Jamris 2012 Vol 6 No 4

pISSN 1897-8649 (PRINT) / eISSN 2080-2145 (ONLINE)
VOLUME 6
N 4
2012
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JOURNAL of AUTOMATION, MOBILE ROBOTICS

& INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS
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JOURNAL of AUTOMATION, MOBILE ROBOTICS

& INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS
VOLUME 6, N 4, 2012
CONTENTS
33
Angle Measuring by MEMS Accelerometers

Kamil Zidek, Miroslav Dovica, Ondrej Liska
Positioning and Control of Nozzles and Water Particles

in Decorative Water Curtain and Water Screens
Mahdi Hajiheydari, Sasan Mohammadi
Modeling of Circulatory System with Coronary

Circulation and the POLVAD Ventricular Assist Device
Alicja Siewnicka, Bartlomiej Fajdek, Krzysztof
Janiszowski
13
PI Control of Laboratory Furnace for Annealing of

Amorphous Alloys Cores
Jerzy E. Kurek, Roman Szewczyk, Jacek Salach and Rafa
Kloda
36
Stable Gait Synthesis and Analysis of a 12-degree of

Freedom Biped Robot in Sagittal and Frontal Planes
A.P. Sudheer, R. Vijayakumar, K.P. Mohandas
45
Intelligent Utilization of Waste of Electrical and

Electronic Equipment (WEEE) with Robotized Tool
Jakub Szalatkiewicz, Roman Szewczyk
50
16
Surface Topography Parameters Important in Contact

Mechanics
Pawe Pawlus, Wiesaw Zelasko, Jacek Michalski
Influence of PWM to Trajectory Accuracy in Mobile

Robot Motion
Ryszard Beniak, Tomasz Pyka
57
20
Behavior Based Co-ordination of a Troop of

Vehicles Targeted to Different Goals in an Unknown
Environment
Sourish Sanyal, Ranjit Kumar Barai, Pranab Kumar
Chattopadhyay, and Rupendranath Chakrabarti
27
About Evaluation of Multivariate Measurements

Results
Zygmunt L. Warsza
Articles
Robot for Monitoring Hazardous Environments as a

Mechatronic Product
Leszek Kasprzyczak, Stanislaw Trenczek, Maciej Cader
65
Analysis of Influence of Drive System Configurations

of a Four Wheeled Robot on its Mobility
Maciej Trojnacki
Journal of Automation, Mobile Robotics & Intelligent Systems
VOLUME 6,
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Angle Measuring by Mems Accelerometers

Submitted: 26th June 2011; accepted 23rd September 2011
Kamil Zidek, Miroslav Dovica, Ondrej Liska
Abstract:
This article contains the description of MEMS accelerometers implementation to device which is able to measure danger tilt. We can find out actual tilt in two basic
axes X and Y, from -90 to +90. Z Axis can only detect
fall of device or in vehicle system very fast downhill grade
during movement. For testing of the solution we select
small mobile robotic carriage. Hardware and software
part of solution are described. Because data from sensor
are in raw format from analog MEMS Accelerometer, we
use free C# library with Kalman Filter implementation
to remove signal error. We can acquire next information
from sensor data for example movements trajectory in
X/Y axis (Cartesian system) and actual speed in all three
axes. Fast alarm is provided by RGB led diode (red color
is dangerous tilt.
robots and automated devices with balancing function (segway),

controls with tilt measuring,
Auto pilots of aeroplanes,
car alarm systems,
car crash detection (used in airbag system),
monitoring of human movements (virtual reality
gloves).
Example of MEMS microstructure sensor magnified
by microscope is displayed in Fig. 1 on the left side, right
is displayed measuring principle.
Keywords: mems, Kalman filter, control.
1. Introduction to MEMS Sensors
Shortcut MEMS means micro electromechanical systems, marks mechanical and electromechanical construction of very small dimensions, and technologies used
for their preparation too. MEMS technology is based
on many tools and methods, which are used for creating
very small structure with dimension of couple micrometers. An important part of technology was takeover from
production of Integrated circuit (IC technology). Almost
all of these devices are based on a silicon substrate.
MEMS structures are realized from thin layer. There are
produced by photo lithographic methods. Some other
methods also exist, but they arent derivate straight from
technology of IC. There are three basic steps of operation
in MEMS technology for layer applying to silicon material to substrate. Process of MEMS is usually a structured
sequence of this operation for creating real application.
Real device, then, contains central unit for processing of
data (microprocessor), and some other mechanical part
which compose unit named micro sensor too [4].
Fig. 1. MEMS sensor and principle of microstructures

Older accelerometers had big dimension and were
very expensive. The construction was created from standard metal parts, springs and PCB. That was reason why at
that time accelerometers were not used in electronics nor
robotics. This situation was changed thanks to progress in
MEMS technology. MEMS technologies reduce the price,
energetic consumption and dimensions. Main usability
is measuring of acceleration in three Axes: X forward/
backward, Y left/right, Z up/down. For mobile robotics we can use this sensor for measuring acceleration or
deceleration by movement front and back, second Axis for
change direction of movement right or left, and third Axis
for fall detection of device. Second method of usability
is measuring of device tilt based on simple mathematics.
Figure 2 shows MEMS Axis configuration and principle of
tilt measuring with this sensor along y axis.
2. MEMS accelerometers
One of usual application for MEMS is sensor for

measuring of acceleration. This MEMS sensor is usually
named Accelerometer. They are divided to one-, two- or
three Axes. Measuring of acceleration is possible to use
in electronics and robotics for measuring: acceleration,
deceleration, tilt, rotation, vibration, collision (crash) or
gravitation. Accelerometers are used in many devices,
special equipment and personal electrotechnics, for example:
Fig. 2. MEMS sensor: axis configuration, principle of tilt

measuring
Output information from accelerometer is voltage
which depends on movement or tilt of sensor in space.
A static characteristic of sensor is not exactly linear. For
common application we can this nonlinearity omit. The
acceleration is usually in MEMS application measured
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VOLUME 6,
in G unit. Expression 1 g = 9,80665 m/s2 means, that

for every second, which passed the speed change will be
9,80665 meters for second. That is approximately speed
35.30394 km/h. The three Axis accelerometer can get
null G on every Axis, if is in ballistic trajectory known
as inertial or free fall. If we turn the accelerometer to
90 the output from one Axis will be exactly +1 g. In
this situation, accelerometer measuring gravitation Force
and can be in static position. Described characteristics for
analogue MEMS sensor is depicted in Fig. 3. [1]
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2012
Our values are counted according changed math,

because we dont know max and min values for actual
accelerometer. This math get extreme values during accelerometer operation.
incr = 180 * (H_max - H_min)
(3)
= incr * (H_nam - H_min)

(4)
where:
H_max, H_min initial value of accelerometer extreme
H_nam actual accelerometer value
3. Tested hardware platform
Fig. 3. Characteristics of MEMS accelerometer sensor

with nonlinearity [2]
Example of block scheme sensor connection to user
application is displayed in the Fig. 4. Additional LCD
display connected straight to microcontroller enabling
testing of application without Computer necessity.
Introduced solution was tested on mobile computer with open source application in programming
language C#. A prototype board contains Accelerometer MMA7341L (analog) and accelerometer MMA7455
(digital) from Freescale. Currently there is active only
analog Accelerometer. Microcontroller computes values
of voltage for all Sensor Axis with help of three 10 bits
ADC converters. Data are coded to frames (9 bytes as
string $XXYYZZ1310). Every axis has value coded to
two bytes (Low and High 8 bites).
First method of accelerometer communication is only
for debug the application. Sensor is connected straight
to PC. Data are sent thru serial line to serial port of PC.
For implementation to mobile robot is used USART
interface without UART/RS232 Transducer and communicate straight with High Level control system based
on AT91 control board with Linux Embedded OS. These
serial data are transferred to TCP packet thru ser2net
command line application. Data are sent next thru wife
interface to C# application. Block diagram of testing debug solution and mobile control system implementation
is displayed in Fig. 5. Figure 6 shows is first prototype of
sensor without RS232/USB transducer.
Fig. 4. Block scheme of complete application based on

MEMS accelerometer sensor
Sensitivity of measured values depends on sensor G
range (most precise we acquire if sensor is set to 1g). A
disadvantage is that we cannot measure the higher values
of acceleration. Common sensors are produced to 5g
and it is possible to switch between ranges during application activity. Computations of tilt angles are realized
thru basic mathematics and goniometric function. V out
_
is actual value of voltage; V_offset is voltage by 0g. Sensitivity of sensor is defined by technical documentation.
In math is necessary find out positive or negative acceleration according to offset value. Datasheet math count
according this:
V_OUT=V_OFF+ V/g*1g*sin
=arcsin(V_OUT- V_OFF)/(V/g)
where:
V_OUT output of accelerometer (V) from ADC
VOFF acceleration 0 g offset
V/g sensitivity
1 g world gravitation
tilt angle
4
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Fig. 5. Block diagram of connection sensor to testing

mobile control system
(1)
(2)
Fig. 6. Hardware of accelerometer. 1 microcontroller;
2 accelerometer MMA7341L (analog); 3 accelerometer MMA7455 (digital); 4 voltage regulator LF33CDT;
5 I2C bus for LCD BO1602D; 6 USB connector; 7
RGB LED diode.
4. Software platform implementation
Software solution is based on an open source C# application, which is currently implemented to mobile solution Graphical Interface of solution is displayed in Figure
7. Left is displayed 2D graphics, tilt in x-Axis, left 3D
graphics tilt in all three axis X,Y,Z. All values of real time
tilt are displayed in graphical interface in text edit boxes.
Basic value of danger tilt is set to value bigger than
40. This value starts critical routine and block movement of mobile device to actual direction. Danger tilt
value can be changed through graphical interface from
090.
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K Kalman gain,
P Covariance update,
x State update,
F State transition matrix,
G Noise coupling matrix,
Q Plant noise covariance matrix,
H Measurement model,
R Covariance of measurements,
I Matrix identify,
z Measurements of the system.
Figure 8 shows graph of actual values when MEMS
sensor is stand statically on the ground (blue plotline).
Black plotline shown filtered value cleared from errors
and noise from ADC transduction. There is used for testing application only 1D Kalman filter for filtering only
actual acceleration value. Next extension will be implementation of 2D or 3D filter for all three Axes.
Fig. 7. C# application, 3D tilt X,Y Axis and configuration

panel
5. Kalman filter implementation to smooth

raw data
The Kalman filter is an efficient recursive filter that

estimates the internal state of a linear dynamic system
from a series of noisy measurements. The Kalman filter
is used in sensor fusion and data fusion. Typically real
time systems produce multiple sequential measurements
rather than making a single measurement to obtain the
state of the system. These multiple measurements are
then combined mathematically to generate the systems
state at that time instant. Acquired data from MEMS sensor are in raw form with many disturbances, white noise
etc. For testing solution we implement free C# Math.
NET Neodym (Signal Processing) [8] with Kalman filter
function to desktop application. Graphical interface provides settings of three basic values of Kalman filtering
r, T, q which is necessary for customizing filter for real
application.
r Measurement covariance
T Time interval between measurements
q Plant noise constant
Discrete Kalman Filter consists of two parts: prediction and update.
prediction:
x(k|k-1) = F(k-1) * x(k-1|k-1)
(5)
P(k|k-1) = F(k-1)*P(k-1|k-1)*F(k-1) + G(k-1)*Q(k1)*G(k-1)
(6)
update:
S(k) = H(k)*P(k|k-1)*H(k) + R(k)
(7)
K(k) = P(k|k-1)*H(k)*S^(-1)(k)
(8)
P(k|k) = (I-K(k)*H(k))*P(k|k-1)
(9)
x(k|k)=x(k|k-1)+K(k)*(z(k)-H(k)*x(k|k-1))
(10)
where:
S Measurement covariance,
Fig. 8. Kalman filtering for raw accelerometer data in

static position
In the Fig. 9 is displayed data from accelerometer
during tilt to 90 to one side, next to static position and
then tilt to opposite side. Reference signal is red plotline.
Black line is Kalman filtered value.
Fig. 9. Dynamic data from MEMS Accelerometer sensor

with Kalman filtering
We experimentally find out constants for kalman filter with compromise of minimal displace during dynamic
and static operation: r = 30.0, T = 2.0, q = 0.1.
There is one problem in setup filter, when there is
very fast acceleration and deceleration. This situation can
occur when the real device fall or crash to the obstacle.
We can avoid this situation by setting adequate value to
danger alarm tilt and implementation of obstacles sensor
detection (infra or ultrasonic) to mobile solution.
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6. Conclusion
Introduced measuring solution is implemented to

mobile device. Actual possibilities are measuring of tilt
device 90 to 90. You can select bound angle for start
indication of danger device tilt with next visual or sound
alarm. We can improve precision data from MEMS sensor by using 12 bit ADC but then is necessary change the
microcontroller. Next idea can be change of Accelerometer with digital I2C output, which removes error generated by ADC conversion. We are computing next values
from acquired data for example: trajectory, deceleration,
average and actual speed.
Next work on this solution will be an implementation
of Kalman filter to program of MCU firmware and display actual angle value and alarm on LCD display. This
remove testing mobile computer from actual solution and
application will be small and compact device. This researched accelerometer device will be used in rehabilitation system as safety circuit to monitor extreme acceleration and deceleration for fast action to stop device.
Acknowledgements
The research work is supported by the Project of the

Structural Funds of the EU, Operational Program Research and Development, Measure 2.2 Transfer of knowledge and technology from research and development into
practice: Title of the project: Research and development
of the intelligent non-conventional actuators based on artificial muscles ITMS code: 26220220103
AUTHORS
Kamil Zidek*, Ondrej Liska, Miroslav Dovica

Technical University of Kosice, Faculty of mechanical
engineering, Department of Biomedical engineering automation a measuring, Koice, 042 00, Slovakia, kamil.
zidek@tuke.sk, ondrej.liska@tuke.sk, miroslav.dovica@
tuke.sk
*Corressponding author
References
[1] Tuck K.,

Tilt Sensing Using Linear
Accelerometers, Application Note, AN3461, Rev
2, 06/2007.http://www.freescale.com/files/sensors/
doc/app_note/AN3461.pdf
[2] Clifford M., Gomez L., Measuring Tilt with Low-g
Accelerometers, Application Note, AN3107, Rev
0, 05/2005,http://www.freescale.com/files/sensors/
doc/app_note/AN3107.pdf
[3] What is MEMS Technology? https://www.
memsnet.org/mems/what-is.html,
Online,
cit.
8.2.2010
[4] Johnson C. D., Accelerometer Principles, Process
Control Instrumentation Technology, Apr 14, 2009,
0-13-441305-9.
[5] Zidek K: Open robotics control system, Technical
University Kosice, Online, www.orcs.sebsoft.com
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[6] Saloky T., Pite J., Vojtko I., Control systems design
with reliability defined in advance. In: Proceedings
of the 1st IFAC Workshop on New Trends, Design
of Control Systems, Smolenice, Slovakia, 7th10th
September 1994, pp. 404407.
[7] Zidek K., MEMS Accelerometer SVN, Google
code, 2010. http://code.google.com/p/orcs/source/
browse/#svn/MEMS_Accelerometer_SVN2
[8] Christoph Regg, Math.NET Neodym 2008 February
Release, v2008.2.2.364, http://www.mathdotnet.
com/downloads/Neodym-2008-2-2-364.
ashx?From=NeodymCurrentRelease
VOLUME 6,
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Modeling of Circulatory System With Coronary

Circulation and the POLVAD Ventricular Assist Device
Submitted: 26th June 2011; accepted 23rd September 2011
Alicja Siewnicka, Bartlomiej Fajdek, Krzysztof Janiszowski
Abstract:
This paper presents an application of a numerical package for modeling and simulation of human circulatory
system. The model includes a coronary circulation and
the parallel heart assistance. The cases of the simulation
of the proper and the pathology circulation conditions,
such as left or right heart failure are shown. A description of the coronary circulation system is presented and
obtained coronary sinus occlusion simulation results are
included. An implementation of the whole package as a
part of PExSim application is contained. The identification experiment for the ventricular assist device has been
described and different methods of the artificial ventricle
modeling are presented. An example of use of a fuzzy
logic to presentation the dynamics of the POLVAD device is also included. Advantages of developed simulation platform are discussed.
Keywords: PExSim, modeling of the circulatory system,
modeling of the coronary system, modeling of the ventricular assist device, POLVAD.
1. Introduction
The continuous development of technology enabled
for the more common use of its achievements in medical
applications. Therefore, in recent years many scientific
projects were run to allow the use of technology to save
human life and health. One of the biggest bio-engineering projects in Poland is the Polish Artificial Heart Program, whose aim is to develop of the construction and
control algorithms for the heart assist device. Application
of the developed solutions requires accurate testing. For
this purpose the modeling methods are widely used. In
recent years some different models of the human circulatory system were developed, both numerical and physical
ones, for example electrical or hydraulic [1, 2]. All of
them are widely used to reproduce hemodynamic conditions of circulation system. Besides this, they can be applied for the testing of medical devices such as the blood
pumps or assist devices. For this purposes also models of
the same new devices are created. This way the possibility of simulating of the influence of the heart support can
be obtained without carrying out experiments on living
organisms. This paper contains description of the developed circulatory model with the possibility of connection of the simply models of the extracorporeal ventricle
assist device. In our case, the main aim of development
the mathematical description of circulatory system was
to create a research platform, for general purpose, which
could be easily adopted to solve different problems. For
example it could be used for determination and testing

of a Polish Ventricular Assist Device (POLVAD) control
and diagnostic algorithms.
2. Model of the circulatory system

The main part of the developed research platform
is the mathematical model of the circulatory system. It
is based on the description proposed by Ferrari [3] and
implemented as a part of the PExSim application [4].
This software consists of predefined function blocks that
represent basic mathematical and logic relationships, dynamic and static elements or support an input and output operations. The possibility of easy extension with
user-written objects makes it a flexible tool that can be
used for emulation of complex dynamic system. For the
simple and clear presentation of circulation system and to
ensure the ability of easy parameters changes, each of the
blocks is responsible for reproducing behavior of different part of human circulatory system. They are grouped
in Human Circulatory System library, which consists
such elements and systems as:
left and right ventricle (LH, RH),
systemic arterial circulation (SAC),
systemic venous circulation (SVC),
pulmonary arterial circulation (PAC),
pulmonary venous circulation ( PVC).
The model is based on a Starling`s law [3], which defines the conditions for a balance between the filling and
ejection characteristics of the ventricle. The basic relation is a function that makes it possible to calculate the
ventricular pressure [3, 5]:
Pv (t ) = (Vv (t ) Vv 0 (t )) Emax f (Vv (t ),Vv (t ),Vv max (t ))
+ A e k Vv ( t ) + B e j Vv ( t ) + C
(1)
where: Pv(t) the ventricle pressure, Vv(t) the ventricle

volume, Vv0 the ventricle rest volume, Ev(t) the normalized elastanse function, Emax the maximum value
of the elastance (end-systolic), f (Vv (t ),Vv (t ),Vv max (t )) the
correction function dependent on the ventricle volume
and ejection rate, and A, B, C, j, k constant parameters.
The values of the flows are calculated as the ratio of
the proper pressure difference and the vascular resistance. The rest of the pressures values are calculated as
the solution of the differential equation which defines the
pressure derivative as the quotient of the sum of flows
and the capacity of the system. In the PExSim modeling
platform, the simple model of ventricular assist device
(VAD), based on the ventricle activity description, was
added. The parameters values were adopted to ensure
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work consistent with the theoretical data. The model of

the ventricular assist device is included into the system
between the atrium and the arterial system, creating a bypass of the model of the natural ventricle. The mathematical equations in the circulation blocks were respectively
adopted to join the parallel ventricle support. The proper
connection of all elements creates a complete model of
circulatory system with the external assist device (Fig.1).
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3. The coronary circulation model

The system described above did not contain the coronary circulation model. As the extension of functionality
of the developed platform, the coronary circulation model was developed and included. This way a possibility of
simulating the caval occlusion was achieved. The applied
Fig. 3. The electric analogue of the coronary circulation

system
Fig. 1. The circulatory model in PExSim application with

the parallel connection of ventricular assist device
A full description of structure and function of the
blocks one can find in [6]. As a result of this work we
received a useful tool, that yields an investigation of the
proper and pathological circulation conditions and the influence of the ventricle assistance for the hemodynamic
conditions. For example, Fig.2 presents the influence of
the left heart support on the atrium (Pla) and arterial (Pas)
pressures.
mathematical description is the combination of the models proposed in [7] and [8]. The schematic representation
of this, as an analogy to electric circuit diagram, is shown
in Fig.3. It was added to the mentioned PExSim application as a new CC (Coronary Circulation) element.
The driving pressure for the coronary circulation
(Psqz) is taken as a proportional to left ventricle pressure.
According to this, the input values for the model are:
pressure values in aorta, left ventricle and right atrium
(Pil, Plv, Pra). The others pressures are obtained by the
equations:

