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CULTURE
The meaning of the term culture has changed over time. The first meaning can be found in
writing in the 15
th
century when it was used to refer to the tending of crops or looking after
animals.
By 18
th
century, culture has acquired distinct class overtone. Only the wealthy classes or
Europe could aspire to such a high level of refinement.
The modern meaning of culture, which associates it with the arts, is also closely related to this
definition. In my opinion, nowadays, culture is an image of a society, its the identity. Its mean
the behavior or code of conduct, the lifestyle, and how they understand, feel about or thing
about live.
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
The turning point for the definition of culture was The industrial revolution. It took place in the
19
th
century, when the towns offered a better chance or work and higher wages than the country
side, where many families were trapped in dire poverty and seasonal employment. This
produced a migratory movement from countryside to town.
IMPORTANT PEOPLE
MATHEW ARNOLD (1822-1888)
According to Arnold, culture selects the best of everything and helps in its preservation. It helps
us to be able to judge better, to discover ourselves by bringing us closer to perfection.
He believed this was very much needed in a society obsessed with materialism, competition,
moneybecause culture is needed in order to educate people, not only the upper classes but
the working classes too. For him this was classless and it could only come from a disinterested
search and pursuit of knowledge.
THE LEAVISES (1930s F.R. & QUEENIE LEAVIS)
For them the meaning of Culture was divided into: Intellectual & creative works (High literary
culture) + the pursuits and habits of the ordinary/common people whose was considered the
most undesirable ones in relation to industrial society or products of urban mass.
T.S. ELIOT (1888-1965)
Continued with the idea of cultured elites whose main role was to uphold civilization.
Emphasized the importance and relation of culture as a way of life. This culture can be visible in
the social system, the arts, customs, habits and religion. Asserted that cultures affect each
other.
THE NEW GENERATION: Richard Hoggart, Raymond Williams, Stuart Hall
Understood culture as a whole way of life. Everything is a possible object of study. For them
popular culture appears as a reaction to a social situation in which certain cultures appear as
a rebellion against the dominant culture.
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HISTORYCAL TIME BY SOME PEOPLE.
The historical time to refer to culture was the Italian Renaissance (16
th
century). This "golden
age" represented the apogee of the English Renaissance (Elizabethan times) and saw the
flowering of poetry, music and literature. The era is most famous for theatre (Globe Theater), as
William Shakespeare and many others.
The UK. The British Isles = outdated, used during the 19th and 20th centuries. Calls to mind the
time when Ireland was politically dominated by Britain. The largest island is called GREAT
BRITAIN (England, Wales, and Scotland). The other large one is called IRELAND. British =
everyone in the UK, including Northern Ireland. (English = from England)
The British Isles: Islands. Great Britain, Ireland: the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland
(part of the UK). The Orkney and Shetland Islands: Islands off the northeast coast of Scotland
Hebrides: islands off the northwest coast of Scotland. The Isle of Man: An island in the Irish
Sea. The Isle of Wight: An island off the southern coast of England. Isles of Scilly: An island off
the southwest coast of England. The Channel Islands.
London: Dominates Britain. Is home to: headquarters of all government departments, the
countrys parliament, the countrys legal institutions, and the monarch. The countrys business
and banking center, Centre of its transport network, Headquarters of the national television
networks and national newspapers. The square mile (also known as the City) = original
walled city of London + Westminster, contains main financial organizations. London:
cosmopolitan and untypical. Greatest cosmopolitan city in the UK. More than 300 languages
spoken. Restaurants: cuisine from more than 70 different countries.
Southern England: Area surrounding the outer suburbs of London. Commuter land: inhabitants
travel to London to work every day. Most densely populated area (not city)
County of Kent = the garden of England Many kinds of fruit and vegetables are grown in here).
The Downs: To the south of London. Used for sheep farming. White cliffs of the south coast:
Retired people and Employment = mainly in trade + provision of services.
The West Country: Attractive image of rural beauty in British peoples minds. Some industry and
large city: Bristol. Farming + dairy produce. Cornwall: mild winters, touristy place
East Anglia: North-east of London. Rural, only region in Britain with large uniformly flat land,
also popular area for boating holidays.
The Midlands. Birmingham = Britains 2nd largest city. Industry: iron and steel. Tourism -
thanks to: Shakespeares birthplace (Stratford-upon-Avon), and Nottingham (legend of Robin
Hood)
Northern England: Lead the Industrial Revolution. Towns sprang up on both sides of the
Pennines. End of 20
th
c: high level of unemployment. Typical industrial landscape and rural
landscape interlock. Wild moors in Wuthering heights just 15 Km from Bradford! Lake District
National Park: romantic poets.
