Physics 121 Lesson Notes: Natural Magnetism and Electromagnetism

Magnets
When a bar magnet is dipped into iron filings, the filings are attracted to it, accumulating
most noticeably around regions at each end of the magnetthe poles. When the bar magnet is
allowed to rotate freely the pole that tends to seek the northerly direction is called the north-
seeking pole, or simply, the N-pole. The other is called the south-seeking pole, or S-pole.
By placing two bar magnets first with similar poles together, then with opposite poles
together, you can demonstrate the law of magnetic poles Figure 1!"
Magnetic Fields
Since an iron filing e#periences a force when placed near a magnet, then, by definition,
a magnet is surrounded by a magnetic force field. This field is often detected by its effect on a
small test compass magneti$ed needle!. %t is &isually depicted by drawing magnetic field lines
that show the direction in which the N-pole of the test compass points at all locations in the field.
'#perimentally, the lines in a magnetic field can easily be traced by sprinkling iron filings on a
sheet of paper placed in the field. The filings beha&e like many tiny compasses and line up in the
direction of the field at all points. They produce a (picture) of the magnetic field, as shown in
Figure 2.

Since iron filings ha&e no marked north or S-poles, they re&eal only the pattern of the
magnetic field lines, not their direction Figure 3!. The relati&e strength of the magnetic field is
indicated by the spacing of ad*acent field lines" where lines are close together, the magnetic field
is strong.

(a) Similar poles face each other.
(b) Opposite poles face each other.
+
The magnetic field at any point is a &ector ,uantity, represented by the symbol B. The
magnitude B is gi&en by the magnitude of the tor,ue or turning action! on a small test compass
not aligned with the direction of the field. We will make a more precise definition of B later in
this chapter, when we e#amine electromagnetism.
The characteristics of magnetic field lines are summarized below.
-. The spacing of the lines indicates the relati&e strength of the force. The closer
together the lines are, the greater the force.
.. /utside a magnet, the lines are concentrated at the poles. They are closest
within the magnet itself.
0. By con&ention, the lines proceed from S to N inside a magnet and from N to
S outside a magnet, forming closed loops. 1 plotting compass indicates these directions.!
2. The lines do not cross one another.
Note that the magnetic field around a bar
magnet is three-dimensional in the diagram shown it
does not e!ist "ust in the hori#ontal $lane%
Earths Magnetic Field
1 pi&oted magnet will rotate and point north3south because of its interaction with the
magnetic field of 'arth. 1s early as the -4th century, Sir William 5ilbert, the distinguished
'nglish physicist, had de&ised a model to describe 'arth6s magnetism. 7e determined that
'arth6s magnetic field resembled the field of a large bar magnet, inclined at a slight angle to
'arth6s a#is, with its S-pole in the northern hemisphere. Figure &'a( shows this field and the bar
magnet that was thought, in 5ilbert6s time, to be responsible for it.
(a) The magnetic field of Earth closely
resembles the field of a large bar magnet.
(b) Lines of magnetic declination in Canada

1 compass points toward 'arth6s magnetic S-pole, rather than toward its geographic north
pole the north end of 'arth6s a#is of rotation!. The angle, or magnetic declination, between
magnetic north and geographic north &aries from position to position on the surface of 'arth
Figure &'b(!. %n na&igating by compass, the angle of declination for a particular location must
be known so that true north can be determined.
%n addition, 'arth6s magnetic field is three-dimensional, with both a hori$ontal and a
&ertical component. 1 magnetic compass on a hori$ontal surface re&eals only the hori$ontal
component. The angle between 'arth6s magnetic field, at any point, and the hori$ontal is called
the magnetic inclination, or (dip,) and is measured with a magnetic dipping needle Figure )!.
* di$$ing needle is a com$ass $i+oted
at its centre of gra+ity and free to rotate in a +ertical $lane% ,hen
aligned with a hori#ontal com$ass $ointing north- it $oints in the direction of
Earth.s magnetic field% /he angle of inclination is then read directly from the
attached $rotractor%