Plca (t ) = Pil (t ) Rlca Qart (t )
Plcx (t ) =
Plad (t ) =
Fig. 2. The modeled waveforms of the atrium (Pla) and arterial (Pas) pressures for normal, pathological and pathological with left ventricle assistance (LVAD) conditions
In the ventricular failure state the blood accumulates
in atrium causing the rise of the pressure volume. At the
same time the pressure in arteries is low due to insufficient stroke volume of the heart. In simulation we can
observe the reduction of the atrium pressure value and
increase of the arterial pressure as a result of left ventricle
support which confirms medical observations.
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Pven (t ) =
Vven (t )
ven
Vlcx (t )
+ Psqz (t )
Clcx
Vlad (t )
+ Psqz (t )
Clad
exp[ (Vven (t ) Vven 0 )]
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
where:
Plca the pressure in bifurcation of coronary arteries, Pil
the aortic pressure, Qart the coronary arterial flow, Plcx
and Plad the coronary capillaries pressures (lad left
anterior descending artery, lcx left circumflex artery),
Rlca the arterial resistance, Clcx and Clad the coronary
capillaries compliances, Vlcx and Vlad the coronary capillaries volumes, Vven the coronary veins volume, ven, ,
Vven0 the parameters for venous compliance.
The coronary arterial flow value (Qart) is obtained as a
sum of the capillaries input flows (Qlcx1, Qlad1). Input and
output flows are calculated based on pressures difference
and blood vessels volumes as follows:
flows in direction to the coronary capilares system
(PlcaPlcx, PlcaPlad, Pven Plcx, Pven Plad, Pra Pven):
Qlcx1 (t ) =
Plca (t ) Plcx (t )
Rlcx1
(6)
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Qlad 1 (t ) =
Plca (t ) Plad (t )
Rlad 1
Plcx (t ) Pven (t )
Rlcx 2
(8)
Qlad 2 (t ) =
Plad (t ) Pven (t )
Rlad 2
(9)
Pven (t ) Pra (t )
Rven
(10)

where:
Qlcx1 and Qlad1 the capillaries input flows, Rlcx1 and Rlad1
the capillary resistances, Qlcx2 and Qlad2 the capillary
output flows, Rlcx2 and Rlad2 the capillary resistances,
Qven the flow supplying the right atrium, Pra the right
atrium pressure, Rven the coronary venous resistance.
flows in direction from the coronary capilares system (Plca<Plcx, Plca<Plad, Pven <Plcx, Pven <Plad):
Qven (t ) =
Qlcx1 (t ) =
Plca (t ) Plcx (t )
Rlcx1 + (Vlcx ) 2
(11)
Qlad 1 (t ) =
Plca (t ) Plad (t )
Rlad 1 + (Vlad ) 2
(12)
Qlcx 2 (t ) =
Plcx (t ) Pven (t )
Rlcx 2 + (Vlcx ) 2
Qlad 2 (t ) =
Plad (t ) Pven (t )
Rlad 2 + (Vlad ) 2
(14)
Qven (t ) =
Pven (t ) Pra (t )
Rven + (Vven ) 2
As a result we gained the opportunity to simulate

various dysfunctions of the coronary circulation system,
e. g. coronary sinus occlusion. In Fig. 5 we can see the
value of flow from the capillaries to veins in normal state
and for the simulation of sinus occlusion.
(15)
Pven (t ) Pra (t ) + Pvenoff
Rex + (Vven )

(16)
where:
the parameter for volume dependent resistances, Qex
the extraordinary venous outflow, Rex the extraordinary venous resistance, Pvenoff the venous pressure offset.
The volumes of vessels are determined from the
equations:

(17)
Vlcx (t ) = Qlcx1 (t ) Qlcx 2 (t )
Fig. 4. The circulatory model in PExSim application

with the coronary circulation system model
(13)
Qex (t ) =
2012
(7)
Qlcx 2 (t ) =
N 4
Vlad (t ) = Qlad 1 (t ) Qlad 2 (t )
Vven (t ) = Qlcx 2 (t ) + Qlad 2 (t ) Qven (t ) Qex (t )
(18)
(19)
This complex model was added to the PExSim application as a new Coronary Circulation (CC) function
block. In order to join the coronary circulation function
block to the main model of circulation system, the modifications in equations for systemic arterial and venous
circulation models had to be implemented. In SAC element the input for coronary arterial flow (Qart) was added
and the description was modified. In SVC element two
extra inputs were added, for the coronary venous and extraordinary flows (Fig. 4).
Fig. 5. The modeled coronary flow from the capillaries to

veins under variation of perfusion pressure for the normal (A) and coronary sinus occlusion (B) conditions
For the coronary vein occlusion conditions we can
observe the increase of the invert flow value as a result of
vascular obstruction.
4. The POLVAD modeling

The next step for development of complete simulation platform was to create a model of the real assist
device based on measurement results. For this purpose,
an identification experiment of an extracorporeal ventricular assist device (POLVAD) was carried out at the
Foundation of Cardiac Surgery Development in Zabrze
(Poland). The Polish Cardiac Assist System POLCAST
undergoing testing consists of the pneumatic driving
unit POLPDU-402 and the pneumatic drive pulse pump
POLVAD-MEV with disc valves and two chambers separated by a flexible membrane (Fig. 6). The blood flow
is a result of membrane movement, which is caused by
air pressure changes in the pneumatic chamber. For the
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invivo experiments, instead of blood, a fluid with similar

properties was used. The assist device was connected to
a hybrid circulatory system model, which represents the
circulatory system.
Fig. 6. The extracorporeal heart support ventricle POLVAD: a) pneumatic ventricle, b) blood ventricle, c) pneumatic pipe, d) input cannula, e) output cannula, g), f) disc
valves
The following variables were measured: a supply
pressure (Ppn), and pressures and flows in input and output cannula (Pin, Pout, Qin, Qout). As a result of the experiment, data series for different supply and load conditions
were obtained. They were used as a basis for modeling
the dynamics of the ventricular assist device which is not
a trivial task. The change in parameters strongly affects
the nature of the process. What is more, a model of mechanical valves has to be developed. The next problem is
a strong dependence of the process state: full filling and
emptying of blood chamber. For cardiological reasons,
the most important value is the volume of the cardiac output. This could be estimated from the output flow value.
For this purpose, proper modeling of the output flow is
the basic factor in a control system design. The value
of the input flow is also very important. That is why we
have been trying to develop a model of the structure presented in Fig. 7, in which Pmax, Pmin, %SYS, BPM are
the maximal and minimal values of the control pressure,
the percentage ratio of the systolic phase time to the cycle
time, and the beats per minute, respectively.
Fig. 7. A schematic diagram of the dynamics of a ventricular assist device

The original idea for more accurate mathematical
description of the chamber was to modify the shape of
the elastance function. The valves, usually modeled as
ideal diodes [3], were replaced by inertia elements. The
method of determining the pressure in the blood chamber
was also modified [9]. The unknown parameters of the
description were determined using dedicated program
called PExSim Optimizer [10]. The waveforms obtained
by modeling approximately reflected the nature of the
10
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VOLUME 6,
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2012
measured flows values. However this model was independent from the control pressure value. It means that
description would never be universal we would have to
adjust parameters to every particular situation.
Another approach to the proper description of the
dynamics of the assist device was an attempt to modeling using the fundamental principles of hydraulics and
pneumatics. First, the pressure in the blood chamber was
determined as a function of the control pressure. An algorithm was obtained to detect changes in the control pressure phases, which facilitated the modeling the opening
and closing of the valves. The output flow was calculated
on the basis of the pressure balance and changes in the
valve resistance. The parameters of the process were selected manually. The exemplary result of the simulation
is presented in Fig. 8.
Fig. 8 The modeled and measured assist device output

flow (Qout)
The obtained waveforms are not fully identical with
real values, but they reflect the nature of the appropriate flows. The advantage of this description is that for
the same parameter values it gives a similar quality of
rendering for different supply parameters. In this model,
the control pressure is one of the model inputs and it provides information about the extreme values and the filling ratio of the control signal and a BPM value.
Different approach to the problem was the fuzzy
modeling. It is based on an approximate description of
the dynamics using a set of transfer functions, being the
sum of the impact of individual inputs to the model output. For example, in our case, the output flow value, for
zero initial values, be represented according to the
can
relation:

Q ( s) = G
( s) P ( s) + G
(s)Q (s) +
in
in
QoutPin
QoutQin
out
(20)
+G
(s)Pout (s) + G
(s)Ppn (s)
QoutPout
QoutPpn
Partial transfer functions have the form (21) of general transfer function with unknown coefficients and
and the delay values Tj:
sT
j
[ + s + ... + sn ]e
nj
0 j 1j
G
( s) =
QoutVj
1+ s + ... + nsn
1
(21)
Determination of the coefficients is performed mostly

in an indirect way of parametric identification method.
On the base of sampled data the discrete transfer functions GQoutVj ( z 1 ) are determined in such a way that the
~
modeled signal, Qout (kD ) , where is the sampling step,
should be as closely as possible to the measured one. We
get a description consisting of a vector of inputs to the
model v(kD), containing the signals measured in the respective moments of time, and the vector q of unknown
coefficients of the investigated transfer functions.
Q (k D) = v(k D) q
(22)
out

Vector of transfer function coefficients can be estimated using various methods, for example, by the smallest sum of squared errors (LS). The dynamic model determined in this way usually accurately reproduces the
dynamics of the process but is very local. This means
that the change of supply parameters makes it necessary
to re-selection transfer function coefficients. That why,
the fuzzy modeling is very useful method. For the same
structure of the system (22) vector of coefficients is
dependent on some fuzzy variables, defined by membership functions. For example, separate models can be determined for the value of low, medium and high value
of the fuzzy variable. The model is the weighted sum of
the partial models and the corresponding membership
function values. General fuzzy model can be determined
as a linear combination of several local models set for
the different intervals of membership function. Estimation algorithms of partial models coefficient vectors are
more complex and require the simultaneous calculation
of the vectors for all the partial models. The basic difficulty is also the designation of the proper shape and
number of membership functions. In our case, in order
to obtain a general description of the dynamic properties
of the device, as a fuzzyfying variables were used two
signals: output flow value Qout and a set pressure different DP. The first signal determines different valve states
(Fig. 9a): positive flow (ejection, valve open), backward
flow (closing of the valve) and the closed valve phase (no
flow). For the second variable the membership function
was divided for three areas (Fig. 9b): low, medium and
high values of pressure.
Fig. 9 The membership functions for the fuzzy variables:

a) output flow value, b) pressure difference
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2012
As a result of the presented fuzzy modeling method

the nine partial models had to be determined. The measurements were carried out for five values pressure
of
difference. For the estimation of the models the measurement data for maximum, medium and low pressure differential were used. To verify the obtained model, the remaining series were used. The sample waveforms of the
modeled and measured output flow are shown in Fig. 10.
Fig. 10 Sample measured and modeled flow waveform

for the verification data set
The estimated parametric fuzzy model reproduces
output flow value relatively well both, for the data on
which he was appointed and the verification series. It
yields a good representation of the dynamics of the
POLVAD artificial ventricle. The extended description of
the fuzzy modeling applied to determine the assist device
model one can find in [11].
5. Summary
The paper presents a new numerical library for modeling and simulation of human circulatory system with the
extension of coronary circulation model and possibility
of the parallel assist device connection. The main result
of the coronary model addition was to allow simulation
and verification of the influence of the left ventricle assistance on the coronary flow conditions. The whole library was implemented as a part of PExSim application.
Modular construction of the plugin ensures flexibility
because it can be easily modified to solve different problems within modeling and support of the human circulatory system. The modeling methods of the ventricular assist device were presented. We received an approximate
representation of the output flow value dependent on the
supply pressure. Method based on fuzzy modeling made
it possible to achieve better results. However, in the case
of even small modification of the device construction,
the measurements and the whole modeling procedure
will have to be carried again. Also, we do not receive the
direct dependence of the output signal from the power
supply parameters. Work on the determination of a better
model of the mechanical construction of the ventricular
assist device is still carried out. However, as a result of
presented work we have the useful tool, which gives the
opportunity to study functions of individual components
of the human circulatory system as well as the system as
whole. It enables a simulation of the proper and the pathology circulation conditions, such as left or right heart
failure. Implemented model of the ventricle assist device
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11
gives the opportunity for modeling the influence of the

heart assistance on the hemodynamic co
Acknowledgements
This work was partially supported by the National
Centre for Research and Development (NCBiR) in Poland under Project Development of metrology, information and telecommunications technology for the prosthetic heart as part of the Polish Artificial Heart Program.
AUTHORS
Alicja Siewnicka*, Bartomiej Fajdek, Krzysztof Janiszowski Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of
Mechatronics, Institute of Automatic Control and Robotics,
ul. w. Andrzeja Boboli 8, 02-525, Poland,
E-mail: alicja.siewnicka@gmail.com, b.fajdek@mchtr.
pw.edu.pl, kjanisz@mchtr.pw.edu.pl
*Corresponding author
References
[1] M. Korda, S. Leonardis, J. Trontelj, An electrical
model of blood circulation, Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing, vol. 6, 1968, pp.
449451.
[2] M. Sharp, R. Dharmalingham, Development of
a hydraulic model of the human systemic circulation, ASAIO J., vol. 45, 1999, pp. 535540.
[3] G. Ferrari, Study of Artero-ventricular Interaction
as an Approach to the Analysis of Circulatory Physiopathology: Methods, Tools and Applications,
Ph. D. dissertation, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Rome, Italy.
12
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VOLUME 6,
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2012
[4] K. Janiszowski, P. Wnuk, A novel approach to the

problem of the investigation of complex dynamic
systems in an industrial environment, Maintenance
Problems, vol. 4, 2006, pp. 1736.
[5] De Lazzari C., Darowski M., Ferrari G., Clemente
F., Guaragno M., Computer simulation of haemodynamic parameters changes with left ventricle assist device and mechanical ventilation, Computers
in Biology and Medicine, vol. 30, 2000, pp. 5569.
[6] B. Fajdek, A. Golnik, Modelling and simulation of
human circulatory system., Methods and Models in
Automation and Robotics (MMAR), vol. 15, 2010,
pp. 399404.
[7] W. Shreiner, F. Neumann, W. Mohl, The Role
Of Intramyocardial Pressure During Coronary Sinus Interventions: A Computer Model Study,
IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, vol.
37, 1990, pp. 956967.
[8] K. M. Lim, I. S. Kim, S. W. Choi, B. G. Min, Y.
S Won, H. Y. Kim, E. B. Shim, Computational
analysis of the effect of the type of LVAD flow on
coronary perfusion and ventricular afterload, The
Journal of Physiological Sciences, vol. 59, 2009,
pp. 307316.
[9] A. Siewnicka, B. Fajdek, K. Janiszowski, Application of a PExSim for modeling a POLVAD artificial heart and the human circulatory system with
left ventricle assistance, Polish Journal of Medical
Physics and Engineering, vol. 16, no. 2, 2010, pp.
107124.
[10] M. Stachura, Application of the PExSim package
in identification of multi-dimensional model of a
waste water treatment plant, Pomiary Automatyka
Kontrola, vol. 55, no. 3, 2009, pp. 156159.
[11] K. Janiszowski, Fuzzy identification of dynamic
systems used for modeling of hearth assisting
device POLVAD, Pomiary Automatyka Robotyka,
11/2010, pp. 9095.
VOLUME 6,
N 4
2012
PI Control of Laboratory Furnace for Annealing

of Amorphous Alloys Cores
Submitted: 29th May 2012; accepted: 21st June 2012
Jerzy E. Kurek, Roman Szewczyk, Jacek Salach, Rafal Kloda
Abstract:
There are presented theoretical and practical aspects of

automatic control of resistive furnace for thermal annealing of magnetic cores made of amorphous alloys. Process
of annealing requires specific conditions both from the
point of view of temperature and its changes. Solutions
presented in the paper create possibility for low value of
error as well as fast achievement of set value.
Keywords: PI controller, resistive furnace, temperature
control.
1. Introduction
New soft magnetic materials amorphous alloys based
on iron, nickel and cobalt gives new possibilities for design of inductive components [1], magnetic field sensors
[2], magneto-mechatronic sensors [3], and heat transportation devices [4]. However, production of amorphous
alloys cores requires precise thermal relaxation (cores
annealing) [5]. This process is usually realized in 1 hour
in argon protective atmosphere in order to avoid quick
corrosion of cores surface. The relaxation improves cores
magnetic permeability and reduces its coercive force.
Thermal relaxation in amorphous alloys, if performed
correctly, enables fabrication cores with relative permeability magnitude greater than 2106. This makes the
amorphous alloys one of the best magnetic materials,
with highest magnetic permeability.
This paper describes a control system for resistive
furnace for annealing of amorphous alloys cores in the
laboratory of Institute of Metrology and Biomedical Engineering, Warsaw University of Technology.
2. The furnace, measurement system and

control system equipment
The thermal relaxation process of cores is realized in a
small laboratory resistive furnace which mass is approximately 3 kg. The furnace has canal winding, installed
in chamotte corpus covered by thermal isolation with
mineral wool. Inside the furnace there is a long quartz
pipe with 40 mm diameter, which is filled by argon with
pressure slightly higher than atmosphere pressure during
the relaxation stage. Argon atmosphere protects the core
during relaxation process.
The relaxation process begins with heating the furnace
to the relaxation temperature. Then, there is inserted capsule with room temperature having inside the annealed
core and it is heated in the furnace during required time
in the relaxation temperature. The temperature of amorphous alloys cores relaxation is equal to 345C and the
relaxation time is equal to 60 minutes. When the relaxation is finished the capsule is taken out of the furnace
and it is cooled inside the cold part of the quartz pipe.
Therefore, also cooling in argon protective atmosphere
is performed.
The controlled output signals are the furnace temperature measured by thermocouple type K and then the capsule temperature measured by thermocouple type J. Thermocouples are connected with temperature transducers
AR-580 of Apar firm. Temperature measured range is
from 0 to 500C and transducers output range is voltage
from 0 to 10 V. Both sensors have linear characteristics.
The furnace is powered by pulse wide modulation
power controller EJ1P50E of Carlo Gavazzi firm. Control output of the controller is voltage from 0 to 10 V and
full pulse control period is 3 sec.
The furnace, temperature transducers and power controller are connected with PC computer by data acquisition card NI-USB-6361 of National Instruments firm.
The control of the furnace temperature is realized by
computer controller implemented on the connected PC
computer. The controller program was prepared using the
LabView software and implementing the PI controller.
Block diagram of the laboratory furnace for annealing
of amorphous alloys cores with measurement and control
system is presented in Fig. 1, and the furnace laboratory
stand is shown in Fig. 2, where 1 capsule with core,
2 furnace, 3 quartz pipe, 4 temperature transducer,
5 argon inlet, 6 data acquisition card and 7 PWM
power controller.
Transducer
AR-580
Thermocouple
type J
NI Card
USB-6361
PWM Power
Controller
Resistive
Furnace
PC
Computer
Transducer
AR-580
Thermocouple
type K
Annealed
Core
Fig. 1. Block diagram of the installation for annealing

of amorphous magnetic cores
Fig. 2. Laboratory stand of furnace for cores annealing

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VOLUME 6,
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3. Requirements of the control process
5. Control algorithm
As mentioned before, the controlled process consists

of (i)heating stage of the empty furnace and (ii) core relaxation stage in the relaxation temperature. The control
input is a voltage of power controller and the output signal is in the first stage temperature inside the quartz pipe
and in the second stage the annealed core temperature.
For the furnace heating stage it is only required relatively short heating time and limitation of control input
magnitude and change speed because of furnace properties, step response time for the furnace is approximately
3 hours.
Then, for the annealing stage it is required
1. annealing temperature equal to 345C,
2. annealing temperature errors should be less than
5C,
3. time of core heating from temperature 320C
to 345C no longer than 15 min,
4. no overshoots in the core heating stage to 345 C.
The third requirement is rather important since usually annealing process starts in temperature 320C and if
core stay too long in the annealing temperature but less
than required annealing temperature its properties are
different to the required ones.
Accordingly to the requirements indicated in Section

3, two stages of the process were identified: heating stage
and annealing stage. Considering step response time for
the furnace (which is approximately 3 hours) two control
algorithms were proposed:
1. linear control of the furnace heating stage, and
2. linear control for annealing of the core with nonlinear phase after insertion of capsule with core into the
furnace.
In both cases we have used PI linear controller
1
R ( s ) = k P 1 +
(2)
T s

Settings of the controller were chosen based on the
calculated model (1) of the furnace. Calculating the settings in such a way that overshooting of the process is
equal to zero, = 0, one obtains [6]
k P = 0.6
Next, we have modeled control system [Fig. 4] with PI

controller and calculated settings.
4. Identification of control plant
Model of the furnace has been calculated based on step

response of the furnace for change of voltage of power
controller from 0 to 0.7 V in the form

(1)
where k is model gain, T time constant and T0 time delay.

