no outliers in the X variables.
Based on Gujarati & Porter's (2009) Basic Econometrics Chapter 3
To process the data, Ordinary Least Square (OLS) estimation was used. Through the estimation, it must show However, if the one of the assumption is not satisfied, the violation depending on the assumption that was violated (see table 4.3) are present. Table 4.3: Type of Violation Assumption Number Type of Violation Assumption Number Type of Violation
1
Nonlinearity in parameters
6
Sample observations less than the number of regressors
2
Stochastic regressor(s)
7
Insufficient variability in regressors
3
Nonzero mean of u i
8
Multicollinearity
4
Heteroscedasticity
9
Specification bias
5
Autocorrelated disturbances
10
Nonnormality of disturbances To check, the model would undergo testing of Multicollinearity, testing for mis- specification and testing of Heteroskedasticity, but not testing for autocorrelation. The data is cross-sectional which autocorrelation is not present. Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 29 CHAPTER 5: EMPIRICAL RESULTS AND INTEPRETATION 5.1 Data Collection Summary and Regression With all of the variables put to the model, it was determined to be linear-linear type of model. There were a total of thirty-five (35) respondents. Figure 5.1 Data Collection Summary
As seen in Figure 5.1, the average mean of sex was 0.4571429 which meant that there were more female than male respondents. People, having 3.071429 cGPA, normally listen to pop music for 5 hours and more and study for 4 hours and more. With the standard deviation ranged from 0.422 to 1.42, the proponent can say that
Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 30 Figure 5.2: Initial Ordinary Least Square (OLS) Regression
The OLS or Ordinary Least Square, by Carl Fredrich Gauss, was used widely in regression analysis. It is the procedure that was used to estimate the CLRM. OLS must be BLUE or Best Linear Unbiased Estimator (Gujarati & Porter, 2009). According to Gujarati & Porter (2009), "Higher the R 2 , better the explanatory power of the model." It shows the proportion of the dependent variable by the independent (explanatory) variables. With the overall coefficient of determination or R 2
as 0.2537, the model has explanatory power and fit. Figure 5.3: Initial Econometric Ordinary Least Square (OLS) Regression Model cGPA = 3.21004 - 0.00698632 SEX + 0.0975183 MuWk - 0.0714411 StWk - 0.394132 Dgmpop For the initial Econometric OLS regression model and based on the Apriori table, sex and pop music genre really have negative relationship with cGPA. Listening to Music per week is positive. Contrary to the table, it assumed that the person who study more has worse cGPA compared to the person who study less but better cGPA. Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 31 5.2 Testing To know if the model do not suffer from the violations of the assumption, the model undergo testing. 5.2.1 Testing for Multicollinearity The testing for Multicollinearity check the model if it violated the critical assumption of non-multicollinearity. The model must show no high correlation among the Xs variables. If violated, it faced a grave consequence that the model is misleading. There are four types of multicollinearity based on Ballantine Diagram. Figure 5.4: Ballantine Diagram
No Multicollinearity can never ever happen in real life since it is made in heaven. It meant that X 2 is independent of X 3
Perfect Multicollinearity is an academic type that is synonymous with dummy variable trap. Dangerous (Imperfect) Multicollinearity is the worst kind of multicollinearity that X 2 and X 3 are highly correlated.
