Microbiology and Mycology

I.
INTRODUCTION
1. Microbiology and mycology
Microbiology and Mycology
By Prof. Jassiel Nyengani Zulu, University of Zambia, Department of Biological
Sciences, Lusaka an Dr. !oest Diamon "arisanga, #pen University of $an%ania,
&aculty of Science, $ec'nology an (nvironmental Stuies.
The Three Domains of micorbes
#btaine from 'ttp)**+++.ucmp.berkeley.eu*alllife*t'reeomains.'tml #n
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2. Prereqisi!e Corses or "no#ledge
0n orer to be allo+e to o t'is moule a learner s'oul 'ave acceptable 1ig' Sc'ool
2ualifications or its e2uivalent 2ualifications for entry into University for Biology
Science (ucation as re2uire by t'e University. (3emptions may be e3tene to cases
+'ere pre4entry e3aminations e3ist, or +'ere in4service Biology teac'ers are to be
consiere. Basic kno+lege of structure an function of ifferent cell types +ill be
useful in unerstaning t'e concepts containe in t'is !oule.
!oule Development $emplate 5
$. Time
5.- 'ours, +ill be re2uire to complete t'is moule6 7- 'ours for t'e part ealing +it'
Bacteria, "iruses an Proto%oa an t'e remaining 8- 'ours for t'e part on !ycology.
%. Ma!erial
9ccess to t'e follo+ing materials is necessary to facilitate t'e stuy of t'is !oule)
: 9 'ar copy ;print< an electronic materials, incluing relevant =Ds, =D4>#!S,
vieos, an ot'er relate learning ais.
: >elevant reference te3t books.
: Laboratory e2uipment suc' as a microscope, an autoclave, oven, an incubator
;various temperatures<, Petri plates, materials for bacterial an fungal meia
preparations, various staining c'emicals, ientification manuals an ot'er
laboratory e2uipment an materials for stanar microbiology +ork
: =apacity to facilitate for site visits*fiel trips.
&. Modle Ra!ionale
$'is !oule provies a stuent +it' basic kno+lege of t'e iversity of microorganisms.
$'ese are6 bacteria, viruses, proto%oa an fungi. $'eir biology as it relates to t'eir
economic importance in t'e environment are iscusse in etail. $'e t'eory aspects of
t'e moule +ill be elaborate t'roug' relevant laboratory e3ercises to illustrate t'e
principles an concepts of t'e sub?ect matter. $'e kno+lege attaine +ill en'ance t'e
teac'er@s ability to teac' 1ig' Sc'ool Biology.
II. CONT'NT
(. O)er)ie#
$'is !oule is a stuy of organisms t'at can not be seen +it' t'e unaie eye unless
+it' t'e 'elp of a microscope. $'ey are referre to as microorganisms. !ore commonly
t'ey are calle microbes. $'ese are bacteria, viruses, proto%oa an fungi. 9lt'oug'
viruses are strictly not organisms, t'ey too +ill be iscusse uner t'e same title for
convenience. !ycology +'ic' is t'e stuy of fungi inclues some groups like t'e
mus'rooms +it' macroscopic fruiting structures, +'ic' appear seasonally above t'e
groun. $'e stuy of microbes is calle microbiology. $'e moule starts +it' t'e 'istory
of microbiology6 t'e iscovery of microbes an t'e evelopment of sterile culture
tec'ni2ues, an goes on to e3plore t'e iversity of microbes, t'eir ma?or biological
c'aracteristics an economic importance. (3amples of laboratory e3ercises meant to
familiarise t'e stuents +it' microbiological tec'ni2ues suc' as, meia preparation,
isolation, ientification, culture maintenance, gro+t' measurements, staining tec'ni2ues
an preservation are presente +'erever applicable.
!oule Development $emplate .
O!line
Table 1* !oule =overage an Lecture Sc'eule
+ec!ion +bsec!io
n
To,ic -ors Prac!ical
(.1 -is!ory of Microbiology , Self stuy
(.2 Di)ersi!y of microbes , =ompare electron ;em< micrograp's an
ra+ings of typical representatives of
eac' group
(.$ .ac!eria
A.,.5. Structure, c'aracteristics an
=lassification
8 Stuy t'e ra+ing of Escherichia coli
9n e3amine classification claograms
A.,.. Nutrition 8 Prepare a typical bacterial meium
A.,., Bro+t' an reprouction 8 Stuy gro+t' patterns of ifferent types
of bacteria
A.,.8 Benetics A Self stuy
Laboratory activities
A..,.C (conomic significance
0solation, ientification an
culture tec'ni2ues
A Bacterial effects on plant gro+t' an
effect on milk
(.% /irses
A.8.5 Structure an c'aracteristics , Stuy typical ra+ings of lamba virus
A.8.. =lassification 8 =ompare ra+ings of ifferent structures
of viruses
A.8., Bro+t' an >eprouction A Stuy visit to a virology laboratory
A.8.8 (conomic importance A (ffects on 'umans ;1uman 0mmuno
eficiency synrome<
A.8.C 0solation, culture an
ientification tec'ni2ues
8 Stuy visit to University laboratory for
emonstrations
(.& Pro!o0oa
A.C.5 Structure an c'aracteristics A =omparative pictures an vieos
A.C.. classification , (3amine classification claograms
A.C., Nutrition 8 (3amples of malaria parasites
A.C.8 Bro+t' an reprouction A Life cycle of a malaria parasite
A.C.C 0solation, culture an
ientification
$ec'ni2ues
8 Stuy visit to a researc' institutes for
ientification emonstrations
A.C.A Significance 8 (3ample of a malaria parasite
+b !o!al hors 12
(.( 3ngi
A.A.5 Structure an c'aracteristics A Stuy visit to a University laboratory to
observe prepare slies
!oule Development $emplate ,
A.A.. =lassification of fungi

A Stuy pictures an ra+ings of various
types of fungi
A.A., 0entification 8 Stuy visit to a researc' institutes for
ientification emonstrations
A.A.8 Nutrition A Stuy t'e effects of nutritional
eficiencies on fugal gro+t'
A.A.C Bro+t' C Datc' a vieo emonstrating apical
gro+t' in a typical fungus
A.A.A >eprouction C Pictures an ra+ings of reprouctive
structures
A.A./ (cology 8 Stuy visit to a bre+ing inustry
A.A.7 0solation, culture an
ientification tec'ni2ues
8 "ieo s'o+
+b !o!al hors %2
!oule Development $emplate C
4. 5eneral Ob6ec!i)e7s8
9t t'e en of t'is !oule, t'e learner s'oul be able to6
4.1 escribe t'e biology of microbes in terms of t'eir structure an classification,
gro+t' patterns an reprouction incluing t'eir nutritional nees.
4.2 outline t'e economic importance of microbes.
4.$ escribe t'e ifferent tec'ni2ues in t'e isolation, ientification, an culture of
microbes.
4.% apply t'e kno+lege ac2uire from t'is course in t'e teac'ing of Biological
sciences to 1ig' Sc'ool pupils.
1. +,ecific 9earning Ob6ec!i)es 7Ins!rc!ional Ob6ec!i)es8
Uni! 1* .ac!eria
9t t'e en of t'is unit, t'e learner s'oul be able to6
5. escribe 'o+ bacteria +ere iscovere.
.. iscuss t'e evelopment of t'e culture tec'ni2ue.
,. classify bacteria base on t'eir c'aracteristics
8. e3plain t'e nutritional re2uirements of bacteria.
C. iscuss metabolic activities of bacteria.
A. escribe t'e conitions necessary for optimum gro+t' of bacteria.
/. e3plain t'e genetics of bacteria.
7. e3plain t'e economic importance of bacteria.
E. emonstrate t'e tec'ni2ues use to isolate an stain bacteria for.
Soli agar plate +it' bacterial colonies
'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*Bacteria
>etrieve on ,-*-,*.--/
Uni! 2* /irses
!oule Development $emplate A
9fter going t'roug' t'is unit, t'e learner s'oul be able to6
5. escribe t'e basic structure of viruses.
.. compare an contrast t'e structure of viruses +it' t'at of bacteria.
,. state t'e c'aracteristics use to classify viruses.
8. list t'e ta3onomic groups of viruses.
C. e3plain t'e process of viral reprouction.
A. perform biological tec'ni2ues suc' as primary cell line preparation for viral culture,
pla2ue an 2uantal assays, met'os of counting virions, an 'emagglutination.
/. iscuss t'e economic importance of viruses.
Uni! $* Pro!o0oa
9fter completing t'is unit, t'e learner s'oul be able to6
5. classify proto%oa accoring to t'eir ta3onomic c'aracteristics.
.. iscuss t'e nutritional re2uirements of t'e proto%oa.
,. iscuss t'e p'ysiology an metabolism of proto%oa.
8. apply t'e culture tec'ni2ue use to gro+ proto%oa.
C. e3plain t'e impact of pat'ogenic proto%oa on 'umans.
Uni! %* Mycology
9t t'e en of t'is unit, t'e learner s'oul be able to6
5. classify fungi base on t'eir c'aracteristics.
.. escribe t'e structure of a typical septate 'yp'a of a fungus.
,. iscuss t'e gro+t' pattern of cellular an mycelial fungi.
8. e3plain t'e ma?or types of nutrition among t'e fungi.
C. illustrate t'e ma?or types of reprouction systems among t'e fungi using t'eir life
=ycles.
A. e3plain t'e ifferent moes of nutrition among t'e fungi.
/. e3plain t'e metabolism of carbon in fungi.
7. unerstan culture preservation tec'ni2ues.
E. compare an contrast fungi +it' bacteria.
5-. e3plain t'e economic importance of fungi.
III. T':C-IN5 :ND 9':RNIN5 :CTI/ITI'+
;. Pre<assessmen!
Ra!ionale* $'is pre4assessment is meant to etermine t'e prepareness of t'e learner to
unerstan t'e concepts containe in t'is moule. 9part from assessing t'e learner@s
level of kno+lege in t'e fiel of microbiology an mycology, t'e assessment +ill also
inicate if t'ere is nee for t'e learner to o furt'er reaing before setting out to stuy t'e
moule.
9ttempt t'e follo+ing 2uestions an compare your ans+ers +it' t'e ones given at t'e
en of t'e e3ercise.
!oule Development $emplate /
=es!ions
5. $'e common c'aracteristic of most members of t'e microbial +orl is t'eirF
;a< abunance.
;b< small si%e.
;c< economic importance.
;< ability to cause isease