%nclination and declination charts must be re&ised from time to time because 'arth6s
magnetic field is slowly changing. %t is belie&ed that these changes result from the rotation of the
magnetic field about 'arth6s a#is8 one complete rotation takes about -999 years Figure 0!.
The Domain Theory of Magnetism
1lthough not normally magneti$ed, some ferromagnetic materials, such as iron,
nickel, cobalt, and gadolinium, may become magneti$ed under certain circumstances. 7ow they
are able to ac,uire magnetic properties may be e#plained by the domain theory of magnetism.
:erromagnetic substances are composed of a large number of tiny regions called
magnetic domains. 'ach domain beha&es like a tiny bar magnet, with its own N- and S-poles. When
a specimen of the material is unmagneti$ed, these millions of domains are oriented at random, with
their magnetic effects cancelling each other out, as in Figure 1.
7owe&er, if a piece of ferromagnetic material is placed in a sufficiently strong
magnetic field, some domains rotate to align with the e#ternal field, while others, already
aligned, tend to increase in si$e at the e#pense of neighboring nonaligned domains Figure 2!.
The net result is a preferred orientation of the domains in the same direction as the e#ternal
field!, causing the material to beha&e like a magnet. When the e#ternal field is remo&ed, this
orientation will either remain for a long time or disappear almost immediately, depending on the
material. When magnets are made in this way, they are known as induced magnets.

:igure ;
The atomic dipoles are lined up in
each domain. The domains point in
random directions. The magnetic
material is unmagneti$ed.


Figure 2
The atomic dipoles not the domains! turn so that all
domains point in the direction of the magneti$ing field.
The magnetic material is fully magneti$ed.
The domain model pro&ides a simple e#planation for many properties of induced magnets"
-. 1 needle is magneti$ed by rubbing it in one direction with a strong permanent magnet. This
aligns the domains with the field of the permanent magnet.
.. When a bar magnet is broken in two, two smaller magnets result, each with its own N- and S-
poles. %t is impossible to produce an isolated N- or S-pole by breaking a bar magnet.
0. %nduced magnets made of (soft) iron demagneti$e as soon as the e#ternal field is remo&ed.
'#amples include temporary magnets such as lifting electromagnets. %n contrast, hard steel or
alloys remain magneti$ed indefinitely. These include permanent magnets such as magnetic
door catches. %mpurities in the alloys seem to (lock) the aligned domains in place and
pre&ent them from rela#ing to their random orientation.
2. 7eating or dropping a magnet can cause it to lose its magneti$ation, *ostling the domains
sufficiently to allow them to mo&e and resume their random orientation. 'ach ferromagnetic
material has a critical temperature abo&e which it becomes demagneti$ed and remains
demagneti$ed e&en upon cooling.
<. 1 strong e#ternal magnetic field can re&erse the magnetism in a bar magnet, causing the
former south-seeking pole to become north-seeking. This occurs when the domains re&erse
their direction of orientation by -=9> due to the influence of the strong e#ternal field in the
opposite direction.
4. Ships6 hulls, columns and beams in buildings, and many other steel structures are often found
to be magneti$ed by the combined effects of 'arth6s magnetic field and the &ibrations
imposed during construction. The effect is similar to stroking a needle with a strong magnet,
in that the domains within the metals are caused to line up with 'arth6s magnetic field.
?ibrations during construction aid in the realignment of the domains.
'#ample -! Two iron nails are held to a magnet, as shown in Figure. @redict what will happen
when the nails are released. %f possible, &erify your prediction e#perimentally.
'#ample .! %n the diagrams below, each circle represents a compass. Show the direction of the
needle in each compass.
'#ample 0! %n the diagrams below, draw the magnetic field lines between the ends of three bar
magnets if
a! all the S-poles are close together
b! one N-pole and two S-poles are close together

Small pieces of iron rubbed in one direction with lodestone become magneti$ed. '&en
bringing a piece of iron near a magnet causes the iron to be magneti$ed. Nickel and cobalt, and
any alloy containing nickel, cobalt, or iron, beha&e in the same way. These substances are called
ferromagnetic, and you can induce them to become magneti$ed by placing them in a magnetic
field.
Oersteds Discovery
:or centuries, people belie&ed that electricity and magnetism were somehow related, but
no one could pro&e a connecting link between them. Then, in -=-A, the Banish physicist 7ans
Christian /ersted -;;;3-=<-! disco&ered the connection by accident while lecturing on electric
circuits at the Dni&ersity of Copenhagen./ersted noticed that a compass needle placed *ust below
a wire carrying a current would take up a position nearly perpendicular to the wire while the
current was flowing Figure 1!. When the direction of the current was re&ersed, the compass
needle again set itself at right angles to the wire, but with its ends re&ersed. The effect lasted only
while the current flowed. Euch to his own surprise, /ersted had disco&ered the basic $rinci$le
of electromagnetism.