In the identification we have found the following values of the parameters
k = 500 [C/V], T = 3450 [sec], T0 = 840 [sec]
In Fig. 3 there are presented response of the furnace
and response of the model. It is easy to see that the calculated model is quite good.
It should be however noted that because relatively big
mass of the capsule with core (0.25 kg) with respect to
mass of the furnace (3 kg) insertion of the core in room
temperature approximately 22C into warm furnace with
temperature 345C really influent temperature of the furnace.
Furnace
+
u
PI Controller
Tr
+
Fig. 4. Block diagram of furnace temperature control

system, T furnace temperature, u control input voltage, Tr reference temperature, z disturbance
Unfortunately, in the contradiction to setting base we
have obtained small overshooting for step change reference temperature Tr, Fig. 5. However, overshooting for
the disturbance which modeled insertion of capsule with
core into the furnace was quite small. Therefore, we have
decided to apply for control of the furnace the PI controller with calculated settings.
500
400
T (oC)
k
G(s) =
e T0 s
Ts + 1
T
= 0.0049, TI = 0.8T0 + 0.5T = 2397 (s)
kT0
300
200
Tr
T
100
0
0
400
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
t (s)
T ( oC)
350
2.5
250
1.5
measurements
200
150
1.0
0.5
0
-0.5
0
100
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
t (s)
50
model
Fig. 5. Furnace model control response with PI controller
0
0
5000
10000
15000
t (s)
Fig. 3. Furnace step response: measured temperature

and model response
14
z
u
2.0
U (V)
300
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PI controller has been used for control of the furnace

and core temperature for (i) shortening of the furnace heating and (ii) control of the furnace heating after insertion of
the capsule with core and (iii) control of the core temperature in the annealing process.
The nonlinear phase of control algorithm after insertion
of the capsule with core into furnace was as follows:
1. before insertion of the capsule with core automatic control was changed into manual control with constant
control input voltage,
2. after insertion of the capsule into furnace there was added one triangle control input impulse with magnitude
0.6 V and time 600 sec (10 min) to constant control input; the triangle input was designed based on practical
experiments and in the control process it was automatically generated by the controller software LabView,
3. after the triangle impulse the control was changed from
manual mode into automatic mode with PI controller
with calculated settings but also with annealing core
temperature as the controlled output signal.
In the control we do not use PID controller because in
the control system we have quick measurement disturbances which generate quite big control input changes calculated by PID controller since derivative action D of PID
controller implemented in the software has big dynamic
derivative gain.
6. Experimental results
Designed control system has been applied for control of
the furnace for annealing of cores in the Institute of Metrology and Biomedical Engineering of Warsaw University Technology. In Fig. 6 there are presented temperature
of the furnace, temperature of the core and control input
voltage obtained by PI controller and triangle impulse in
the insertion of capsule with core into the furnace. Controller settings were as we calculated before.
VOLUME 6,
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It is interesting to note that the core temperature is lower

than the furnace temperature in the annealing process.
In the annealing process we have obtained maximal core
temperature error 2C. The core heating time from 320C
to 345C was 12 min, less than it was maximal allowed
value 15 min and annealing time in temperature equal to
345C was 60 min.
7. Concluding remarks
Proposed PI control system allows conducting annealing process according to requirements quickly and
in the required temperature without overshooting and
without presence of operator, operator action was only
required for short time in the moment of insertion of capsule with core into furnace.
In laboratory conditions the proposed control system
has shorten the annealing time about 70% comparing
with annealing process in the manual mode and also improved quality of the annealing because less annealing
temperature errors. Moreover, the annealing was automatic and no operator assistance was required.
Presently we work on improving the automatic annealing process and shortening assistance of the operator.
The research on magnetic cores was founded in 20102012 as a research project.
AUTHORS
Jerzy E. Kurek* Institute of Automatic Control and
Robotics, Warsaw University of Technology, Warsaw,
Poland, jkurek@mchtr.pw.edu.pl.
Roman Szewczyk Industrial Research Institute for
Automation and Measurements, Warsaw, PL 02-486, Poland.
Jacek Salach and Rafal Kloda- Institute of Metrology and Biomedical Engineering, Warsaw University of
Technology, Warsaw, Poland.
References
Fig. 6. Heating and annealing process with PI controller

and triangle impulse control input: a) furnace and core
temperature b) control input voltage
[1] OHandley R., Modern magnetic materials principles and applications. John Wiley & Sons, 2000.
[2] Ripka P., Magnetic Sensors and Magnetometers.
Artech, Boston, 2001.
[3] Bienkowski A., Szewczyk R., The possibility of
utilizing the high permeability magnetic materials in
construction of magnetoelastic stress and force sensors, Sensors and Actuators A113, 2004, p. 270.
[4] Kolano-Burian A., Kowalczyk M., Kolano R.,
Szymczak R., Szymczak H., Polak M., Magnetocaloric effect in Fe-Cr-Cu-Nb-Si-B amorphous materials. J. Alloys Comp. vol. 479, 2009, p. 71.
[5] Biekowski A., Szewczyk R., Salach J., Kolano R.,
Kolano-Burian A., Influence of thermo-magnetic
treatment on magnetoelastic properties of Fe81Si4B14 amorphous alloy, Journal of Physics Conference Series 144, 2009, 012070. (http://iopscience.
iop.org/1742-6596/144/1/012070)
[6] Puaczewski J., Ukady regulacji z regulatorami typu
PID, Poradnik Inyniera Automatyka, WNT, Warsaw 1973, pp. 571635. (in Polish)
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VOLUME 6,
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2012
Surface Topography Parameters Important in Contact

Mechanics
Submitted: 2012; accepted: 2012
Pawel Pawlus, Wieslaw Zelasko, Jacek Michalski
Abstract:
The random surface models are important to many statistical peak-based contact models of rough surfaces.
Statistics of 3D surface topographies and 2D profiles
are compared and their interrelationship examined for
generated and measured common random engineering
surfaces. The applicability of the spectral moments approach to random surface specification is checked. Parameters important in contact mechanics, like summit
density, summit curvature and summit height obtained by
their definitions and predicted by the spectral moment
approach, as well as calculated directly from profiles are
compared. Also, the values of plasticity index are computed using various methods. Good agreement is found
between theory and measurement.
sented by McCool [5]. Surface and profile measurement

and their resultant statistics were compared and their interrelationship examined for several common engineering surfaces [6]. Good agreement was found between
theory and measurements over a large range of sampling
intervals. Yu and Polycarpou [7] compared the summit
density and summit radius obtained from numerically
generated isotropic Gaussian surfaces.
2. Connections between summit parameters

and spectral moments
Spectral moments m0, m2 and m4 can be obtained from

profiles. They are equivalent to the mean square height,
rms. slope square and second derivative of profile.
The areal (3D) surface summit density is given by [5]:
Keywords: surface topography, contact mechanics,

spectral moments.
1. Introduction
All engineering surfaces are rough and their description is important to the study of many interfacial phenomena, such as friction, wear, electric al and thermal
contact resistance, etc. Surface topography is recognized
as being an important factor in determining the nature
and extent of contact. Because surfaces are rough, the
true area of contact, which is much smaller than the
nominal area of contact must support very large pressure.
Two types of parameters were advocated for contact and
wear prediction: parameters based on peak (summits)
and parameters based on plots of material ratio.
The pioneering contribution to this field was made by
Greenwood and Williamson [1], who developed a basic
contact model (GW model) of isotropic surface. Chang
et al. [2] put forward an elastic-plastic contact model for
rough surfaces on the basis of volume conservation of
plastically deformed asperities. These models have been
extended by many researchers. Parameters connected
with peak as peak radius, peak height and peak curvature
were used. These parameters are based on a 2D profile.
However the statistic of the areal (3D) surface and the
statistics of a 2D profile of the surface are not the same.
It is necessary to distinguish a peak on a profile from
a summit on the surface. A detailed comparison was made
by statistical approach. Rough surfaces were modeled as
two dimensional, isotropic, Gaussian random surface by
Nayak [3]. Dependencies between profile spectral moments and parameters important in contact mechanics
were also developed by Bush et al. [4]. They were pre16
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Spd =
1
m
( 4).
6 p 3 m2
(1)
The mean summit curvature averaged over all summit

heights is [5]:
Spc =
8 m4
(2)
The variance of the summit height is [5]:

s 2 = (1
s
0.8968
) m0 .
a
(3)
The distance between the mean of the summit height

distribution and the surface mean plane is [5]:
ys =
where:
a=
4 m0
m0 m4
.
m2 2
3. Calculation procedure
(4)
(5)
Isotropic surfaces of Gaussian ordinate distribution

were generated, using the procedure developed by Wu [8].
Each surface of this type is characterized by correlation
distance (in which the autocorrelation function decays to
0.1 value) and standard deviation of height. In addition,
some measured isotropic Gaussian surface topographies
were analyzed. The values of their texture parameter Str
were higher than 0.8. These surfaces were measured by
stylus 3D Talyscan 150 equipment with nominal radius
of tip 2 m. The initial numbers of the measured points
Fig. 1. Various summit identifications
Fig. 2. Scheme of contact of two rough surfaces

a)
VOLUME 6,
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2012
were between 401 x 401 to 601 x 601. The sampling intervals were 5 and 10 micrometers. However in order to
decrease correlation length sampling interval sometimes
increased and the number of points was reduced. For
each of measured surfaces, the form was eliminated by
a polynomial of the 2nd degree. Digital filters were not
used. For each surface, parameter connected with summits were calculated. For areal measurements, the mean
radius of each summit R was computed as reciprocal of
mean arithmetic average curvature in orthogonal directions. Summit curvature was calculated on the basis of
three-point formula [9]. The summit identification is
a real problem. Usually surface point is a summit if its
ordinate was higher than ordinates of four or eight nearest neighbors (see Figure 1). The second possibility was
accepted by the present authors. This criterion was based
on works of Greenwood [10] and Sayles and Thomas [6]
as well as our previous research.
Areal density of asperities Spd, standard deviation of
summits heights s and distance between the mean of asperity heights and that of surface ordinates ys (see Figure
2) were obtained from their definitions directly from areal surfaces. The parameters characterized summits were
also determined on the basis of 2D profiles. Sets of parallel profiles were obtained from measured surfaces and
average profile spectral moments m0, m2 and m4 were
calculated according to procedure presented in paper
[11]. Parameters characterized summits were obtained
using equations (1)(5).
It is also possible to estimate parameters characterizing
summits from profile peaks analysis (summits are local
maxima on the surface, as distinct from peaks, which are
local maxima on a profile). Therefore peak density, average peak curvature, standard deviation of peak heights
and distance between the mean of line of peak heights
and mean profile line were calculated for set of parallel
profiles and mean values were taken into consideration.
As recommended by Nayak [3] summit density was computed as square
of peak density multiplied by 1.2.
The well-known plasticity index
postulated by Greenwood and Williamson (GW) [1] in 1966 is widely applied in studying the contact of
rough surfaces. The basic assumptions were adopted in GW model:
asperities are spherical near their
peaks (summits),
there is no interaction between asperities,
b)
Fig. 3. Modeled isotropic surface topography (a), profile from this surface (b)
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17
VOLUME 6,
only the asperities deform during contact,

all peaks (summits) have the same radius R.
The contact between two rough surfaces is modeled
by contact of single rough surface with a smooth plane.
Figure 2 shows the geometry model of contacting rough
surfaces, z denotes the height of asperity, d separation
of the surfaces measured from the summits mean plane,
but h is the separation of the surfaces based on surface
heights (ordinates). The plasticity index postulated by
Greenwood and Williamson was defined as:
y=
E ' s s 0.5
( ) ,
H R
2012
dinates the errors of summit density was also high based

on profile peaks analysis. For the other cases application
of this method led to overestimation of density; however it was found that summit density should be equal to
square of peak density on profile, in this case the error of
summit density was smaller than 6% for the coefficient
not higher than 0.77.
Mean radius of summit curvature was accurately predicted by spectral moments approach, independently on
the value. The errors were smaller than 10%, only for
highly correlated points case ( = 0.99) deviation was
24%. Estimated value was usually smaller than that
obtained by definition. However the analysis of profile
peaks led to overestimation of mean summit radius; the
errors were in the range: 1635%.
Relative difference between standard deviation of
summit height was usually smaller than 5% but not
higher than 10% when spectral moments approach was
used. Higher errors occurred for measured surface topog-
(6)
where H is the hardness of the softer contacting materials, and

1 n12 1 n 2 2 1
E' = (
+
)
E1
E2
N 4
(7)
Ei and i (i = 1, 2) are Youngs moduli and Poissons ratios for the two contacting elements.
In this work the plasticity index was
Table 1. Surface topography parameters and plasticity indices calculated using
calculated for various methods of comdifferent methods
puting contact parameters. The following
material properties were selected (conSurface
, m
s, m Spd, 1/m2
R, m
ys, m
tact of steel-on-steel elements) E1 = E2 =

M1s
0.85
0.176
0.158
0.00104
157.6
0.17
1.85
2.07 x 105 MPa, Brinell hardness H = 200
0.164
0.00211
161.5
0.15
M1m
(1960 MPa), 1 = 2 = 0.29. These proper0.174
1.84
ties were also used in paper [2].
M1p
0.174
0.169
0.00231
208.3
0.07
1.64
Figure 3 shows example modeled surM2s
0.4
0.176
0.132
0.000191
1024.5
0.25
0.65
face M1 of correlation = 0.85 between
M2m
0.174
0.137
0.000187
976.6
0.25
0.68
neighboring points and profile from this
M2p
0.174
0.152
0.000235
1351.4
0.12
0.61
surface.
4. Results and discussion
The results of calculations of selected

surface topographies are listed in Table 1.
Index s means calculation of contact parameters from the areal (3D) surface, m
using profile spectral moment and p
basing on the profile peaks analysis. Surfaces 1-5 were modeled, 6-10 measured.
means average value of correlation
between neighboring points (ordinates)
obtained from 6 profiles.
It is evident from the analysis of the
simulated and measured surfaces that
high values of the parameter (not smaller than 0.85) correspond to large errors
of summit density Spd prediction using
spectral moment approach. The errors
were bigger than 100%; summit density
was overestimated. So the error in obtaining summit density on the basis of
profile measurement can be large. For
values between 0.25 and 0.77 the deviations of summit density was smaller than
10%; for non-correlated neighboring
points ( between 0.1 and 0.12) application of spectral moments method caused
underestimation of summit density
errors were between 15 and 18%. For
high correlation between neighboring or18
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M3s
M3m
0.12
M4s
M4m
M5s
M5m
M6s
M6m
M7s
M7m
0.25
M7p
M8s
M8m
0.99
M8p
M9s
M9m
0.77
M9p
M10s
M10m
M10p
0.1
0.269
0.14
0.39
0.34
0.82
0.000232
177.3
0.70
3.92
0.87
0.91
0.00047
0.000531
176.8
232.5
0.56
0.28
4.04
3.61
0.93
0.91
0.81
0.000063
714.2
0.95
1.94
0.83
0.87
0.000061
0.000074
713.9
952.4
1.06
0.48
1.92
1.74
0.66
0.46
0.000046
1383.1
0.79
0.99
0.5
0.51
0.000042
0.000052
1220.2
1724.0
0.89
0.45
1.18
0.99
0.82
0.49
0.000026
1666.7
1.1
0.99
0.56
0.61
0.000024
0.000029
1538.4
2173.9
1.24
0.64
1.13
0.97
0.57
0.56
0.00038
436.7
0.134
2.07
0.56
0.56
0.00081
0.0007
333.5
512.8
0.15
0.061
2.44
1.91
2.28
1.78
0.000019
714.2
3.17
2.23
2.23
M6p
2816.9
4000.1
0.56
0.56
0.5
0.000077
0.8
0.8
M5p
0.36
0.64
0.64
0.65
0.254
0.91
M4p
3076.5
0.91
0.91
0.91
0.123
0.174
0.174
M3p
0.176
0.13
0.142
0.93
0.000061
0.000052
1.81
1.99
0.0000199
0.000022
746.3
833.3
3.07
1.75
2.88
2.84
2.82
1.07
0.64
0.000017
1897.5
1.45
1.05
1.05
0.69
0.79
0.000014
0.000019
1724.13
2380.9
1.72
0.83
1.03
1.15
1.05
raphies. When the s parameter was calculated directly

from profile based on its peaks, the deviations were usually higher (up to 24%). Estimation of summit standard
deviation height on the basis of profile analysis using
2 applied methods led usually to overestimation of s.
For highly correlated points ( = 0.99) no difference was
found after application of three analysed methods. In this
case standards deviation of summit height was equal or
very close to standard deviation of ordinates.
When spectral moments method was used, the predicted ys distance was higher than value obtained from
the analysis of simulated and measured surfaces for correlation smaller than 0.77, however for larger values
it was usually smaller (except for M8 surface) but differences were not higher than 20%. Calculation of the
ys parameter directly from the profile peaks caused its
underestimation (1.7-2.5 times).
Generally when spectral moments were used, good
agreement was found between the theory and the results
of the areal (3D) surface topography analysis except for
summit density which could be overestimated by theory
for comparatively high values. However these parameters cannot be calculated on the basis of profile peaks
analysis; the errors were higher, particularly for the ys parameter. Only summit density can be calculated without
large errors as the square of peaks density on the profile
when correlation between neighboring points was not too
high. Therefore when summit contact parameters are estimated from profile spectral moments, values higher
than 0.85 should be avoided.
Application of spectral moments method led to correct
estimation of plasticity index for modeled surfaces; the
errors were not higher than 8%. Differences were larger
for measured surfaces (up to 20%). However plasticity
index can be determined on the basis of profile peak analysis the errors were not larger than 10% and for measured surfaces they were smaller than those obtained after
using spectral moments approach. The reason of such
low deviations is that as a result of application of profile
peak analysis both s and R values were overestimated.
Decrease of correlation length causes increase in the
distance between the mean of asperity heights and that
of surface ordinates ys and decrease in standard deviation
of summit height s. Mean value of standard deviation
of ordinates is a little smaller than standard deviation of
height of areal surface; differences were a few percents.
5. Conclusion
Applicability of the profile spectral moment approach

to areal random surface specification was checked. Good
agreement between the analysis of modeled and measured surfaces and theory was generally found. The errors of calculation of parameter important for contact
mechanics after the analysis of profile peaks, particularly
for the distance between the mean of asperity heights and
that of surface ordinates ys, were higher than those after using profile spectral moments. However the errors
of computing the plasticity index on the basis of profile
peaks analysis was small, especially for small correlation
between ordinates. Summit density can be overestimated by the profile analysis (using both applied methods)
for comparatively high correlation between neighboring
points . Therefore when summit contact parameters are
VOLUME 6,
N 4
2012
estimated from 2D profiles, values higher than 0.85

should be avoided. Summit density can be calculated
as the square of peaks density on the profile when summit was identified based on its eight neighbors for not
too high correlation between ordinates. Decrease in the
parameter by increase in the sampling interval caused
increase in the distance between the mean of asperity
heights and that of surface ordinates ys and decrease in
standard deviation of summit height s.
AUTHORS
Pawe Pawlus*, Jacek Michalski Rzeszow University of Technology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Aeronautics, Al. Powstancow Warszawy 8, 35959 Rzeszw, Poland. E-mails: ppawlus@prz.edu.pl,
jmichals@prz.edu.pl
Wiesaw elasko - Upper-Secondary Technical School
Complex in Lezajsk, ul. Mickiewicza 67, 37-300 Lezajsk, Poland. E-mail: wzelasko@2be.pl
Corresponding author
References
[1] J. A. Greenwood and J. B. P. Williamson, Contact
of nominally flat surfaces, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A295, 1966, pp. 300-319.
[2] W. R. Chang, I. Etsion and D. B. Bogy, An elasticplastic model for the contact of rough surfaces,
ASME Journal of Tribology, 109, 1987, pp. 257263.
[3] P. R. Nayak, Random process model of rough surfaces, ASME Journal of Lubrication Technology,
93, 1971, pp. 398-407.
[4] A. W. Bush, R. D. Gibson and G. P. Keogh, The
limit of elastic deformation in the contact of rough
surfaces, Mech. Res. Commun. 3, 1976, pp. 169174.
[5] J. I. McCool, Comparison of models for the contact of rough surfaces, Wear, 107, 1986, pp. 3760.
[6] R. S. Sayles, T. R. Thomas, Measurements of the
statistical properties of engineering surfaces,
ASME Journal of Lubrication Technology, 1979,
101, pp. 409-417.
[7] N. Yu and A. A. Polycarpou, Extracting summit
roughness parameters from random surfaces accounting for asymmetry of the summit heights,
ASME Journal of Tribology, 126, 2004, pp. 761766.
[8] J. J. Wu, Simulation of rough surfaces with FFT,
Tribology International, 33, 2000, pp. 47-58.
[9] D. J. Whitehouse, The digital measurement of
peak parameters on surface profiles, Journal Mechanical Engineering Science IMechE, 20/4, 1978,
pp. 221-226.
[10] J. A. Greenwood, A unified theory of surface
roughness, Proc. Roy. Soc. (London), A393, 1984,
pp. 133-157.
[11] J. I. McCool, Finite difference spectral moments
estimation for profiles: the effect of sample spacing
and quantization error, Precision Engineering,
vol. 4, no. 4,1982, pp. 181-184.
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VOLUME 6,
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Behavior Based Co-ordination of a Troop of Vehicles