.. $'e follo+ing electron micrograp' illustrates t'e general morp'ology of a collection
of bacterial cells. D'ic' one of t'e follo+ing groups of bacteria +oul best escribe
t'e organism single out +it' an arro+G
;a< Steptococcu.
;b< Diplobacillus.
;c< Streptobacillus.
;< coccus
>etrieve on .7t' of !arc' .--/.
,. 9n antigen is a substance t'atF
;a< is prouce by t'e bacteria to keep ot'er microbes a+ay.
;b< forms complementary reactions for t'e survival of bacteria.
;c< elicits t'e prouction of specific antiboies.
;< bacteria use for igestion of ot'er organisms.
8. $'e person best kno+n for 'is microscopy +ork on microorganisms isF
;a< 9ntony van Leeu+en'oek.
;b< Louis Pasteur.
;c< Jo'n $ynall.
;< Dar+in.
C. $'e simple staining tec'ni2ue in bacteriology is fre2uently use to ...
;a< ifferentiate bet+een bacterial classes or groups.
;b< etermine t'e si%e, s'ape an arrangement of bacteria.
;c< emonstrate rickettsias locate +it'in t'e 'ost cells.
;< ientify isease causing bacteria
A. !icrobial gro+t' is measure by F
;a< an increase in t'e number of cells in a population.
;b< t'e amount of 'eat prouce by t'e organism in culture.
;c< t'e type of to3in prouce by t'e microbe.
;< t'e si%e of t'e cells in a population.
/. D'at anatomical c'aracteristic s'o+n in t'e electron micrograp' coul be use to
classify t'e organism as a prokaryoteG
>etrieve on .7t' of !arc' .--/.
$'e presence of F
;a< nuclear material not containe in a membrane.
;b< a +ell efine flagellum.
;c< a cell +all.
;< a plasma membrane .
7. $'e Htiter@ of t'e virus, or t'e Henpoint@, is t'e ilution at +'ic' F of t'e inoculate
'osts are affecte or kille.
;a< 5--I
;b< 7-I
;c< C-I
;< 5-I
E. Nucleois are associate +it'F
;a< viruses.
;b< genetic information.
;c< prokaryotes.
;< fungi only
!oule Development $emplate E
5-. Bacteria t'at obtain t'eir energy from inorganic compouns containing iron,
nitrogen, or sulp'ur an not from ecaying organic matter are F
;a< c'emolit'otrop'ic.
;b< 'eterotrop'ic.
;c< autotrop'ic.
;< parasitic.
55. $'e presence of viruses in t'e bloo stream is referre to asF
;a< cell tropism.
;b< a monocytic conition.
;c< viremia.
;< viral contamination.
5.. (ac' virus particle, is calle a F +'en it is on t'e outsie of its 'ost cell.
;a< virion
;b< capsi
;c< p'age
;< nucleoi
5,. $'e s'ape of a virus is etermine by t'eF
;a< nucleocapsi t'at forms its 'ea.
;b< type of nucleic aci it contains.
;c< s'ape of t'e capsi protein.
;< number of nucleic acis in t'e cell
58. $'e protists are of meical importance becauseF
;a< several cause iseases in 'umans.
;b< some are use in t'e manufacture of antibiotics.
;c< protists enter symbiotic relations'ips +it' many organisms.
;< some are use for t'e manufacture of soap.
5C. 9n e3ample of t'e p'ylum >'i%opoa is F
;a< Paramecium spp.
;b< Amoeba proteus.
;c< Plasmodium vivax.
;< Escherichia coli
5A. D'ic' of t'e follo+ing pairs of +ors is misma!chedG
;a< Plasmodium vivax J malaria.
;b< Amoeba spp.J severe iarr'ea.
;c< 90DS J Giardia lamblia.
;< Escherichia coli J tuberculosis
5/. $'e p'ylum Sarcomastigop'ora F
;a< consists of intracellular parasites.
;b< inclues bot' flagellate an amoeboi parasites.
;c< is compose of ciliate parasites.
!oule Development $emplate 5-
;< comprises amoeboi parasites only
57. D'ic' of t'e follo+ing illnesses is cause by %ooflagellatesG
;a< Biariasis, leis'maniasis, sleeping sickness
;b< $ric'omoniasis, malaria, lambliasis
;c< &lagellate iarr'ea, embaomonas, leis'maniasis
;< &lagellate iarr'ea, lambliasis, leis'maniasis.
5E. &ungi are classifie accoring toF
;a< t'e type of coniia prouce
;b< t'eir mycelial resemblance.
;c< t'eir morp'ological similarities.
;< similarity in t'eir gro+t' patterns.
.-. #ne group of fungi is calle t'e H0mperfect fungi@. D'at oes t'e term meanG
;a< &ungi t'at o not prouce a %ygospore in t'eir life cycle.
;b< &ungi in +'ic' se3ual reprouction 'as not been observe.
;c< &ungi t'at cause iseases.
;< &ungi t'at emonstrate bot' ase3ual an se3ual reprouction
.5. Stuy t'e organisms gro+ing out of a tree trunk very carefully an ans+er t'e
2uestion t'at follo+s.
'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*ungus
>etrieve on .7*-,*.--/
$'e organism s'o+n in t'e picture is F.
;a< an 9scomycete.
;b< a Zygomycete.
;c< a Basiiomycete.
;< an #omycete
... $'e follo+ing picture illustrates blue c'eese t'at is veine +it' a fungus calle
Penicillium roquefori.
'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*9scomycota
>etrieve on .7*-,*.--/.
D'at message oes t'e picture above get acrossG
;a< &ungi play an important role in t'e processing of foo.
;b< &oo infecte by fungi is renere unpalatable.
;c< 9ll foo types t'at are infecte +it' a fungus go to +aste.
;< ='eese gets easily infecte +it' fungi.
Pre<assessmen! :ns#er "ey
5. ;b< is t'eir small si%e
.. ;b< Diplobacillus
,. ;c< t'at elicits t'e prouction of specific antiboies
8. ;a< 9ntony van Leeu+en'oek
C. ;b< etermine t'e si%e, s'ape an arrangement of bacteria
A. ;a< is an increase in t'e number of cells in a population
/. ;a< nuclear material not containe in a membrane
7. ;c< is t'e ilution at +'ic' C-I of t'e inoculate 'osts are affecte or kille
E. ;b< genetic information
5-. ;c< autotrop'ic c'emolit'otrop'ic
55. ;c< viremia
5.. ;a< virion
5,. ;c< t'e s'ape of t'e capsi protein
58. ;a< several cause iseases in 'umans
5C. ;b< Amoeba proteus
5A. ;c< 90DS J Giardia lamblia
5/. ;b< inclues bot' flagellate an amoeboi parasites
57. ;a< giariasis, leis'maniasis, sleeping sickness.
5E. ;a< t'e aspects of t'eir se3ual life cycle
.-. ;b< se3ual reprouction 'as not been observe
.5. ;c< Basiiomycete
... ;a< &ungi play an important role in t'e processing an prouction of foo suc' as
c'eese an yog'urt.
!oule Development $emplate 5.
Microbiology and Mycology Pre<assessmen!
$'is pre4assessment is ra+n from 9vance 1ig' Sc'ool Biology content. 0f you score
A-I an belo+, it is recommene t'at you o more relevant reaing to familiari%e
yourself more +it' t'e contents of t'is !oule. $'e follo+ing are some of t'e +ebsite
pages t'at +ill en'ance your unerstaning of some of t'e concepts covere.
12. 9':RNIN5 :CTI/ITI'+.
9earning :c!i)i!y
Ti!le of 9earning :c!i)i!y* 'lemen!s of .ac!eriology
+mmary of !he 9earning :c!i)i!y*
0n t'is activity, you +ill learn about t'e 'istory of microbiology an appreciate t'e
iscoveries of microbes, microscopes an t'e evelopment of t'e sterile culture
tec'ni2ue. !icroorganisms are 2uite iverse in t'eir istribution, appearance, p'ysiology
an metabolism, incluing t'eir genetics. Bacteriology is a branc' of microbiology,
+'ic' eals +it' bacteria, +'ic' can be classifie on t'e basis of t'eir structure, cellular
metabolism or ifferences in t'eir cellular c'emistry. 1o+ever, classification base on
t'ese parameters 'as limitations in use as a ifficulty arises +'et'er t'e separation of
bacteria is bet+een species or bet+een strains of t'e same species. 9 more reliable form
of bacterial classification uses molecular systematics base on genetic tec'ni2ues. 9s a
result of t'is +ork prokaryotic microbes are ta3onomically ivie into t+o groups calle
.ac!eria an :rchaea, 'aving evolve inepenently from a common ancestor. Some
c'aracteristics of bacteria suc' as 'ig' reprouctive rates, ability to colonise e3tremes of
environmental conitions an t'e formation of +eat'er resistant structures suc' as
enospores make bacteria a 'ig'ly successful group of organisms. Bacteria use flagella to
move about in t'e environment. $'ey nee a film of +ater to ac'ieve t'is. Some
mutualistic bacteria 'ave t'e capacity to use butyric aci or propionic aci in t'e
environment emitting 'yrogen as a by prouct, +'ic' 9rc'aea assimilate for t'eir
metabolic reactions. #t'er+ise t'e 'yrogen +oul accumulate in t'e environment an
t'e bacteria +oul not survive. $'e 'uman gut carries t'ousans of species of bacteria as
symbionts. $'e gut flora is useful as it en'ances gut immunity, contributes to prouction
of vitamins, 'elps to convert milk protein to lactic aci incluing assisting +it' t'e
fermentation of ot'er+ise inigestible comple3 carbo'yrates. Some soil bacteria can
convert atmosp'eric nitrogen into nitrogenous compouns creating a form of nitrogen
t'at can easily be absorbe by plants, +'ic' can not fi3 nitrogen t'emselves. Bacteria
also e3'ibit a parasitic moe of e3istence, +'en t'ey cause isease in 'umans suc' as
typ'oi fever, tuberculosis, etc, leaing to many eat's. Bacteria also cause isease in
plants resulting in tones of annual crop losses in t'e agricultural inustry. Bacteria 'ave
also been eliberately e3ploite by 'umans in a number of beneficial +ays, espite t'e
fact t'at t'ey can be 'armful. $'erefore, Bacteria 'ave 'a, an continue to 'ave, an
enormous impact on life on t'e planet eart'. $'ey are a virtue as +ell as a curse.
$'e kno+lege gaine from t'e literature +ill be supporte +'en you can visit a number
of institutions an organisations t'at culture or +ork +it' microorganisms suc' as +ater
!oule Development $emplate 5,
treatment plants, +aste treatment plants, researc' centres, 'ospitals an t'e like. Kour
stuy visit +ill be follo+e by submission of a report on t'e visit. >ecor your
observations an relate your e3periences to t'e t'eoretical founations from t'e literature
revie+.
"ey conce,!s*
5 .ac!eriology* 9 branc' of microbiology +'ic' eals +it' t'e stuy of bacteria.
.. 'ndos,ores* 1ig'ly resistant ormant structures forme by certain genera of Bram4
positive bacteria suc' as Bacillus, Clostridium, etc.
,. Plasmids* Small DN9 fragments foun in some bacterial cells. Plasmis sometimes
carry genes for resistance to antibiotics.
8. Con6ga!ion* #ne of t'e genetic recombination, +'ere one bacterium passes
DN9 to anot'er t'roug' a tube ;t'e se3 pilus< t'at ?oins t'e t+o temporary ?oine
cells.
C. Chemos!a!* 9 evice use in a continuous culture of bacteria so as to maintain a
bacterial population at a constant ensity in a situation t'at is, in many +ays, similar
to bacterial gro+t' in natural environments.
A. Microsco,y* 9ny tec'ni2ue t'at uses a microscope or any ot'er tool for proucing
visible images of structures or etails too small to be seen by t'e 'uman eye.
9is! of rele)an! readings*
5. 9lcamo, 0. (. .--5. &unamentals of !icrobiology. A
t'
e. !enlo Park,
=alifornia) Ben?emin =umming.
&unamentals of !icrobiology. Souners =ollege Publis'ing, Dest Das'ington
S2uare, P'ilaelp'ia, P9 5E5-C.
.. &robis'er, !., 1insill, >.D., =rabtree, L.$. an Boo'eart, =.>.5E/8.
,. Nester, (.D., 9nerson, D.B., >oberts ;Jr<, =.(., Pearsall, N.N. an Nester, !.$.
.--5. !icrobiology) 9 1uman Perspective. !cBra+41ill =ompanies, 0nc.
8. Sc'opf, J.D. 5EEE. =rale of Life) $'e Discovery of eart'@s (arliest &ossils.
Princeton University Press, ,A/ p.
C. 'ttp)**+++.+ikipenia.org*+iki*!icrobiology
A. 'ttp)**en.+ikipenia.org*+iki*Bacteria
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7. 'ttp)**+++.emc.maricopa.eu*faculty*farabee*B0#BL*BioBookDiversity
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E. 'ttp)**+++.+ikipenia.org*+iki*!icrobiology
5-. 'ttp)**+++.stlcc.cc.mo.us*fp*users*kkiser*1istory.page.'tm
9is! of o,!ional readings*
5. Blake, L. et al. .--.. Biology 5.. !cBra+41ill >yerson Lt.
.. !aer, S.S. .--8. Biology. !cBra+41ill =ompanies, 0nc., 5..5 9venue of t'e
9mericas, NK 5--.-.
,. 'ttp)**+++.cbs.tu.k*staff*ave*roanoke*geneticsE7-,-E.'tml 9ccesse on
-A*-8*.--/.
9is! of rele)an! sefl lin>s*
5. 'ttp)**+++.slic..+su.eu)7.*'urlbert*micro5-5*pages*5-5'mpg.'tml
.. 'ttp)**+++.ucmp.berkeley.eu*bacteria*bacterial'.'tml
,. 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*!icroscopy
8. 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*=ategory)LaboratoryMtec'ni2ues
C. 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*=ategory)!icrobiologyMtec'ni2ues
A. 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*DeerM0slanMDasteMDaterM$reatmentMPlant
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cleOa rtMiN.C
!oule Development $emplate 5C
De!ailed descri,!ion of !he learning ac!i)i!y
0n t'is activity, you +ill learn t'at micro means very small, an biology is t'e stuy of
living t'ings. $'erefore, !icrobiology is t'e stuy of small life forms calle
microorganisms or microbes. $'ey are too small to be seen by t'e 'uman eye. $'e
science of microbiology starte +it' t'e invention of a single lens microscope esigne
by 9ntonie van Leeu+en'oek in 5A/A. $'e iscoveries of sterile culture conitions can
be trace to t'e +orks of >obert Lock ;578, J 5E5-< +'o invente met'os to purify t'e
bacillus from bloo samples an gre+ t'em in pure culture on bacterial gro+t' meia.
$oget'er +it' 'is co+orkers Lock invente t'e Petri is' +'ic' +as name after 'is
assistant Julius >ic'ar Petri. $'e culture tec'ni2ues incluing t'e sterili%ation tec'ni2ue
using 'eat +'ic' 'e encourage as a +ay of maintaining sterile conitions contribute
immensely an positively to t'e stuy an gro+t' of microbiology. 0t is +ort'
mentioning t'at Loc' is also famous for t'e Loc'@s postulates +'ic' state t'at6 Hto
establis' t'at an organism is t'e cause of a isease, it must be6 in all cases of t'e isease
e3amine, prepare an maintaine in pure culture, capable of proucing t'e original
infection even after several generations in culture, an be retrievable from an inoculate
animal an culture again. >ea t'e follo+ing +ebsite reference so t'at you can get more
etails about t'e 'istory of microbiology an its tec'ni2ues
;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Koch). $'e stuy of microbiology is broa an
encompasses t'e stuy of many iverse organisms, +'ic' inclue bacteria, viruses,
proto%oa, algae, fungi an multicellular parasites.
!ake reference to t'e follo+ing +ebsite to learn about t'e morp'ology of bacteria.
;'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*BacteriaP!orp'ologyP!orp'ology< Bacteria vary a lot
bot' in si%e an s'ape. $'ey measure bet+een -.C4C.- micrometers. $ypically bacteria
'ave one of t'e t'ree s'apes6 ros ;bacilli<, sp'eres ;cocci< or spiral ;spirilla<. 1o+ever,
t'e ro s'ape one can be furt'er ivie into t'ree groupings. "ibrios are curve on
comma s'ape, ot'ers are spirilla +'en t'ey are spiral in s'ape an yet ot'ers are
spiroc'aetes +'en t'ey are tig'tly coile. Using t'e same +ebsite you learn t'at a typical
bacterial cell 'as an outer coat calle a capsule follo+e by a cell +all. 0nner to t'e cell
+all is t'e plasma membrane, +'ic' presses against t'e cytoplasm. $'e cytoplasm
contains ribosomes, plasmis an nucleic aci in t'e form of circular DN9. $'e
istinguis'ing feature about prokaryotic cells is t'at t'eir nucleic aci is not envelope in
a membrane. Bacteria 'ave a +'iplas' flagellum an muc' s'orter pro?ections calle pilli
on t'e outer surface of t'e cell. $'ese structures ai t'e organism to move about in t'e
environment. Bacteria lack most of t'e eukaryotic organelles. (lectron transport occurs
across t'e cell membrane bet+een t'e cytoplasm an t'e periplasmic space.
!oule Development $emplate 5A
Bacteria isplay a large iversity of Diagram of t'e cellular structure of a
morp'ologies an arrangements typical bacterial cell
9ccesse on 5E*-,*-7
Bro+t', +'ic' is an increase in t'e number of cells, is ac'ieve by cell ivision. 9
bacterial cell gro+s up to an optimum si%e an t'en uplicates by binary fission. $'is can
also be regare as a means of ase3ual reprouction for bacteria. Biven optimum
gro+ing conitions bacteria can multiply e3ponentially.
$'e genetics of bacteria is centere on a single circular c'romosome. Plasmis are e3tra
c'romosomal DN9 material t'at may contain genes for antibiotic resistance or inee
factors for virulence.
!ovements in bacteria take ifferent forms. Bacteria use t'eir flagella or pili for
movement. !otile bacteria can be attracte or repelle by e3ternal stimuli. 9n e3ample
of t'is is c'emota3is +'ose etails you cane look up uner t'e follo+ing reference
;'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*='emota3is<
!etabolism in bacteria is calssifie on t'e basis of t'e type of energy ;p'ototrop'y, t'e
use of lig't t'roug' p'otosynt'esis or c'emotrop'y, t'e use of c'emical substances for
energy< use for gro+t', t'e type of carbon source ;'eterotrop'ic or autotrop'ic< use
an t'e type of electron onors ;lit'otrop's use c'emical onors +'ile organotrop's use
organic compouns onors< use for gro+t'. Detaile reaing can be accesse using t'e
follo+ing +ebsite6 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*Bacteria
Bacteria can survive ba +eat'er an ot'er environmental 'a%ars t'roug' t'e
evelopment of enospores. $'ey 'ave a rigi an impermeable coat +it' cytoplasm,
+'ic' contains DN9 an ribosomes at t'e center. $'ey can lie ormant for millions of
years before t'ey can become active again ;'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*Bacteria) uner
favourable conitions.
$'e economic importance of bacteria inclues bot' t'eir useful an 'armful aspects in
areas of meicine, agriculture an biological stuies suc' as genetic engineering. Kou can
!oule Development $emplate 5/
look up t'e +ebsite ;'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*Bacteria) for more etails.

$'e stuy of bacteria re2uires kno+lege an unerstaning of 'o+ bacteria are gro+n in
culture uner laboratory conitions a+ay from t'eir natural 'abitats. $o satisfy t'is it is
important to kno+ 'o+ to prepare nutrient meia for various fungi. (3tensive researc'
'as etermine t'e nutritional re2uirements of bacteria, an t'is information 'as resulte
in t'e evelopment of numerous gro+t' meia for t'eir cultivation. $'e most common
gro+t' meia for microorganisms are li2ui meia calle, brot' meia an soli meia
calle agar plate meia. >efer to t'e +ebsite
;'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*Bro+t'Mmeium< for etails of types of bacterial gro+t'
meia.
'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*Bro+t'Mmeium
9ccesse on ..*-,*.--7
9n agar plate is an e3ample of a bacterial gro+t' meium. Specifically, it is a streak
plate. $'e orange lines an ots are colonies of bacterial gro+t'.

