1

Abstract-- A new model of High Impedance Fault (HIF) in

electrical power distribution feeders is introduced in this paper.
Proposed model is based on Emanuel arc model and contains
some features, such as nonlinearity characteristics of HIF and all
frequency components up to 12 kHz. Fast Fourier Transform
(FFT) and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) are used on real
test data to extract and reduce the features. Also Bonferroni
confidence interval is applied for comparing simulated models
with measured currents. This model contains 6 arc models like
Emanuel arc models. Presented model is simulated with
ATP/EMTP and probability switch is used for simulating random
state of HIF feature. 5 models are developed for several
amplitudes of HIF current. All models are accurate for simulation
of HIF current.

Index Terms-- Bonferroni method, High impedance fault
model, Power distribution System, Principal component analysis.
I. INTRODUCTION
igh impedance faults (HIFs), occur at primary network
level in electric power distribution systems when an
overhead conductor breaks or touches a high impedance
surface such as asphalt road, sand, cement or a tree. Because
of high impedance at the fault point, current doesn't cause an
excessive change therefore it is generally difficult for
conventional over-current relay to detect it. When this type of
fault happens, energized high voltage conductor may fall
within reach of personnel. Also, arcing often accompanies
these faults, which poses a fire hazard. Therefore, from both
public safety and operational reliability viewpoints, detection
of HIFs is critically important [1].
Arcing and nonlinear characteristics of HIFs cause a stochastic
nonlinear current, which has certain characteristics in transient
and steady state sections that make them identifiable.
Many researchers propose various detection methods. Some
detection methods are based on experimental data [2-6], and
other methods are based on simulated HIF models [7-15].
An accurate modeling method for HIF is essential for the
development of reliable detecting algorithms. The HIF
models data must contain the complex characteristics of HIF
such as nonlinearity, asymmetry and the low frequency of HIF
currents.

A. R. Sedighi is with the Department of Electrical & computer
Engineering, Yazd University, Yazd, IRAN (e-mail: sedighi@yazduni.ac.ir).
M. R. Haghifam is with Faculty of Electrical & Computer Engineering
Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, IRAN (e-mail:
haghifam@modares.ac.ir).
Many models are introduced with respect to some HIF features
as explained in the next section.
In order to obtain a good model for HIF in this paper, the 40
experimental data were collected on a 20 kV distribution
network with sampling rate of 24.670 kHz.
The proposed model is applied based on previous experiments
and some new features that were extracted from collected data.
Some HIF models are explained in the next section, in the
third section a background of proposed method of HIF models
are introduced. HIF data collection is explained in the forth
section and the fifth section shows HIF model and simulation
method. Results are shown in the sixth section.

II. REVIEW OF HIF MODELS
HIF models can be dividing in two groups. The first group
is based on Emanuel model that was introduced in 1990, [8].
The other HIF models can be placed in the second group.
Emanuel model is based on laboratory measurements and
theoretical components. As shown in Fig. 1, the arc is modeled
using two DC sources, connected as anti- paralleled by two
diodes.









Fig. 1. The Emanuel arc model

In 1993, for consideration of nonlinearity in earth
impedance, resistance and inductance of Emanuel model were
exchanged with two nonlinear resistances [9]. Fig. 2 illustrates
that model.
Based on the arc theory, a realistic model of HIF embracing
nonlinear impedance, time-varying voltage sources and
transient analysis of control system (TACS), controlled switch,
as shown in Fig. 3, was introduced in 1998 [10].
A simplified Emanuel model was introduced in 2003. As
shown in Fig. 4 the model has two unequal resistances that
represent asymmetric fault currents [12].
In 2004, a simplified 2-diode HIF model was introduced in
[13], as shown in Fig. 5. This model consists of a nonlinear
Simulation of High Impedance Ground Fault
In Electrical Power Distribution Systems
A. R. Sedighi, Member, IEEE, and M. R. Haghifam, Senior Member, IEEE
H
2010 International Conference on Power System Technology
978-1-4244-5940-7/10/$26.002010 IEEE
2
resistor, two diodes and two dc sources that change amplitudes
randomly every half cycle.













Fig. 2. The introduced HIF model in 1993


















Fig. 3. The HIF model based on arc essences












Fig. 4. The introduced HIF model in 2003

Another HIF model was introduced in 2005, as shown in
Fig. 6. It contains two diodes and polarizing ramp voltages to
control arc ignition instants. The arc model consists of linear
resistor (representing the ground path resistance), the nonlinear
time varying resistor r(t) (representing the dynamic arc) as well
as DC and AC sources. The sources ensure asymmetry of the
arc current and voltage (DC sources) and variable arc ignition
and quenching point (AC sources) [14].