Targeted to Different Goals in an Unknown Environment
Submitted 26th January 2012; accepted 16th August 2012
Sourish Sanyal, Ranjit Kumar Barai, Rupendranath Chakrabarti, Pranab Kumar Chattopadhyay
Abstract:
The issue of coordinated operation of multi-vehicle for

avariety of tasks is getting increasing attention day by
day and standing as a major research field due to their increased capacity and flexibility they can offer as ateam.
This paper presents a novel algorithm for multi-vehicle
navigation, based on exhaustive search to avoid a set
of randomly generated obstacles, predict the approximate position of other vehicles and thus keeping asafe
distance to avoid collision and to maintain a formation
amongst them while targeted towards the assigned goals.
The proposed algorithm uses two optimizing functions
in deriving drive commands, direction and turning, for
a troop of vehicles. This particular algorithm is similar
to the artificial potential field (APF) method which is
widely used for autonomous mobile robot path planning
due to its simplicity and mathematical elegance. In this
work we have taken a behavior based reactive scheme
together with artificially generated perturbation as the
vehicles are running in a real time environment. Simulations have been carried out for a group of four vehicles,
paired in two groups, approaching two different targets
avoiding eight randomly generated obstacles, and keeping proper coordination between the members of intra
and inter groups. The effectiveness of the proposed approach has been shown by some simulation results.
Keywords: behavior-based collision avoidance, randomized obstacles, multi-vehicle coordination, particle
swarm optimization.
1. Introduction
The challenge that a troop of multiple uninhabited autonomous vehicles (UAVs) would be able to adaptively
react to their environment, whether known, unknown or
uncertain, and learn about their surroundings while following either an individual or a communal agenda is an
intriguing field of research. Achieving such a degree of
control and producing such sophisticated behavior remains an elusive goal that demands considerable attention and this is inherently a complex task. The problem
of multi-vehicle coordination and control has been receiving an exquisite amount of attention during the past
few years due to critical importance of the field in wideranging applications [8].
In many practical applications of autonomous vehicles
multiple teams are to be used. Such teams have many potential benefits, including faster completion through parallelism and increased robustness through redundancy.
20
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Further, teams of vehicles can increase the application

domain of autonomous vehicles by providing solutions
to tasks that are inherently distributed, either in time, or
in space, or in functionality. Since the 1980s, researchers
have addressed many issues in multi-vehicle, or multirobot teams or automated guided vehicles (AGVs) [12],
such as control architectures, communication, task allocation, swarm robots, learning [25]. A critical issue
in these mobile robot teams is coordinating the motions
of multiple vehicles interacting in the same workspace.
Regardless of the mission of the vehicles, they must be
able to effectively share the workspace to prevent interference between the team members. Solutions to the motion coordination problem are approached in a variety of
ways, depending upon the underlying objectives of the
vehicle team. In some cases, the paths of the robots are
explicitly planned and coordinated in advance, as might
be needed in a busy warehouse management application.
In other cases, planning is relaxed and emphasis is placed
on mechanisms to avoid collision, applicable for tasks
such as automated hospital meal deliveries. In yet other
situations, the robots could have mechanisms with little
pre-planning that focus on coordinating vehicle motions
in real-time using reactive, behavior-based, or controltheoretic approaches, such as would be used in a convoying or formation-keeping application.
Existing work on multi-vehicle control focuses receding-horizon planning (an optimization method) and hierarchical structures. The receding-horizon trajectory planner based on Mixed Integer-Linear Programming (MILP)
is capable of planning planner-based trajectories directed
to a goal [14,15,16]. The goal is constrained by no-fly
areas, or obstacles, and is free from leader-follower architecture which is adopted by model predictive control
(MPC) [17]. Game-theoretic approach is also adopted by
different co-ordination schemes for decision making of
the multi-vehicle problem [18,19,20]. A disjoint path algorithm for a reconfiguration of multi-vehicle was also
proposed [21]. A class of triangulated graphs for algebraic representation of formations have been introduced
to specify a mission cost for a group of vehicles [22].
The present work focuses on simultaneous movement of
a troop of vehicles from their initial locations towards
different targets in such an environment where obstacles
are generating stochastically based on the Artificial Potential Field (APF) approach. The basic idea of the APF
approach is to fill the robots workspace with an artificial
potential field in which the robot is attracted to its target
position and is repulsed away from the obstacles [4]. This
method is particularly attractive because of its elegant
mathematical analysis and simplicity. The application of
VOLUME 6,
APF for obstacle avoidance was first developed by Khatib [3]. In the past decade this method has been studied
extensively for autonomous mobile robot path planning
by many researchers [5-7]. This is a new approach where
the troops are divided into two groups and set out for
their own targets, maintaining a formation amongst them.
This work is an extension of the work done by Kevin
Passino [2] on obstacle avoidance of a single vehicle in
presence of a number of fixed obstacles.
2. Problem description
A. Cooperation of multi-vehicles
The word cooperation means interaction or integration of multiple vehicles [11]. In a cooperative team the
vehicles have to communicate, exchange information or
interact in some way to achieve an overall mission. The
term cooperation has been widely discussed in different
scientific community and different definitions have been
proposed.
B. Multi-vehicle path planning problem
It is defined as follows: given a set of m vehicles in

k-dimensional workspace, each specified with an initial
starting configuration (e.g., position and orientation) and
a desired goal configuration, determine the path each vehicle should take to reach its goal, while avoiding collisions with obstacles and other vehicles in the workspace.
More formally, let A be a rigid vehicle in a static workspace W= k [18,19], where k= 2 or k = 3. The workspace is populated with obstacles. A configuration q is
acomplete specification of the location of every point on
the robot geometry. The configuration space C represents
the set of all the possible configurations of A with respect
to W. Let O W represent the region within the workspace populated by obstacles. Let the close set A(q) W
denote the set of points occupied by the vehicle when it
is in the configuration qC. Then, the C-space obstacle
region, Cobs, is defined as [1]:
N 4
2012
of X corresponding to robot A with the obstacle region

O, is
i
(5)
X obs = {x X | Ai (q i ) }
The subset jof X corresponding to robot Ai in collision
with robot A is
ij
X obs = {x X | Ai (q i ) A j (q i ) }
(6)
The obstacle region in X is then defined as the combination of Equations (5) and (6), resulting in
m
i
i
X obs = ( X obs ) ( X obs )
i =1
(7)
ij ,i j
With these definitions, the planning process for multivehicle system treats X the same as C, and X obs the same
as Cobs ,where Cinit represents the starting configuration of
all the robots, and Cgoal represents the desired goal configurations of all the vehicles.
The APF uses two types of potential field, namely arepulsive potential field to force a robot away from obstacles or forbidden regions and an attractive potential field
to drive the robot to its goal. The robot moves under the
action of a force that is equal to the negative gradient of
that potential, and it is driven towards the positions with
the lower potential.
In this paper, we consider the robot as one particle that
moves under the action of the composition of forces Ar ,
which is the summation of goals attractive force Frg and
the obstacles repulsive force For as shown in Fig. 1.
Cobs = {q C | A(q ) }
(1)
The set of configurations that avoid collision (called

the free space) is:
(2)
C free = C \ Cobs .
A free path between two obstacle-free configurations
Cinit and Cgoal is a continuous map:
[0,1] C free
(3)
such that (0) = cinit and (1) = cgoal ..

For a team of m vehicles, define a state space that considers the configurations of all the robots simultaneously:
X = C1 C 2 ... C m .
(4)
Note that the dimension of X is N, where N =

m
dim(C i )The C-space obstacle region must now be
i =1
redefined as a combination of the configurations leading
to a robot-obstacle collision, together with the configurations leading to vehicle to vehicle collision. The subset
Fig. 1. Virtual attractive force of robot in APF

Typically, optimization criteria guide the choice of
a particular solution from an infinite number of possible solutions. Examples are: minimal path lengths (local
or global), minimal time to reach targets, and minimal
energy consumption to reach the goal. Presence of constraints brings forth more complexity. Such constraints
arise from navigational restrictions e.g. limitation on the
maximum angle of rotation, restrictions on maximum
slope, inability to traverse rocky terrain, etc. or the need
for a vehicles to move in tandem. Since general optimal
solution for multiple moving objects is computationally difficult, sometimes intractable [24], local optima is
sought for instead of global optima in the path planning
problem.
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21
VOLUME 6,
3. Problem formulation and the proposed

scheme
T
M t ( x1 , x2 ) = 1, [ x1 , x2 ] xti , xti
For convenience and for reducing complexity, the

scope of the present work has been limited to the motions
in only 2-D space. It is assumed that the obstacles are not
dynamic but they are randomly generated in the workspace. No vehicle is stationary with respect to another.
So it is obligatory to keep a safe distance between mobile
vehicles to avoid collision and maintain a formation. It
is assumed that there are m no of vehicles and the ith one
follows a discrete time kinematic model given as:
i
i
i
xv1 (k + 1) = xv1 (k ) + d cos( v (k ))
(8)
i
i
i
xv 2 (k + 1) = xv 2 (k ) + d sin( v (k ))
(9)
i
i
v (k + 1) = v (k ) + f v (u i (k ))
(10)
where k is the discrete time index taking values of nonnegative integers {0,1,2,3,.}(in the present problem k
denotes the number of search steps); vi is the orientation
of the ith vehicle; f v can be a nonlinear function encoding kinematic restrictions on the vehicles; u i is the local
controller corresponding to ith vehicle. For convenience,
let
i
i
i
i
i
i
(11)
xv = [ xv , xv ]T , and xv = [( xv )T , v ]T .
p
It has been assumed that the controller has prior access to the information on randomly generated obstacles
but not to the vehicles. The vehicles are to communicate
with the controller (distributed controllers, dedicated one
for each vehicle like an embedded system) to update the
information on their positions at every iteration before
taking the next move. The environment is modeled as
a2D, plane, having four quadrants (upper right and left
and lower right and left) of a Cartesian coordinate system
with axes (x1,x2). A Gaussian profile map has been set
up which is accessible to all the vehicles through their
controllers. It encodes the possible obstacle locations
xsi = [ xsi 1 , xsi 2 ]T , i =1,2,n obtained from sensory data
which act as centers of the Gaussian peaks. It is assumed
that the number of the obstacles is n (n=8 for this case).
Considering initial position to be [x1,x2], the mathematical description is as given below:
n
( x1 xsi1 ) 2 + ( x2 xsi2 )
M p ( x1 , x2 , k = 0) = ci exp
vi2
i =1
(12)
There may be some uncertainty in the data for the distances measured by the sensors. The uncertainty can be
encoded with variation in vi . Then uncertainty of prior
information having a peak width of vi and the distances
of the real obstacles from the centre of the peak in terms
of vi may be clubbed together. Furthermore, a specific
priority can be assigned intentionally to a particular task
by assigning different values as weights to ci . In this
approach, all the vehicles share the common map Mp
(x1,x2) at every iteration. The vehicle (controller) sensor
samples the Cartesian plane to get information on updated positions of obstacles and other vehicles and derive
the drive command. The output is in the form of binary
i.e. an output of 0 means no obstacle or and an output of
1 means an obstacle in near proximity.
22
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2012
(13)
= 0 otherwise
Emphasis has been given on moving the vehicles in

discrete steps as if moving from cell to cell rather than
moving along a smooth curve. Random velocities have
been assigned to the vehicles. No restriction has been imposed on maximum angle of rotation in one step but in
reality a sharp turn may adversely affect the stability of
the vehicles. This problem can be redressed by slowing
down the vehicles.
For most of the practical situations, a vehicle located
somewhere in the terrain is unable to locate all the obstacles and other vehicles at a time. In order to account
for this inability, an artificial perturbation has been added
to the output vector [9, 10]. The problem can now be
formulated by slightly modifying the above-mentioned
kinematic problem:
i
i
i
i
xv1 (k + 1) xv1 (k ) + cos( v (k ) + T k )
i
i
i
i
xv 2 (k + 1) = xv 2 (k ) + sin( v (k ) + T k )
i
i
i
v (k + 1)
v (k ) + T k
(14)
The nonlinear function f of the previous model has

been reduced to a linear incremental function having
astep increment in sample time T and is the minimum
incremental distance that any vehicle traverses before
scanning its world map for the next time slot, ki is the
steering angle and vi (k ) is the orientation with respect to
X-axis for the last update.
So the concise form of the model for positional and
angular updating is given as:
i
i
i
i
i
xv1 (k + 1), xv 2 (k + 1) = xv1 (k + 1), xv 2 (k + 1) , uk
(15)
where xv1 (k+1) and xv 2 (k+1) are the updated states of

X-Y coordinates in the Cartesian coordinate system at
i
time t for the of the ith vehicle and uk is the drive commands generated by the controller the minimal positional and steering rate update at Tth discrete sample time,
where is the mapping function. The goal of vehicle
coordination is to derive a sequence of controls for each
vehicle i.e.
i
i
(16a)
u i = u0 , u1i ,...., uk
such that the trajectories are:
i
i
x i = x0 , x1i ,....xn
(16b)
4. The real-time problem taken for path

optimization
The specific scenario and the considerations behind
experimentations and finding out the simulation results
are worth mentioning at this point. Four vehicles paired
in two different groups have been considered they have
set out for two different targets of same preference.
There are eight obstacles randomly generated in the
workspace whose locations can be traced out by the
sensors of the distributed controlling mechanism of
each individual vehicle.
Each vehicle can sense their present location in Cartesian X-Y coordinate system while- they also have
prior information about their starting locations.
The controller of each vehicle can communicate with
that of other vehicles and can distinguish between a
moving object and a static obstacle.
Against these considerations in the backdrop, the real
time algorithm used in this experimentation has been
framed. Three functions have been taken: one for obstacle generation, a Gaussian profile function to get estimate
of the obstacle positions and a goal function to find out
the best possible position and orientation for gradually
getting nearer to the goal.
4.1. The proposed algorithm
Three functions have been used in this multi-vehicle

path planning viz. obstaclegeneration, obstaclefunc,
and goalfunc along with the main program.
Main Algorithm
Step 1: Segregate the 360o contour of the robots world
map into N no. of segments.
Step 2: Do while count<preset value
Step 3: Loop for K=1 to N (incrementing step angle),
calculate the Gaussian profile obstacle distance from
each point of the circular trajectory by calling the function obstaclefunction and find the furthest obstacle distances from each point and follow the same for finding
the Euclidian distance to goal from all of those points by
calling the function goalfunction.
Step 4: Add the return array functions so as to treat
this function as a composite one.
Step 5: Minimize the composite function so as to get
the best angle to move.
Step 6: Orient the robot towards that best found direction and move minimum incremental distance i.e. proceeding cell by cell (as if repulsed by the random obstacles and attracted towards the goal).
Step 7: Repeat step 2 to step 5 for all subsequent robots.
Reactive Behavior Scheme:
Step 8: Loop for i = 1 to 3
Step 9: While Robotix , y or Roboti +1x , y Goalx , y do
Step 10: If Robot1x , y Robot2x , y predefined thresold
give either an X-axis shift or Y-axis shift accordingly.
Step 11: Endwhile
Step 12: Endfor
Add Artificial Perturbation
Step 13: generate delta-increment and delta-angle by
random function generation
Step 14: Add them with goal function and obstacle
function array
Step 15: Go back to step 2
Step 16: End-while
Analysis:
As it can now be seen that the above algorithm shares
similarities with the approach of Artificial Potential Field
algorithm, first proposed by O. Khatib classically for stationary obstacles and goals. In the present problem the
obstacles are generated randomly but after that they are
stationary for the entire run. There is also a reactive behavior amongst the motions of the robots as each robot
considers the others like obstacles and keep safe distance
as well as a specific formation. The reactive behavior is
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also exhibited while the robots are repulsed from the obstacles. The troop is also attracted towards the goal more
aggressively than they are being repulsed from the obstacles. This weighted approach is taken to find nearer space
to global optimal solution while optimizing the composition of the goal function and maximum distance Gaussian profile obstacle function. The higher aggression to
reach the goal reduces the probability of being confined
to local minima and forces it to follow a much straighter
path as can be seen from the traced out paths of the robots
through the resulting diagrams (viz. Fig 6 and Fig 9).
Three functions have been used in this multi-vehicle
path planning viz. obstaclegeneration, obstaclefunc,
and goalfunc along with the main program.
The main program executes the simulation loop of
the constrained optimization problem and derives drive
commands for the troop. The pseudo-code of the main
program is given below:
loop for i=1 to size(sampled contour) % Starting of
the Main Program
theta(i,1) theta(i-1,1) + angular increment
end of loop
Set xgoal 1,2 assign goal coordinates 1,2 % Assign
two goals and four initial locations
Set initial1,2,3,4 assign initial locations coordinate 1,2,3,4
% of the vehicles
Call obstaclegeneration function
% to generate
eight random obstacles and to display
Loop for k=1 to size(iterations)
Set x1,2,3,4(min,max) Workspace(min,max)
% to keep
vehicles within the workspace
Loop for m=1 to size(sampled contour)
Xs1,2,3,4(:,m) x1,2,3,4 (rows,k)+increment(rad,thetam)
Go(m,1) 1,2,3,4 call obstaclefunc(Xs1,2,3,4(:,m),w1)
Gg(m,1) 1,2,3,4 call goalfunc(Xs1,2,3,4
(:,m),xgoal1,2,3,4,w2)
Ggo(m,1) 1,2,3,4 Go(m,1) 1,2,3,4+ Gg(m,1) 1,2,3,4
End of inner loop
minvalue1,2,3,4 min(Ggo(m,1)1,2,3,4 % minimum
value and its sequence
minvalueseq1,2,3,4 sequence(min(Ggo(m,1) 1,2,3,4)
x1,2,3,4(rows,k+1) x1,2,3,4(rows,k)+ increment(incr,
theta(minvalueseq1,2,3,4)
deltaincr 0.1*incr*random generaration
%
To generate artificial pertubation
deltaangle 2*pi* random generaration
x1,2,3,4 (rows,k+1) x1,2,3,4(rows,k+1)+increment(delta
incr,theta(deltaangle))
Loop i=1 to (number of vehicles-1) % Formation &
Coordination amongst the vehicles
delta1,2,3 xi+1(x,y)-xi(x,y)
if (delta<mags(safedistance) then xi(x,y) xi(x,y)+shift
Plot online path tracing
End of last inner loop
End of the main simulation loop
Plot some results of the troop movement
End of the Main Program
Three functions were called from the main program
of which the first one is obstacle generation. This function has not taken any input from the main program and
not also returned any value but generates eight random
obstacles in the world map of the vehicles.
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23
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5. Simulation results
The results obtained from the simulations are given in
this section. Fig. 2 shows four vehicles at their starting
points. Fig. 3 shows the input obstacle functions of the
workspace. Fig. 4 shows the upper left and Fig. 5 the
upper right goal functions estimated from the sampled
workspace Fig. 6 shows the online tracing of the traversed path Fig. 7 shows the output vector from goal
optimizing function Fig. 8 shows the output vector from
weighted combination of Gaussian profile (obstacles)
optimization and Fig. 9 shows the final paths traced out
by the vehicles
Fig. 5. Upper right goal function estimated from the sampled workspace
Fig. 2. Four vehicles just about to start in two different

groups in the given workspace
Fig. 3. Input obstacle functions estimated from the sampled workspace
Fig. 4. Upper left goal function estimated from the sampled workspace
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Fig. 6. Online tracing of the traversed path of four vehicles to two goals in a group of two
Fig. 7. Output vector from goal optimizing function for

every iteration
Fig. 8. Output vector from weighted combination of Gaussian

profile (obstacles) optimizing and goal optimizing function
Fig. 9. Final paths traced out by the vehicles for a given

random obstacle map and goals
6. Conclusions
There are many open issues in multi-vehicle path
planning and coordination which are yet to be addressed. Currently used techniques are not suitable for
very large number of vehicles and for 3-D trajectories
(aerial vehicles). Another difficulty is faced in practical
implementation of the real time mobile vehicles. It requires incorporating practical motion and sensing constraints of physical vehicles in 2-D space. As already
mentioned this technique is an application of Artificial
Potential Field Approach in static environment. This approach could be extended to control and coordination of
mobile vehicles in highly stochastic and dynamic environment but that would be a slight deviation from classical APF and its complexity is higher. It may require
online path planning and coordination strategies.
Motion coordination of multiple vehicles in a shared
workspace has large scale practical values. Example
applications include container management in ports,
extra-planetary explorations, search and rescue, mineral
mining, transportation, industrial and household maintenance, construction, hazardous waste cleanup, security,
agriculture, and warehouse management. Due to complexity and cost, relatively few real-world implementations of these systems have been accomplished till date.
It is expected that such systems will have wide-spread
use in near future as the technology continues to mature.
Because of the need for motion coordination of multivehicle systems, the work described in this paper is of
critical importance. As multi-robot systems can operate
in stochastic and unpredictable settings, the study of the
interaction dynamics of these settings may have broader
impact in a wide range of applications.
One possible solution of multi-vehicle problem has been presented
in this paper. The task is to find out the optimal path
towards goals avoiding obstacles by learning through
random search in an unknown environment. A Gaussian
Profile Map function optimally directs the vehicles away
from the obstacles as if the Robots are repulsed from the
obstacles. The vehicles are more aggressive towards the
goals rather than to the obstacle avoidance phenomenon
in this project. The time taken by the troop to reach two
different goals in two pairs is less than a minute as being
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observed. This algorithm, if compared with others, the

time efficiency could be found to be better to some extent. The obstacles are not dynamic in the present work
but they may be stochastically generated at any location
in the workspace. Moreover the troop is to maintain formation and coordination amongst themselves. A comprehensive result has been achieved by simulating the
algorithm in MATLAB environment. In highly stochastic environment, a more robust and adaptive algorithm
may be required. Application of Neuro-Fuzzy or NeuroGA system could be very useful in this context.
A simple algorithm based on random search has been
used which is very easy to implement. It is based on APF
approach and also shares some similarities with evolutionary computation techniques. The system is initialized with a population of random solutions and searches
for optima by updating generations. The potential solutions, in this algorithm fly through the problem space
following current optimal output. They are taken as the
optimally best possible directives for movement of each
individual vehicle. The controller updates the parameters in accordance with the optimal directives generated by the algorithm. Still then, for very complicated,
dynamic and stochastic environments an expert system
with leader-follower architecture may be even a better
alternative.
Acknowledgement
This work was inspired by the prior research work of