Bacterial iversity of cell morp'ologies an arrangement
'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*9scomycota
>etrieve on .7*,-*.--/.
$'e stuy of bacteria re2uires goo +orking kno+lege of a microscope as t'e cells of
bacteria are beyon t'e 'uman eye. 9 microscope enlarges an image for t'e 'uman eye to
be able to see t'e etails, +'ic' +oul ot'er+ise not be possible. $'erefore make
reference to t'e follo+ing +ebsite ;'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*!icroscopy< for more
information.
!oule Development $emplate 5E
9earning :c!i)i!ies
1.1 Readings* Kou are re2uire to rea t'e follo+ing references)
: 'ttp)**+++.emc.maricopa.eu*faculty*farabee*B0#BL*BioBookDiversity ..'tml
: 'ttp)**en.+ikipenia.org*+iki*Bacteria
: 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*!icroscopy
: 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*=ategory)LaboratoryMtec'ni2ues
: 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*=ategory)!icrobiologyMtec'ni2ues
: 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*DeerM0slanMDasteMDaterM$reatmentMPlant
: &robis'er, !., 1insill, >. D., =rabtree, L. $. O Boo'eart, =. >. 5E/8.
undamentals of !icrobiology. Nont' (ition. P'ilaelp'ia) Sauners =ollege
Publis'ing.
: 9ny ot'er !icrobiology book, incluing t'ose cite in t'is !oule.
$'ese reaings +ill provie you +it' an overvie+ on t'e 'istorical perspectives an
iscoveries t'at contribute to t'e stuy of microbiology, bacterial morp'ology,
classification, p'ysiology an economic importance.
Drite a brief summary of about 5-- +ors on eac' of t'e follo+ing items)
5. Discoveries of microbes an microscopes.
.. $'e main features for classification of bacteria
,. Selective meia for bacteria
8. 9se3ual an se3ual reprouction in bacteria.
5. Bacterial Benetics
A. $'e importance of bacteria in t'e environment, foo inustry an agriculture
1.2 9abora!ory Prac!ical*
Practical skills are manatory for t'is !oule. Kou are t'erefore re2uire to atten
laboratory practical e3ercises in a central laboratory +'ere you +ill be closely
supervise. $'e practical part of t'is course +ill provie you +it' e3ercises t'at
reflect t'e importance of microorganisms in t'e environment. Be avise t'at
alt'oug' t'e organisms selecte for various e3periments are not kno+n pat'ogens, it
is important to reali%e t'at any organism s'oul be 'anle +it' care because its
potential to be pat'ogenic mig't be unkno+n. 1ence, it is vital t'at before you learn
t'e basic tec'ni2ues necessary for conucting e3periements in a microbiology
laboratory you s'oul unerstan some strict rules an regulations use to ensure
safety in t'e laboratory.
9 number of laboratory e3ercises can be carrie out in microbiology. $'ese may
inclue6 microscopy, aseptic tec'ni2ues, bacterial istribution in efferent
environments, pure culture tec'ni2ues using selective meia, making a simple smear
stain, Bram stain, etc. &or care an use of a microscope, you may visit t'e +ebsite
!oule Development $emplate .-
;'ttp)**+++.slic..+su.eu)7.*'urlbert*micro5-5*pages*5-5lab5.'tml ;9ccesse on
57*-8*.--/< for more information . Belo+ is an e3ample of a laboratory e3ercise)
Title: Culture of bacteria an t'eir c'aracteristics
Kou are re2uire to take samples of +ater, soil, spoile foo incluing any suc'
environment of interest. Stuy t'e morp'ological iversity of bacteria using agar plates.
Use ifferent staining tec'ni2ues to ientify t'e gram positive an gram negative
bacterial types.
Materials:
!icroscope, slies, variety of nutrients, culture plates, incubator, clean benc', Pasteur
pipette, sample slies, alco'ol, autoclave, Laminar flo+ cabinet, inoculating loops, source
of flame for sterili%ation of materials, cotton +ool, mutton clot', muslin clot', ifferent
bacterial stains.
Procedure:
!et'os for t'e follo+ing activities s'oul be learne6 isolation, purification,
ientification, staining an culture maintenance.
Report:
Depening on t'e type of task assigne, you may be re2uire to prepare a report eit'er
from a particular reaing, laboratory e3ercise or a stuy visit. Usually t'e instructor +ill
avise you on t'e format of t'e report. 1o+ever, most scientific reports use t'e follo+ing
format)
5. Ti!le) $'e title s'oul be concise. 0t is a summary of t'e boy of +ork t'at covers t'e
contents of t'e task uner investigation.
.. In!rodc!ion) 9 brief statement of t'e backgroun to t'e sub?ect, its importance an
?ustification for t'e stuy.
,. Ob6ec!i)e7s8) 9 statement of t'e main e3pecte outcomes ;ac'ievements< from t'e
stuy.
8. Me!hods) 9n e3planation of t'e etails of 'o+ t'e ob?ectives are going to be
ac'ieve. $'is is important because someone else s'oul be able to use t'e
escription of your met'os in orer to repeat t'e outcomes of your +ork
C. Resl!s) >esults are better presente in form of pictures tables, grap's, or c'arts.
$'ese s'oul carry a s'ort an clear title, +it' a escription of t'e results.
A. Discssion) 9n opportunity is provie for t'e interpretation of results focusing on
t'e ob?ectives. =omparisons an similarities in t'e results +it' ot'er publis'e
+orks are iscusse an ackno+lege.
/. Conclsions) 9 statement is mae as to +'et'er t'e ob?ectives of t'e e3ercise
'a been ac'ieve.
7. Recommenda!ions) Suggestions are mae about +'at nees to be investigate
furt'er arising from some inconclusive results from t'e +ork.
E. References) all references use in t'e +rite up s'oul be ackno+lege in t'is part
using an accepte international format.
!oule Development $emplate .5
1.$ +!dy )isi!s?+elf +!dies*
0t is important t'at eit'er in groups or as an iniviual, you unertake some stuy tours to
ifferent sample collection sites for t'e stuy of bacteria in ifferent ecological 'abitats.
Plan a visit or t+o to inustries +'ere t'e removal of microorganisms from t'e
environment or t'e inclusion of microorganisms in t'e cultivation of foo proucts is t'e
prime focus in t'e organi%ation. $'e follo+ing +ork centers s'oul be consiere
epening on t'e pro3imity of t'e inustrial activity to your place of resience)
5. 9n 9gricultural =ollege to focus on t'e importance of micoorganisms in t'e
nitrification process of t'e soil ;legume farm< as +ell as t'e pat'ogenic properties of
microorganisms on cas' crops ;plant protection unit< estructive to farming an
relate activities.
.. Dater $reatment Plants as +ell as Daste+ater Disposal Plants to stuy 'o+ rinking
+ater is kept free of microbes ;purification plants< an 'o+ +aste +ater is ispose
off respectively. 9s an e3ample you can rea about $'e Deer 0slan Daste Dater
$reatment Plant ;also kno+n as Deer 0slan Se+age $reatment Plant< run an
operate by $'e !assac'usetts Dater >esources 9ut'ority at t'e +ebsite
'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*DeerM0slanMDasteMDaterM$reatmentMPlant6 retrieve
on t'e -5*-8*.--/.
Ob6ec!i)e* $'e ob?ective;s< of t'e stuy visits are to stuy t'e6
5. importance of bacteria in agriculture.
.. significance of +ater purification for 'ome consumption.
,. importance of proper +aste +ater management
8. effect of pat'ogenic bacteria on cas' crops an airy.
Procedre* $'is +ill also epen on t'e ob?ective of t'e visit itself
Re,or!* Kou +ill be re2uire to +rite a report on t'e activities of your stuy tour.
D'enever applicable, specific met'os employe s'oul also be escribe. Kour report
s'oul follo+ t'e same format escribe uner report +riting of t'e section uner 5..
title Laboratory Practical.
1.% :ssignmen!*
1. Question: Drite a brief essay ;C--47-- +ors< on t'e importance of bacteria in
meicine, agriculture an +ater 2uality.
:ns#er frame#or>* 0n your essay, you may start +it' a escription of +'at bacteria
are, t'eir istribution in t'e environment an a iscussion +it' given e3amples of t'e
effects bacteria 'ave in t'e fiels of meicine, agriculture, an genetic engineering.
.. =es!ion* Briefly escribe t'e met'os of measuring bacterial gro+t'.
:ns#er frame#or>* 1ere you may nee to escribe t'e t+o ma?or met'os) met'os
for measurement of cell mass ;p'ysical measurement of ry +eig't or volume after
centrifugation6 c'emical measurement of c'emical components like nitrogen or DN96
inirect measurement of c'emical activity suc' as rate of carbon io3ie prouction6 or
use of optical ensity<. $'e ot'er met'os are t'ose for measurement of cell numbers
!oule Development $emplate ..
;irect microscopic counts6 electronic counting c'ambers6 an inirect viable cell
counts or plate counts<.
,. =es!ion* (3plain, +it' t'e ai of a iagram, a typical bacterial gro+t' curve.
:ns#er frame#or>* 9 typical bacterial gro+t' curve is represente in t'e figure
bello+. D'en bacteria are gro+n in a close system ;also calle a batc' culture<,
like a test tube, t'e population of cells almost al+ays e3'ibits t'ese gro+t'
ynamics. $'ese are6 t'e lag ,hase ;9< +'en cells initially a?ust to t'e ne+
meium until t'ey can start iviing regularly by t'e process of binary fission, t'e
e@,onen!ial ,hase ;B< +'en t'e cell population gro+s logarit'mically, t'e
s!a!ionary ,hase ;=<, +'en cell gro+t' becomes limite by t'e presence of
seconary metabolites an or t'e epletion of nutrients in t'e gro+t' meium an
t'e decline ,hase ;D < +'en cells stop iviing. Note t'e parameters of t'e 3 an y
a3es. Bro+t' is e3presse as c'ange in t'e number of viable cells over time. $'e
parameter t'at gets manipulate in an e3periment, +'ic' is t'e variable is place
along t'e 34a3is +'ile t'e outcome of t'e e3periment is s'o+n along t'e 34a3is.

3igre* $ypical bacterial gro+t' curve of a batc' culture
1.& 3orma!i)e e)ala!ion*
9ttempt t'e follo+ing 2uestions, +'ic' are aime at testing your compre'ension of
t'is learning activity.
1. 5i)e a descri,!ion of each of !he follo#ing !erms.
: $ranscription.
: Plasmi.
: Biosecurity.
: (nospore.
: !egnetosome.
: 9ntibiotic.
: &imbrae.
: Pilus.
2. Ari!e shor! ans#ers !o each of !he follo#ing*
!oule Development $emplate .,
: Describe a pure culture.
: Describe a pla2ue.
: (3plain t'e significance of magnification in biology.
: Bive at least four e3amples of 'o+ bacteria are significant to 'umansG.
: Define c'emostat.
: D'at are pat'ogenic bacteriaG
: (3plain t'e Bram stain tec'ni2ue
: 1o+ o bacteria spoil fooG
,. =lassifying bacteria on t'e basis of t'eir morp'ology is e3tremely ifficult.
(3plain.
8. Describe t'e morp'ologial s'apes of bacteria.
C. Describe t'e factors t'at affect bacterial gro+t'.
A. #utline t'e classification of bacteria base on morp'ology an staining.
/. (3plain +'y obligate anaerobes are significant to t'e canning inustry.
7. Differentiate bet+een)
: !esop'ile an t'ermop'ile.
: Preservation an pasteurisation.
: Sporulation an germination.
: Selective meium an ifferential meium.
E. Describe 'o+ you +oul etermine if bacteria are sensitive to an antibiotic.
5-. (3plain +'at occurs uring eac' of t'e four p'ases of bacterial gro+t'.
9earning :c!i)i!y B 2
Ti!le of 9earning :c!i)i!y* The +!dy of /irses
0n t'is activity you +ill learn t'at viruses are clearly muc' smaller in si%e t'an most
bacteria. $'ey possess c'aracteristcs t'at are ifferent from bacterial cells. D'ile bacteria
are living organisms, viruses are non4living agents or particles t'at can infect all forms of
life, incluing members of t'e Bacteria, 9rc'aea an (ukaryotes. Different viruses 'ave
ifferent s'apes. Some are isometric or ro4like an ot'ers are 'elical. "iruses contain
eit'er t'e ribonucleic aci ;>N9< or eo3yribonucleic aci ;DN9<, but never bot', 'ence
t'ey are referre to as eit'er DN9 or >N9 viruses. "irus classification is base on t'e
genomic structure ;>N9 or DN9<, particle structure an t'e presence or absence of a
viral envelope. 0n t'is activity, you +ill learn about t'e ifferent ta3onomic groups of
viruses, t'eir met'os of cultivation, 2uantification ;assay< tec'ni2ues, t'eir reprouction
an finally economic importance. 9 number of +ebsite references 'ave been inclue for
your perusal. 9ll of t'em eal +it' t'e structure an functions of viruses. 9ccess t'e
+ebsite on t'e usefulness of bacteria to 'umansG 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*"irus to
learn more about viruses.
Different structures of viruses
Dra+ing (lectron micrograp'
7a8 0sometric ;aenovirus<
7b8 1elical ;tobacco mosaic virus<
'ttp)**images.google.com*imagesG
gbvN.OsvnumN5-O 'lNenOsaNQOoiNspellOresnumN-OctNres
ultOcN5O 2NtobaccoRmosaicRvirusOspellN5
9ccesse on 58*-8*.--/
!oule Development $emplate .C
;c< =omple3 ;$8 bacteriop'age<
'ttp)**+++.+ikipeia.org*+iki*"irusSStructure
9ccesse on 58*-8*.--/
$'e +ebsite 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*=apsi, accesse on t'e -.*-8*.--/ illustrates
an escribes t'e ifferent types of viruses +it' clarity. $'e introuctory section of t'e
+ebpage e3plains t'e general c'aracteristics of viruses.
"isit t'e follo+ing site t'at +ill provie you +it' t'e Big Picture Book of "iruses. 0t can
be retrieve from 'ttp)**+++.virology.net*BigM"irology*B"&amilyBenome.'tml.
"ey conce,!s*
5. .ac!erio,hage* "iruses t'at infect bacteria ;Hp'ago@ means Hto eat@<. Bacteriop'ages
'ave been stuie e3tensively since bacteria affecte by t'em coul be cultivate
muc' more reaily.
.. /irion* 9 virus particle +'en it is on t'e outsie of its 'ost cell, an consists of
eit'er DN9 or >N9 surroune by a protective cover calle ca,sid.
!oule Development $emplate .A
,. Ncleoca,sid* $'e viral capsi toget'er +it' t'e nucleic aci t'at is tig'tly packe
+it'in t'e protein coat.
8. Cy!o,a!hic effec!* 9re c'aracteristic c'anges of t'e cells@ appearance observe in
tissue culture cells +'en t'ey are attacke by viruses. 0t is one of t'e met'os use to
ientify viruses in culture cells.
C. Ti!er* $'e titer of t'e virus, or t'e enpoint, is t'e ilution at +'ic' C-I of t'e
inoculate 'osts are infecte ;ID&2, infective ose< or kille ;9D&2C let'al ose<.
A. -y,er,lasia* 0s e3cessive cell ivision or t'e gro+t' of abnormally large cells,
resulting in t'e prouction of s+ollen or istorte areas of t'e organism.
5. &robis'er, !., 1insill, >.D., =rabtree, L.$., an Boo'eart, =.>.5E/8.
.. Nester, (.D., 9nerson, D.B., >oberts ;Jr<, =.(., Pearsall, N.N., an Nester, !.$.
,. >aetsky, Peter. 5EE8. $'e 0nvisible 0nvaers) "iruses an t'e Scientists D'o
Pursue $'em. Backbay Books.
8. 'ttp)**+++.+ikipeia.org*+iki*virus ;9ccesse on -5*-8*.--/<.
C. 'ttp)**+++.virology.net*BigM"irology*B"1omePage.'tml 4Book of "iruses.
9ccesse on -5*-8*.--/.
9mericas,
NK 5--.-.
!oule Development $emplate ./
5. 'ttp)**+++.+ikipeia.org*+iki*virus
.. 'ttp)**+++.microbiologyte3t.com*ine3.p'pGmouleNBookOfuncNtocObookMiN8
,. 'ttp)**+++.virology.net*BigM"irology*B"1omePage.'tml
0n t'is activity you +ill learn t'at viruses pose a mystery to scientists as recently as C-
years ago, an stuies on viruses +ere carrie out using viruses t'at infect bacteria ;so
calle bacteriophage or phage<. Bo to 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*Bacteriop'ages to
learn more about bacteriop'ages. 9ccoring to t'is +ebsite ;accesse on t'e .*8*.--/< a
large iversity of p'age structures an functions e3ist. Since viruses are nonliving, t'ey
are commonly referre to by t'e organisms t'ey infect6 an eac' virus particle, often
calle a virion, consists of nucleic aci ;DN9 or >N9< surroune by a protective
protein coat, t'e capsid ;see 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*=apsi, retrieve on t'e
.*8*.--/". $'e most +iely use classification criteria for animal viruses are base on a
number of c'aracteristics) i< genome structure, ii< particle structure, an iii< presence or
absence of viral envelope. Base on t'ese criteria, animal viruses are ivie into a
number of families, +'ose names en in Jviriae ;58 families of >N94containing viruses
an / families of DN94containing viruses<. #t'er non4ta3onomic groupings of viruses
inclue6 animal, plant or bacteria4infecting viruses. $'e groupings are base on t'e route
of transmission ;enteric, respiratory, se3ually transmitte, etc<. $'e primary ifficulty in
stuying animal viruses is not so muc' in purifying t'e virions as it is in obtaining
enoug' cells to infect t'e 'ost tissue. Some viruses can only be cultivate in t'e living
tissues of animals. #t'ers may be gro+n in embryonated chic#en eggs. D'en animal
viruses can be gro+n in isolate animal cells, t'e 'ost cells are cultivate in t'e
laboratory by a tec'ni2ue calle cell culture or tissue culture. 0n orer to 2uantify t'e
amount of virus present in any sample, t'e met'o commonly use is kno+n as t'e
plaque essay. 9 number of ot'er met'os can be use for 2uantifying t'e number of
virions in a sample. $'ese inclue t'e counting of virions using an electron microscope,
quantal essays, an in t'e case of some animal viruses, t'e hemagglutination met'o is
use. "iruses are intracellular obligate parasites, +'ic' means t'at t'ey cannot reprouce
or e3press t'eir genes +it'out t'e 'elp of a living cell. $'e process of reprouction in
viruses is ivie into five stages as follo+s6 attac'ment ;asorption<, penetration,
replication, assembly an release. "iruses attack a number of plants an animals, causing
enormous economic loss. &or e3ample, t'e +ebsite
'ttp)**en.+ikipenia.org*+iki*Porcine>eprouctive an >espiratory "irus e3plains 'o+
t'e Porcine >eprouctive an >espiratory Synrome "irus ;P>>S"< 'as cause
enormous financial an economic losses in t'e US9.
$'ere are several possible conse2uences to a cell t'at is infecte by a virus, an
ultimately t'is may etermine t'e pat'ology of a isease cause by t'e virus. 1o+ever,
viruses are also beneficially use in t'e prouction of vaccines, as gene carriers in t'e
prouction of genetically moifie organisms, an ot'er molecular stuies of a cell.
'ttp)**images.google.com*imagesGgbv
9ccesse on 58*-8*.--/
9earning :c!i)i!ies
2.1 Readings* &or t'is activity you 'ave to rea t'e follo+ing references)
5. Belerblom, 1. >. ;5EEA<. Structure an =lassification of "iruses in !eical
!icrobiology $th ed. Samuel Baron es. $'e University of $e3as !eical
Branc' at Balveston ;see reference) 'ttp)**+++.ncbi.nlm.ni'.gov*books*bv.fcgiG
Nmme.c'apter...C.<
.. Prescott, L. ;5EE,<. !icrobiology, Dm. =. Bro+n Publis'ers.
,. "illarreal, Luis P. ;.--C<. T"iruses an t'e (volution of Life.T Das'ington,
9S! Press.
8. 'ttp)**en.+ikipenia.org*+iki*"irus Dikipeia, t'e free encyclopaeia, accesse
on -5*-8*.--/.
C. 'ttp)**+++4micro.msb.le.ac.uk*5-E*structure.'tml4University of Leicester
online notes. "irus Structure. 9ccesse on -5*-8*.--/.
A. 'ttp)**+++.virology.net*BigM"irology*B"1omePage.'tml 4Big Book on "irus.
9ccesse on -5*-8*.--/.
/. 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*Bacteriop'ages
7. 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*=apsi
E. 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*PorcineM>eprouctiveManM>espiratoryMSynromeM"
ir us
5-. 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*"irusMclassification.
$'e references cite above +ill provie you +it' an overvie+ of t'e stuy of viruses. $'e
literature contains general c'aracteristics of viruses, t'eir classification, cultivation,
reprouction an economic importance among ot'er topics. $o assess your grasp of t'e
concepts prepare your o+n shor! smmaries on t'e follo+ing topics)
5. $'e structure of "iruses
.. =lassification of viruses an criteria use for t'eir classification
,. =ultivation an ifferent assays6 pla2ue, counting, 2uantal, an 'emagglutination
8. >eprouction met'o in viruses
C. $'e importance of viruses in t'e environment
!oule Development $emplate .E
"irus infections of plants mig't
result in effects suc' as gro+t'
retaration, istortion, mosaic
patterning on t'e leaves,
yello+ing, or +ilting.
!oule Development $emplate ,-
2.2 9abora!ory Prac!ical*
Title: "iral morp'ology an classification
0n t'is e3ercise you +ill be re2uire to observe ifferent prepare slies on t'e
morp'ology of viruses. 9rrange a visit to a virology laboratory +'ere you s'oul
e3amine some infecte samples of plants or culture cells. &or more on t'e classification
of viruses go to 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*"irusMclassification. $'is +ebsite e3plains
t'e classification of t'e ifferent viruses in etail.
Materials:
!icroscope, slies, variety of meia, culture is'es, incubator, clean an sterile +ork
benc', Pasteur pipettes of various si%es, sample slies, infecte plant or culture cells.
Procedure:
Kou +ill e3amine prepare slies or live samples ;infecte plant or culture cells<
Report:
9s outline in Learning 9ctivity P 5.
2.$ +!dy )isi!s?+elf +!dies*
!ake a visit to a local farm ;preferably of tobacco or cassava plantations< to ientify
virus infecte crops. >ecor t'e symptoms observe an t'e conitions uner +'ic' t'ey
flouris'. Similar stuy visits s'oul be arrange to a researc' station ;agricultural or
livestock< +'ere a virology laboratory is in operation.
Ob6ec!i)e* $'e ob?ective;s< of stuy visits +ill vary accoring to t'e purpose, but mainly
to e3amine symptoms cause by viruses on important cas' crops an omesticate
animals an to recor t'eir effects on t'e 'osts.
Procedre* $'is +ill also epen on t'e ob?ective of t'e visit itself. 1o+ever, it +ill be
important to liaise +it' a virologist at a researc' station +'o +ill arrange activities for
emonstration relating to some of t'e e3ercises t'e e3pert +oul be +orking on at t'e
time of making t'e re2uest.
Re,or!* Kou +ill be re2uire to +rite a report base on your observations or activities
recore uring t'e visit. D'enever applicable, specific met'os employe s'oul also
be escribe in sufficient etail.
2.% :ssignmen!*
9s e3plaine in Learning 9ctivity P 5.
'@am,les of :ssignmen!s*
5. =es!ion* Dit' t'e ai of +ell4labele iagrams, escribe t'e structure of a virus.
:ns#er frame #or>* Kour response oug't to inclue t'e follo+ing)
!oule Development $emplate ,5
: Si%e, nucleic aci composition
: S'apes ;isometric, 'elical or comple3, an t'e s'eat'*tail if present.
: Package of proteins in t'e nucleocapsi an t'e attac'ment evices.
: =ompare an contrast t'e nake an t'e envelope viruses.
.. =es!ion* Describe t'e classification of viruses.
:ns#er frame #or>* 1ere you are suppose to inicate t'e follo+ings)
: =riteria use for t'e classification of viruses.
: $'e suffi3 of ma?or families.
: !a?or groups of >N9 an DN9 animal infecting viruses.
: Non4ta3onomic groupings base on t'e route of transmission, organisms infecte
an iseases cause.
,. =es!ion* (3plain t'e establis'ment of a primary cell line for t'e culture of viruses.
:ns#er frame #or>* Kou may nee to say t'e follo+ing)
: Define a primary cell line.
: !aterials neee to establis' a cell line in terms of6 source, c'emicals*
reagents, e2uipments an conitions.
: #utline proceures follo+e for maintenance of suc' cell lines.
8. =es!ion* &or pat'ogenic viruses, t'ere are a number of critical stages in replication
+'ic' etermine t'e nature of t'e isease t'ey prouce. Describe +'at 'appens in
eac' of t'ese stages.
:ns#er frame #or>* $'e first t'ing is to kno+ t'e stages, an t'en escribe eac'
one of t'em. $'e stages involve are6
: entrance
: primary replication
: issemination stage
: cell or tisssue tropism
: 'ost immune responses ;Seconary replication irect cell*tissue amage< an
: persistence against clearance of t'e virus by t'e 'ost.
!oule Development $emplate ,.
/irs Re,lica!ion
9 virus attac'es to t'e 'ost cell an enters by enocytosis. $'e capsi protein issociates
an t'e viral >N9 is transporte to t'e nucleus. 0n t'e nucleus, t'e viral polymerase
comple3es transcribe an replicate t'e >N9. "iral m>N9s migrate to cytoplasm +'ere
t'ey are translate into protein. $'en t'e ne+ly synt'esi%e virions bu from infecte
cell.
h!!,*??en.#i>i,edia.org?#i>i?/irs accessed on ;?%?2221
2.& 3orma!i)e e)ala!ion*
$est yourself by attempting t'e follo+ing 2uestions.