Fig. 5. The HIF model based on two diodes and two variable sources















Fig. 6. The introduced HIF model in 2005

As shown in above figures, all models are based on
Emanuel arc model and researchers have tried to complete it
and come up to a better model for HIF. Also in this paper a
new HIF model is introduced by using the Emanuel arc model.
Some other types of HIF models are introduced in [11,15,16].

III. BACKGROUND OF THE PROPOSED METHOD

In this section the Principal component analysis and
Bonferroni method are used as mathematical methods and the
proposed model are addressed.
A. Principal component analysis
Principal component analysis (PCA) is a simple linear
transformation technique that compresses high-dimensional
data with minimum loss of data information. Principal
component analysis (PCA, also called KL transformation) is
one of the most widely used dimension-reduction techniques in
most practical cases. PCA finds the linear subspace that best
represents data without using information of class labels,
which is usually called unsupervised dimension reduction
method. In PCA a vector is first decomposed into a linear
combination of orthogonal basis functions in which the
combination coefficients are uncorrelated, and then the
dimension of the feature vector is reduced. More details are
explained in [17-18].
3
B. Bonferroni method
The Bonferroni method is a simple method that allows
many comparison statements to be made (or confidence
intervals to be constructed) while still assuring an overall
confidence coefficient is maintained.
This method applies to an ANOVA situation when the
analyst has picked out a particular set of pair wise comparisons
or contrasts or linear combinations in advance. This set is not
infinite, as in the Scheff case, but may exceed the set of pair
wise comparisons specified in the Tukey procedure.
The Bonferroni method is valid for equal and unequal
sample sizes. We restrict ourselves to only linear combinations
or comparisons of treatment level means (pair wise
comparisons and contrasts are special cases of linear
combinations). More details are explained in [19].
IV. HIF DATA COLLECTION

In this research HIF current data was gathered from tests on
a real network [2-4]. For HIF data collection a radial 20kV
feeder in Qeshm Island, Iran, was chosen for high-impedance
fault tests. Feeder length was 19.5 km and HIF locations were
approximately 8.5km from the source end. The feeder was
energized from another 20 kV feeder through two distribution
transformers (20/0.4 kV, 100kVA) connected back-to-back.
The high- and low-voltage connections of transformers were D
and Y, respectively. The high-voltage sides are connected to
feeders and the low-voltage sides are connected together
through the low-voltage switch. Three phase voltages and
currents were recorded using Hall-effect current transformers
(CT), a resistive voltage divider (PT), power analyzer and
computer. Sampling rate of recorded data was 24.670 kHz and
total recorded time was 15 s for each test. A schematic of the
connections and the site are shown in Figs. 7-8.










Fig. 7. Schematic of instrument connection










Fig. 8. The experiment site
For a HIF test a conductor was connected to one phase of
the feeder and for each test it was dropped to the ground as
illustrate in Figs. 9 and 10. The fault studies were conducted
on seven types of surfaces (wet and dry asphalt, cement and
soil, and dry tree) at two locations, approximately 8209 and
8446m from the site. Three tests were conducted for each type
of surface at each location for a total of 42 data sets. For the
reason that two data set were not recorded correctly, 40 data
sets are used in this work. Faulted phase current signal on
various conditions are shown in Fig. 11.










Fig. 9. Connection of a conductor to one phase.










Fig. 10. Dropping of conductor to earth.

V. HIF MODEL AND SIMULATION METHOD

HIFs have complex characteristics and features. Some of
them are listed in the following. These features are based on
research and considerations that were presented in previous
papers [11,20].

- Nonlinearity phenomena of ground impedance affect
HIF current curve. Fault current grows to its
maximum value in about 50~60 ms. The most
noticeable fact is that the initial current is only about
60% of the final value and it grows to the final value
in about three to four cycles. This reducing in initial
current is due to a smaller effective initial contact
between the conductor and the ground. When the
contact area is small, as via a small arc, the density of
the current at the arc/ground interface, and hence the
voltage gradients will be large. This will result in
localized arcing and ionization. The arc will then
penetrate the ground between the earth particles and
thus enlarging the effective contact with the ground.
That is, when a conductor arcs to the ground surface,
the arc will not stay terminated at exactly the surface
4
of the ground, but will cause ionization within the
earth and so penetrates the ground, thus enlarging the
effective area of the equivalent electrode.
- The earth resistance is another character of HIF
nonlinearity of the current, which is affected by the
quality of the earth, genus and its humidity.
- The voltage and current of HIF have the same phase,
so resistance is inherent in HIF.