Kevin Passino [2] and O. Khatib [3]. The authors wish
to acknowledge their contributions. The authors are also
indebted to the Head of the Dept. of Electrical Engg,
Jadavpur University, for allowing this research work to
be conducted in its Mechatronics Laboratory.
AUTHORS
Sourish Sanyal* Electronics & Communication Department, College of Engineering & Management, West
Bengal University of Technology, West Bengal, India.
E-mail: sourish2007_may@yahoo.co.in
Ranjit Kumar Barai, Rupendranath Chakrabarti,
Pranab Kumar Chattopadhyay Electrical Engineering Department, Jadavpur University, West Bengal, India. E-mails: ranjit.k.barai@gmail.com; rupen_chakrabarti@yahoo.co.in; pkchattopadhyay47@hotmail.com
References
[1] L. E. Parker, Path Planning and Motion Coordination in Multiple Mobile Robot Teams, Encyclopedia of Complexity and System Science, Robert
A.Meyers, Editor-in-Chief, Springer, 2009.
[2] K. Passino, Biomimicry for Optimization, Control,
and Automation, Springer, 2005.
[3] 0. Khatib, Real-Time Obstacle Avoidance for
Manipulators and Mobile Robots, International
Journal of Robotics Research, vol. 5, no. 1, 1986,
pp.9098.
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[4] M. Gerke, Genetic path planning for mobile robots. In: Proceedings of the American Control
Conference 1999, vol. 4, 1999, pp. 24242429.
[5] J. Latombe, Robot Motion Planning, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, 1991.
[6] 0. Khatib, Real-Time Obstacle Avoidance for
Manipulators and Mobile Robots, International
Journal of Robotics Research, vol. 5, no. 1, 1986,
pp. 9098.
[7] Zhang Pei-Yan, Lu Tian-Sheng, Song, Li-Bo
Source, Soccer robot path planning based on the
artificial potential field approacch with simulated
annealing, Robotica, vol. 22, no. 5, September/
October, 2004, pp. 563566.
[8] C. Zhang, R. Ordonez, C. Schumacher, Multi-Vehicle Cooperative Searchwith Uncertain Prior Information. In:Proceedings of the 2004 American
Control Conference.
[9] N.M. Kwok, Q.P. Ha, G. Fang, Motion Coordination for Construction Vehicles using Swarm
Intelligence, International Journal of Advanced
Robotic Systems, 2012. DOI: 10.5772/5672
[10] N.M. Kwok, Q.P. Ha, V.T.Ngo, S.M. Hong, Particle Swarm Optimization of a Group of Construction Vehicles. In: ISARC 2006.
[11] F. Arrichiello, Coordination Control of Multiple
Mobile Robots. Dissertation at Universit`a Degli
Studi Di Cassino, Dipartimento Di Automazione,
Elettromagnetismo, Ingegneria Dellinformazione
EMatematica Industriale.
[12] Ping Ping Khaw, W.S. Wijesoma, Eam Khwang
Teoh, Intelligent Control And Navigation of
anOutdoor AGV. School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Intelligent Machines Research Lab. Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore. Available at: http://www.araa.asn.au/
acra/acra1999/papers/paper43.pdf
[13] D. Rathbum, S.n Kragelund, A. Pongpunwattana,
B. Capozzi, Metron Aviation, Inc., Herndon,VA.
[14] J.S. Bellingham, A. Richards, J.P.How, Receding
horizon control of autonomous aerial vehicles.
In: Proc. American Control Conference, Anchorage, Alaska, May 2002.
[15] J.S. Bellingham, M. Tillerson, M. Alighanbari,
J.P. How, Cooperative path planning for multiple UAVs in dynamic and uncertain environments. In: Proc. of 41th conf. Decision Contr., Las
Vegas,Nevada, USA, 2002.
[16] Y.K.M. Alighanbari, J.P.How, Coordination and
Control of multiple UAVs with timing constraints
and loitering. In: Proc. American Control. Conf.,
Denver, CO, 2003.
[17] W.B. Dunbar, R.M. Murray, Model predictive
control of coordinated multi-vehicle formations.
In: Proc. of 41th Conf. Decision Contr., Las Vegas,
NV,2002.
[18] S. Ganapathy, K.M. Passino, Agreement strategies for cooperative control of uninhabited autonomous vehicles. In: Proc. American Control
conf., Denver, Colorado, June 2003.
[19] Y. Liu, M.A. Simaan, J.J.B. Cruz, Game theoretic approach to cooperative teaming tasking in
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7688.
VOLUME 6,
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About Evaluation of Multivariate Measurements

Results
Submitted: 14th Nov. 201; accepted 22nd March 2012
Zygmunt L. Warsza
Abstract:
A brief review of few problems arising in the correct numerical expression and evaluation of results of indirect
multi-parameter measurements is given. There is included
a theoretical basis for determining the estimates of values,
uncertainties and correlation coefficients of the indirectly
obtained multi-measurand, which are processed from
data of the simultaneously measured set of variables. The
alge-bra of random vectors is used. A numerical example
illus-trates the linear transformation of two variables and
the types of improperly evaluated results that may occur
with over-rounding. There are given thresholds of the safe
uniform rounding of mean vector and its scatter ellipsoid.
There is proposed an upgrading of the GUM Example H.2
and of the uncertainty equation for nonlinear functions. It
is also evidenced that correlation matrix of current 2010
data of fundamental physical constants recommended
by CODATA has non-negligible negative eigenvalues. In
the end of this work it is argued for the urgent needs of
stand-ardization of e-publication of the experimental data
in two parts: e-printed traditional narrative part, and an
attached computer readable file with all numerical input
data and results, to allow fast numerical peer review
of the proposed publication reporting new measurement
results. This work is a result of an inter-disciplinary cooperation of a metrologist and a nuclear physicist.
Keywords: uncertainty, indirect measurements, multimeasurand, correlated data
1. Introduction
Simultaneous measurements of several statistically related quantities, i.e. correlated, are performed in science,
education, technology, economy and many other disciplines. From the digitally processed on- or off-line data of
m variables, directly measured on input, the n other variables (in physics called as observables) are determined indirectly on output, if their mutual relation is known. In addition to estimators of values and uncertainty the knowledge
about correlation coefficients of output quantities also is of
special importance for some or all of these variables to be
jointly processed further.
Accuracy of evaluated output multi-measurand data depends on the statistical uncertainties of given parameters
of input multi-measurand, as well as on the accuracy of
their processing. Final rounding of indirectly obtained data
of output multi-measurand must depend on a uncertainty
of the input data [6]. The safe rounding of the digitally
processed multi-measurand data should be done in such
a way that they are not be damaged. If the accuracy of
final uncertainties or number of repetitions of raw meas-
urements are not given in publication of input data then

it should not be assumed that the values of estimators of
standard deviations and correlation coefficients of the initial variables are correctly found from measurement data
and are as their values for whole populations.
In indirect multi-dimensional measurements there are
two border types of relations of the uncertainty both components uA and uB [1].
First case: uncertainty uA<<uB. In such situations it is
enough to provide the necessary instrumental resolution
and accuracy for measurement of input values and to determine cross-links to the output.
Second case: uA>>uB when all environmental effects
interacting on input measurements are carefully eliminated and the uncertainty of type B is small compared to
the range of random scatter of observed variables. Here
one should achieve maximum accuracy in measurements
and then the information obtained in the experiment is not
partially lost in the processing of the random input data
and in the rounding of the obtained results. The number of
observations should be as large as possible to minimize the
statistical type uncertainty uA.
2. Theoretical backgrounds in short
In multivariate indirect measurements the input multimeasurand can be expressed by random vector X=[X1,
X2,... Xm]T and output one by vector Y =[Y1, Y2, ... Yn]T.
These random vectors X and Y of dimensions m and n,
respectively, can be described by the multi-dimensional
distributions. In general case the relation between them
can be expressed by
Y = F(X)
If F is a linear operator, then
Y = SX
Where: S is matrix of dimensions n x m and n m.
Two examples of multivariate indirect measurements
are given in Fig 1.
Fig. 1. Examples of indirect evaluation of measurement data of 2 jointed output variables Y=[Y1, Y2]T from
measurements of 3 input variables X=[X1, X2, X3]T:
a)no correlated, b) correlated X1, X2 [10]
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27
Fig. 1. Examples of indirect evaluationVOLUME 6, N data of 2

of measurement 4 2012
jointed output variables Y=[Y1, Y2]T from measurements of 3 input
variables X=[X1, X2, X3]T: a) no correlated, b) correlated X1, X2 [10]
The basic structure of the numerical estimation of the

multi-measurand should contain averaged components of
the random vector and a description of the multidimensional scatter region of it. The accuracy of both these data
should be also known. Even if the relation Y=F(X) is nonlinear, in the most cases for small deviations of the random
vectors X and Y their scatter regions can be defined by
a model of joint n-dimensional normal probability distribution. Then, for a given probability density p0 the distribution region for pp0 takes the form of a n-dimensional
hyper-ellipsoid with its center at the end of the average
vector. Relations between covariance matrices of hyperellipsoids of the output and input measurands (in alinear
approximation of the observables in the vicinity of the end
of mean vector Y ) are described analytically by
y
20.345
1.155
1.845
21500
(2)(1.500
0.100)
(2)(0.345
0.001)
1.0
0.0
0.0
r (, ) =
1.0
x = ( +) (2)
y = ( ) (2)
x
y
1.845
0.100
1.155
0.100
1.00000
0.9998
0.9998
r (x, y) =
1.0000
Fig 2. Linear transformation of 2D random vector [5]

Fig 2. Linear transformation of 2D random vector [5]
c Y = S c X ST
Where:
is the matrix of linear sensitivity
coefficients.
The matrix r of the correlation coefficients is defined
by the relation
y
A. x = 1.845(100)
Basic equations for the processing of 2D random vecA
= 1.155(100)
tors are given in Table 1 andytypical distortions of out1.155
B. x = 1.84(10)
put data by not proper too high rounding are shown in
y = 1.16(10)
Fig.3 [5].
r = c T
1.845 x
x = 1.8(1)
y = 1.2(1)
2. Correlator 3. Correlator
4. Mean vector over-rounded
scatter region moved
ignored
over-rounded to 1
It is called also shortly as the correlator.

A multidimensional distribution is normal if matrices c
and r are positive definite, i.e. their eigenvalues i, which
are the roots of the characteristic equations
1.155
det[c-1]=0, and det[r-1]=0,
1.155
1.845
should be positive [3].

This requirement was not included in Supplement 2 of
GUM [1] in above form.
So, to express correctly the result of measuring or
evaluating random vector quantity the minimal data
structure should contain:
Mean vector,
Vector of standard deviations and their uncertainties
(or number of measurements in each sample),
Positive definite correlation matrix and uncertainties
of their elements,
Machine precision used to compute vector parameters
and eigenvalues of correlation matrix.
With these data the user will have complete information to plan and control the safe usage of data in next
computations.
In Fig 2 there is shown an
example of a linear
transformation of two dimension (2D) Greek vector
X=[h, z]T to Latin vector Y=[x, y] T [5].
B
A
y
1.155
1.845
1.845
Fig 3. Cases of improper presentation of correlated 2D data
Fig 3. Cases of improper presentation of correlated 2D

data
To express difference Y=YiY between the center
of the ellipse of transformed original raw data Y and the
end of rounded vector Yi Mahalanobis distance is used,
which is given by [12]
2 = Y
1
r ( x, y ) 1 Y T
x y
Let us consider rounding of data Y given in Fig 2 [5].

Raw data Y rounded to 3 digits after decimal point:
Table 1. Basic formulas of the 2D random vector transformation of Fig 2

Covariance matrix
Transformation
x
y = S

1
= 1

1
1
Standard deviations
s x = s + s + 2 s V s h rVh
2
V
28
Articles
2
h
1 2
1
cxy =
1 1
Correlator
s y = s + s 2 s V s h rVh
2
V
2
h
1
rxy =
xy
xy
1
2
1 x2
1
2
= 2

2
2
1 1
y2
Where:
correlation
coefficient
c & r positive define

det(A- I)=0
i 0
(xy=0,9998),
VOLUME 6,
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rounding of the multivariate random vector data. All such

safety thresholds of rounding are expressed in terms of
decimal numbers [6], i.e. for:
standard deviations Ui of vector components Vi
Y=[1,845(100); 1,155(100)]
B. Rounding of Y to 2 digits after decimal point:
1
AiU AiUth = Upper Integr [ log1 (
0
2
Y1= [1,84(10); 1,16(10)];
Y1= Y1Y= [0,005; 0,005]; 12 = 25 > 1
n
U
4 T i
unit
i
)]
2
min C
L
values of the components Vi of

the average vector elements of the correlation matrix
AiV AiVth = AiUth
C. Rounding of Y to 1 digit after decimal point:
AC AiCth = Upper Integr log1

j
0
Y2= [1,8(1); 1,16(1)];

2
Y2=Y2Y= [0,045; 0,045]; 2 = 2500 > 1
For the ellipse border the Mahalanobis distance =1.

Then the ends of both rounded vectors Y1, Y2 situated are
outside of the ellipse of transformed original random input data Y. If the assumption proposed by V. Ezhela in
[24] for safety processing of random vectors is to be satisfied, these ends has to be situated inside of this ellipse.
Then in both cases the results are over-rounded. Such assumption can be valid only for the absolutely accurate input statistical data from the whole random populations of
Xi or for very large going to infinity, number N of sample
elements, and when instrumental errors are negligible.
That condition is not fulfilled in many existing in measurement situations, where data samples of a small number of elements are only possible to obtain in a limited
time of observation. Then all estimators of mean values,
standard deviations and correlation coefficients obtained
from the samples of limited number N of multivariate observations have their own uncertainties, which are quite
high for small N. From above it follows that two different
type requirements for precision of processing and rounding procedures of multivariate data can be used:
very high for safety numerical processing of input
random vector of statistical parameters treated as absolutely accurate (if they are given for whole population or
for being safe if accuracy of them is unknown), and
lower, dependent on given or possible to be estimated accuracy of statistical parameters of the input multimeasurand.
In the second case thresholds for limiting the rounding of output data parameters have to be established as
dependent on the accuracy of statistical parameters of
input samples.
3. Thresholds of the safe rounding of transformed multivariate data
Applying spectral theorems of matrix theory V.

Ezhela in [4] proposed thresholds of the number of digits after decimal point for fully safe independent uniform
Table 2
Parameters
Raw results
0,3242
0,0664
0,1555
0,0256
A. rounding to 3 digits
0,324
0.067
0.156
0,026
B. rounding to 2 digits
0.32
0.07
0,16
0.03
C. rounding to 1digit
0.3
< 0.1
0,2
< 0.1
n 1
2
min
Where: min minimal eigenvalue of the correlation

matrix, tolerance factor at defined confidence level.
Above formulas look sophisticated, but are quite easy
to be used see examples in [4], [6] and [7]. For data
of the Example H.2 of GUM [1] (the same as in chapter
9.4 of Supplement 2 [11]) after high precision processing of the input data correctness of the rounding of the
multivariate output vector Y=[R, X, Z], when TCL=1 (one
standard deviation) are the following numbers of digits
[4], [7]:
Upper Integer{Ath[R]} = 5
Upper Integer{Ath[X]} = 4
Upper Integer{Ath[Z]} = 5
Correlator of the output vector [R, X, Z]T has elements
uniformly rounded to 9 digits and the smallest eigenvalue
min=2,2271110-8 and for this min the minimum number
of digits of the correlation coefficients is:
AC(CorH3) = 8
As large number of significant figures are obtained
from proposed by V. E. thresholds of uniform rounding, such as for scalars by GUM, valid with assumptions:
input data are treated as absolutely accurate,
scatter region for pp0 is kept as n-ellipsoid,
numerical processing is safety rounded, and
the output vector must be maintained inside of the
scattered area of the transformed raw input data.
Then such of many digits thresholds are not needed in
measurements. They are valid only for the save digital
processing of random vector itself because of the assumption that mean values of components the input vector, their
standard deviations and correlation coefficients are absolutely accurate known, which is not happen for any real
experiments. Obtained experimentally measurement data
are not absolutely accurate as number N of observations in
samples are limited (uncertainty type Ais rising with decreasing of N) and unknown instrumental errors are not
negligible (represented by uncertainty type B). Then in requirements for processing and rounding the uncertainties
of estimators of mean value (or other the most probable
values of measured vector components e.g. mid-range for
uniform distribution and for trapeze
distributions of the ratio of their bases
from 1 to 0,65. The accuracy of stand2 y
2 x
ard deviations and of correlation coefficients have to be also taken in con0,1328 0,0512
siderations. Then the rounding of real
0,133
0,051
multivariate measurement data has to
0,14
0,05
be done below thresholds given by V.
<0,2
<0,1
Ezhela and dedicated for the save data
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29
processing itself only. Approximately it should be enough

if precision of processing is the one digit more than the accuracy of measured input data.
Fig. 4. Rounding with constant correlation coefficient

xy
An graphical illustration of such rounding of data
given in table 2 for constant correlation coefficient xy is
shown in Fig. 4.
The largest ellipse C obtained after rounding standard
deviations x, y to 1 digit do not fully cover the primary
ellipse A. But it was checked also that for larger ellipses
tangential to the rectangular of twice larger sides 2x,
2y after their rounding to 2 or to 1 digit it is ok. For
example for such ellipses A2, B2 (not given in Fig. 3) it is
2 (x B ) (x x B ) > 2 (x A )
)
2 ( y B ) ( y y B ) > 2 ( y A .
Rounding of the correlation coefficients depend on
their value and on accuracy. Then special care, not considered here, is needed,
The different rounding of multivariate data with changes of correlation coefficients values ij, also should be
applied. Two following methods of such rounding below
thresholds are preliminary tested:
Method 1 (of Z. L. W) author proposed to maintain
a constant values of non diagonal elements of the positive covariance matrix, i.e.:
Where: signs in the upper index indicates the direction of change.

Method 2 (of V. E.)
V. Ezhela proposed to use
truncation, i.e. to omit further digits after no changed
the last accepted digit [6].
Both methods are used
for the output data of the
Example H.2 GUM for
rounding them to 3 and 2
digits after decimal point
[6]. Results are given below in Table 3.
30
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VOLUME 6,
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It was checked:
positive definite of the rounded correlator;
the relative distance by Mahalanobis 2 [12] between the end of rounded vector and the center of raw
original data after transformation.
Correlators of both methods are positive definite, but
the full theoretical justification of the method 2 is not
given jet. Method 2 gives a smaller values of Mahalanobis distances of ends of the rounded vectors from the
ellipse center of transformed raw data, but its smallest
eigenvalue is closer to zero than obtained in method 1.
Conclusion: since in multivariable measurements
the rounding level of output vector Y depends not only
on the precision of digital processing but mainly on the
uncertainties of all statistical parameters of input vector
X, then additional formulas of rounding thresholds then
given by V. Ezhela [4], [6] are also urgently needed.
4. Upgrading the GUM proposals for multivariable measurements
GUM [1] and other official metrological documents

about uncertainty are applied up to now only in measurements of the single quantity. But statements in the main
text of GUM was formulated in such a manner that the
reader gets the impression that a generalization to the
multivariate case is straightforward. That was considered in details in Example H.2 of GUM which illustrates
clauses 7.2.5 and 7.2.6.
Supplement 2 to GUM [11] about extension of
evaluation uncertainty of measurements to any number
of quantities, has been published just now and time to
implement its clauses in practice is not jet long enough.
About Example H.2 of GUM
In Table H.2 of GUM [1] there are given five (and in

Supplement 2 six) raw simultaneous measurements of
input vector X=[U, J, ]T and vector Y=[R=Ucos/J,
X=Usin/J, Z=U/J]T is evaluated. The results are presented there in Tables H.3 and H.4. Rounding of correlation coefficients is not properly done there, since the
smallest eigenvalue of correlator matrix is negative and
so the scatter region is not of the 3D-ellipsoide form.
Also final output data of Example H.2 does not satisfy
physical law of impedance of the two-terminal passive
element which is: X2+Y2=Z2 as 2= -71,5 [3], [6], [7].
Table 3
Method 1 (of Z.L.W)
Rounding to 3 digits
Mean
Standard
Correlator
value
Deviation
127,732
0,160
1
0,586
0,483
219,847
0,661
0,586
1
0,991
254,60
0,529
0,483
0,991
1
Eigenvalue: [2,39983; 0,598631;
0,00154204]
2
8,39
Mean
Standard
Correlator
value
Deviation
127,73
0,16
1
0,59
0,48
219,85
0,66
0,59
1
0,99
254,26
0,53
0,48
0,99
1
Eigenvalue: [2,39972; 0,598797; 0,00148649]
2
284,0
Method 2 (of V. E.)