Magnetic Field of a Straight Conductor
When an electric current flows through a long, straight conductor, the resulting
magnetic field consists of field lines that are concentric circles, centred on the conductor
Figure 3!. Fou can remember the direction of these field lines as indicated by the N-pole of a
small test compass! if you use the righthand rule for a straight conductor!

a! %ron filings re&eal the circular pattern
of the magnetic field around a conductor
with a current.
b! %f the right thumb points in the
direction of the current, then
the fingers curl around the wire
in the direction of the magnetic
field lines.
Eodels of the magnetic field of a straight conductor
'a( %magine the 4 as being the tail of an arrow moving away from you.
'b( %magine the dot as being the tip of an arrow facing you.
5nderstanding 6once$t%
-! Gefer to diagram on the right and fill in the needles by showing
which direction are they pointing if current is applied in the
circuitH
.! Figure shows three current-carrying conductors with their
magnetic fields. %ndicate the direction of electric current in
each wire.
0! Figure shows three conductors with the direction of the electric current. Braw magnetic field
lines around each, indicating polarities where applicable.
2! Choose the diagram from below that best illustrates the strength of the magnetic field
surrounding a conductor. '#plain your answer.
7etermine the magnetic field around a current carrying straight wire
To determine the magnitude of the magnetic field strength, we use the formula
Where B is the magnetic field strength generated by the current.
I
o
is a constant, called the permeability of free space,
I
o
J 2 K # -9
81

"
m T
% is the current through the wire
G is the distance to the conductor.
'#ample -!What is the magnetic field strength -< cm from a ling straight conductor with a
current of 49 1 flowing through itH
'#ample .! What current is flowing through a straight wire if the magnetic field strength 0< cm
from the wire is 4.2 # -9
8 0
TH
'#ample 0! What is the magnetic field strength at a point midway between two long parallel
wires, -.9 m apart, carrying currents of -9 1 and .9 1 respecti&ely, if the currents are
flowing in the same directionH
'#ample 2! What is the magnetic field strength at a point midway between two long parallel
wires, -.9 m apart, carrying currents of -9 1 and .9 1 respecti&ely, if the currents are
flowing in the opposite directionH
Dnderstanding the concepts.
-! What is the magnetic field strength .9 cm from a ling straight conductor with a current of 49
1 flowing through itH 4.9 # -9
8 )
T
.! What current is flowing through a straight wire if the magnetic field strength -9 cm from the
wire is ..2 # -9
8 )
TH -. 1
0! 1t what distance from a straight conductor, with a current of .99 1 flowing through it, is the
magnetic field intensity =.9 # -9
8 &
TH <.9 # -9
8 2
m.
2! What is the magnetic field strength at a point midway between two long parallel wires, -.9 m
apart, carrying currents of -9 1 and .9 1 respecti&ely, if the currents are
a! in opposite directionsH -.. # -9
8 )
T
b! in the same directionH 2.9 # -9
8 0
T
<! 1 long, solid, copper rod has a circular cross-section of diameter -9 cm. %t carries a current of
-9991, uniformly distributed across its area. Calculate the magnetic field strength at these
four positions" /ric9y:::!
a! at the centre of the rod 9T
b! ..< cm from the centre ..9 # -9
8 3
T
c! <.9 cm from the centre 2.9 # -9
8 3
T
d! ;.< cm from the centre ..; # -9
8 3
T
Magnetic Field of a Current #oop
When a straight wire is formed into a circular loop, its magnetic field will appear as
shown in Figure 1;. Note that the field lines inside the loop are closer together, indicating a
stronger magnetic field than on the outside of the loop.