5. Ari!e shor! no!es on*
;a< 9ntigen.
;b< =apsi.
;c< Lysis.
;< 9ttenuate.
;e< Bacteriop'ages
.. Com,are and con!ras! be!#een*
;a< Positive4stran >N9 an negative4stran >N9.
;b< Prouctive an abortive infections.
;c< "iriois an prions.
;< Lantent an c'ronic infections in terms of t'e virionG
!oule Development $emplate ,,
,. 3or a )irs !o ml!i,lyC i! ms! ob)iosly infec! a cell. Discss !his s!a!emen!.
8. O!line !he s!ages of )iral re,lica!ion.
C. Describe !he me!hods a,,lied in s!erili0a!ion and disinfec!ion of )irses.
A. Describe !he mos! im,or!an! !a@onomic cri!eria sed in )iral classifica!ionD
/. '@,lain !he a!!rib!es of a good )accine.
7. Ari!e shor! ans#ers !o each of !he follo#ing*
;a< Name at least four viruses uner t'e DN9 an >N9 types, inicating t'e
iseases t'ey cause in eac' case.
;b< state t'e functions of interferons.
;c< Discuss t'e classification of viral infections using t'e results of t'e immune
responseG
E. Discss !he agricl!ral im,or!ance of )irses.
$'e follo+ing site provies valuable information regaring possible vieo material +'ic'
coul be accesse to 'elp ans+er some of t'e 2uestions.
'ttp)**+++.microbiologybytes.com*vieo*ine3.'tml ;>etrieve on -.*-8*.--/<.
9earning :c!i)i!y B $
Ti!le of 9earning :c!i)i!y* The Pro!o0oa
$'is learning activity is going to cover anot'er group of microorganisms kno+n as
Proto%oa. 0n t'is activity, you are going to classify proto%oa an learn about t'eir biology,
+'ic' +ill inclue nutrition, respiration, gro+t' an reprouction, e3cretion an t'eir
economic importance. Proto%oa are unicellular organisms, +'ic' are usually foun in t'e
mu at t'e bottom of pons an itc'es. $'e contents of a proto%oan cell are enclose by
a t'in limiting membrane. $'ey 'ave a simple structure comprising of a clear outer layer
calle t'e ectoplasm an an inner more granular enoplasm. $'e enoplasm contains
organelles similar to t'ose foun in 'ig'er animals suc' as a true nucleus, mitoc'onria,
golgi apparatus, enoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes an vacuoles. $'ey inclue bot' free4
living an parasitic forms. $'e parasitic proto%oa in'abit bot' plant an animal 'osts at
all p'ylogenetic levels, an t'e intracellular parasites can be foun in almost all cell
types. $'e parasitic proto%oans are microparasites because of t'eir small si%e. $'ey
ivie +it'in t'eir efinitive 'ost cells an generally cause acute, rat'er t'an c'ronic,
iseases.
Structure of a generali%e eukaryotic cell
'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*(ukaryotes
9ccesse on 57*-8*.--/
"ey conce,!s*
5. Pro!o0oology* 9 branc' of biology, +'ic' eals +it' t'e stuy of proto%oa.
.. Psedo,odia* 0s a comple3 infrastructure of microtubulesC microfilaments an ot'er
organelles associate +it' t'e cell membrane in flagellate an ciliate proto%oa.
,. -y,er,arasi!ism 7,oly,arasi!ism8* 9 situation in +'ic' one organism +'ic' is a
parasite to anot'er, is parasiti%e by yet anot'er parasite of its o+n ;i.e., a parasite
being parasiti%e<.
8. Merogony 7schi0ogony8* 0s a type of ase3ual reprouction in t'e p'ylum
9picomple3a in +'ic' after nuclear ivision, t'e iniviual nuclei move to t'e cells
perip'ery an +'en nuclear ivision is complete, t'e cytoplasmic membrane t'en
surrouns eac' nucleus an t'e aug'ter cells bu from t'e parent.
!oule Development $emplate ,C
C. .radi0oi!e* 9 stage in t'e life cycle of proto%oa of t'e family Sarcocystiae ;tissue4
cyst4forming cocciia<. 0n particular t'is is t'e term use to escribe t'e mero%oite
+'ic' forms +it'in t'e tissue cyst in t'e intermeiate 'ost ;an rarely +it'in t'e
efinitive 'ost<. $'is infectious stage rarely infects ne+ cells +it'in t'e intermeiate
'ost6 rat'er it is t'e infectious stage for t'e efinitive 'ost.
A. 5ame!ocy!e* $'e stage in t'e life cycle of some proto%oa ;9picomple3a< +'ic' is
estine to become a gamete ;macro4or micro4<.
/. Tro,ho0oi!e* 9 stage of evelopment in proto%oa in +'ic' t'e organism is sai to be
mature, vegetative or in t'e active feeing form.
List of relevant reaings)
5. 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*Proto%oa
.. 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*&lagellate
,. 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*9moeboi
8. 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*Sporo%oans
C. 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*!alariaPDistributionManMimpact
A. 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*=ryptosporiiosis
/. 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*=occiia
7. 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*=ryptosporiiosis
E. 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*$o3oplasmosis
5-. 'ttp)**+++.tulane.eu*U+iser*proto%oology*notes*intes.'tml 0ntestinal Proto%oa,
accesse on 5E*-8*.--/.
55. &robis'er, !., 1insill, >.D., =rabtree, L.$. an Boo'eart, =.>.5E/8.
5.. Nester, (.D. 9nerson, D.B., >oberts ;Jr.<, =.(., Pearsall, N.N., an Nester, !.$.
9mericas, NK 5--.-.
9is! of rele)an! sefl lin>*
'ttp)**+++.+'o.int*meiacentre*facts'eets*fs-E8*en*
0n t'is activity you +ill learn t'at proto%oa +'ic' belong to t'e Lingom Protista
constitute a group of eukaryotic cells. $'ey 'ave a membrane4boun nucleus as +ell as
t'e ot'er membrane4boun organelles t'at are c'aracteristic of 'ig'er animals. Proto%oa
are organisms t'at traitionally 'ave been consiere part of t'e microbial +orl. $'e
!oule Development $emplate ,A
proto%oa are microscopic, unicellular organisms t'at lack p'otosynt'etic capability,
usually are motile at least at some stage in t'eir life cycle, an reprouce most often by
ase3ual fission. Proto%oa 'ave speciali%e structures for movement suc' as cilia, flagella,
or pseuopoia. Since t'ey live in a2uatic environments, +ater, o3ygen, an ot'er small
molecules reaily iffuse into t'e cell t'roug' t'e cell membrane. 0n aition proto%oa
take in foo eit'er by pinocytosis ;ingestion of flui into a cell forming an internal
vesicle< or p'agocytosis ;engulfing soli foo particles an forming a foo vacuole< as a
means of obtaining +ater an foo. =lassification of proto%oa s'o+s t'at t'ey are not a
unifie group, but appear along t'e evolutionary continuum6 an t'e reason t'at t'ey are
lumpe toget'er in t'e group kno+n as ,ro!o0oa is because t'ey are all single4celle
eukaryotic organisms t'at lack c'lorop'yll. Proto%oa are ivie into t'ree p'yla an
t'ese are6 +arcomas!igo,hora, Cilio,hora an :,icom,le@a. $'e p'ylum
Sarcomastigop'ora is ivie into t+o Sub4p'yla, +'ic' are +arcodina or amoeboi
proto%oa suc' as Entamoeba histolytica, an Mas!igo,hora or Linetoplasta t'e
flagellate proto%oa suc' as %rypanosoma brucei. =iliop'ora are t'e ciliate proto%oa
suc' as Balantidium coli an 9picomple3a are proto%oa t'at form spores suc' as
plasmodium falciparum. 9ll t'ese parasites are intracellular because t'ey penetrate t'e
'ost cell e3cept =iliop'ora +'ic' live in t'e lumen of t'e large intestine. 9 ma?ority of
proto%oa are free4living an foun in marine, fres'+ater, or terrestrial environments. #n
lan, proto%oa are abunant in muy soils at t'e bottom of pons an itc'es as +ell as
in or on plants an animals. Speciali%e proto%oan 'abitats inclue t'e guts of termites,
roac'es, ruminants an 'umans. $'ere are many iseases t'at proto%oa cause ot'er t'an
t'ose consiere important by t'e Dorl 1ealt' #rganisation ;D1#< suc' as malaria,
sleeping sickness, ='agas isease an leis'maniasis. $'ese Proto%oa are an important
part of t'e foo c'ain ;e.g. t'ey eat bacteria an algae an, in turn, serve as foo for
larger species<. Proto%oa 'elp to maintain an ecological balance in t'e soil by feeing on
vast numbers of bacteria an algae ;a single paramecium can ingest as many as C million
bacteria in a ay<.
#t'er proto%oa are important in se+age isposal because most of t'e nutrients t'ey
consume are metaboli%e to carbon io3ie an +ater, +'ic' results in a large ecrease
in total se+age solis. Some species 'o+ever are parasitic, living on or in ot'er 'ost
organisms. $'e 'osts for proto%oan parasites range from single4celle organisms, suc' as
algae, to comple3 vertebrates, incluing 'umans. 9ll proto%oa re2uire large amounts of
moisture for survival, regarless of t'eir 'abitat. Using amoeba as an e3ample, t'e
respiratory activity is mainly by t'e absorption of o3ygen from t'e surrouning +ater
t'roug' t'e +'ole surface of t'e ectoplasm. 0t is from t'ere t'at o3ygen iffuses to all
parts of t'e cell. 9moeba lives on microorganisms suc' as iatoms or fragments of
ecaye organic matter. $'e foo is containe in +'at are calle foo vacuoles +it'in t'e
enoplasm. 9moebae assimilate t'e foo into t'eir protoplasm for gro+t'. D'en a
ma3imum gro+t' stage is reac'e, t'e cell nucleus ivies into t+o follo+e by
cytoplasmic cleavage in a process calle binary fission. $+o ientical aug'ter cells arise
from t'e ase3ual moe of reprouction. 1o+ever, se3ual reprouction is also possible
among t'e proto%oa but t'is is ac'ieve t'roug' a process calle con?ugation. 0f t'e
gro+ing conitions become unfavourable t'e cells roun off an release a protective
covering calle a cyst. (3cretion is ac'ieve t'roug' a contractile vacuole +'ic' gro+s
slo+ly as it accumulates +aste materials until it isc'arges its contents to t'e outsie
!oule Development $emplate ,/
t'roug' t'e ectoplasm. 9not'er e3ample of proto%oa is t'e unicellular organism calle
paramecium.

9earning :c!i)i!ies
$.1 Readings* >ea t'e follo+ing books an links onA. =ur, =.>. 5EE.. Proto%oa an
t'e +ater inustry. =ambrige University Press, !9.
Proto%oa)
5. 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*Proto%oa
.. 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*&lagellate
,. 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*9moeboi
8. 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*Sporo%oans
C. 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*=occiia
A. 'ttp)**+++.tulane.eu*U+iser*proto%oology*notes*intes.'tml
/. =o3, &. (. B. .--5. !oern parasitology, Black+ell Science
7. =ur, =.>. 5EE.. Proto%oa an t'e +ater inustry. =ambrige University Press, !9.