Mean
Standard
Correlator
value
Deviation
127,732
0,160
1
0,588
0,485
219,847
0,661
0,588
1
0,992
254,260
0,529
0,485
0,992
1
Eigenvalue: [2,40297; 0,596499;
0,000533094]
2
1, 108
Mean
Standard
Correlator
value
Deviation
127,73
0,16
1
0,58
0,48
219,85
0,66
0,58
1
0,99
254,26
0,53
0,48
0,99
1
Eigenvalue: [2,26846; 0,657234; 0,0743036]
2
6,445
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For 2>0.1 (i. e. >0.316) is obtained u2(F)<0. So, the

additional component of the uncertainty formula of nonlinear function given in Notice to clause 5.1.2 of GUM
should be corrected by removing from the sum in brackets the second component with the third derivative.
For establishing requirements of safety digital processing purposes according, the input multivariate measured
data of H.2 Example are firstly treated as absolutely accurate data. Then, for such theoretical case, according
thresholds given by V. Ezhela [4] (see chapter 3) the required digit numbers after decimal point are as follows:
for mean values and standard uncertainty of R and Z 5
digits, of X - 4 digits and for correlation coefficients 8
digits ! [4, 7]. Therefore, high numbers of digits cannot be
accepted for describing the measurement results as they
are obtained under the assumptions that: input data are
treated as fully accurate, numerical results of processing
are safety and uniformly rounded to maintained vector
end in the scattered area of the transformed original input
data. They can be used only as a reference of processing of the absolutely accurate data of the random vector
of similar component values as parameter estimators of
samples of the input vector X in H.2 Example. All these
samples have only N=5 ! (or 6 in supl. 2) measurements
each and the accuracy of SD of each variable and of correlator elements is very poor. Relative uncertainty of SD
of such small samples is about 36% see Table E.1 in
GUM [1].
5.2. Nonlinear processing of input vector
In case of the nonlinear processing of input vector

the widely used as approximation differential linear
uncertainty propagation law does not work properly in
more accurate calculations for highly nonlinear functions. The nonlinear uncertainty propagation should be
used with the obligatory positivity constraints
Ci, [Ca, Cb ]
Fk(Ci), [Fm, Fn ]
Cmpnent of X (input)
Cmpnent of Y (output)
[Fi , F j ] =
l Fj
k Fi
{c1 c k , c1 c l }
c1 c l
1 c k
k!l! c
k , l =1
5. About Notice GUM on the nonlinear

uncertainty propagation
Covariance matrix [Fm, Fn] is non-degenerate and

positive definite if dimensions dim(Ci)=m, dim(Fk)=n
and the order T of component of the Taylor polynomials
approximated the measuring vector function Fk obey the
inequality
In the multivariable case the linear propagation of

errors from m-dimensional vector X to n-dimensional
vector Y in some cases is misleading for n>m, i.e. for
nonlinear functions.
5.1. Single measurand case
n nth =
In the Notice to clause 5.1.2 of GUM [1] is determinate the uncertainty of highly non-linear single function
y=f(X) only. There is recommended that the linear propagation of variance is supplemented by higher-order components, i.e.
(m + T ) !
1
m !T !
Where:
1
nth
V. Ezhela noticed in [4] that calculations of the variance u2(y) according Table 4
to this formula may give a false negaElementary charge
tive value because of the component in
parentheses with the third derivative.
Planck constant
This is illustrated below by the examElectron mass
ple of the single nonlinear polynomial
function
1/fine structure const
19
14
20
55
Commentary on fundamental physical constancies

The adjustments of the fundamental physical constants (FPC) are regularly performed by the Fundamental Constants Data Center at NIST and recommended by
CODATA as the unique source of the current FPC values. There are 325 adjusted quantities, from which 79 are
e
1.602 176 565(35) 10-19
Js
6.626 069 57(29) 10-34
1.0000
me
Kg
-31
0.9998
1/ (0)
9.109 382 91(40) 10
137.035 999 074(44)
me
0.9999
0.0145 0.0072
0.0075
F(x) = 1- x + 2x2 + 3x3 + 4x4,

If measurand x is normally distributed around x= 0 with
variance 2, then the variance u2(F) calculated according to
the recommendation 5.1.2 is
u 2(F) = 2F(0)2 + 1/24F(0)2 + 4F(0) F(0) =
= 2 [1+ 2(16/2 -18)] = 2 [1-10 2]
called basic algebraically independent constants CB. As

an example there are listed in Table 4 last values of four
FPC given by CODATA 2010 [9] in SI units and below
their correlation matrix.
Eigenvalues of above correlation matrix are:
[2.99942, 1.00006, 0.000719993, - 0.000202165].
The last eigenvalue is non-negligible negative.
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31
Only two of constancies FPC can be used together

in joint precision calculations. More about negative
eigenvalues in CODATA publications is given in [3],
[7], [8].
6. Application of e-publishing in
multi-variable measurements
The traditional form of the scientific communication

based on the paper oriented e-publications is now not
the proper way to present and to exchange the multidimensional experimental data. After V. Ezhela in [3]
the standardization of two-component forms of the
scientific publication is unavoidable. First component
will be the traditional descriptive scientific text already
well formalized by publishers. The second part should
be computer readable file with all numerical input data
and results to allow fast numerical peer review of the
publication reporting new results. It is discussed in detail in [3] together with given four dozen examples of
bad practice of physical publications in journals of
high impact factor and in other sources. Some particular problems connected with that proposal are in [8]
and [10].
7. General conclusion
Some of the presented problems of the evaluation

of results and uncertainty of the indirect multivariable
measurements still need farer investigations to obtain
clear enough backgrounds for the common international acceptance of the rounding and digital presentation
methods of multivariate data results and of the calculation uncertainty of highly nonlinear related multivariate
data.
These problems are not yet fully included in just
finished the first version of Supplement 2 to GUM [1]
about the extension of expressing uncertainty to any
number of quantities [11]. Then its recommendations
should be corrected and included in the next upgraded
version of Supplement 2 and taken into account also in
other post-GUM documents.
AUTHOR
Zygmunt Lech Warsza Industrial Research Institute

of Automation and Measurement (PIAP),
Al. Jerozolimskie 202, 02-486 Warszawa.
Mob. phone (+48)692033661, e-mail: zlw@op.pl
References
[1] Evaluation of measurement data Guide to the
expression of uncertainty in measurement (GUM
1995 with minor corrections), JCGM-100-2008.
[2] Ezhela V.,A multi-measurand ISO GUM supplement is urgent. CODATA DSJ 6, pp. 676-789
[Errata: DSJ 7, (2007) E.2-21,
[3] Ezhela V., Physics and Metrology. In: Proceedings of V Congress of Metrology KM 2010, CD.
Technical University, Lodz, Poland.
[4] Ezhela V.: Comments on some clauses of GUM
which provoking the incorrect presentation of mul32
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VOLUME 6,
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2012
tidimensional measured data. In: Proc. of V Congress of Metrology KM 2010, CD. Technical University, Lodz, Poland.
[5] Warsza Z., Ezhela V.: Zarys podstaw teoretycznych
wyznaczania i numerycznej prezentacji wynikw
pomiarw porednich wieloparametrowych (Outline of the theoretical backgrounds and numerical
presentation of multivariate indirect measurement
results), PAK, 2011, no. 2, pp. 175179. (in Polish)
[6] Ezhela V., Warsza Z., Przetwarzanie wynikw
wpomiarach wieloparametrowych (Evaluation of
results of the indirect multidimensional measurements), Electrical Review, 2011, no. 2, pp. 236241
[7] Warsza Z., Ezhela V., Sugestie kilku ucile
wPrzewodniku GUM-2008 i zaokrglanie wynikw
pomiarw wieloparametrowych (Some upgrading
suggestions of the GUM-2008 and rounding rules
for multivariate measurement results), PAK, 2011,
no. 3, pp. 291296 (in Polish).
[8] Ezhela V., Warsza Z., Niecisoci staych podstawowych i propozycja standaryzacji dualnego publikowania wynikw pomiaru multi-mezurandu
(Inaccuracy of fundamental constancies and proposal of dual publication form of multi-measurand
data). PAK, 2011, no 5, pp. 486490 (in Polish)
[9] http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/index.html
[10] Warsza Z. , Ezhela V., O wyraaniu i publikowaniu
danych pomiarw wieloparametrowych stan aktualny a potrzeby (About evaluation and publication
of multivariate measurement data - current status
and needs), PAR, no. 10, pp. 6876. (in Polish)
[11] Evaluation of measurement data, Supplement 2 to
the Guide to the expression of uncertainty in measurement, Extension to any number of output quantities, JCGM 102 2011.
[12] Mahalanobis distance. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
VOLUME 6,
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2012
Positioning and Control of Nozzles and Water Particles in

Decorative water curtain and water screens
Submitted 21st February 2012; accepted 7th July 2012
Mahdi HajiHeydari, Sasan Mohammadi
Abstract:
LED and LCD displays, laser show devices and animators, musical fountains, water curtains and artificial waterfalls, etc., are decorative instruments. Some of them
were developed for intelligent pouring of water droplets
as particles in a space (particle screen). They have nozzles in the line that generates pattern with programmed
on or off of its valves. This article introduces an improvement of water curtain (waving pouring water) and water
screen (stenciled water screen by use of on-off valves),
and combines them together.
each of them can move in cross direction (say y axis)

which each of them have on/off valve to control pouring
the water or not. In the design process it should impose
restriction of nozzle movements in real world to imaginary world. A snapshot of the developed software using
openGL in C++ is viewed in the Figure 1.
Keywords: water nozzle, curtain, decorative, simulation, openGL.
1. Introduction
Decorative and special effect equipments are used
everywhere in hotels, airports and public places, etc.
Many years ago water curtain and water screens have
born as a decorative equipment for information or funny
multimedia screens. Smoke screens [9] and then recently
fog screens [10] emerge after that. Smoke screens reveal
laser or light beam projected to a curtain generated by
use of smoke particles as a screen. Fog screens do something like that, but they use small water droplets instead
to accomplish it. Water curtain is simply a curtain but
its brother, water screen, is an intelligent machinery to
produce patterns as a media. Single in line (2D) water
screens can generate patterns with placing particle (water
droplets) in a plane. At the 2006 virtual reality conference a paper was been proposed about making 3D patterns with water drops [1], after that scientists pursued
to study of this type of screens. Then modifications and
improvements in usage [4] or in development [5] (used
as computer interface and similar usages [7]) were being
proposed in the literature. Finally, Peter C. Barnum, Srinivasa G. Narasimhan, Takeo Kanade at 2010 proposed
amulti layer display with water drops [8]. This article
introduces an improvement of water curtain and water
screen, and combines them together.
2. Machine at the simulation and study

phase
Simulation software can be the first step in development to investing reality requirements, problems and
abilities of a machine or process which will be designed.
Here it will be used to design surface generated with the
machine physically.
In this article we show how it has been used to design
and simulate a set of nozzles in a line (say x axis) and
Figure 1. Simulator Snapshot

Some other views of the simulated curtain and cut logo
can be seen in the Figure 2.
Figure 2. Other views of the simulated curtain

Control panel can be seen in the left most of the window. At the middle of it design pane are placed. And
simulation animated preview at the right most.
2.1. Design toolbox
Design toolbox is in middle vertical section of the snapshot above. It can be seen at the top of the design portion
we have a time line. Below of its nozzle position a design
pane and then On/Off design pane placed.
A user defines position of nozzles in each step of motion, and intermediate steps will be interpolated. We can
say in each frame because in simulation these positions are
used to make animation. Application imposes restrictions
to position definition of nozzles. For example, if a nozzle is going to the positive direction with +20 velocity at
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33
the origin, next position of the nozzle can be extremely at,

for example, +40 and only -10 because of negative acceleration needed to stop and go back in negative direction.
These restrictions make a legal zone to definition of nozzle
positions. It shows to the user with a green zone, and user
has to define and adjust control points in that area. Movement restriction defines based on acceleration restriction
of nozzles which depends on manufacturing of the machine and will be defined in next development steps.
User can define intermediate frames. An application
generates jumped frames accordingly with interpolation. It
maybe seems a user-friendly approach to design. It can improve in next versions with a 3D design medium approach.
At the bottom of the design section On/Off pane can be
seen. In this section a pattern draws or loads from a bitmap
file. This pattern will be ended with the watery curtain.
Corresponding nozzles at appropriate steps of time Offs
if corresponding point is black or make it On if its white.
Then the pattern designed as a black region will produce
as a cavity in the generated surface.
2.2. Physical simulation
Here a particle based simulation is used. A number
of water drops injected to the air with nozzles in each
step of time and simulate its motion till receives to the
ground. Height of water and many other parameters can
be controlled via control panel in the left most of the window (depicted above).
We use dynamic relations to simulate movement of
water drops including gravitation force, air drag, and cohesion between water drops. Look at the Figure 3.
VOLUME 6,
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And Fy like that, which G* is modified gravitational

force constant. By use of these relationships and FBD
and knowing kinetics relationships, motion of drops in
the air can be simulated.
But each water drop should have a delivery point.
Where is that? Drops initially have position of nozzle jet
tip coordinate and its horizontal velocity and delivering
vertical velocity based on pressure of water in the jet.
Then we need simulate motion of nozzle, too. We have
positions of nozzle in known time steps as motion descriptor of the nozzle. In real world nozzle has a complicated motion (positive or negative acceleration and)
but we simulate the motion as depicted in the Figure 4.
Figure 4. Ideal and simulated velocity-time relations

Which as depicted below traversed distance of two approach (theoretic and simulated reality) is same as depicted in the Figure 5.
Figure 5. Equal deltaX in ideal and simulated relations
Figure 3. Forces on water drop used in simulation

Components of air drag force with a simple calculation
(based on F=-kV2 relation) obtained as:
FDrag x = kvx vx 2 + vy 2
Then actual velocity in constant velocity portion is

approximated and time of constant acceleration obtained.
Now simulation of delivering of water drops done based
on this nozzle positioning simulation.
2.3. Water pressure
In vertical movement of drops of water they dont move
with constant velocity, they have constant acceleration.
Then a stream of water doesnt have a continuous flow
line from top to end shape of pattern (when a continuous
water flow is emerging). Its shape is as Figure 6.
FDrag y = kvy vx 2 + vy 2
For simulation of cohesion force between water drops
we use gravitational force relationship between them. As
gravitational force two drops exert cohesion force to each
other if they are very near to each other. Then it is proportional to square of distance too:
Fx =
34
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G * m2
dx 2 + dy 2
( dx )
Figure 6. Drops distance

increases in vertical
movement
Figure 7. Vertical pattern

stretching
According to above descriptions on falling of drops of

water, it can be seen that generated patterns stretches vertically like Figure 7
This stretching is not linear due to gravity acceleration. We dont have any control on the water after ejection from nozzle. This stretching is inherent of this media
but if the initial vertical velocity increases, it can eliminate
this effect of acceleration. To increase of the initial vertical
velocity we should prepare pressure by use of a pump or
height of water in reservoir as in Figure 8.
VOLUME 6,
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4. Conclusion
Next step is mechanical development of the machine.
It has some challenging aspects. Because of number of
nozzles and then number of linear position controllers
(belt and pulley assembly and DC motor drivers) cost,
electrical power consumption and other aspects of design
is important. It may be influence on using which motor,
stepper or dc, and kinds of them.
AUTHORS
Mahdi Haji Heydari* Department of Mechatronics,
Islamic Azad University South Tehran Branch, Tehran,
1767969473 Iran. Emial: mhheydari.m.e@gmail.com.
Figure 8. Pressure of water reservoir
Sasan Mohammadi
Department of Mechanics, Islamic Azad University South Tehran Branch, AHANG
AFSARIE Tehran, 17776113651 Iran. E-mail: s_mohammadi@azad.ac.ir

References
3. Mechanical implementation
There are many possible approaches to implement of
movement of the nozzle. At the first it seems that maybe
use of belt and pulley is a good approach as shown in
Figure 9.
Figure 9. Belt and pulley assembly
Figure 10. Data transferring to the nozzles

Rack and pinion or simple caret on the rails considered, but they have some drawbacks (e.g. large mass, cost
or) then we didnt mention them here.
The block diagram of the process is depicted in Figure
10. Shift registers can cascade data with high speed (e.g.
300 Mbps theoretically). But any serial connection has a
draw back. If an intermediate member lost its connection
all others to the end of the chain lost their connections.
But it can be developed appropriately.
[1] S. Eitoku, T. Tanikawa, Y. Suzuki, Display Composed of Water Drops for Filling Space with Materialized Virtual Three-dimensional Objects. In: IEEE
Virtual Reality Conference 2006.
[2] S. Eitoku, K. Hashimoto, T. Tanikawa, Controllable
water particle display. In: Proceedings of the 2006
ACM SIGCHI International Conference on Advances in Computer Entertainment Technology.
[3] S. Eitoku, K. Nishimura, T. Tanikawa, M. Hirose,
Study on design of controllable particle display using water drops suitable for light environment. In:
Proceedings of the 16th ACM Symposium on Virtual
Reality Software and Technology, 2009.
[4] K. Obana, T. Okumura, T. Kanaoka, K. Takano, K.
Sato, Electro-holography system using flow controlled device attached water particle 3D screen. In:
International Workshop on Advanced Image Technology (IWAIT 2004).
[5] J. Tao, Z. Geng, Q. Fan, A Digitized Water Display
System Based on RS-422 Bu, International Conference on Electrical and Control Engineering, 2010.
[6] P.C. Barnum, S.G. Narasimhan, T. Kanade,
A multi-layered display with water drops, ACM
SIGGRAPH 2010 papers.
[7] L. Shuai, Kuang Ying-hu, Z. Zhou, Research on robot tactile display based on water jet technology,
IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Biomimetics 2005 (ROBIO).
[8] L. Shuai, Ch. Jiang, Z. Zhou, Y. Hou, Ramp Tactile
and the Study on the Technology of Water-Jet Tactile Display, Measurement & Control Technology,
no.7, 2008.
[9] W. Fu, Smoke screen technology and its development, Electronics Optics & Control, 2002, no. 03.
[10] L.D. Paulson, Displaying data in thin air, Computer, IEEE Journal , vol. 47, issue 3, March 2004.
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VOLUME 6,
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2012
Stable Gait Synthesis and Analysis of a 12-degree of

Freedom Biped Robot in Sagittal and Frontal Planes
Submitted: 1th March 2012, accepted: 22nd August 2012
A.P. Sudheer, R. Vijayakumar, K.P. Mohanda
Abstract:
Legged machines have not been offered biologically

realistic movement patterns and behaviours due to the
limitations in kinematic, dynamics and control technique.
When the degrees of freedom (DOF) increases, the robot
becomes complex and it affects the postural stability. A
loss of postural stability of biped may have potentially
serious consequences and this demands thorough analysis for the better prediction and elimination of the possibility of fall. This work presents the modelling and simulation of twelve degrees of freedom (DOF) biped robot,
walking along a pre-defined trajectory after considering
the stability in sagittal and frontal planes based upon
zero moment point (ZMP) criterion. Kinematic modelling and dynamic modelling of the robot are done using
Denavit-Hartenberg (DH) parameters and Newton-Euler algorithm respectively. This paper also proposes Levenberg-Marquardt method for finding inverse kinematic
solutions and determines the size of the foot based on
ZMP for the stable motion of biped. Biped robot locomotion is simulated, kinematic and dynamic parameters
are plotted using MATLAB. Cycloidal gait trajectory is
experimentally validated for a particular step length of
the biped.
Keywords: Denavit-Hartenberg parameters, sagittal
and frontal plane, zero moment point (ZMP), LevenbergMarquardt algorithm, Cycloidal gait trajectory.
Nomenclature
i ith Joint angle
ai Legth of ith link
di offset distance of ith link

Twist angle about xi axis
miR ; miL Masses of ith right and left leg
qi ith joint parameter
B, L Breadth and length of the foot

Foot pose function

Hessian matrix

Jacobian
Damping factor

Inertial/mass Matrix

Coriolis and centrifugal matrix

Gravity matrix
D Coefficient matrix of torque
R Orientation matrix

Moments at the ith joint
Xzmp; Yzmp; Zzmp X, Y and Z coordinates of ZMP

Force at the ith joint
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Fg; Fr ; Fi Total inertial and gravity force;

Reaction force; inertial force
Mg; Mr ; Mi Total inertial moment; Reaction

moment; Inertial moment.
g Acceleration due to gravity

Rolling angle of circle
SL Step length
vi Instantaneous velocity of ith link
Ii Inertial matrix of ith link,
i Angular velocity of ith link
x, y , z x,y and z accelerations
1. Introduction
Robots of current generation have been used in various fields isolated from the human society. They suffer
major shortcomings because of their limited abilities for
the manipulation and interaction with humans. Humanoid/biped robots are better suited for working in human
environment and have a better degree of mobility, especially in environment with obstacles. The main motive
behind the development of bipeds is its adaptability to
human environment, so that there is no need to make special working environment for bipeds.
Early studies on bipeds were mostly on its locomotion and not on its real industrial applications. Now it
has reached the level of designing customized bipeds
for specific applications. Still, there are issues yet to be
addressed, among them the most basic being stable dynamic locomotion and gait synthesis. Bipeds can perform
both Static and dynamic walking. In static walking, the
complete system stays balanced by always keeping the
centre of mass (COM) of the system vertically over the
support polygon formed by the feet during locomotion
[1]. In dynamic balance or walking the vertical projection
of COM does not stay within the support polygon during
the motion, i.e. during motion the COM may leave the
support polygon for certain periods of time. Therefore
some complicated and coordinated movement of other
body parts only can balance the biped. This makes the
dynamic walking more difficult from a design point of
view.
Location of COM and ZMP are the two important
issues in biped locomotion. The concept of ZMP was
put forward by M. Vukobratovic et al. [2] which revolutionized and accelerated the studies in dynamic walking of bipeds. ZMP is termed as the point on the ground
about which the robots resultant moments at the ground
is zero. This is used as a stability criterion for dynamic
walking in this work. If the ZMP is inside the support
area, the walking is considered dynamically stable, be-
cause the foot can control the robots posture. The ZMP
criterion cannot be applied to biped robots that do not
continuously keep at least one foot on the ground or to
those which do not have active ankle joints.
The motion of a humanoid comprises of time-functions of angular positions and velocities of the joint
angles of the robot. The straight forward approach is to
generate the joint time trajectories by solving inverse
kinematics, to maintain the physical stability of the humanoid. It becomes increasingly difficult to compute the
inverse kinematics as the DOF of the biped increases.
However, such an approach is suitable for off-line generation of joint trajectories. Generation of low-energy gait
is an open and nontrivial issue over a considerable period
[3] during the motion of robot.
This paper mainly concentrates on inverse kinematics
and dynamics by using Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm
(LMA) and Newton-Euler algorithm (NEA) respectively
to analyze the stability of biped locomotion during dynamic walking. It also proposes a methodology to find
the foot size for the smooth motion of joints. In almost
all previous works related to humanoid walking analysis
and synthesis, stability in sagittal and frontal planes are
analyzed separately with the kinematic modelling based
on the geometrical approach. DH parameters are used in
the present work for the kinematic modelling and ZMP
concept is used for the stability analysis in sagittal and
frontal planes.To the best knowledge of the authors, no
work based on LMA and DH modelling for analysis and
synthesis has been reported in the area of humanoid or
biped robots with the minimization of foot size.
This paper is structured as follows. In section 2, kinematic, LM algorithm and dynamic modelling are described. The fundamental theory of the centre of mass
(COM) and ZMP, in single and double support phases are
given in section 3. Section 4 deals with the simulation of
the gait trajectory for stepping motion with stability in
both sagittal and frontal planes. Results and discussion
are shown in section 5. Section 6 presents the concluding
remarks with outlook.
2. Modelling of biped robot
Fig. 1 shows a 12 DOF biped robot modelled in SOLID WORKS which is having six DOF per leg, two at the
ankle, one knee and three at the hip. The ankle joint of
both legs have yaw and pitch motions, the knee is having
only pitch motion and hip joints of both the legs have
roll, pitch and yaw motions. The proposed model consists of seven links in order to approximate the locomotion characteristics similar to those of the lower extremities of the human body.
The complete walking cycle consists of three single
support phases (SSP) in which only one leg is on the
ground while the other swings forward and four double support phases (DSP) in which both legs are on the
ground. The stance leg in contact with the ground carries
the whole weight of the robot. During the transition from
single support phase to double support phase, swing leg
decelerates to zero velocity. As a result of this, huge impact forces are developed at the contact phase for a short
period of time.
At the end of the DSP the swing leg accelerates which
creates jerk in the joints and links of the robot. In DSP,
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Table 1. Biped mass and dimensions