(a)





(b)





(c)





(d)





(e)






(f)





(g)





Fig. 11. HIF current curves on different surfaces. (a) Dry asphalt. (b) Wet
asphalt. (c) Dry cement. (d) Wet cement. (e) Dry soil. (f) Wet soil. (g) Dry
wood.
- The voltage-current characteristic curve of HIF is
nonlinear.
- Fault current has different waveforms for positive and
negative half cycle.

This paper presents a modeling method for representing the
above mentioned characteristic of HIFs. Also this model
supports all frequency components of the recorded HIF current
from various experimental data on a distribution system that
was explained in the previous section. The introduced model
simulates the first eight cycles of HIF current.
In many previous researches, the models were based on
Emanuel arc model and researchers changed the model
parameters and came up with HIF current. This paper pays a
very special attention to HIF. When a broken conductor fell on
earth, some arcs occurred as illustrated in Fig. 12. These arcs
are the bases for the proposed model.











Fig. 12. Arcs in HIF test on cement surface.

Based on Emanuel model the proposed model used several
arc models in parallel where their combination produced HIF
current. Fig. 13 shows this new HIF model.













Fig. 13. New HIF model based on several Emanuel arc model

Random state of HIF is shown using STATISTIC switch
in EMTP. The state of on and off one arc is shown in Fig.13 in
the sixth arc model. Uniform state with 0.01s deviation, is used
for distribution function of statistic switches. Arc parameters
in the introduced model are determined based on recorded
current and voltage data. As shown in Fig. 14 voltage and
current have the same phase after fault occurred and earth
resistance can be derived from it.

5











Fig. 14. HIF current and voltage

V
p
and V
n
, DC voltage source, can be derived from v-i
curve of HIF as introduced in Fig. 15, based on explanation in
[8].












Fig. (15): v-i curve of HIF

By using switch time regulation and other parameters the
current amplitude in one simulation can be controlled from
60% of the final value to final value after 50~60 ms.
The simulated current and recorded current were compared
as explained in the following:
1. The first eight cycle of recorded current with sampling
rate 224.67 kHz are used.
2. Using FFT, all frequency components (2048) are
extracted.
3. Based on main frequency component all amplitudes are
normalized.
4. The number of extracted features at this state are 4096
(amplitude and phase).
5. The features are reduced to 38 using PCA, saving
98.3% of the energy.
6. For mean of each 38 features, Bonferroni intervals were
calculated with = 0.0001.
7. For simulated current, steps 1~5 are repeated.
8. If all 38 simulated current features in step 7, fall with in
the Bonferroni interval in step 6, then the simulated
current is like HIF current. Otherwise some parameters of
HIF model will be modified and go to step 7.

With respect to above program five model that simulate
HIF current with different amplitude are introduced.

VI. RESULTS

With respect to previous section explanation, 5 separated
models for HIF current are introduced with several amplitudes
(9~90 A) for various surfaces. In each HIF model six arc
models are used. All parameters for each arc model are
obtained based on recorded HIF current. STATISTIC
switches with uniform distribution are used for access to
random state of HIF current.
Several sample of five simulated HIF current are illustrated
in Fig. 16







(1)




(2)




(3)





(4)



(5)

Fig. (16): simulated HIF currents

Fig. 17 shows several result for model #1.



0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 [s]
-50.0
-37.5
-25.0
-12.5
0.0
12.5
25.0
37.5
50.0
[A]
Simulated HIF Current
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 [s]
-60
-34
-8
18
44
70
[A]
Simulated HIF Current
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 [s]
-90
-60
-30
0
30
60
90
[A]
Simulated HIF current
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 [s]
-8
-5
-2
1
4
7
10
[A]
Simulated HIF Current
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 [s]
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
[A]
Simulated HIF Current
6







(a)







(b)







(c)







(d)







(e)

Fig. 17. Several result for model #1.

Fig.18 shows voltage and current of the first state in a
curve, as shown voltage and current have the same phase after
fault occurred.