Magnetic Field of a Coil or Solenoid
1 solenoid is a long conductor wound into a coil of many loops. The magnetic field
of a solenoid Figure 11! is the sum of the magnetic fields of all of its loops. The field inside the
coil can conse,uently be &ery strong. %f the coil is tightly wound, the field lines are nearly
straight and &ery close together Figure 12!.
Figure 11
a! 1 solenoid
b! %ron filings re&eal the field
lines
in and around a solenoid.
Figure 12
a! When the solenoid is loosely wound, field lines within the coil are cur&ed.
b! The field becomes stronger and straighter inside the coil when the coil is wound
tighter. The right-hand rule for solenoids a corollary of the right-hand rule for a
straight conductor! gi&es the direction of the field inside the coil.
1 solenoid has a magnetic field &ery similar to the field of a bar magnet, with the
con&enient additional feature that the field can be switched off and on. To remember the
direction of the magnetic field of a solenoid, we apply a special right-hand rule for a solenoid"

Note that the right-hand rule for a solenoid is consistent with the right-hand rule
for a straight conductor if we point our thumb along, or tangent to, the cur&ed wire
of the coil.
7etermine the magnetic field at the centre of a current carrying circular loo$s
%f the current carrying conductor is bent into a circular loop, the magnetic field at the
centre of the loop is found using the formula"
,
'#ample -! 1 circular coil has -9 loops of wire with a diameter of -. cm. %f the current flowing
through these loops is <.9 1, what is the magnetic field strength at the centre of this coilH

'#ample .! What is the magnitude of the magnetic field in the core of a solenoid <.9 cm long,
with 099 turns and a current of =.9 1H

'#ample 0! 1n air core solenoid is .< cm long and has -999 loops. %f it has a current of A.9 1,
what is the magnetic field in this solenoidH
Understanding Concepts.
-! 1 circular coil has a diameter of A.9 cm and -. loops. %f the current flowing through the coil is
-< 1, what is the magnetic field strength at the centre of this coilH 2%) ! 1;
83
/
.! 1 .<.9 cm solenoid has -=99 loops and a diameter of 0.9 cm. Calculate the magnitude of the
magnetic field in the air core of the solenoid when a current of -..< 1 is flowing. 1%13 ! 1;
82
/
0! 1 circular coil has A loops and a current of =.9 1 flowing through it. %f the magnetic field at
the centre of this coil is -.- # -9
83
T, what is its diameterH ;%;22 m
2! 1 circular coil with -= loops of wire and has a diameter of -. cm. %f the magnetic field at the
center of this coil is 4.. # -9
8&
T, what is the current flowing through the coilH 3%3 *
<! 1n air core solenoid is .< cm long and carries a current of 9.;. 1. %f the magnetic field in the
core is ..- # -9
83
T, how many turns does this solenoid ha&eH )2;
4! 1n air core solenoid is 09.9 cm long and has ;;< turns. %f the magnetic field in the core is
9.-99 T, what is the current flowing through this solenoidH 31 *
;! Two long fi#ed parallel wires are ;.. cm apart and carry currents of .< 1 and -< 1 in the
opposite direction. What is the magnitude of the magnetic field midway between the two
wiresH 2%2 ! 1;
8&
/
=! 1 -2-gauge copper wire has a current of -. 1. 7ow many turns would ha&e to be wound on a
coil -< cm long to produce a magnetic field of strength <.9 # -9
3.
TH )%; ! 1;
2
A! Calculate the magnitude of the magnetic field strength in the core of a coil -9.9 cm long, with
2.9 turns and a current of 4.9 1. 3%2 ! 1;
82
/
-9! 1 coil =.9 cm long, with 299 turns, produces a magnetic field of magnitude -.2 # -9
3.
T in
its core. Calculate the current in the coil. 2%2 *
@hysics -. 'lectromagnetism.
Lesson Notes" Magnetic orce on Moving Charge
Before we start this lesson, let us re&iew the interactions of magnetic fields.

What happens in the case of a pair of parallel current carrying conductorsH
Case %! %n the same direction.
Case %%! %n the opposite direction.