Mass
Kg
Link length
m0R
m1R
m2R
m6
m2L
m1L
m0L
0.025
0.2
0.25
0.30
0.25
0.2
0.025
0.098
0.090
0.060
0.090
0.098
0.042
0.042
Fig.1. Twelve DOF biped robot model

the robot will be stable when the projection of COM
stays within the support polygon. As a result of transition
between the single support and double support phases,
the problem of instability of the humanoid arises. The
contact phase in walking is almost 20% of the total gait
period [4]. As it is difficult to find out the reaction forces
accurately, it is assumed that the impact of swing leg is
perfectly inelastic while ensuring that no slippage occurs.
Another important assumption made is that during the
SSP, stance foot remains in flat contact with the ground.
In SSP, the robot will be stable when the ZMP stays within the support foot polygon.
2.1. Kinematic modelling
Kinematic diagram of the 12 DOF biped is given in

Fig. 2. Biped robots can be described kinematically by
using joint-link DH parameters namely joint angle (qi),
link length (ai), offset distance (di) and link twist (ai).
Table 1 shows link dimensions of the biped robot. Four
DH parameters corresponds to each link of biped are given in table II based on the frame assignment as shown in
Fig. 3. Forward kinematics determines the pose of robot
end effector as a function of its joint and link parameters
where as the inverse kinematics gives the values of the
joint variable corresponding to end effector or foot pose.
2.1.1. Inverse kinematics
A suitable step length is assumed for the biped walking analysis from the idea that the step length for minimum energy consumption is about 60% of hip height [5].
Cartesian space trajectory is planned to get the trajectory
of the swing foot which follows a cycloidal trajectory
profile during the motion of robot [6]. As this profile is
made by superposition of linear and sinusoidal function,
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tion and the steepest descent direction methods because it

uses a search direction that is a cross between the GaussNewton direction and the steepest descent direction.
Table 2. D-h parameter table
Link(i)

Link(i)
Fig. 2. Kinematic diagram of biped robot

it has a property of slow start, fast moving, and slow stop.
This reduces the jerk during the start and end of walking.
This characteristics can reduce the over burden at instantaneous high speed motion of the actuator. Points on the
swing gait trajectory are taken as poses of the foot for
getting the joint variables of each leg of the robot. Final
pose matrix of the biped robot model 0T12 is equal to the
pose of the foot on the swing gait trajectory.
2.2. Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm (LMA)
The Levenberg-Marquardt method is a search method
which gives the advantages of both Gauss-Newton direc-
Fig. 3. D-H modelling-Frame assignment for 12-dof

biped
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/2
/2
/2
/2
/2
10
11
/2
12
LMA is used for finding inverse kinematic solution in

this work. Solving inverse kinematics involves solution
of twelve nonlinear equations with trigonometric functions. Six independent equations, three for orientation
and three for position are to be solved. Since it is a bit
laborious to do the inverse kinematics of the 12 DOF robot manually for the whole interpolated points, inverse
kinematics is carried out in MATLAB and optimized
results satisfying the boundary conditions are obtained.
Levenberg-Marquardt iterative method is used for this
purpose. It is a modification of Newton-Euler algorithm
and gradient descent method. It is also called damped
Gauss-Newton method, as it uses a damping factor to
decide the accuracy level of solutions when the search
approaches the minima. For starting, an initial guess is
to be provided. An advantage of this method is that, the
search direction is independent of the initial solution set
given and it gives the actual minima even if the initial assumptions are far from the global minima. LM algorithm
for the present context is explained below.
Min F(q)=[F1 (q)F12 (q)]; Sub to
/4q/4, Where,
q=[q1 q2 ...q12]T.
The coefficient of the quadratic term of local Taylor
series expansion of a function is, Y=f(q+dq)f(q)+
J(q)dq+dqT H(q)dq.
The convergence criteria is
f(q+dq)f(q);
Therefore, J(q)dq+dqT H(q)dq=0
dq=H(q)1J(q).
Modified Hessian is H(q,l)=2JT J+lI
1. Set damping factor l=0.001
2. Solve dq=H(q,l)1g
3. If (qn+dq)>f(qn), increase l(x10 say) and go to2.
4. Otherwise, decrease (x 0.1 say), let qn+1= qn+dq,
and go to 2.
When qn the algorithm has converged set l=0 and
compute the final solution
Where qn is the initial vector assumed and Hessian
and Jacobian matrices, H(q)&J(q) are given in equation
1. a & 1.b respectively.

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
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(1.a)
(1.b)
2.3. Dynamic modelling
The main challenges of gait planning are learning

which includes the selection of specific initial conditions, constraints and their associated gait parameters
[4]. In this section, different methodologies are adopted
for dynamically constrained locomotion of biped robot in
sagittal and frontal planes. From a control point of view,
the inverse dynamics problem is of solving the joint
torques from the joint angles along with their first and
second order derivatives. In this work, we have used the
Newton-Euler recursive algorithm for dynamic analysis.
Since stance foot is assumed to be in flat contact, resultant ground reaction force/moment and torques can be
computed using Newton-Euler algorithm [10].
The process consists of 2 iterations, (i) forward iteration to compute link velocities and accelerations and (ii)
backward iteration to get the torque variation at joints.
Initially velocity and acceleration of base frame is taken
to be zero. While the stance leg is in motion no external
forces are acting on it, except gravity loading. It is also
assumed that the centroid of the link and the centre of
mass of link coincide. A general dynamic model for biped walking related to the joint coordinates vector and
joint torque vector without considering the friction and
other disturbances is given below.
M ( ) + C , + G ( ) = D
(2)
Where, is the 12 x 12 inertia matrix, is the 12 x 12

coriolis and centrifugal matrix and is the 12 x 1gravity
vector, is the 12 x 12 coefficient matrix of joint torques.
Joint torques at different joints are determined through
backward iteration by using the set of equation 3 and 4.
t = i hiT i Ri -1 z 0
i = Ri+1 i+1i+1 + iR0i-1Di x iRi+1 i+1fi+1+
(3)
(iR0i-1Di+iR0i i) x iFi + iNi

r
(4)
Where, i=12,11,1; ihi is the moment exerted on

link i by link i1 and iRi-1 is the orientation matrix, iFi
is the total external force acting at the centre of mass of
the link, iNi is the total external moment acting on link at
its centre of mass, is ifi the force exerted on link i by link
i
R0i1Di is the coordinates of the ith joint when referred to
frame i and ir is the centre of mass of link referred to

frame i.
3. Zero moment point and gait trajectory
Static walking stability condition is sufficient to en-
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sure locomotion for very slow motion of biped robot.

Some of the drawbacks of this technique of motion planning are the discrete nature of the motion of the robot and
the time required for taking a single step being unusually
long. It is not always necessary for the centre of mass
(COM) of the robot to lie vertically above the base polygon. Another method of analyzing stability is based on
the Zero moment Point criterion [6]. Zero Moment Point
is defined as the point about which the moment of all
the active forces acting on the robot turn out to be zero.
In static gait planning problems, biped robot is stable if
the projection of the centre of mass (COM) falls within
the convex hull of the foot support polygon. In dynamic
locomotion, link acceleration, inertial forces, and ground
reaction force are also to be considered and the ZMP
should be within the convex hull of the foot polygon for
satisfying the stability criterion. The dynamic locomotion is highly nonlinear and difficult to analyze in real
environment. The condition in the static and dynamic
stability of the biped during the single support phase is
the location of the ZMP must be inside the convex hull
of the supporting foot. In double support phase ZMP or
projection of COM should lie within the convex hull of
support polygon formed by left and right foot. According to DAlemberts principle, if all forces are balanced,
the motion of the biped is physically realizable. By
DAlemberts principle the total forces and moments acting on the biped must be zero. This is given by:
Fr + Fe = 0 : Mr + Me = 0
(5)
Where is the ground reaction force, Fi is the total inertial and gravity force acting on biped, Mr is the reaction
moment and Me is the inertial moment acting on biped.
Let Fi be the inertial force, Mi be the inertial moment, and
mi be the ith mass of the th segment (i=1...n) . We have:
Fe =
i =1
i =1
(Fi mig) = mi(vi + g)

Me =
i =1
i =1
Mi =
d
(Ii wi )
dt
(6)
(7)
Where, vi is the instantaneous velocity, Ii is the inertial matrix, wi is the instantaneous absolute angular velocity of ith link at its COM, terms are relative to the
fixed reference coordinate, say O as in Fig. 4 [10].
The balancing problem of the biped system can be
reduced at an assigned ground point (x=0, y, z) called
the ZMP, where the resultant moment (M) at the ground
plane is zero (Mx= My=0).From the relation of the
equivalent force moment, one obtains:
Fig. 4. Reference co-ordinate system for foot base

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Fe =
m (v
i
+ g)
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(8)
i =1
(9)
(10)
(11)
Where F and M are the resultant force and moment

at the ZMP (0, y, z) respectively, and (xi, yi, zi) is the vector from the origin O of the fixed reference coordinate O
to the COM of link considered. x, y, z, are the corresponding components of accelerations in respective directions.
From the above equations, one obtains:
Xzmp = 0
(12)
(13)
Fig. 5. Cycloid curve
4. Simulation
Numerical simulation of 12 DOF biped walking is

done using MATLAB.3-D kinematic pattern of the
biped for a single step is shown in Fig. 6. Variations of
kinematic and dynamic parameters and ZMP are plotted.
Initially both legs of biped are in stance position then the
left leg is stepping a length of 10cm in 1s. Simulations
are carried on a biped robot having hip height of 25 cm
and mass of 1.7 kg. Kinematic and dynamic modellings
help to synthesis and analyze the biped robot at different
scaled dimensions based on stability.
(14)
The constraint on the dynamic motion of the biped during the single-support phase is the location of the ZMP
(0, Yzmp, Zzmp) must be inside the convex hull of the supporting foot. In the single-support phase the stable convex
hull is same as the area occupied by the supporting leg on
the ground. Therefore, Zmin< Zzmp< Zmax and Ymin< Yzmp< Ymax
where, we assume that the supporting foot is rectangular,
parallel to the fixed reference coordinate O, and between
points (0, Ymin ,Ymax) and (0, Zmin ,Zmax). Mathematical interpolation is one of the simplest methods for providing suitable gait trajectory in accordance to the given boundary
conditions. Cartesian space trajectory planning is carried
out to get the trajectory of the swing foot. Generally humans ankle joint motion trajectory is a cycloidal profile
in normal walking (Kurematsu, Kitamura & Kondo, 1988)
Cycloidal profile reduces effects of sudden acceleration
at the beginning and deceleration at the end during the
gait generation. Hence the cycloidal profile is used for
the trajectories of the swing foot. As this profile is made
by superposition of linear and sinusoidal function, it has
a property of slow start, fast moving, and slow stop. This
avoids the jerk that can happen during the start and end of
walking. This characteristics can reduce the over burden at
instantaneous high speed motion of the actuator. Equation
of a cycloid in parametric form for selecting break points
on the trajectory is given in equations 15 and 16. Gait trajectory pattern is shown in Fig.5.
xi= SL (jisinji)/2p
(15)
zi= SL (1cosji)/2p
(16)
Where i=0,1...N, the number of poses of foot on the

trajectory and SL is the step length.
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Fig. 6. 3-D Biped walking pattern
5. Results and discussion
Stable gait generation of a 12 DOF biped robot is demonstrated in this paper. Variations in parameters like joint
angles, link velocities and link acceleration are plotted during the stable motion of biped. Torque and ZMP variations
are also analyzed here. The variation of joint angles at ankle,
knee and hip for right and left leg are varying smoothly and
continuously for a single step as shown in Fig. 7 and this
assures a smooth transition of the robots motion. Rolling angular variations at the ankle joint of the left leg and hip joint
pitch angular variations (4th and 9th joints)of both legs are
high compared to other joint angle variations. Because these
two joints plays vital role in the stability of biped motion in
this analysis. Initially, when the left leg is about to lift, both
hip and knee joints should have some angular variations for
bringing the COM within the support foot polygon.
Link velocities and accelerations at the COM are given in Fig. 8 and Fig. 9, respectively. First link is fixed at
the ground during the walking so the velocity and accelerations are zero. Velocity is maximum for the swing foot
(link 12) and minimum for the lower part (link 2) of the
stance leg. All other links the velocities are varying approximately in between 0 and 25 cm/s.
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Fig.7. Joint angle variations of left and right leg
Fig. 8. Link linear velocity

Variations in accelerations are smooth but there are
up and downs because the biped is moving in high speeds
with step length of 10 cm. There are some values of accelerations at the beginning and end of the gait trajectory
so that the jerk will be the minimum at these two locations.
Up and downs of velocities result in irregular variations in
the accelerations as shown in Fig. 9. This creates jerk at the
joints and links of the robot at intermediate positions and
biped can mostly be suited at slow speeds for small step
lengths and moderate speed at higher step lengths. Jerk
will be reduced for higher step lengths in moderate speeds
but stability will be achieved with larger foot size. This
will be clear from the ZMP variations plotted in Fig. 11.
It is clear from the velocity and acceleration diagrams
that the velocity and acceleration variations are same for
link 3, 4 and 5. Similarly velocity and acceleration variations are same for links 6, 7 and 8. This is because of the
assumption that the joints 4th, 5th and 6th are at the same
origin and also the joints 7th, 8th and 9th are at the same
origin in modelling.
Fig.10 shows the continuous variations of torque for
all joints. Starting torque for the first joint is high because
this joint is only making the robot walk by swinging the
whole system in the frontal plane. Geared motor can be
used for getting high torque at joint 1. Torque is smallest
for the ankle joint of the swing foot. By changing various
kinematic and dynamic parameters it is possible to bring
the ZMP within the limited size of Y-Z plane for attaining
stable walking, and variations are plotted against the stepping time as shown in Fig. 11.
Variation is more in Z direction compared to because
the Z component of acceleration has an more effect on
shifting of ZMP. The inertia components are small here
due to the small size of biped. However those inertial
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Fig. 9. Link linear acceleration
Fig. 10. Joint torque

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Fig. 11. ZMP variation in first walking phase
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terms will not be negligible in case of fast bipedal activities like running and jumping, or when the link masses and
dimensions are comparable to those of the actuators.
There will not be any difference if we neglect the inertial effects in slow motion. ZMP moves in Y-Z plane approximately in a parabolic path within the foot base. The
maximum approximate range of Yzmp and Zzmp are -2.4 cm
to 0.7 cm and -2 cm to 3 cm respectively. Fig.1 1 shows
the movement of ZMP on the foot of the stance leg. This
plot gives the feasible size of foot of stance leg for a particular step length. The resultant values of ZMP variations
are represented graphically for step length of 0 to 20 cm
in Fig. 12. This helps to decide the foot size for a range of
step length based on kinematic and dynamic constraints.
As per the Fig.12, foot size of 10 cm x 10 cm is required
for biped walking through a cycloidal gait for a step length
of 20 cm.
Fig. 14. Snapshots of biped walking
Fig. 12. ZMP Vs Step length
6. Experimentation
Walking gait generation is simulated and the results involving the relevant variables are analysed in the previous
section. In this section, gait generated for a step length of
10 cm is experimentally validated in a 12 DOF biped. The
experimental validation is done by matching simulated
cycloidal trajectory with real time gait trajectory. Validation can also be done experimentally by evaluating and
comparing ZMP variations along with the gait trajectory.
Computer / Processor is interfaced with the biped robot
through a mini maestro 12 channel servocontroller for
controllling actuators for the required cycloidal trajectory.
ProcessorJoint
Angles
Servo
Contro
ller
Biped
Robo
t
ated real time gait trajectory is compared with the cycloidal

gait trajectory determined from the simulation result. Robot
stable motion and Real time gait trajectory are shown in
Fig. 15 and Fig. 16 ,respectively. Joint angles are fed to
the biped for getting the cycloidal trajectory with a fixed
step length. One of the experimental real time cycloidal
trajectory is given in Fig. 16. Experiment is conducted five
times for the same joint angles and steplength. Average step
length obtained in the real time gait genaration is approximately 10.3 cm instead of 10 cm. A cycloid is constructed
corresponding to the step length of 10 cm and its calibrated
image is superimposed on the plot of 19 instataneous poses
of swing foot. The dots in Fig. 15 are the instantaneous
poses obtained during the experimentation.
Cycloidal
Gait
Fig. 13. Data Flow diagram

The block diagram shown in Fig. 13 depicts the details
of data flow for testing and validation of bipedal gait. Joint
angles corresponding to a single step swing foot trajectory
is determined using MATLAB and the signals are sent to
the biped for the required motion.
Fig 14 shows the snapshots of 12 DOF biped robot walking for a step length of 10cm. Instant motions are captured
for the gait analysis during the foot step movement. Evalu-
Fig. 15. Points on the stable gait trajectory

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form. This research was supported by National Institute

of Technology Calicut, Kerala under the provision of Faculty Research Grant (FRGph02/07/03-04). This support is
gratefully acknowledged.
AUTHORS
Sudheer.A.P* Assistant Professor in the Department of

Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology
Calicut, Kerala, India, 670601. E-Mails: apsudheer@nitc.
ac.in,apsudheer@rediffmail.com
Fig. 16 Real time gait trajectory

Fig. 16 depicts the variations of points on the real time
stable gait trajectory with the theoretical cycloidal gait. In
this particular real time gait trajectory the step length obtained is approximately 10.1 cm instead of 10 cm. This
Analysis shows the correctness of modelling and gait trajectory of the 12 DOF biped robot.
7. Conclusion and outlook
Stability analysis of a twelve dof biped robot in the

sagittal and frontal plane for a cycloidal gait is presented
in this paper. Generation of a gait for the stable walking
based on zero moment point within a particular foot size
is attempted. The inverse kinematic solutions are found
by using Levenberg-Marquardt iterative method. Motion
of the robot is constrained because of the limited number
of DOF. The present synthesis and analysis gives idea of
foot size for stable biped walking. Experimentation for
determining the real time gait trajectory is attempted and
trajectory is compared with theoretical trajectory. This experimental result authenticates the suitability of the model
for the synthesis and analysis of biped robot. At present researchers are trying to minimize the foot size to avoid self
collision and flexibility with higher level of stability during
walking. This work gives a clear direction for generating
an optimum gait trajectory based on ZMP with minimum
foot size. It is expected that this will lead to optimization
of the foot size by considering all the kinematic and dynamic constraints for achieving better stability. It may be
considered that the synthesis and analysis procedure can
be refined in many ways: some of them being, optimum
smooth gait planning with minimum energy consumption
using traditional and soft computing techniques by changing the walking parameters like step lengths, stepping time
and height of the trajectory. Simulation can be extended
to various structured and unstructured environments. Authors are attempting to verify experimental results by evaluating and comparing ZMP variations along with the gait
trajectory in a complete walking cycle.
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to the referees and the editor

for their constructive suggestions and comments which
have immensely helped to bring this paper to the present
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Articles
R.Vijayakumar Professor in the Department of

Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology
Calicut, Kerala, India.
K.P. Mohandas retired Professor, Electrical Engineering,
National Institute of Technology Calicut, Kerala, India.
References
[1] M. Raibert et al., Legged robots that balance. MIT

press Cambridge, MA, 1986.
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point-thirty five years of its life, International
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pp. 157173.
[3] P. Vadakkepat and D. Goswami, Biped locomotion:
stability, analysis and control,Robotica, vol. 27,
no. 1, 2009, pp. 355365.
[4] T. Zielinska, C. Chew, P. Kryczka, and T. Jargilo,
Robot gait synthesis using the scheme of human
motions skills development, Mechanism and Machine Theory, vol. 44, no. 3, 2009, pp. 541558.
[5] F. Silva, T. Machado et al., Energy analysis during
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[6] Z. Tang, C. Zhou, and Z. Sun, Trajectory planning
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[7] M. Vukobratovic, D. Andric; B. Borovac, How to
achieve various gait patterns from single nominal,
International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems,
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[8] A. Takanishi, M. Ishida, Y. Yamazaki, and I. Kato,
The realization of dynamic walking by the biped
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VOLUME 6,
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Intelligent Utilization of Waste Of Electrical and