$'ese reaings +ill provie you +it' an overvie+ of t'e morp'ology, classification,
reprouction, ecology an economic importance of proto%oa. &rom t'ese reaings,
prepare your o+n brief summaries on t'e follo+ing)
5. =lassification of proto%oa ;note t'e istinguis'ing c'aracteristics of t'e ma?or p'yla)
Sarcomastigop'ora, =iliop'ora, 9picomple3a an !icrospora<.
.. (cology of proto%oa. ;Discuss t'e parasitic an nonparasitic forms using specific
e3amples to s'o+ 'o+ t'e environment supports t'eir liveli'oo<
,. Bro+t' an reprouction ;types an life cycles, of bot' isease an non isease
causing proto%oa<.
8. >espiration ;concentrate on 'o+ t'e organisms ac2uire t'eir o3ygen from t'e
environment to generate energy<
!oule Development $emplate ,E
C. Nutrition ;take note of t'e moe of feeing an types of foo source<
A. (3cretion ;note 'o+ t'e cells e3pel t'eir +aste to t'e environment<
/. (conomic importance ;especially in meicine, ecosystems an +aste treatment<.
$.2 9abora!ory Prac!ical*
Title: Diversity an morp'ology of proto%oa
0n t'is e3ercise you +ill be re2uire to e3amine ifferent samples ;+ater, bloo, stool,
etc.< for t'e iversity of proto%oa an to learn about t'eir morp'ology an life cycles.
Materials:
!icroscope, samples, Petri is'es, an sample slies, saline solution.
Procedure:
$o etect t'e presence of proto%oa from 'umans an omesticate animals you s'oul
collect stool an bloo samples using recommene proceures. Kou +ill e3amine
ifferent slies or real samples containing t'e proto%oa. !ake observations an compare
notes +it' +'at you rea from various sources.
&or practical microscopy, you may visit t'e follo+ing +ebsite)
'ttp)**+++.micro.magnet.fsu.eu*primer*virtual*virtual.'tml +'ere you +ill be given t'e
opportunity to o a virtual e3ercise. $'e site e3plains t'at) V$'is interactive Java tutorial
e3plores t'e effect of increasing magnification ;e2uivalent to c'anging microscope
ob?ectives< on t'e ability to resolve features in a sample. De provie actual si%e images
of t'e sample so t'at stuents can unerstan t'e ramatic increases in magnification of
t'e samples t'ey are e3amining. (ac' magnification is accompanie by a escription of
t'e features available at t'at resolution. Samples feature in t'is moule inclue
computer c'ips, !oon rocks, superconuctors, an t'e surface of a =ompact DiscW.
Report:
9s outline in t'e Learning 9ctivity P 5.
$.$ +!dy )isi!s?+elf +!dies* !ake a visit to a researc' station ;agricultural or
livestock<, or to a se+age treatment station if possible.
Ob6ec!i)e* $'e ob?ective;s< of suc' a stuy visit +ill vary accoring to t'e purpose.
Procedre* $'is +ill also epen on t'e ob?ective of t'e visit itself.
Re,or!* Kou +ill be re2uire to +rite a report base on your recors from observations
mae uring t'e stuy visit. D'enever applicable, specific met'os employe s'oul
also be escribe.
$.% :ssignmen!*
!oule Development $emplate 8-
9s e3plaine in t'e Learning 9ctivity P 5.
5. =es!ion* Discuss t'e fact t'at proto%oa are of great meical importance because
several cause iseases in 'umans an ot'er animals, an t'at t'ey are also of
enormous ecological significance.
:ns#er frame#or>* Kour response may inclue t'e follo+ing facts)
: Proto%oa act as proucers in bot' fres'+ater an salt+ater ecosystems. 4
$'ey are part of plan#ton ;Br. plan#t, +anering<, organisms t'at are
suspene in t'e +ater an serve as foo for 'eterotrop'ic organisms.
: $'ey enter symbiotic relations'ips ranging from parasitism to mutualism
;coral reef formation is greatly aie by t'e presence of a symbiotic
p'otosynt'etic protists t'at live in t'e tissues of coral animals<.
: Pollute +aters often 'ave a ric' an c'aracteristic proto%oa fauna. $'e
relative abunance an iversity of proto%oa can be use as inicators of
organic an to3ic pollution ;i.e. use as environmental 2uality inicators<.
: Symbiont proto%oa suc' as ciliates t'at in'abit t'e rumen an reticulum of
ruminants an t'e caecum an colon of e2uis are believe to ai t'e
animal in igesting cellulose.
: Proto%oa are employe as tools of stuy for various researc' pro?ects6
because of t'eir small si%e, s'ort generation time an ease of maintaining
t'em in t'e lab.
.. =es!ion* !alaria is one of t'e most important proto%oa iseases. !alaria in man is
cause by a proto%oan parasite of t'e genus Plasmodium. &or an effective control
strategy, it is important to unerstan its life cycle. Describe t'e life cycle of
Plasmodium spp.
:ns#er frame#or>* See t'e follo+ing 'ints)
:E $'e life cycle involves t+o stages of evelopment) one, asexual, passe in
t'e 'uman boy6 t'e ot'er, sexual, passe on to t'e female of various species of
mos2uitoes of t'e genus Anopheles.
.E =ycle in man 4Plasmodium parasites are introuce in mos2uito@s saliva
+'en it bites.
: $'e parasites unergo a s'ort perio of multiplication in certain cells*tissues
in t'e boy, especially t'e liver cells ;t'is is calle e@oery!hrocy!ic or
,reery!hrocy!ic cycle<.
: $'e ase3ual progeny enter re4bloo cells an gro+ +it'in t'em
;!ro,ho0oi!e stage<.
: $'e parasite mutiplies ase3ually +it'in t'e re bloo cells, forming a
number of small boies or segments.
: &orme segments t'en escape to t'e bloo6 eac' segment as a ne+ active
parasite is calle mero0oi!e.
: !ero%oites attack ot'er eryt'rocytes an t'e multiplication process is
repeate ;t'e 'ost e3periences t'e c'ills an fevers c'aracteristic of
malaria<.
: 9fter passing t'roug' several cycles of ase3ual evelopment, instinctive
game!ocy!es begin to appear in t'e bloo of t'e patient ;t'ey are larger t'an
t'e ase3ual forms<.
: gametocytes o not unergo furt'er evelopment in 'uman eryt'rocytes,
an t'ey actually ie if not taken by a mos2uito.
CE =ycle in t'e mos2uito
: +'en an Anopheles mos2uito bites a person +'o 'as mature malarial
gametocytes in 'er*'is bloo, t'e se3ual stage of t'e parasite begins.
: after fertili%ation of t'e female by t'e male gametocyte in t'e stomac' of
t'e mos2uito, t'e motile 0ygo!es invae t'e cells lining t'e mos2uito@s
stomac' an multiply t'ere, forming a sac ;oocys!< +'erein t'e parasite
unergoes furt'er evelopment by fission.
: $'e sac ruptures, liberating numerous ne+ young parasites +'ic' after
moving about for some ays ;about 5.<, t'ey +ill reac' mos2uito@s salivary
glans an from t'ere are in?ecte into man +'en t'e insect bites.
,. =es!ion* ='aracteri%e t'e classification of proto%oa, inicating t'e isease4causing
genera of eac' p'ylum or subp'ylum.
:ns#er frame #or>* 1ints)
: inicate t'e criteria use to classify proto%oa.
: ma?or p'yla an sup'yla)
X P'ylum) Sarcomastigop'ora J inclues t+o subp'yla in +'ic' causes most
of t'e 'uman iseases4Disease causing proto%oa are foun in6
YSub4P'ylum) !astigop'ora J inclues t'e flagellate proto%oa6
mostly unicellular an 'ave one or more flagella at some time in
t'eir life cycle. $'e flagella are use for locomotion an foo
gat'ering as +ell as sensory receptors. $'e most
important isease4causing !astigop'ora are6 Giardia
lamblia, &eishmani spp, %richomonas vaginalis,
%rypanosoma brucei rhodesience an %rypanosoma
brucei gambience.
YSub4P'ylum) Sarcoina J move by means of pseuopoia6
an t'us c'ange s'ape as t'ey move. e.g. Entamoeba histolytica.
X P'ylum) =iliop'ora or t'e ciliates, inclues organisms t'at 'ave cilia.
!ost of t'em are free or symbiotically4living organisms suc' as
Balantidium coli.
X P'ylum) 9picomple3a or t'e sporo%oa cause some of t'e most serious
proto%oan iseases of 'umans. !alaria is cause by one of four
Plasmodium species, an it is transmitte by t'e female Anopheles
mos2uito. =ats are t'e primary 'osts for %oxoplasma gondii, +it'
'umans serving as seconary 'osts. 9not'er e3ample of
9picomple3a is Cryptosporidium parvum, +'ic' causes iarr'eal
isease kno+n as cryptosporiiosis.
!oule Development $emplate 8.
X P'ylum) !icrospora inclues t'e intracellular proto%oa t'at infect
immunocompromise 'umans, especially persons +it' 90DS.
$.& 3orma!i)e e)ala!ion*
5. Describe t'e key features of proto%oa.
.. =ompare an contrast t'e various moes of locomotion in proto%oa.
,. Bive t'e meaning of t'e follo+ing terms)
=ommensal
1eterotrop'
=ytoskeleton
Pseuopoium.
!ero%oite.
Sc'i%ogony.
8. Differentiate bet+een sporo%oites an mero%oites.
C. D'at are t'e environmental conitions re2uire for survival of proto%oaG
A. #utline t'e pat'op'ysiology of tric'omoniasis.
/. Describe in etail t'e Plasmodium life cycle in 'umans.
7. #utline t'e classification of clinically significant proto%oa, giving t'e genus an
species names an t'e iseases t'ey cause.
E. 9lt'oug' proto%oa are fre2uently overlooke, t'ey play an important ecological
role in t'e environments of many communities. Discuss.
5-. State a isease cause by eac' of t'e follo+ing proto%oan an inicate 'o+ t'ey
are transmitte to 'umans)
Entamoeba histolytica.
Acanthamoeba.
Giardia lamblia.
%richomonas vaginalis.
%rypanosoma brucei gambiens.
Balantidium coli.
Cryptosporidium.
Plasmodium species.
%oxoplasma gondii.
9earning :c!i)i!y B %
Ti!le of 9earning :c!i)i!y* Mycology
$'is learning activity is going to cover t'e general c'aracteristics of fungi, mycelial
structure an organi%ation, types of nutrition, reprouction, ecology, classification an
t'eir economic importance. &ungi +ere initially classifie as plants, an t'e stuy of
fungi calle mycology evelope as a branc' of botany. 1o+ever, fungi are no+
consiere to 'ave uni2ue c'aracteristics to ?ustify placing t'em in a separate Lingom
of t'eir o+n calle !yceteae. #ver A- --- species of fungi are kno+n. $'e fossil recor
suggests t'at fungi +ere present CC- million years ago an may 'ave evolve even
earlier. $'ey range from tiny, single celle organisms invisible to t'e nake eye suc' as
!oule Development $emplate 8,
t'e yeasts to t'ose t'at 'ave visible fruiting structures suc' as t'e mus'rooms. &ungi are
classifie primarily by t'e type of spores an fruiting boies t'ey prouce, alt'oug'
molecular biology is beginning to take center stage in t'eir ta3onomy. !any mycologists
ivie t'e Lingom !yceteae ;t'e &ungi< into five main p'yla6 t'e ='ytriiomycota,
Zygomycota ;%ygospore fungi<, 9scomycota ;sac fungi< an t'e Basiiomycota ;club
fungi<. $'e fift' p'ylum calle Deuteromycota ;imperfect fungi< is use by some
ta3onomists for fungi t'at apparently reprouce only by ase3ual spores.
&ungi are a member of a iverse group of eukaryotic organisms t'at unlike plants an
animals obtain foo by absorbing nutrients from an e3ternal source. $'e ma?ority of fungi
gro+ on an absorb foo from substrates suc' as soil, +oo, ecaying organic matter as
'eterotrop'ic feeers, +'ile ot'ers are obligate parasites subsisting on nutrients erive
from living plant an animal tissues. &ungi are multinucleate, meaning t'at one cell can
contain t+o or more nuclei. $'ey obtain t'eir energy from respiration in a similar +ay
t'at 'ig'er plants an animals o. $'e outer layer of a fungal cell is a cell +all mae of
c'itin substance, follo+e by a cell membrane belo+ +'ic' is a cytoplasm, +'ic'
contains all t'e organelles t'at are foun in an animal cell. Unicellular fungi gro+ by
binary fission +'ereas t'e multicellular ones o so by e3tension gro+t' of t'e apical
'yp'a. &ungal 'yp'ae are collectively terme mycelium. !ycelia release t'eir seconary
metabolites to t'e environment t'roug' t'e cell membrane. &ungi are so iverse in t'eir
moe of reprouction to t'e e3tent t'at some reprouce e3clusively by ase3ual means
+'ile ot'ers combine t'e ase3ual an se3ual moes of reprouction. 9n yet ot'ers
employ 'ormones in t'eir se3ual reprouction.
&ungi are bot' beneficial an a bot'er. &rom an ecological stan point, t'ey are important
as ecomposers an recyclers of nutrients in an ecosystem. (conomically, fungi are a
source of foo as many mus'rooms are. $'ey are also use in giving c'eese t'eir
ifferent flavours. &ungi are also inustrially important in baking, bre+ing an in
meicine as a source of antibiotics. 0n recent years fungi 'ave become a focus of intense
stuy because of t'eir use in biotec'nological applications in processes relate to
inustry, agriculture a ecology. &ungi are a concern because t'ey amage millions of
ollars +ort' of farm prouce t'roug' crop an animal iseases. &ungal infections in
'umans are among t'e most c'ronic of illnesses.
&ungi 'elp to break o+n ea organic material ;in t'is case a
ea tree trunk< an 'elp to continue t'e cycle of nutrients t'roug'
an ecosystem. 'ttp)**+++.ucmp.berkeley.eu*fungi*fungi.'tml
9ccesse on -.*-8*.--/
"ey conce,!s*
5. Mycology* $'e stuy of fungi, an a person +'o stuies
fungi is kno+n as a mycologist.
.. -y,ha* 9 'yp'a ;plural hyphae< is a long, filamentous cell of a fungus, constituting
t'e main moe of vegetative gro+t'. 9 'yp'a consists of one or more cells surroune
by a tubular cell +all. 0n most fungi, 'p'ae are ivie into compartments by internal
cross4+alls
,. +e,!a* $'ese are iviing cross +alls along t'e lengt' of a 'yp'a. $'ey usually leave
an opening at t'e centre calle a septal pore. 0t is for t'is reason 'yp'ae are sai to
'ave compartments an not cells because no single compartment 'as protoplasm
e3clusively to itself. $'e singular form of septa is septum.
8. Mycelim* 9 collection of 'yp'ae of one fungus gro+ing in one place is kno+n as a
mycelium.
C. 5ame!angia* $'e organ of a fungus +'ere gametes are prouce. $'e singular of
gametangia is gametangium. 9 gametangium is a 'aploi structure an formation of
gametes oes not involve meiosis
A. Monoecios fngi* &ungal species +'ic' prouce male an female se3 organs in t'e
same t'allus ;t'us, hermaphrodite<.
!oule Development $emplate 8C
/. Thalls* $'is is boy of an organism t'at is not ifferentiate into roots, stem an
leaves.
7. Dioecios* &ungi t'at prouce male an female se3 organs on separate t'alli.
E. -e!ero>aryosis* 1eterokaryosis ;from t'e Breek heteros, meaning other an #aryon,
meaning #ernel< means to 'ave t+o or more genetically ifferent nuclei +it'in t'e
same mycelium of a fungus. $'e nuclei +it'in t'e same mycelium may iffer from
one anot'er eit'er t'roug' t'e accumulation of mutations or t'roug' t'e fusion of
genetically istinct 'yp'ae. $'is can lea to iniviuals t'at 'ave ifferent nuclei in
ifferent parts of t'eir mycelium.
5-. Di>aryo!ic hy,ha* 9 'yp'a t'at contains paire 'aploi nuclei.
55. +,ore* 9 spore is a reprouctive cell t'at evelops into a ne+ organism +it'out t'e
nee to fuse +it' anot'er reprouctive cell. Spores t'at are not containe in a capsule
are referre to as conidia.
5.. +,orangim* $'is is a capsule t'at prouces spores calle sporangiospores.
5,. :sci* $'is is a capsule t'at prouces a special type of spore calle ascospores
58. .asidia* $'is is a capsule t'at prouces a kin of spore calle basiiospores
5. 9le3opoulos, =. J. an =. D. !ims. 5EEA. 'ntroductory !ycology, 8t' (.b< J.D. ..
Deacon, J. D. .--C. &ungal Biology ;8t' e<. !alen, !9) Black+ell Publis'ers.
,. 1a+ks+ort', D.L. ;5E/8<) !ycologistZs 1anbook. Le+) U.L., =9B 0nternational.
8. 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*&ungus -.*-8*.--/
C. 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*9scomycota -.*-8*.--/
A. 'ttp)**+++.kcom.eu*faculty*c'amberlain*Debsite*Lects*&ungi.'tm Lecturer notes
on &ungi. 9ccesse on -.*-8*.--/
/. 'ttp)**pat'micro.me.sc.eu*mycology*myucology45.'tm. 9 book of !ycology.
9ccesse on -.*-8*.--/
5. Blake, L. et al., ;.--.<) Biology 5.. !cBra+41ill >yerson Lt.
.. !aer, S.S. .--8 Biology. !cBra+41ill =ompanies, 0nc., 5..5 9venue of t'e
9mericas, NK 5--.-.
5. 'ttp)**mycology.cornell.eu*fteac'.'tml
.. 'ttp)**pat'micro.me.sc.eu*mycology*mycology4
5.'tm 9 book of !ycology.
9ccesse on -.*-8*.--/
!oule Development $emplate 8A
Classifica!ion
$'e term mycology is erive from a Breek +or my#e +'ic' means Hmus'room@, an
logos +'ic' means Hstuy@. $'erefore, mycology means literary t'e stuy of mus'rooms.
1o+ever, t'e term is commonly use to refer to t'e stuy of a group of organisms calle
fngi, +'ose singular is fngs. &ungi +ere believe to be monop'yletic an to be
erive from an algal ancestor t'at lost its ability to p'otosynt'esise. 1o+ever, over time,
+it' t'e iscovery of molecular tec'ni2ues in etermining relations'ips bet+een
organisms it +as iscovere t'at t'e fungi are mae up of a polyp'yletic group of
organisms t'at, in some cases, are very istantly relate to one anot'er. $'erefore, fungi
are not groupe toget'er because t'ey are closely relate, but rat'er because t'ey s'are a
combination of c'aracteristics as outline belo+. D'ittaker ;5EAE< propose a five
Lingom system +'ic' to ate is t'e accepte system of classification of organisms. 0t
puts t'e fungi in a separate Lingom of t'eir o+n calle t'e fift' Lingom. $'e
Lingom !yceteae ;&ungi< is ivie into t'e !y3omycota, t'e slime mols an t'e
(umycota, t'e true fungi.
$'e more recent classification system base in part on molecular researc' is summarise