:rom the abo&e diagrams, we ha&e obser&ed that the magnetic field6s set up
plays a big role in the outcome of either force of repulsion or attraction. We recogni$e that the
bigger the magnetic field e#ists between the wires, the bigger the magnetic force occurs.
To determine the magnitude of these attracti&e or repulsi&e forces between the
conductors, we use the following formula"
Where
#
F
J force per unit length,
%
1
and %
2
J the currents in the conductors.

G J the distance between the conductors
'#ample -! What is the magnetic force midway between two wires carrying currents of <.9 1
and =.9 1 in opposite directionsH %f the wires are -< cm apart and 2< cm long.
'#ample .! Two long parallel wires carrying currents of -9.9 1 and -<.9 1 in the same
direction. %f the force per meter on each wire is 2.= # -9
8&
N, how far apart are the wiresH
!ehavior of a current carrying conductor in Magnetic ield.
%n -=.-, following /ersted6s disco&ery of electromagnetism, 'nglish physicist Eichael
:araday -;A-3-=4;! set out to pro&e that, as a wire carrying electric current could cause a
magneti$ed compass needle to mo&e, so in re&erse a magnet could cause a current-carrying wire
to mo&e. Suspending a piece of wire inside a magnetic field which came from a fi#ed magnet,
:araday connected the wire to a battery, and the wire began to deflect.
:araday determined that the magnetic field of a permanent magnet can e#ert a force on
the charges in a current-carrying conductor. Figure 1 shows how the direction of this force is
related to the magnetic field of the conductor and to the e#ternal magnetic field.
To the left of the conductor, the field lines point in the same direction and tend to
reinforce one another, producing a strong magnetic field. To the right, the fields are opposed and,
as a result, tend to cancel one another, producing a weaker field. This difference in field strength
results in a force to the right on the conductor. %f either the e#ternal field or the direction of the
electric current were re&ersed, the force would act in the opposite direction. " more detailed
investigation would show that the actual magnitude of the force depends on the magnitude of
both the current and the magnetic field. These effects are summari$ed in the motor $rinci$le.
Motor Princi$le
1 current-carrying conductor that cuts across e#ternal magnetic
field lines e#periences a force perpendicular to both the magnetic field
and the direction of electric current. The magnitude of this force depends
on the magnitude of both the e#ternal field and the current, as well as the
angle between the conductor and the magnetic field it cuts across.

The magnitude of the magnetic force on a current carrying conductor can
be calculated using"

:
m
J B % L sin M where :
m
J magnetic force
B J magnetic field strength
% J current through the conductor
L J length of conductor
sin M J angle at which the conductor passes through
the magnetic field
'#ample -! 1 conductor 0.. # -9
81
m is placed in a magnetic field of ..-9 # -9
81
T. 1ssuming
the conductor is perpendicular to the magnetic field, and the magnetic force acting on the
conductor is 2.99 # -9
82
N, what is the current flowing through the conductorH
'#ample .! Calculate the magnitude and the direction of the magnetic force on a conductor
which is <.< cm long with a current of 2.9 1 heading North. The conductor is placed
perpendicular to the magnetic field with strength of 0.< # -9
82
T from West to 'ast.
'#ample 0! Calculate the magnitude and the direction of the magnetic force on a conductor
which is =.9 cm long with a current of ;.< 1. The conductor is placed at an angle 09> to the
magnetic field with strength of 0.< # -9
82
T from 'ast to West.
Moving charges in Magnetic ields.
%t is not only current carrying conductors that are deflected by magnetic
fields. Eo&ing charges electrons, protons, and alpha particles! can also be
deflected by magnetic fields. These particles are deflected in the same way as
current carrying conductors. 7owe&er, to determine the direction of the deflection,
you use your left hand rule for negati&e charge electrons! and right hand rule for
all positi&e charges like you did with the current carrying wire in magnetic field.