Perfect Multicollinearity
Dangerous Multicollinearity
No Multicollinearity Made in Heaven
Tolerable Multicollinearity y X 2 X 3 y
X 2 X 3 y
X 2 X 3 y
X 2 X 3 Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 32 Tolerable Multicollinearity is the type of multicollinearity that the people can accept. The reason for its acceptance was that the X 2 and X 3 are lightly correlated. To check if the model suffers multicollinearity, the proponent used Variance- Inflating Factor (VIF) criterion, rather than Auxiliary F test or L. Klein Rule. The VIF criterion rules that if the variable has value more than 10, then it has dangerous multicollinearity. If there is dangerous multicollinearity, the person must remove the variable that has the highest VIF. It is the variable that has many relationships in the model. In order to correct the model, there are various measures such as usage of advanced tools (e.g. Ridge Regression and Principal Components Analysis), adding observation or replate sample, and make variable transformation. For the study, all of the variables have the value below 10 (see Figure 5.5) so the model has tolerable multicollinearity. Since it is not dangerous, there is no need to drop the Highest VIF variable. No need to do anything, since it is tolerable. Figure 5.5: VIF Criteron
Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 33 5.2.2 Testing for Heteroskedasticity Heteroskedasticity is the violation of the CLRM assumption for homoscedasticity. This type of violation is often found in cross-sectional (CS) dataset. A graphical illustration by Mr. Muhammad Imdadullah (2013) shows the difference of homo and hetero graphically below at Figure 5.7. Figure 5.6: Graphical Illustrations of the Differences between Homoscedasticity and Heteroskedasticity (Imdadullah, 2013)
Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 34 When the model has heteroskedasticity, then it face a graver consequences compared to multicollinearity. Everything is wrong from the OLS to the standard errors. It would be the breakdown of inference. To check if the model is diagnosed with heteroscedasticity, there are two approaches: graphical approach and formal statistical test. In the graphical approach, homo graph shows scattered sample, while the hetero graph display a pattern. The formal statistical tests used for the study were the Breusch- Pagan-Godfrey (BPG) via Stata 12 th , Koenker and Basset Test and Whites Test via Gretl. There are other tests like Parks Test and Goldfeld-Quandt (GQ) Procedure. The procedure for the BPG was first done by running the model and getting the average likelihood estimator. To pass the BPG which meant to have no heteroskedasticity, the null and alternative hypothesis was proposed. The null shows the homoscedasticity of the model and the alternative as heteroskedasticity. Figure 5.7: Breusch-Pagan-Godfrey (BPG) Test for heteroskedasticity
With the p-value of 0.3104 in the BPG test, the model satisfied the condition of homoscedasticity. Using Gretl software, the model was once again tested for heteroskedasticity.
Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 35 Figure 5.8: White's Test
The Whites Test, compared to other tests, have the advantage of unbiasedness since it does not assume any functional forms of heteroskedasticity. It evaluated it on the auxiliary regression with squared dependent variable from the independent variables (Laura, 2012). The Whites test was given a nickname of specification-robust test because of its approximating many possibilities of the square powers and crosss- products of the independent variables (Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, 2013). The p- value overall and per variable shows that it exceed the 0.05 that support the model having no heteroskedasticity.
Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 36 Figure 5.9: Koenker and Basset Test
The Koenker and Basset Test, by Roger Koenker and Gilbert Bassett, Jr., used random coefficients which specifically used a functional form for heteroskeadsticity. The difference between this test and the Breusch-Pagan-Godfrey (BPG) test was that the residuals were made to be studentized. With the p-value as 0.075100, the model is truly free of heteroskedasticity.
Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 37 5.2.3 Testing for Mis-Specification Mis-specification is the violation of the model being bias. It might have problems such as omitted variable bias, irrelevant variable bias, and incorrect transformation. The model was checked through the Ramseys RESET Test via Gretl to check whether the omitted or incorrect or both are present in the model. The statement of the hypothesis for the testing of mis-specification was that the null hypothesis is correctly specified and alternative is not correctly specified. Figure 5.10: Ramseys RESET Test (squares only)
With all of the variables having the p-value higher than 0.05 (level of significance), the null hypothesis is true. The model is correctly specified.
Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 38 5.2.4 Normality Testing Figure 5.11: Testing for Normality
The testing for normality checks whether the terms in the datasets were normally distributed. Another definition is that the test computes on what degree does the underlying random variable normal. The null hypothesis indicated that the data set terms are normal; otherwise, reject it since it shows irregularity in the model. As shown in Figure 5.12, the p-value is 0.75474. It shows that the model has been normally distributed.
Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 39 Figure 5.12: Summary of the Testing
Through a series of testing, the model has proved true that it is tolerable, normally distributed and correctly specified. No violation has occurred. The model has shown to have no bias. The OLS regression has the Best Linear Unbiased Estimator. The initial model is now the final model for OLS.
Background Music to Academics Performance | K. Tiu 40 Chapter 6: Conclusion and Recommendation In the result and discussion, two variables (listening to music per week and pop music genre) have shown to have significant effect on the students academic performance. The biological sex whether the student is a male or a female do not really matter when it relate itself to their academic performance. Also, the number of hours studying is insignificant. According to Thompson (2013) that shows the amount of time studying do not affect the performance but the strategies. How the person copes up with the studies like reading the whole book or notes twice or thrice or answering the homework can help the person increase their mastery that help keep up their academic performance. The proponent suggested the study can be improve by add more variables since there can be factors that might be beneficiary which the proponent did not cover. Studies such as one music genre (Rock, Classical and more) to academic performance can be one example. The sampling can be focused in one educational institution.
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