belo+.
Phylm ='ytriiomycota) $'e ='ytriiomycetes are represente by a group of primitive
a2uatic fungi, +'ic' comprise appro3imately 7-- species. $'ey prouce motile gametes
assiste by flagella. $'eir cell +all composition is mostly c'itin. $'is group +as place
in t'e (umycota after molecular +ork +it' rDN9. $'e p'ylum ='ytriiomycota 'as one
class t'e ='ytriiomycetes +it' t'e orers6 ='ytriiales an Blastoclaiales. Phylm
Zygomycota) $'e Zygomycetes are c'aracterise by t'e formation of se3ual spores
calle %ygospores. $'ey are a result of fertilisation bet+een t+o 'aploi nuclei to form a
iploi %ygote. $'e %ygote immeiately unergoes meiosis forming 'aploi cells calle
%ygospores. $'e outer coats of t'ese cells are variously sculpture an are 'el bet+een
t'e tips of t'e mot'er 'yp'ae. $+o classes are recognise in t'is p'ylum an t'ese are6
$ric'omycetes an Zygomycetes. $'e species of a Zygomycete can be etermine from
t'e type of %ygospore prouce. 9n e3ample of a Zygomycete is t'e brea mol,
(hi)opus nigricans. Phylm 9scomycota) $'e 9scomycetes are also calle t'e Hsac
fungi@ because t'eir se3ual spores, t'e ascospores, are enclose in a tube4like sac calle
an asci. $'e formation of ascospores is similar to t'at of %ygospores, e3cept t'at t'e
ascospores forme by meiosis are enclose in t'e asci. *eurospora crassa is an
ascomycete mol t'at is use e3tensively in stuies of genetics. $'e class 9scomycetes
inclues t'e unicellular orers Sacc'aromycetales an Sc'i%osacc'aromycetales, t'e
yeasts. $'e filamentous 9scomycetes inclue t'e orers (urotiales +'ose fruiting boies
are cleistot'ecia, t'e Sorariales an Qylariales +'ose fruiting boies are perit'ecia,
Pe%i%ales +'ose fruiting boies are apot'ecia an t'e Dot'ieales +'ose fruiting boies
are ascostroma. Phylm Basiiomycota) $'e Basiiomycetes are calle t'e Hclub fungi@.
$'eir se3ual spores, t'e basiiospores, are forme on fruiting structures calle basiia.
$'e Basiiomycetes inclue some of t'e fungi +'ose aggregation of t'e 'yp'ae result in
t'e evelopment of fruiting structures t'at are visible to t'e nake eye. Suc' fungi are
calle mus'rooms an fall uner t'e orer 9garicales. $'e group inclues t'e classes
!oule Development $emplate 8/
$eliomycetes, +'ic' comprise t'e rusts an t'e Ustomycetes, +'ic' embrace t'e smuts.
Phylm Deuteromycota) $'is group of fungi is also calle t'e Himperfect fungi@. $'is is a
group of fungi +'ose se3ual stage 'as not yet been iscovere. 9s t'e se3ual stage of a
fungus is iscovere t'e fungus is remove from t'is group an gets its position in t'e
9scomycota. $'e orers of t'is group are6 !oniliales +'ose coniia arise on
coniiop'ores t'at are prouce on mycelium ;Alternaria tenuis<, Sp'aeropsiales +'ose
coniia are borne on coniiop'ores are prouce in pycniia ;Phomopsis sp.<,
!elanconiales +'ose coniia borne on coniiop'ores are prouce in acervuli
;Pestalotia sp.<, Sterlia +'ic' prouce sterile mycelium an t'erefore no coniia are
prouce, but ot'er mycelial structures must be use for t'eir propagation suc' as
scelerotia ;+clerotium sp.<
Phylm Lic'ens an !ycorr'i%ae) $'ese are e3amples of beneficial associations
bet+een t+o ifferent organisms. 0n Lic'ens t'ere is an association bet+een an alga
;autotrop'< +it' a fungus ;'eterotrop'<. $'e alga provies t'e fungus +it' a carbon
source +'ile t'e fungus provies t'e alga +it' nutrients from t'e substratum. $'e same
applies to t'e association of fungi +it' plant roots +'en t'ey form mycorr'i%ae. $'e
fungus provies t'e root system of a plant +it' mineral nutrients +'ile t'e fungus gets
t'e carbon source from t'e plant in return. $'ese are mutualistic associations.
+!rc!re
$+o structural forms e3ist among t'e fungi. #ne kin is unicellular as represente by t'e
yeast cells. $'e ot'er form is mae up of t'rea like structures. 0niviual t'reas are
kno+n as hy,hae +'ose singular form is hy,ha. =ollectively 'yp'ae are kno+n as
mycelium +'ose plural form is mycelia. $'e mycelium is t'e vegetative p'ase of a
fungus, +'ic' subse2uently gives rise to t'e reprouctive structures. D'et'er it is a yeast
cell or a filamentous fungus consisting of 'yp'ae, fungi are typically mae up of a porous
outer cell +all mae up of c'itin, unlike t'e cell +all of plants t'at is mae up of
cellulose. 0nner to t'e cell +all is a cell membrane t'at is convolute in places to increase
its surface area for e3c'ange of materials. $'ese structures are calle lomasomes. $'e
cell membrane encloses t'e cytoplasm, +'ic' suspens t'e cellular organelles typical of
a eukaryotic cell. $'ese are6 a membrane boun nucleus, golgi comple3, enoplasmic
reticula, ribosomes, an vesicles. $+o types of 'yp'ae are represente by ifferent
groups of fungi. $'e lo+er fungi typically lack cross +alls calle se,!a +'ose singular is
se,!m. Suc' 'yp'ae are sai to be non<se,!a!e an t'erefore coenocy!ic because t'eir
nuclei are containe in one continuous slug of cytoplasm. $'e 'yp'ae of 'ig'er fungi
'ave septa, +'ic' ivie t'e tubular filaments into compartments. 1o+ever, t'e septa
leave a pore at t'e centre t'roug' +'ic' protoplasm can flo+. (ac' compartment of a
'yp'a contains one to t+o nuclei. "acuoles are c'aracteristic of t'e oler segments of a
'yp'a.
N!ri!ion
&ungi are ac'lorop'ylous, meaning t'at t'ey o not contain c'lorop'yll to be able to
make t'eir o+n foo like plants o. &ungi epen on ot'er organisms for t'eir carbon
source. $'erefore, t'ey are 'eterotrop'ic feeers. 1eterotrop's can eit'er be saprobes,
symbionts or parasites. 9s sa,ro,hy!es t'ey obtain t'eir carbon source from t'e by4
proucts of ot'er organisms or from tissue of ea organisms as organic matter. D'en
t'ey are symbion!s fungi usually live in close association +it' anot'er issimilar
organism in a mutual beneficial relations'ip. $'is kin of relations'ip is calle a
mutualistic symbiosis. #t'er fungi are ,arasi!es in c'aracter. $'ese are fungi t'at erive
t'eir nutrition from t'e protoplasm of anot'er organism calle t'e 'ost. &ungi 'ave a
common moe of nutrition, +'ic' involves t'e release of en%ymes on to t'e substratum
in t'e environment. $'e substrate is igeste outsie t'e cell an absorption of t'e
proucts ;monomer forms< take place t'roug' t'e porous cell +all an t'e selectively
permeable membrane for eventual assimilation by t'e cells. "arious types of en%ymes are
prouce epening on t'e type of fungus an t'e comple3ity of t'e substrate. 9 single
en%yme is re2uire to igest for instance a isacc'arie, +'ereas t+o en%ymes +ill be
re2uire to split a molecule of starc' to its monomer units an yet t'ree ifferent types of
en%ymes +oul be re2uire to igest crystalline cellulose. $'is kin of igestion +'ic'
takes place outsie t'e cell is calle e@!racelllar diges!ion. 0n aition to a carbon
source, fungi also nee to take in mineral nutrients to supplement t'eir metabolism, ?ust
like 'ig'er organisms nee t'e supply of nitrogen, potassium, p'osp'orus, etc.
Res,ira!ion
&ungi breako+n t'eir carbon sources to release energy for metabolism in t'e
mitoc'onria like all eukaryotic cells o, t'roug' t'e follo+ing metabolic pat'+ays6
glycolysis, Lrebs cycle an electron transport c'ain is t'e main pat'+ay use to release
energy for a cell.
5ro#!h and de)elo,men!
$'e unicellular fungi gro+ by binary fission. $'e mycelial fungi gro+ by apical
e3tension. $'e apical compartment 'as a very t'in cell +all at t'e tip, +'ic' allo+s t'e
apical compartment to e3ten in lengt' ue to internal cytoplasmic turgor pressure. 9fter
attaining a ma3imum volume, t'e apical compartment uner goes nuclear an
cytoplasmic ivision resulting into t+o compartments.
Re,rodc!ion
0n fungi eit'er se3ual or ase3ual reprouction or bot' may occur by spore prouction,
often prouce on specialise structures calle coniiop'ores, +'ic' in turn bear coniia
or in sporangia, +'ic' contain sporangiospores, or variously s'ape fruiting boies suc'
as asci, +'ic' carry ascospores, or acervuli on +'ic' anot'er kin of coniia are borne.
$'e kins of reprouction met'os are varie accoring to t'e type of fungus in
reference. 1o+ever, ase3ual reprouction is t'e ma?or means by +'ic' fungi reprouce
by eit'er fragmentation of cells, binary fission or by buing. $'e ot'er met'o of
reprouction in fungi is parase3ual. >efer to t'e life cycles of t'e representative fungi
from t'e ifferent ta3onomic groups at t'e +ebsite given in t'e compulsory reaings to
appreciate t'e ifferent kins of reprouctive met'os foun among t'e fungi.
+ignificance
&ungi are important in t'e foo inustry. !us'rooms +'ic' are t'e macroscopic fruiting
structures of t'e Basiiomycota form a elicacy at t'e ining table in many countries. 9
variety of species incluing Penicillium sp. are use to a flavour to c'eese. $'e c'eese
flavour +oul epen on t'e fungus species t'e c'eese is inoculate +it'. $'e yeasts are
important in t'e leavening of oug' in baking an t'e fermentation processes of +ine an
beer manufacturing. 0n ecological systems, fungi are useful in t'e breako+n of organic
!oule Development $emplate 8E
matter an organic +astes an t'erefore contribute significantly to t'e recycling of
nutrients an cleaning up of +astes in an ecosystem. $'ey are also an important tool in
researc', because several generations of a fungus can be prouce in a s'ort time. $'e
fiel of meicine 'as benefite immensely from t'e e3ploitation of fungi for t'eir
meicinal value. 9s mycorr'i%al fungi t'ey are kno+n to 'ave a mutualistic e3istence
+it' plants, in +'ic' plants en'ance t'eir p'osp'orus uptake, +'ile t'e fungus benefits
from t'e carbon source provie by t'e 'ost plant. #n t'e ot'er 'an fungi are an
agricultural inconvenience because t'ey cause isease on plants an animals, +'ic' cost
farmers billions +ort' of profits. 9 large number of fungi cause a variety of iseases in
plants, but only a fe+ species cause isease in animals an 'umans, an +'en t'ey o
t'ey cause persistent illnesses.
9earning :c!i)i!ies
%.1 Readings* >ea t'e follo+ing books an links on !ycology)
5. 9le3opoulos, =. J. an =. D. !ims. 5EEA. 'ntroductory !ycology, 8t' (.
.. Deacon, J.D. .--C. &ungal Biology ;8t' e<. !alen, !9) Black+ell Publi'ers.
,. 1a+ks+ort', D.L. 5E/8. !ycologistZs 1anbook. Le+) U.L., =9B 0nternational.
7-5Civ.
8. 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*&ungus
C. 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*9scomycota nilvi.
A. 'ttp)**+++.kcom.eu*faculty*c'amberlain*Debsite*Lects*&ungi.'tm Lecture
notes on &ungi. 9ccesse on ;-.*-8*.--/<.
/. 'ttp)**pat'micro.me.sc.eu*mycology*mycology45.'tm 9 book of !ycology.
9ccesse on -.*-8*.--/
$'e reaings above provie you +it' information on t'e c'aracteristics, structure
nutrition, reprouction an economic importance of fungi. &rom t'ese reaings, prepare
summari%e notes using t'e follo+ing titles)
5.. Beneral c'aracteristics of fungi.
... !ycelial structure, organi%ation an gro+t'.
,. $ypes of nutrition in fungi ;saprop'ytism, parasitism, symbiosis<
8. !et'os of reprouction ;ase3ual, se3ual an parase3ual<
C. !a?or ivisions of fungi, t'eir corresponing life cycles an spore types suc' as
ascospores, basiiospores, %ygospores,an oospores.
A. =ollection, culture, preservation an ientification met'os of fungi.
/. (conomic importance ;Diseases in plants an animals6 nutritive value ;as foo<, in
meicine ;antibiotics<, fermentation processes ;bre+ing<, baking, as ecomposers,
an researc'.
%.2 9abora!ory Prac!ical*
Title: Diversity an morp'ology of fungi.
0n t'is e3ercise you +ill be re2uire to e3amine ifferent specimen samples from a +ie
!oule Development $emplate C-
range of representative groups of fungi.
Objectives:
9t t'e en of t'e practical e3ercise t'e learner s'oul be able to6
5 unerstan fungal iversity
.. unerstan t'e biology of fungi
,. compare fungal sub4groups in terms of boy an reprouctive structures.
8. unerstan t'e ecology of t'e fungi.
Materials: selecte fungal cultures ;plates*slants of specimens<, microscope, slie an
cover slip, specimens of +aprolegnia spp., (hi)opus sp. or !ucor sp., Candida sp.
Agaricus sp. an Phoma sp. 0nclue specimens of lic'ens an mycorr'i%ae in t'e form of
prepare slies.
Procedre*
: e3amine t'e fungal representatives for istinguis'ing c'aracteristics.
structures ;e.g coniiop'ore, sporangium, pycniia etc<.
: e3amine t'e mus'room fungi an look for basiia an basiiospores
: e3amine slie preparations of lic'ens an mycorr'i%ae. Look for t'e p'ysical
association bet+een t'e t+o issimilar organisms living toget'er
Report: $'e format outline in t'e learning activity No. 5 above s'oul be follo+e.
Kour report +ill no+ inclue representative ra+ings from t'e specimens observe an
t'is can be inclue uner t'e results section of t'e report.
%.$ +!dy )isi!s?+elf +!dies*
0n orer to ac'ieve t'e ob?ectives of t'is learning activity, you +ill nee to organi%e
group or iniviual stuy tours to ifferent places +'ere fungi are commonly kno+n to
gro+, so t'at you can learn about t'eir morp'ological c'aracteristics, istinctive groups,
an t'eir ecological environments. &or t'e biological applications, you +ill nee to visit
institutions an organi%ations t'at eal +it' mycological organisms. $'ese may inclue6
bakeries, bre+ing factories, c'eese making plants, +ine an bio4et'anol proucing
centres. Kour report s'oul inclue t'e names of fungi commonly use, t'e met'os use
to e3ploit t'e fungi, an 'o+ inoculum is preserve. &or eac' tec'nology, report on t'e
process use to get t'e re2uire results. >elate your e3periences to t'e t'eoretical
founations e3plore uring t'e literature revie+.
Ob6ec!i)e*
9t t'e e of t'e stuy visit t'e learner s'oul be able to;
: relate t'e t'eoretical kno+lege to t'e practical e3periences in t'e fiel.
Procedre* $'is +ill also epen on t'e ob?ective of t'e visit
!oule Development $emplate C5
Re,or!* Kou +ill be re2uire to +rite a report base on your observations from t'e
activities in t'e fiel. D'enever applicable, specific met'os employe s'oul also be
escribe.
%.% :ssignmen!*
9s e3plaine in t'e Learning 9ctivity P 5.
5. =es!ion* Discuss t'e economic importance of fungi.
:ns#er frame #or>* Divie t'e response into t'e 'armful an
beneficial aspects of fungi)
5.5 1armful aspects)
X 9gents of isease
Candida albicans is a yeast +'ic' attacks t'e mucous membranes
causing infections of t'e mout' or vagina calle t'rus' or
caniiasis6 an also blame for Hyeast allergies@
Y Dermatop'ytosis ;tinea or ring+orm< of t'e scalp, glabrous skin,
an nails is cause by group of fungi kno+n as ematop'ytes ;e.g.
%richophyton rubrum, %. interdigitale an Epidermophyton
floccosum<.
Y Aspergillus flavus, +'ic' gro+s on peanuts amongst ot'er 'osts,
generates aflato3in, +'ic' amage t'e liver an is 'ig'ly
carcinogenic.
Y Dutc' (lm Disease by Ceratocystis ulmi an transmitte by beetles
Y !ai%e leaf curl, cause by Cochliobolus heterophus
Y D'eat rust, cause by Puccinia graminis estroy tones of +'eat
yearly.
Y ,ncinula necator is responsible for t'e isease po+ery mile+,
+'ic' attacks grapevines.
Y Penicillium italicum rots oranges.
Y Some fungi like Penicillium an (hi)opus
spp spoil store foo.
Y (rgot ;Claviceps purpurea< on rye is a irect menace to 'umans
+'en it attacks +'eat or rye an prouces 'ig'ly poisonous an
carcinogenic alkalois to 'umans if consume.
Y &ungi like Epidermophyton cause skin infections but are not very
!oule Development $emplate C.
angerous for people +it' 'ealt'y immune systems. 1o+ever,
if t'e immune system is amage t'ey can be life4t'reatening)
&or instance, Pneumocystis -iroveci is responsible for severe lung
infections +'ic' occur in 90DS patients.
1.. Beneficial effects of fungi
X Benefits
Y !us'rooms are recogni%e an use as foo in many parts of
t'e +orl. 4&ermentation of sugars by yeast is t'e olest an
largest application of t'is tec'nology. !any types of yeasts are
use for making many foos) Baker@s yeast in brea prouction,
bre+er@s yeast in beer fermentation, yeast in +ine fermentation,
etc.
Y $'e mol Penicillium chrysogenum ;formerly Penicillium
notafum<, prouces an antibiotic, +'ic' uner t'e name Penicillin,
triggere a revolution in t'e treatment of bacterial infectious
iseases in t'e
t'
=entury.
Y %olypocladium niveum is an immunosuppressor +'ic' secretes
ciclosporin, a rug aministere uring organ transplanting to
prevent re?ection6 it is also prescribe for auto4immune iseases
suc' as multiple sclerosis.
Y Keasts are t'e most +iely use moel organisms for genetic an
cell biology ;e.g. t'e mol *eurospora crassa<. Some 'ave been
use to prouce 'uman insulin an t'e 'uman gro+t' 'ormone as
+ell as vaccine against 'epatitis B.
Y (n%ymes of Penicillium camemberti play a role in t'e manufacture
of c'eeses ;e.g. =amembert an Brie< +'ile t'ose of Penicillium
roqueforti o t'e same for Borgon%ola, >o2uefort an stilton
c'eese types.