The magnitude of the deflecting magnetic forces on mo&ing charged particles can
be calculated using"
:
m
J # v B sin M where :
m
J magnetic force
B J magnetic field strength
$ J charge of the particle
v J speed of the particle
sin M J angle at which the particle passes through the
magnetic field
'#ample 2! Calculate the magnitude of the magnetic force on an electron tra&eling at a speed of
0.4 # -9
&
mNs perpendicular through a magnetic field 2..9 T. ..2. # -9
81&
N

'#ample <! 1 proton tra&eling at an angle 0<> to the &ertical line at a speed of ..- # -9
)
mNs
through a hori$ontal magnetic field e#periences a magnetic force of ;.= # -9
81&
N.
What is the magnitude of the magnetic fieldH ..=0 T

Figure ) shows a positi&ely charged particle in a magnetic field perpendicular to its &elocity. %f
the particle were negati&e, its tra*ectory would cur&e the other way, in a
clockwise circle.! %f the magnetic force is the sole force acting on the particle, it is e,ual
to the net force on the particle and is always perpendicular to its &elocity. This is the
condition for uniform circular motion8 in fact, if the field is strong enough and the particle
doesn6t lose any energy, it will mo&e in a complete circle as shown.
Figure )
a! 1 positi&e charge mo&ing at
constant speed through a uniform
magnetic field follows a cur&ed path.
b! %deally, a charged particle will
mo&e in a circle because the
magnetic force is perpendicular
to the &elocity at all times.
We represent these magnetic fields in two-dimensional diagrams by drawing Os for
field lines directed into and perpendicular to the page and dots for field lines pointing out of and
perpendicular to the page. %f the &elocity is perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, then both
the &elocity and the magnetic force are parallel to the page, as in Figure 0%
Figure 0
%n this case, the particle is negati&ely charged, with the magnetic
field directed into the page, perpendicular to the &elocity. To
determine the direction of the magnetic force, point your thumb in
the opposite direction of the &elocity because the charge is
negati&e.
'#ample -!
1n electron accelerates from rest in a hori$ontally directed electric field
through a potential difference of 24 ?. The electron then lea&es the
electric field, entering a magnetic field of magnitude 9..9 T directed into
the page :igure ;!.
a! Calculate the initial speed of the electron upon entering the
magnetic field. 2.9 # -9
0
mNs
b! Calculate the magnitude and direction of the magnetic force on the
electron. -.0 # -9
813
N.
c! Calculate the radius of the electron6s circular path. -.- # -9
8&
m
'#ample .! Calculate the mass of chlorine-0< ions, of charge -.49 # -9
813
C, accelerated into a
mass spectrometer through a potential difference of ..<9 # -9
2
? into a uniform -.99-T
magnetic field. The radius of the cur&ed path is -.0< cm. <.=0 # -9
820
kg.
5nderstanding 6once$t%
-! Betermine the magnitude and direction of the magnetic force on a proton mo&ing hori$ontally
northward at =.4 # -9
&
mNs, as it enters a magnetic field of -.. T directed &ertically upward.
The mass of a proton is -.4;# -9
821
kg.! -.; # -9
81&
N P'Q
.! 1n electron mo&ing through a uniform magnetic field with a &elocity of ..9 # -9
0
mNs PupQ
e#periences a ma#imum magnetic force of <.-# -9
81&
N PleftQ. Calculate the magnitude and
direction of the magnetic field. 9.-4 T Phori$ontal, toward obser&erQ
0! Calculate the radius of the path taken by an < particle 7e
2=
ion, of charge 0.. # -9
813
C and
mass 4.;# -9
821
kg! in*ected at a speed of -.< # -9
1
mNs into a uniform magnetic field of ..2
T, at right angles to the field. 9.-0 m
2! Calculate the speed of a proton, mo&ing in a circular path of radius =.9 cm, in a plane
perpendicular to a uniform -.<-T magnetic field. What &oltage would be re,uired to
accelerate the proton from rest, in a &acuum, to this speedH m proton J -.4; # -9
821
kg!
-.- # -9
1
mNs8 4.A # -9
)
?
<! 1n airplane flying through 'arth6s magnetic field at a speed of ..9 # -9
2
mNs ac,uires a charge
of -.9 # -9
2
C. Calculate the ma#imum magnitude of the magnetic force on it in a region
where the magnitude of 'arth6s magnetic field is <.9 # -9
8)
T. -.9 N