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Scotland: Three regions: The southern uplands, The central plain, and The highlands. Local
economy based on tourism + production of whisky. Major cities:
Glasgow - Associated with: Heavy industry, Worst housing conditions, Strong artistic heritage
Edingburgh: Smaller than Glasgow, Has a middle-class image, Capital of Scotland, Associated
with scholarship, the law, administration. Known as The Athens of the North (castle stands on
rock in the middle of the city).
Wales. South-east: heavily populated. In the past, industry: coal mining, but not anymore. Not
very large cities. Cardiff = capital. Mountainous area. Mount Snowdown: largest National Park in
England.
Northern Ireland: Belfast: manufacture of linen, a shipbuilding city. Region: largely agricultural.
Spectacular natural beauty, e.g.: Giants Causeway

HISTORY OF BRITAIN
1. Early Britain: Pre-Norman Britain.
The Iberians (3000 BC) brought their metal-working skills and first real civilization to Britain.
They were overrun by Celtics invasion that began in 8
th
century BC.
The Celts introduced their tribal organization and early form of agriculture but they were forced
westward into Cornwall, Wales, and Ireland by Roman invasion in 48BC by Claudius.
The Romans ruled in Britain for over 200 years and left 3 things of importance: the roads, the
sites of principal cities (London), and the seed of the Christianity. The Latin way of life vanished
after the invasion from Northern Europe by Angles, Saxons, and Jutes.
Christianity was an important factor in enabling the various kingdoms created by the Nordic
invaders to be united under Egbert in the 9
th
century. The Vikings (warriors) first raided England
to plunder it, the in the days of Alfred of Wessex, they began to win lands to plough and to rule.
In the 10
th
century England fell under Danish rule, with King Canute managing to unite the
Anglo-Saxons and Danes at the beginning or 11
th
century.
2. Medieval England (turning point)
William of Normandy defeated the Anglo-Saxon king Harold at the Battle of Hastings in 1066.
He introduced the Norman feudal system, rewarding his French-speakers followers with land.
French and administration remained in the upper classes until 14
th
century.
The power of these Norman Barons increased. During the reign of the Plantagenet began,
together with the Church, to challenge the kings absolute power. King John was forced to sing
Magna Carta at Runnymede in 1215. This document contained a long list of limitations to the
kings power and these rights obtained by the Barons were eventually extended to the entire
population.
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The origins of Parliament are to found in the reign of Henry III. It was a meeting of the King and
his Barons. In order to make it easier to put the decisions into practice, each Shire had to elect a
number of knights to attend these meetings and report the decision to their Shire.
Edward I continued with this and in 1295 called a parliament the Model Parliament, at which
barons, clergy, knights, and burgesses were present. The House of Commons resulted from
the unofficial meetings of the knights and burgesses, and the person chose to speak for these
commoners became known as the Speaker.
The Hundred Years War fought between France and England had a devastating effects on the
English economy. The high taxes and the Black Dead (1348) led to such extreme hardship for
the peasant class that there was a revolt in 1381.
Peasants revolt was soon put down, it led to greatly improved conditions for the peasants class
and was the first step to end of the feudal system in England.
Tudor England
A long power struggle (1455-85) began for the English Crown between two families: the House
of Lancaster and the House of York. The War of the Roses (both families used a rose as their
symbol) ended when Henry VII (Henry Tudor) united the two rival houses, giving origin to the
Tudor dynasty.
The medieval period came to a close. The power of the towns, with their educated and
industrious middle classes, began to make itself felt. The printing press ended the Churchs
monopoly of learning. It was Renaissance time.
Henry VIII was ambitious and he used the Parliament to establish himself as the head of the
Protestant Church of England with the Act of Supremacy in 1534. There was general support on
the part of the English people and his Reformation led to the creation of the religiously distinct
Anglican Church. The dissolution of the monasteries served to destroy papal authority in
England.
Elisabeth I (1558-1603) was an outstanding rules. She restored national unity. Her reign is
considered as the Golden Age of English history, producing not only poets like Shakespeare
and Spencer, but also prosperity for the entire nation. The discovery of America placed Britain
at the center of the words trading routes. Parliament was regularly called and consulted.







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