X (3amples of agents of iseases in plants an animals incluing 'umans)
!oule Development $emplate C,
;9< +eptoria tritici is a fungus t'at causes t'ese
symptoms in a +'eat plant
'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*0mage)Septoria4tritici.?pg
Accessed on 8//!""8
;B< Entomophthora music is a fngs !ha! gro#s in !he body of an
insec! casing i! !o die
$'e 'n!omo,h!horales are an orer of fungi t'at 'as traitionally been classifie in t'e
class Zygomycetes. !ost species of t'e (ntomop't'orales are pat'ogens of insects. $'e
name 'n!omo,h!horales is erive from t'e Breek for insect estroyer ;Bk)
entomoNinsect, p't'orNestroyer<
'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*(ntomop't'orales
9ccesse on 7*8*.--7
!oule Development $emplate CC
.
;=< Ring#orm, also kno+n as T$ineaT is an infection of t'e skin. =ontrary to its name,
ring+orm is not cause by a +orm but by parasitic fungi ;Dermatop'ytosis<. 0t can e3ist
any+'ere on t'e boy.
'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*>ing+orm 9ccesse on 7*8*.--7

!oule Development $emplate CA
F '@am,les of some beneficial effec!s of fngi*
;9< &ermenting tanks +it' yeast use to bre+ beer
'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*0mage)Samaams..?pg 9s of
9ccesse on 5E*-8*.--/
!oule Development $emplate C/
;B< Bake foo) 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*0mage)BakeMfoo.?pg
9ccesse on 7*8*.--7
!icroorganisms t'at release carbon io3ie as part of t'eir lifecycle can be use to
leaven proucts. "arieties of yeast are most often use, particularly +accharomyces
species or bakerZs yeast. Leavening +it' yeast is a process base on fermentation,
p'ysically c'anging t'e c'emistry of t'e oug' or batter as t'e yeast +orks. Keast leaves
be'in +aste byproucts ;particularly et'anol an some autolysis proucts< t'at
contribute to t'e istinctive flavor of yeast breas.
'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*LeaveningMagentPBiologicalMleaveners
2. =es!ion* #utline t'e gro+t' conitions re2uire by fungi.
:ns#er frame #or>* =onsier t'e follo+ing tips in your ans+er6
: moist environments are preferre +it' a relative 'umiity in e3cess of /-I, a
temperature range of 4A
o
= to C-
o
= ;optimum being .-4,C
o
=<. Some of t'em can
in'abit 'ot springs environments
p1 conitions vary greatly, from as lo+ as ... to as 'ig' as
E.A ;optimum is C.- or lo+er<.
: $'ese conitions are necessary for optimum function of
e3tracellular en%ymes an absorption of t'e proucts of
igestion.
: !ost re2uire o3ygen an t'erefore t'ey are aerobic in nature,
but ot'ers like t'e yeasts are facultative ;live uner a range of
e3treme conitions< anaerobes not re2uiring o3ygen
an carry out alco'olic fermentation.
,. =es!ion* D'at are t'e +ays in +'ic' fungi cause isease in 'umansG
:ns#er frame #or>* &ungi usually cause isease in 'umans in any one of t'e
follo+ing +ays epening on t'e organism in 2uestion6
: as an allergic reaction to in'aling fungal spores or vegetative cells causing
iseases suc' as 'ay fever an ast'ma, +'ic' is a isease of t'e respiratory
system cause by allergies +it' symptoms of coug'ing, suen ifficulty in
breat'ing, an a tig't feeling in t'e c'est.
: as a reaction to t'e to3ins prouce by some species of fungi ;some prouce
to3ins t'at are carcinogenic, e.g. Aspergillus prouce aflato3ins, ergot from
Claviceps purporea, etc<.
: gro+t' of fungi on or in t'e 'uman boy causing iseases or mycoses calle
'istoplasmosis, +'ic' is a severe isease of t'e lungs cause by t'e fungus
.istoplasma capsulatum6 cocciioiomycosis, a respiratory isease of 'umans
an omestic animals cause by in'alation of spores from a fungus calle
Coccidioides immitis6 an caniiasis +'ic' are infections cause by yeasts suc'
as Candida albicans.
: &ungi cause isease to plants estroying tones of crop yiels per year. 9
s'ortage of foo in a 'ouse'ol can lea to malnutrition.
8. =es!ion* Discuss t'e ifferent kins of symbiotic relations'ips fungi form +it'
ot'er organisms. (3plain 'o+ t'ese relations'ips are beneficial to eac' partner.
:ns#er frame #or>*
$'ere are t+o types of suc' relations'ips)
8.5 Lic'en symbiosis
$'is is an association of fungi +it' p'otosynt'etic organisms suc' as algae
or a cyanobacterium.
: 9 fungus provies protection an a gro+t' platform for t'e ot'er organism.
: $'e fungus supplies absorbe +ater an minerals to t'e partner organism.
t'e p'otosynt'etic member supplies t'e fungus +it' organic nutrients as a
carbon source.
8.. !ycorr'i%ae
: $'ese are close associations bet+een fungi an t'e roots of certain plants
sustaine by mutual beneficial effects bet+een t'em.
: &ungi increase t'e absorptive surface area of t'e root an an en'ance
!oule Development $emplate CE
uptake of inorganic p'osp'ate in p'osp'ate poor soils, t'ereby allo+ing
t'eir plant partners to gro+ in soils +'ere t'ese plants coul not ot'er+ise
survive.
: &ungi in turn obtain t'e synt'esi%e organic nutrients from t'e plant partner.
%.& 3orma!i)e e)ala!ion*
5. Drite s'ort notes on eac' of t'e follo+ings items as applie in mycology.
;a< ='itin cell +all.
;a< >eprouction by buing.
;a< Parase3ualism
;a< 1eterokaryosis.
.. Describe t'e general c'aracteristics of t'e F
;a< yeasts an
;b< t'e filamentous fungi.

,. =ompare an contrast t'e moe of nutrition bet+een F
;a< fungi an plants
;b< fungi an animals
8. Describe t'e structure an function of eac' of t'e follo+ing parts of a fungus.
;a< 1yp'al tip.
;b< Stolon.
;c< >'i%ois.
;< =oniiop'ore.
C. =ompare an contrast an ascocarp of t'e 9scomycota an t'e basiiocarp of a
Basiiomycota.
A. (3plain 'o+ t'e follo+ing ase3ual spores are prouce.
;a< =oniia
;b< Sporangiospores
;c< Pycniiospores
/. Drite s'ort ans+ers to eac' of t'e 2uestions belo+.
;a< Describe a lic'enG
;b< Discuss mycorr'i%al associationsG
;c< (3plain t'e peculiar nature of t'e Himperfect fungi@
;< Discuss t'e role of fungi in an ecosystem.
;e< =ompare an contrast r'i%omorp' to a mycelial stran.
7. #utline t'e life cycle of (hi)opus sp.
E. Searc' t'e internet for pictures of various organisms t'at belong to t'e Lingom
&ungi. Provie a brief ta3onomic escription uner eac' picture of a
representative organism for eac' of t'e follo+ing groups of fungi.
!oule Development $emplate A-
;a< ='ytriiomycota
;b< Zygomycota
;c< 9scomycota
;< Basiiomycota
;e< Deuteromycota