Fig. 18. Simulated HIF voltage and current of the first state

v-i curve of simulated HIF for the first state is shown in
Fig. 19
All parameters for 5 presented models and their arcs are
shown in table 1.








Fig. 19. Simulated HIF v-i curve of the first state


TABLE 1: ARCS PARAMETERS OF HIFS MODELS






























As explained, each arc is connect to the model with a
statistical switch that has mean time as show in table 1 with
uniform distributed function and 0.01 second duration.

VII. CONCLUSION

In this paper a novel HIF model is presented. This new
model is based on Emanuel arc model. Several arc models are
used together until simulated HIF currents are similar to real
recorded HIF currents. FFT is used for feature extraction and
PCA for their dimension reduction. Simulated and recorded
currents are compared with Bonferroni interval. EMTP is used
for simulation of HIF model and statistical switches are used
for producing random HIF current.

Vn Vp Rn Rp
t(ON/O
ff)
paramet
er
4500 4000 1050 1000 0.06 Arc1
s
t
a
t
e


1

8100 8000 3000 2900
0.07/
0.11
Arc2
7600 7500 3550 3500 0.09 Arc3
10500 10000 3750 3700 0.1 Arc4
1300 1000 4010 4000 0.08 Arc5
3500 3000 2850 2800 0.13 Arc6
1900 1800 905 900 0.06 Arc1
s
t
a
t
e


2

3500 3000 2850 2800
0.08/
0.13
Arc2
4500 4000 2550 2500 0.12 Arc3
11000 10000 2150 2100 0.14 Arc4
2500 2000 805 800 0.1 Arc5
3550 3050 2900 2850 0.15 Arc6
1000 900 505 500
0.06/
0.18
Arc1
s
t
a
t
e


3

2700 2500 2050 2000 0.08 Arc2
1050 1900 2550 2050 0.12 Arc3
11500 11000 1900 1800 0.14 Arc4
1050 1000 1050 1000 0.1 Arc5
1900 1800 905 900 0.19 Arc6
900 750 300 280 0.06 Arc1
s
t
a
t
e


4
2800 1800 2500 2000 0.1 Arc2
4000 3000 2700 2500 0.12 Arc3
11500 11300 2750 2700
0.14/
0.16
Arc4
1050 950 805 800 0.08 Arc5
11450 11250 2700 2650 0.18 Arc6
10000 9000 1505 1500 0.06 Arc1
s
t
a
t
e


5

9000 8000 9600 9000 0.08 Arc2
11050 11000 7000 6500 0.12 Arc3
12500 12000 6500 5800
0.14/
0.16
Arc4
2050 2000 11100 10000 0.1 Arc5
11500 11000 6200 5300 0.16 Arc6
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 [s]
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
[A]
Simulated HIF Current *
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 [s]
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
[A]
Simulated HIF Current *
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 [s]
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
[A]
Simulated HIF Current *
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 [s]
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
[A]
Simulated HIF Current *
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 [s]
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
[A]
Simulated HIF Current *
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 [s]
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
[A]
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
[kV]
v-i curve of Simulated HIF
7
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Ali-Reza Sedighi (M09) was born in Anarak, Iran, on
September 15, 1968. He received the B.S., degree in
electrical engineering from Isfahan University of
Technology, Isfahan, Iran in 1990 and M.Sc., degree
and Ph.D. in electrical engineering from Tarbiat
Modarres University, Tehran, Iran, in 1994, 2004
respectively all in power engineering. Currently, he is
an Associate Professor in the Power System
Engineering Group at Department of Electrical &
computer Engineering, Yazd University, Yazd, IRAN.
His main research interests are Electric Distribution Systems, Signal
Processing in Electrical Power Systems and Power System Intelligent Control.

Mahmood-Reza Haghifam (M95SM06) was
born in Iran in 1967. He received the BS, MSc and
PhD degrees in electrical engineering in 1989, 1992
and 1995. He joined Tarbiat Modares University as
assistant Prof. in 1965. He is now a Full Professor in
Power Systems at the Tarbiat Modarres University
(TMU), Tehran, Iran He is a Senior Member of the
IEEE (and IEEE Iran Section Industrial relationship officer). Also he is a
research Fellow of Alexander Von Humboldt in Germany. He has been
awarded by DAAD and AvH in 2001, 2006 and 2009 for research stays in
German universities. He was as visiting Prof. in university of Calgary,
Canada in 2003. His main research interests are Power System Restructuring,
Power System Reliability, and Electric Distribution System.