5-. Discuss t'e facts t'at fungi are a blessing as +ell as a curse.
11. COMPI9'D 9I+T O3 :99 "'G CONC'PT+ 759O++:RG8
5. +POR:N5IUM* 9 capsule mae up of intert+ine fungal filaments t'at
contain sporangiospores.
.. :+CI* $'is is a capsule t'at prouces a special type of spore calle ascospores
,. .:+IDI:* $'is is a capsule t'at prouces a kin of spore calle basiiospores
8. T-:99U+* $'is is boy of an organism t'at is not ifferentiate into roots,
C. :+'PTIC T'C-NI=U'* >efers to proceures use to prevent t'e
A. .:CT'RIO9O5G* 9 branc' of microbiology +'ic' eals +it' t'e stuy
/. .:CT'RIOP-:5'* $'ese are viruses t'at infect bacteria.
7. .R:DIHOIT'* 9 stage in t'e life cycle of proto%oa of t'e family
E. C-'MO+T:T* 9 evice use in a continuous culture of bacteria so as to
maintain a bacterial population at a constant ensity6 a situation t'at is, in many
+ays, more similar to bacterial gro+t' in natural environment.
5-. CONIU5:TION* 9 kin of reprouction in single celle organisms in +'ic'
one cell passes genetic material ;DN9< to anot'er t'roug' a con?ugation
tube calle t'e se3 pilus t'at temporarily ?oins t'e t+o con?ugating cells.
contamination of sterile cultures or meia an sprea of microorganisms into in
an environment.
55. CGTOP:T-IC '33'CT* 9re c'aracteristic c'anges of t'e cells@ appearance
observe in tissue culture cells +'en t'ey are attacke by viruses.
5.. DI":RGOTIC* 9 'yp'a t'at contains paire 'aploi nuclei.
5,. DIO'CIOU+ * &ungal species +'ic' prouce male an female se3 organs in
separate t'alli.
58. 'NDO+POR'+* 1ig'ly resistant ormant structures forme by certain genera
of Bram4positive bacteria suc' as Bacillus an =lostriium.
5C. 5:M'T:N5I:* 9 gametangium ;plural gametangia< is an organ or cell t'at
is foun in some multicellular fungi in +'ic' gametes ;for male N
ant'eriium6 an female N oogonium< are prouce.
5A. 5:M'TOCGT'* $'e stage in t'e life cycle of some proto%oa ;9picomple3a<
+'ic' is estine to become a gamete ;macro4or micro4<.
5/. -'T'RO":RGO+I+* 0t is a term use in mycology meaning to 'ave t+o or
more genetically ifferent nuclei +it'in t'e same mycelium of a fungus.
57. -GP'RP9:+I:: 0s e3cessive cell ivision or t'e gro+t' of abnormally large
cells, resulting in t'e prouction of s+ollen or istorte areas of t'e
!oule Development $emplate A5
organism.
of bacteria.
Sarcocystiae ;tissue4cyst4forming cocciia<.
stem an leaves.
5E. -GP-:* 9 'yp'a ;plural 'yp'ae< is a long, filamentous cell of a fungus,
constituting t'e main vegetative part of a fungus.
.-. M'RO5ONG 7+C-IHO5ONG8* 0s a type of ase3ual reprouction in t'e
p'ylum 9picomple3a in +'ic' a single cell unergoes several nuclear ivisions
before t'e cytoplasm ivies aroun t'em to form iniviual parent cells. $'e
malaria parasite reprouces rapily in tissues of t'e 'ost t'is +ay.
.5. MICRO+COPG* 9ny tec'ni2ue for proucing visible images of structures or
etails too small to be seen by t'e nake 'uman eye.
... MONO'CIOU+* &ungal species +'ic' prouce male an female se3 organs
in t'e same t'allus an t'erefore assuming a herma,hrodi!e conition.
.,. MGC'9IUM* : collection of 'yp'ae t'at form t'e vegetative boy of a
fungus t'at is capable of feeing an reproucing.
.8. MGCO9O5G* 9 branc' of biology t'at speciali%es in t'e stuy of fungi.
.C. NUC9'OC:P+ID* $'e viral capsi toget'er +it' t'e nucleic aci t'at is
tig'tly packe +it'in t'e protein coat.
.A. P9:+MID+* Small circular DN9 containe in t'e cells of bacteria. $'ey often
contain genes for antibiotic resistance. $'ey are capable of inepenent
replication.
./. PROTOHOO9O5G* 9 branc' of biology, +'ic' eals +it' t'e proto%oa.
.7. P+'UDOPODI:* 0s a comple3 infrastructure of microtubulesC microfilaments
an ot'er organelles associate +it' cytoplasmic protrusion use for
locomotion an or feeing in proto%oa.
.E. +POR'* 9 reprouctive cell t'at evelops into a ne+ organism +it'out t'e
nee to fuse +it' anot'er reprouctive cell.
,-. TIT'R* $'e titer of t'e virus, or t'e enpoint, is t'e ilution at +'ic' C-I of
t'e inoculate 'osts are infecte ;infective ose6 ID&2< or kille ;let'al ose6
9D&2<.
,5. TROP-OHOIT'* 9 stage of evelopment in proto%oa in +'ic' t'e organism
is sai to be mature an t'erefore active or able to fee.
,.. /IRION* 9 virus particle +'en it is on t'e outsie of its 'ost cell, an consists
of eit'er DN9 or >N9 surroune by a protective cover calle capsi.
5.. =#!P0L(D L0S$ #& =#!PULS#>K >(9D0NBS
Com,lsory Reading B 1
Title: !icroscopy
URL: 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*!icroscopy
!oule Development $emplate A.
bstract: 1ere you +ill fin a escription of t'e optical microscopy tec'ni2ues suc' as
t'e brig't fiel, obli2ue illumination, ark fiel, p'ase contrast, ifferential interference
contrast, an ot'er relate information. 0t inclues a escription of ot'er types of
microscopy suc' as t'e electron an scanning probe microscopes.
Rationale: !icrobes are too small to be seen by t'e unaie eye $'erefore t'e stuy of
microbes re2uires kno+lege of t'e use of tools like a microscope or ot'er magnifying
instruments in orer to appreciate t'e +orl of microbes.
Title: !icrobiology an Bacteriology
URL: 'ttp)**en.+ikipenia.org*+iki*Bacteria
bstract: $'roug' t'is link, you +ill fin an online te3tbook +it' c'apters +'ic' eal
+it' ifferent aspects of t'e biology of bacteria. $'e book inclues topics on
classification an ientification an t'e significance of microbes in biotec'nology an
inustry.
Rationale: By making use of t'is link, you +ill be able to appreciate 'o+ bacteria +ere
iscovere, to learn about t'eir iversity an biology. Biven t'is kno+lege you +ill t'en
be able to rationali%e t'e role of bacteria in t'e environment an inustry.
Com,lsory Reading B $
Title: !icrobiology 5-. 1ome Page
URL: 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*BacterialMgro+t'
'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*!icrobialMmetabolism
!escription: $'ese links take you to an online book of microbiology. &rom t'e table of
contents of t'is book, you +ill be able to get kno+lege on t'ree relevant topics in
bacteriology, namely) ;a< Bacterial Bro+t' 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*BacterialMgro+t'
;b< Bacterial Nutrition ;sources of energy, nitrogen, carbon, o3ygen, etc<, an ;c<
(nvironmental >e2uirements for !icrobes.
Rationale: $'e links +ill enable you accomplis' part of t'e learning ob?ectives in t'e
moule6 it is about bacterial nutrition, gro+t' an environmental re2uirements for
gro+t'.
!oule Development $emplate A,
Com,lsory Reading B %
Title: Laboratory $ec'ni2ues
URL: 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*=ategory)LaboratoryMtec'ni2ues
bstract: $'is +ebsite +ill take you to a list of laboratory tec'ni2ues +'ic' are
commonly use in microbiology. =lick on t'e tec'ni2ue you +is' to look up an t'at
+ebsite +ill take you to t'e link +'ere t'e etails of t'at tec'ni2ue are given.
Rationale: 9 prere2uisite to t'e satisfactory stuy of microorganisms is t'eir cultivation
uner laboratory conitions6 an in orer to accomplis' t'is, one must kno+ some
tec'ni2ues, particularly t'ose t'at +ill enable t'e learner to stuy an manipulate
microorganisms in t'e laboratory a+ay from t'eir natural 'abitat.
Com,lsory Reading B &
Title: /irses
URL: 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*"irusPDiscovery
bstract: $'is link introuces anot'er group of microbes, t'e viruses. 0t provies t'e
basic reaing material on viruses6 going as far as escribing t'eir iscovery, origins,
classification, structure, replication, life forms, viruses an isease to inclue epiemics,
etection, purification an iagnosis, prevention an treatment, potential uses in t'erapy
an t'eir applications.
Rationale: 0t 'as an e3tensive coverage on t'e part of virology.
Com,lsory Reading B (
Title: Pro!o0oa
URL: 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*Proto%oa
'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*&lagellate
'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*9moeboi
'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*Sporo%oans
'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*=occiia
'ttp)**+++.tulane.eu*U+iser*proto%oology*notes*intes.'tml
bstract: $'ese +ebsite references s'oul be rea toget'er in orer to 'ave overvie+
kno+lege about proto%oa. (ac' +eb reference eals +it' a specific group of proto%oa
e3plaining t'e classification an escribing t'eir biology. $'e significance of proto%oa is
also iscusse emp'asi%ing t'eir meical impact on 'uman 'ealt'.
Rationale: $'e morp'ology an structure of t'e proto%oa are +ell illustrate making t'e
escriptive te3t easy to follo+. $'e life cycles of some proto%oa are amply illustrate in
t'e follo+ing +eb reference) 'ttp)**+++.tulane.eu*U+iser*proto%oology*notes*intes.'tml
Title: &ungi
URL: 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*&ungus
:bs!rac!* $'e link is packe +it' basics on fungi, +'ic' inclues t'eir c'aracteristics
;morp'ologies, spores, etc.<, fossil recors an p'ylogenetic relations'ips. Detaile
escriptions of eac' of t'e ma?or groups of fungi is covere.
Rationale: $'e link is a goo introuctory te3t on t'e stuy of fungi. 0t also 'as t'e latest
classification of t'e fungi base on t'e molecular approac'.
1$. COMPI9'D 9I+T O3 7OPTION:98 MU9TIM'DI: R'+OURC'+
Resorce B 1
Title: $'e Big Picture Book of "iruses
URL: 'ttp)**+++.virology.net*BigM"irology*B"1omePage.'tml
bstract: $'is link takes you to $'e Big Picture Book of "iruses +'ic' is intene to
serve as bot' a catalogue of virus pictures on t'e internet an as eucational resource to
t'ose seeking more information about viruses. 0t is also linke to 9ll t'e "irology on t'e
DDD, an or collection of "irology =ourses an $utorials.
Rationale: 0t 'as an e3tensive coverage of t'e structure of viruses an t'eir ta3onomic
groupings are given. 9 +ie range of sources 'ave been broug't toget'er in t'is book.
1%. COMPI9'D 9I+T O3 U+'3U9 9IN"+
Use"ul Lin# $ %
Title: $oar@s #nline $e3tbook of Bacteriology
!oule Development $emplate AC
URL: 'ttp)**+++.te3tbookofbacteriology.net*
bstract: $'is link takes you to an online te3tbook +'ose contents are suitable for
general microbiology. 0t also covers relevant aspects of meical bacteriology +it'
specific e3amples of isease causing agents.
Rationale: 0t is important to +ien your 'ori%ons on microbiology +it' an online
te3tbook t'at is at t'e cutting ege of kno+lege in microbiology.
Use"ul Lin# $ &
Title: Bacteriology $ec'ni2ues
URL: 'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*=ategory)BacteriologyMtec'ni2ues
bstract: $'is +ebsite +ill take you to a list of bacteriological tec'ni2ues +'ic' are
commonly use in microbiology. =lick on t'e tec'ni2ue you +is' to look up an t'at
+ebsite +ill take you to t'e +ebsite +'ere t'e etails of t'at tec'ni2ue are given.
Rationale: 9 prere2uisite to t'e satisfactory stuy of microorganisms is t'eir cultivation
uner laboratory conitions6 an in orer to accomplis' t'is, one must kno+ some
tec'ni2ues, particularly t'ose t'at +ill enable t'e learner to stuy an manipulate
microorganisms in t'e laboratory.
Use"ul Lin# $ '
Ti!le: !alaria
URL: 'ttp)**+++.+'o.int*meiacentre*facts'eets*fs-E8*en*
bstract: $'is is a Dorl 1ealt' #rgani%ation site +'ic' 'arbours upate information
on malaria. 0t efines +'at malaria is, t'e situation in 9frica, its effects uring pregnancy,
treatments an economic costs ue to malaria.
Rationale: Kou s'oul 'ave note so far t'at parasitic proto%oans are able to survive
successfully an reprouce in almost all animal species. 9s suc', proto%oa are a
remarkably successful group of organisms t'at 'ave evolve comple3 an closely
integrate relations'ips +it' t'eir 'osts. $'e stuy of Plasmodium spp. +'ic' causes
malaria, is a case e3ample.
Use"ul Lin# $ (
Title: !icrobiology an 0mmunology
URL: 'ttp)**pat'micro.me.sc.eu*mycology*mycology45.'tm
!oule Development $emplate AA
bstract: 0t is an online stuy material of t'e University of Sout' =arolina Sc'ool of
!eicine. ='apter one of t'is mycology course covers t'e classification of fungi,
morp'ology, important fungal iseases incluing iagnosis an treatment.
Rationale: Lno+lege of fungi as t'ey affect 'uman beings is important because it
brings closer 'ome t'e negative effects of fungi on t'e 'ealt' of 'umans an ultimately
'o+ t'is can affect t'e national economy. $'erefore, kno+lege of some fungal
infections in terms of t'eir etiology, pat'ology, iagnosis an treatments is necessary for
a mycology stuent.
Use"ul Lin# B &
Title: !ycological >esources on t'e 0nternet) >esources for $eac'ing
URL: 'ttp)**mycology.cornell.eu*fteac'.'tml
bstract: 0t is a very ric' source of ifferent aspects of !ycology. "arious topics are
covere. Kou +ill nee to ientify a particular topic an follo+ it up +it' t'e links
provie.
Rationale: 0t is important to kno+ t'e classification of fungi, t'eir structure an types of
associations, reprouction, ecological re2uirement an t'e usefulness of fungi. $'ese are
t'e aspects covere by t'e various links, incluing mus'room cultivation.
Sc'ematic representation of a basiium, t'e
fruiting structure of a Basiiomycota
'ttp)**en.+ikipeia.org*+iki*0mage)BasiiumMsc'ematic.svg
9ccesse on 7*8*.--7
!oule Development $emplate A/
1&. +yn!hesis of !he Modle
$'is is a moule about microbes. $'ey are too small in si%e t'at it is necessary to use a
microscope to see t'em. 9 stuy of suc' organisms is calle microbiology. 0t inclues
organisms suc' as bacteria, proto%oa, an fungi. 9lt'oug' viruses are strictly not
organisms but particulate matters t'at become active once t'ey are insie a 'ost cell, t'ey
too, are consiere to be microbes for convenience. !icro4organisms are important to
'uman beings because t'ey 'ave a irect effect on animal ;incluing 'uman< and ,lan!
heal!h, food and be)erage ,rodc!ion an keeping t'e ecosystem in a stable state.
$'erefore an unerstaning of t'eir biology is useful so t'at t'ey can be efficiently
e3ploite an controlle. $'e biology of t'e organisms inclues t'eir mor,hology an
s!rc!re, gro#!h an de)elo,men!, n!ri!ion, res,ira!ion an re,rodc!ion. 0t is also
important to stuy t'eir !a@onomy an to be able to iden!ify t'em. 0n orer to stuy
microorganism it is important to be familiar +it' t'e ase,!ic !echniqe, an to be able to
prepare gro#!h media on +'ic' to cl!re t'e organisms.

1(. +mma!i)e ')ala!ion
9s a re2uirement for t'e completion of t'is moule, you +ill be e3amine using a testing
instrument, +'ic' +ill be mae up of 2uestions of various types. $'e 2uestions +ill test
your ability to recall information you 'ave learne in t'e moule, ot'ers +ill test your
compre'ension of various concepts ealt +it' an yet ot'ers +ill test your ability to
analyse given ata an or to evaluate an apply it. $'e esign of 2uestions +ill vary
+it'in a paper. $'ere +ill be a fe+ multiple c'oice type 2uestions, ot'ers +ill be in t'e
form of s'ort ans+er 2uestions an yet ot'ers +ill be escriptive an e3planations of
concepts.
$'e follo+ing are a sample of t'e type of 2uestions t'at are e3pecte.
5. D'ic' of t'e follo+ing cell types are not micro4organismsG
9. re bloo cells
B. proto%oa
=. yeasts
D. arc'aea
.. Bro+t' of mol is favoure by F
9. aciic conitions.
B. aerobic conitions.
=. presence of moisture.
D. all of t'e above.
,. Bre+ers*bakers yeast is important forF..
9. commercial alco'ol bre+ing.
B. leavening of brea.
=. e3periments in t'e 'uman genome pro?ect.
D. aci prouction.
8. $'e 'ig'ly4resistant Hresting cells@ prouce by Bacillus an Clostridium are
calleF..
9. reprouctive spores.
B. sees.
=. enospores.
D. vegetative cells.
C. $'e genetic material of bacteria is compose ofF.
9. 9$P
B. DN9
=. ribosomes
D. protein
A. Bive t'e meaning to eac' of t'e follo+ing terms.
9. $rop'o%oite
B. ='emostat
=. =apsi
D. !ero%oite
(. 9nt'eriium
/. Drite s'ort ans+ers to t'e follo+ing 2uestions)
9. Describe t'e t+o basic mec'anisms t'at prouce genetic c'ange in bacteriaG
B. List t'e t'ree most common cellular morp'ologies in clinically significant
bacteria.
=. (3plain t'e economic significance of proto%oa.
D. (3plain t'e moe of nutrition in fungi.
(. List t'e c'aracteristics common to all t'e viruses.
7. =ompare an contrast bet+een t'e follo+ing terms.
9. (ukaryotic an prokaryotic cells.
B. Lic'ens an mycor'i%ae.
D. 1eterokaryosis an ikaryotic conitions
(. $'e importance of proto%oa an t'at of viruses
E. 9. State t'e classification of proto%oa.
B. inicate uner eac' category t'e c'aracteristics peculiar to t'at group of
organisms.

5-. 9. #utline t'e steps involve in t'e lytic life cycle of a virus using t'e
bacteriop'age as an e3ample.
B. Provie an e3planation for eac' stage cite.

55. 9. Dra+ t'e structure of Escherichia coli.
!oule Development $emplate AE
B. Label t'e cytoplasmic contents of t'e cell.

5.. #utline t'e c'aracteristics of t'e sub4ivisions of fungi given belo+.
Basiiomycota, 9scomycota, Zygomycota, #omycota, an Deuteromycota.
5,. (3plain t'e steps involve in aenovirus DN9 replication.
58. 9. Describe t'e classification of proto%oa.
B. 0entify t'e isease4causing genera of proto%oa
=. List t'e causal agents in eac' case.

5C. (3plain t'e economic significance of fungi in an ecosystem.
14. References
5. 9lbac', >.9. an Booen, $. 5E/7. 9moebae. 0n) Parasitic Proto)oa, /ol '' ;e.
J.P. Lriep<. 9caemic Press. Lonon.
.. 9le3opoulos, =. J an !ims, =. D. 5EEA. 'ntroductory !ycology, 8t' (.
,. =arroll, B.=. an Dicklo+, D.$. 5EE.. $'e &ungal =ommunity) 0ts #rgani%ation
an >ole in t'e (cosystem. !arcel Deker, 0nc., N.K.
8. =o3, &. (. B. .--5. !oern parasitology. Black+ell Sciences.
C. =ur, =.>. 5EE.. Proto%oa an t'e +ater inustry. =ambrige University Press, !9.
A. Deacon, J.D. ;.--C<. &ungal Biology ;8t' e<. !alen, !9) Black+ell
Publis'ers.
/. &robis'er, !., 1insill >. D., L., =rabtree $. an Boo'eart, =.>. 5E/8.
undamentals of !icrobiology. Nint' (ition. P'ilaelp'ia) Sauners =ollege
Publis'ing.
7. &robis'er, !., 1insill, >.D., =rabtree, L.$. an Boo'eart, =.>. 5E/8.
E. Belerblom, 1.>. 5EEA. Structure an =lassification of "iruses in !eical
!icrobiology. Samuel Baron e. University of $e3as !eical Branc' at Balveston.
5-. 1arkonen, !., Niemella, $. an !+asumbi, L. .--,. $an%anian !us'rooms.
(ible, 'armful an ot'er fungi. Botanical !useum, &innis' !useum of Natural
1istory, 1elsinki.
55. 0saac, S., &ranklan, J.=., Datling, >. an D'alley, 9.J.S. 5EE,. 9spects of $ropical
!ycology. =ambrige University Press, =ambrige, UL.
5.. !aer, S.S. .--8. Biology. !cBra+41ill =ompanies, 0nc.. 5..5. 9venue of t'e
9mericas, NK 5--.-.
5,. !ic'ael !., Jo'n !. .--A. Brock Biology of !icroorganisms, 55
t'
e., Prentice
1all.
58. Nester, (.D., 9nerson, D.B., >oberts, (.=. ;Jr<, Pearsall, N.N. an Nester, !.$.
5C. >aetsky, P. 5EE8. $'e 0nvisible 0nvaers) "iruses an t'e Scientists D'o
Pursue $'em. Backbay Books.
!oule Development $emplate /-
11. :!hors
Princi,al :!hor of !he Modle
Prof. Iassiel Nyengani Hl
(mail aress) ?assiel%ulu[ya'oo.co.uk
Zambian an 'oler of a P'.D. egree in Plant Pat'ology from 0mperial =ollege, Lonon
University obtaine in 5E/7. 1e is a lecturer at t'e University of Zambia an taug't
ecology, evolution, plant biology, mycology an plant pat'ology to unergrauate an
traine postgrauate stuents since 5E/7 to ate. 1e 'as revie+e curricula at bot'
unergrauate an postgrauate levels. 9ppointe to various aministrative positions
+it'in t'e University as 9ssistant Dean ;unergrauate affairs<, 1ea of Department of
Biological Sciences in t'e Sc'ool of Natural Sciences an intermittently acte as t'e
Dean of t'e Sc'ool of Natural Sciences. =urrently 'e is 9ssociate Professor in t'e
Biological Sciences.
+bsidiary :!hor of !he Modle
Dr. !oest Diamon "arisanga
(4mail aress) "arisangam['otmail.com
varisangam[ya'oo.com
$an%anian an 'oler of a P'.D. egree in Biotec'nology obtaine in .--5 +it'
postrgrauate kno+lege in "eterinary !eicine ;5EE,<. 1e is a Senior Lecturer at t'e
&aculty of Science, $ec'nology an (nvironmental Stuies at t'e #pen University of
$an%ania. 1e is also t'e (3aminations #fficer of t'e &aculty an =oorinator of
Zoology.
=opy submitte -E*-8*.--7 at 5E.,- 'ours
!oule Development $emplate /5

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