Electronic Equipment (Weee) with Robotized Tool
Submitted: 18th May 2012; accepted: 30th August 2012
Jakub Szaatkiewicz, Roman Szewczyk
Abstract:
The article examines the solution of intelligent robotic

utilization of electrical waste and electronic equipment
(WEEE), as means of materials recovery. The paper
provides criteria for selection, identification and waste
analysis, enabling application of robotic dismantling solutions. Based on proposed criteria, the waste of computer hard disk drives (HDD) was identified, analyzed, and
their characteristics described. Furthermore applying
described approach to robotized dismantling, the complete process of waste HDD processing, covering all the
procedural steps was presented for the selected disk. Described intelligent utilization process can be performed
with use of 2 robots equipped with, 2 tools and one conveyor handle. Authors also briefly presents issues related
to proposed process approached during HDD waste disassembly studies. In addition, paper presents the quantities of materials to be recovered from the HDD waste.
Keywords: WEEE, robotic, dismantling, disassembly,
waste, recycling, recovery of resources, HDD.
1. Introduction
Waste of electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE)
is a global concern. In the 27 EU countries it is estimated
that the weight of produced waste WEEE in 2005 was
8.3-9.1 million Mg (tones), 25% of which is collected and
processed, while remaining 75% is not registered and does
not occur in collection points [1, 2]. Such state of waste
management system can be caused by lack of processing capacities and suitable technologies which can utilize
WEEE effectively. The amount of WEEE rises continuously [3, 4]: in 2008 Sweden collects 16.7 kg per person
of WEEE, Britain 8.2 kg per person, Austria 6.5 kg per
person [5]. Moreover, European Commission proposes rising collection targets from 4 kg per person to 65% [6] of
average mass of electrical and electronic equipment placed
on market. WEEE has to be utilized, but it also can become
a source of valuable resources.
The factors described above reveal the need for development of new ways to process WEEE effectively allowing
recovery of valuable raw materials. It is believed that intelligent robotized disassembly can be the technology that
will take a part in solving WEEE processing problem.
2. Currently used technologies for processing WEEE waste

There are two main WEEE waste treatment methods:
manual dismantling, and mechanical methods based on
shredding, and multistage separation of materials. Man-
ual dismantling and mechanical processing approaches

differs between each other, on the degree of recovery of
raw materials from WEEE waste. Recovery ratios are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Recycling methods recovery ratio [7]
Washing Machine
Oven
Shredding
44.1%
74.9%
Manual system
95.6%
90.6%
Manual dismantling is the most flexible way to process wide range of different electrical and electronic equipment waste as well as have the highest recovery rate of raw
materials. However, manual dismantling is very extensive
and requires direct human contact with waste. Manual dismantling is based on removing the components from the
devices and theirs segregation accordingly to the materials
they are made of. Often manual removal is the first stage
in the process of mechanized waste treatment technology
(shredding), to extract the hazardous substances and components which cannot be processed together.
Mechanical treatment of waste is based on shredding
process, after which, shredded residue is separated in
multistage process to obtain rich fractions of resources.
This method is useful to process large quantities of mixed
WEEE waste, but its disadvantages are: high energy demand associated with the shredding of waste, lower level
of resources recovery and impurity of recovered raw materials.
Nowadays, works are being carried out to robotize
WEEE waste processing methods, as an alternative to
existing processes, and as supporting solutions for others
existing ones. The example of such works is modeling of
the dismantling line to utilize LCD monitors [8]. Another
type of work being carried out is to robotize dismantling
process of desktop computers [9]. In literature are also
presented works covering prototype automation solutions
replacing certain activities in existing WEEE processing
plants i.e. Automatic unscrewing of extracted washing
machines engines, transporting released parts using robotic arms equipped with grippers, etc. [10].
Intelligent robotized dismantling is the alternative to
traditional technologies, (shredding and manual processing). It combines the advantages of traditional technologies, theirs capability to adapt to various wastes, with
large processing capacity. Intelligent robotized utilization
allows for obtaining high purity of raw materials recovered from waste, with minimal energy input and no human labor (no human contact with waste).
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3. Overview of intelligent robotized

utilization technology
Robotics applications in waste dismantling are based on
well known and applied in modern industry robotics and automation solutions. Intelligent robotized dismantling can be
described, as reversed process of robotized manufacturing,
or as replacing human labor by robot in repeatable operations
during dismantling process. Knowing the dismantling steps,
actions and procedures performed during manual WEEE
processing, it is possible to replace them by robotized tools.
Complete process can be organized in form of demanufacturing line, equipped with robotized tools. On this line, step by
step performed are successive actions of dismantling process
and resources are being recovered.
Due to the speed of robots, repeatability and positioning
precision, it is possible that robotized disassembly unit will
be small, and it will process large quantities of waste. The
main advantage of robotized disassembly is its energy efficient method used to separate screwed together components.
Energy efficiency is obtained by: applying automated screwdrivers controlled by robot armto free screwed together parts,
and robot arm grippers to remove freed parts, and carry them
to right container. Unscrewing and carrying operation, are the
least energy consuming actions, so they offer great energy
savings in WEEE processing, combined with obtaining the
highest possible purity of recovered resources. Such approach
differs from shredding method that consumes huge amounts
of energy, required for cutting metals and plastics into pieces.
Unfortunately due to extreme variety of WEEE not every
waste can be processed in robotic disassembly unit. That is
why it is fundamental to arrange ways allowing categorizing which of WEEE can be processed in this particular way.
Moreover there are two approaches to robotic disassembly
of WEEE that differ due to the level of theirs complexity.
4. Complexity issue in robotized

disassembly opposite approaches
The robotized disassembly can be performed in two ways:
fully programmed, determined algorithm of operations, and
on the other hand, cognitive algorithms, organizing the operations accordingly to the data collected from sensors.
Applications of cognitive algorithms, self adapting to the
data collected from sensors, is very complex and multidimensional. Self adapting approach requires advanced sensors,
operations on collected data and analysis of possible operations to be performed this makes it difficult and expensive.
Due to such high application requirements, dynamic approach
is not analyzed in this paper. However in future it is possible
that this complex approach will may occur effective in mixed
waste processing, or as a part of other systems.
On the other hand intelligent robotized disassembly can
be based on determined algorithms, allowing effective and
simple application of this technology in WEEE processing
plants. Each step, in the disassembly process, is strictly programmed and is performed in its time, embedded in the chain
of disassembly program. However this approach can be only
applied to uniform wastes, where once programmed operations can be performed on large volume of devices, leading
to the same constant and predictable effect.
Determined algorithms simplify the complexity of robotic solutions, decreasing the necessary data collection to
minimum. Disassembly algorithm is in form of basic pre46
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VOLUME 6,
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programmed, repeatable operations, in a result of which appliance disassembly is performed. Once programmed disassembly unit, will carry out the program on any number of
identical devices.
However due to wide variety of WEEE, even in categories
of waste i.e. IT equipment laptops, routers, differ between
models and versions, so it is necessary to equip disassembly
unit in optical recognition system (bar code reader, or camera) to identify its brand, model, version to choose the right
program for identified device.
The drawback of simplicity of robotic disassembly based
on determined algorithms, is that the disassembly unit is designed for specific waste (certain tools are used), so only
similar wastes can be processed. That is why it is not possible
to process i.e. LCD, laptops and ovens on one robotic disassembly unit. However, it is possible to process i.e. all models
of all manufactures, of hard disk drives.
Identified specificity, of the intelligent robotic disassembly
approach, based on determined algorithms, requires methods of selection and analysis, which of the range of WEEE
can qualify, and is reasonable to process in this intelligent
technology.
5. Criteria for identification and selection of

waste qualifying for intelligent robotized
utilization, based on determined algorithms
Not every waste can be processed in robotic disassembly
unit, due to its characteristics and other factors that can limit
applications of this method.
To identify WEEE qualifying for being processed in intelligent robotic disassembly technology, certain criteria were
developed and verified. The criteria are:
Physical characteristic: similar construction, standardized
external dimensions, standardized placement of mounting
holes, construction easy to dismantle, small amount of
homogenous parts, good physical shape, no deformations,
no dirt, way of identification i.e. by barcode.
Market factors: life cycle of the product on the market,
quantity and mass on the market, upward trend in sells.
Resources to be recovered: amount of valuable/dangerous resources, which recovery is economically reasonable/
necessary (law).
Environmental impact: decrease of amount of waste, recovery of the resources decreases use of natural resources.
Additional criteria: the ease of extraction of identified
item from collected WEEE, currently ineffective recycling
Figure 1. Example of computer Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

3.5 view from electronics side
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methods i.e. high energy consumption, low recovery rate,

contamination of recover resources.
Applying above criteria to WEEE, several types of wastes
have been identified and qualified for intelligent robotic utilization method. Detailed analysis was carried out on computer
hard disk drive, which was chosen, as a waste appliance that
meets all above criteria (Figure 1).
6. Characteristics of hard drives as a waste

eligible for processing in the intelligent
robotized utilization technology
Hard disk drives can be found in computers and other
devices, like IT or broadcasting equipment, often HDDs are
found alone in waste, due to rapid obsolescence of IT solutions. Given the number of hard drives sold worldwide in
2009 (550 million units), estimated mass of waste of HDD
every year is 280 000 Mg [11]. The mass of HDD waste is
arising annually, and is significant enough to justify materials
recovery from it and search for the new technology to process
this appliance waste alone.
Computer hard drive has standardized external dimensions
(few models such as 2.5, 3.5). The design is simple and
based on uniform chassis in which components are installed.
Extraction of the hard drives from computers is a standard
procedure in many companies that process WEEE. Their
physical condition is good - without deformation. Also important parameter is what kind of materials can be recovered
from HDD waste. In the case of hard drives mainly they are:
aluminum, ferromagnetic metals (and magnets), stainless
metals and other mixed scrap (Table 2).
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and only partial dismantling will take place i.e. to remove

dangerous substances, covers, and other easy to remove
parts, as the pre-treatment of waste method. Some of the raw
materials will be recovered, overall mass decreased, labor
saved, and energy demand for further processing decreased.
Both variants, full, and partial disassembly, are described
on example of computer hard drives:
Partial dismantling is the removal of the external
screws and external electronics, as well as the closure of
the disk, followed by several internal bolts. It is possible to
carry it out using two tools a screwdriver, and a gripper.
As a result of the partial dismantling, 8% weight reduction
was achieved (removed were: bolts, electronics, and closure
of the disk). In addition, the source of heavy metals and
organic matter (electronics) is removed. This situation is
presented in Figure 4.
Full dismantling is the removal of every component
from the HDD chassis. This procedure allows reducing the
mass of waste HDD by 87% and recovering pure resources
like aluminum, stainless, and ferromagnetic metals. The
rest, 13% or the input mass is not processed, this other
components group contains: plastic (2%), disk heads (3%),
motor (8%). All components extracted from disk are shown
in the Figure 2.
Table 2. Average mass and groups of resources in hard

disk drives 3.5 [9]
Type of material
Average mass of mateContent % in

rial in 3,5 HDD
HDD mass
Mass (g)
Overall HDD
515
100,0
Aluminum
264
51,3
Ferromagnetic metals
90
17,5
Stainless metals
53
10,3
External electronics
41
7,9
Other components
66
12,8
Literature shows that, research is performed to robotize

dismantling of computer [12] components. This will allow
in future for integration of robotized computers disassembly,
with intelligent robotized utilization of every component,
directly recovering raw materials in one process.
7. Complete and partial disassembly of

WEEE
Performed research showed [9] that the dismantling of
waste can be performed in two ways, full and partial disassembly of appliance. The level of dismantling depends on
quantity and purity of recovered raw materials, and on the
other hand is limited by its difficulty.
In some cases the complexity of disassembly of appliance will be too high for its complete robotic processing,
Figure 2. Fully disassembled hard disk drive
8. Intelligent robotized hard disk drive

utilization process simulation based on
determined algorithm
Robotized process organization example, is presented
on Western Digital Caviar WD400JB-00ENA0, hard disk
drive manufactured in 2003 with a capacity of 40 GB. The
block diagram with dismantling steps and percentage of
resources recovered from waste is presented in Table 3
with described steps of disassembly process.
Hard drives, extracted from computers, are introduced
into the disassembly line directly on the conveyor belt.
HDDs are being queued and positioned on it, to allow
each disk to be grabbed by the handle, enabling the spatial manipulation (1st step). Construction of hard drives is
based on the aluminum chassis fitted with standardized
threaded holes for mounting the drives. In the case of the
disassembly those holes can be used to hold the disks in
the handle and manipulate them. Placement of the holes
in the chassis is shown in Figure 3.
Next step (2nd step) is identification of the hard drive.
Model of the HDD is identified by reading barcode or
other OCR method. On this basis program is selected and
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VOLUME 6,
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uploaded. In the case of absence of the program for a given

drive, or the inability to read the model, the disk is forwarded to the interim storage.
Figure 4. Exposed components after disassembly of

cover plate
Figure 3. Placement of mounting holes in chassis of disk

pointing by arrows
Immobilized in the handle hard disk is transported to the
robots operation area, where the first stage of dismantling
is being performed (3rd step). Threaded joints are disconnected by first robot equipped with automatic screwdriver.
This operation frees electronics. Second robot equipped
with gripper removes electronic board from the drive and
moves it into the container collecting those parts. Next,
the drive is turned 180 degrees around in the holder and in
the same manner, the removal of the top plate is executed.
Threaded connections of the cover to the chassis are disconnected and the cover is transferred to the container collecting aluminum. Exposed components after disassembly
of cover plate are shown in Figure 4.
Following, joints are unscrewed inside the disk (4th
step), holding magnetic shields
with magnets on them (Figure
5), than plates on the rotor, data
1st step:
connector and finally heads arm.
Introduction of waste to
In the case of plates mounted on
robotized disassembly unit
100% - of waste mass
the impeller it is necessary to immobilize the motor so the screws
can be localized and unscrewed.
This operation can be impleMaterials recoverd:
mented using the gripper from
Printed circuit boards
the second robot arm. However,
Electronics
8% - of waste mass
pinpointing the exact location of
the bolts is only possible via optical system or proximity sensors
Materials recoverd:
Ferromagnetic metals
in which the disassembly unit
magnetic shields,
has to be equipped. Another elemagnets, closure
17% - of waste mass
ment to disassemble is the disk
head, this part is mounted using
other type of screw connection,
therefore it is necessary to replace the tip of the screwdriver
Materials recoverd:
Stainless metals
on robot arm to perform this opbolts, data plates hold
eration. The last operation is to
10% - of waste mass
dismantle the motor.
During each unscrewing operation, second robot equipped with
gripper, simultaneously picks and
moves released components to
right container, collecting each
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Figure 5. HDD during components disassembly arrows

pointing glued magnets
2nd step - Identification:

Of waste model and upload
of disassembly program
100% - of waste mass
3rd step - Dissasembly:

Removal of external parts:
External bolts holding electronics,
closure plate, and theirs transport
to right containers
Table 3. Block diagram

of disassembly process,
with percentage of raw
materials recovered from
HDDs. Blue fields represent each step of disassembly process. Green
fields represents type of
materials recovered.
Materials recoverd:
Other parts
Plastics, heads arm,
motor, data connector,
other
13% - of waste mass
4th step - Dissasembly

Removal of internal parts:
bolts, magnetic shields, heads arm,
data plates, motor, and theirs
transport to right containers
Materials recoverd:
Aluminum
Chassis, closure, data
plates
51% - of waste mass
5th step
Releasing of empty chassis from
conveyor handle to container
collecting aluminum
raw material. After disassembly of all components from the

disk, its empty chassis made of aluminum, is released from
the handle above the container collecting aluminum components (5th step). This operation finishes the process of intelligent utilization of the hard disk. All dismantled components
from hard disk drive are presented in Figure2.
Table 3 presents block diagram of the process described
above, together with the participation of recovered materials [11].
Described investigation of disassembly process of HDD,
covers all identified standard procedures and proposes solutions for process design. However, not all computer hard
drives are made in the same way, some components are assembled by negative allowance or glued together, also some
drives are sealed by aluminum seal tape etc., those non-standard construction solutions used in hard disk drives, complicate
and require introduction of additional tools to disassembly
process. In the case of uncommon, complex and uneconomical to process lots of drives it is possible to carry out a partial
disassembly of them, and forward them to another process
that can handle the rest of the process i.e. manual dismantling.
Currently manufactures of many appliances are foreseeing the utilization issue, at the end of life of theirs products,
and the products are design much simpler than it was in the
past. This approach brings savings during production, and
utilization. The general trend is, the newer the appliance the
less complicated its construction and more uniform each type
of waste collected.
9. Conclusion
Presented in the article approach of identification of waste
eligible for processing in technology of intelligent robotized
utilization by determinate algorithms, allows recognition of
fields of application of this technology, to provide significant
reduction of cost in waste processing. Based on presented
case of HDD intelligent utilization steps, whole process can
be designed and calculated for research trails and testing purposes. HDD case shows that it is possible to implement whole
disassembly process using: conveyor handle, and two tools
mounted on two robotic arms.
Intelligent robotized WEEE utilization technology is new
and effective way to process this group of waste. Its high
efficiency and speed, allows to process large volumes of selected groups of wastes, recovery of valuable and high purity
resources, and to avoid human contact with waste.
Estimated on example of robotic disassembly of hard disks,
based on the volume of the world production of HDDs (550
million units = mass of 280 000 Mg), it is possible to recover:
143 600 Mg of aluminum, 49 000 Mg ferromagnetic metals,
28 800 Mg stainless metals, 35 800 Mg of mixed metals, and
22 100 Mg of printed circuit boards, each year.
With additional treatment of extracted components, it is
possible to recover raw materials like rare-earth metals and
certain quantities of precious and heavy metals embedded in
released parts. This allows for almost 100% level of recovery
in the case of presented hard disk drives.
The authors believe that the use of intelligent robotized
utilization technology, on industrial scale is reasonable. It
is believed that robotized disassembly is also the future of
the waste processing industry, and a unique opportunity for
companies offering robotic solutions to arise on the markets
of WEEE processing.
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Acknowledgement
Works were financed of research project, Ministry of Science and Higher Education no. N R03 0083 10.
AUTHORS
Jakub Szalatkiewicz* Industrial Research Institute for

Automation and Measurements, Warsaw, PL 02-486, Poland,
jszalatkiewicz@piap.pl, jakub.szalatkiewicz@gmail.com
Roman Szewczyk Industrial Research Institute
for Automation and Measurements, Warsaw, Warsaw,
PL 02-486, Poland, rszewczyk@piap.pl
References
[1] J. Huisman, 2008 Review of Directive 2002/96 on
WEEE, Final Report, United Nations University.
[2] M. Cobbing, Toxic Tech: Not In Our Backyard,
Greenpeace.org, 2008.
[3] J. Lee, H. Song, J. Yoo, Present status of the recycling
of waste electrical and electronic equipment in Korea,
Resources Conservation & Recycling, no. 50, 2007,
pp. 380397.
[4] H. Kang, J. Schoenung, Electronic waste recycling:
Areview of U.S. infrastructure and technology options,
Resources Conservation & Recycling, no. 45, 2005,
pp. 368400.
[5] R. Wawrzonek, Praktyczne aspekty funkcjonowania
systemu gospodarowania zuytym sprztem elektrycznym i elektronicznym, Elektro Eco, 2009. (in Polish)
[6] Environment Commission proposes revised laws on
recycling and use of hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment, http://europa.eu/rapid/
pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/08/1878&form
at=HTML&aged=1&language=EN&guiLanguage=en
[7] T. Yuksel, I. Baylakoglu, Recycling of Electrical and
Electronic Equipment, Benchmarking of Disassembly
Methods and Cost Analysis. In: Proceedings of the
2007 IEEE International Symposium on Electronics &
the Environment, Orlando, pp. 222226.
[8] H. Kim, S. Kernbaum, G. Seliger, Emulation-based
control of a disassembly system for LCD monitors,
Int. J. Adv. Manufacturing Technologies, no. 40, 2009,
pp. 383392.
[9] F. Torres, P. Gil, S. Puente, J. Pomares, R. Aracil, Automatic PC disassembly for component recovery, Int.
J. Adv. Manufacturing Technologies, no. 23, 2004,
pp. 3946.
[10] B. Basdere, G. Seliger, Disassembly Factories for Electrical and Electronic Products To Recover Resources in
Product and Material Cycles, Environmental Science
& Technologies, vol. 37, 2003, pp. 53545362.
[11] J. Szaatkiewicz, Resources recovery from computers
hard disk drivers, Inynieria Ekologiczna, no. 23, 2010,
p. 7787 (in Polish).
[12] L. Ching-Hwa, C. Chang-Tang, F. Kuo-Shuh, C. TienChin, An overview of recycling and treatment of scrap
computers, Journal of Hazardous Material B114, 2004,
pp. 93100.
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Influence of PWM on Trajectory Accuracy

in Mobile Robot MOTION
Submitted: 30th March 2012; accepted: 12th June 2012
Ryszard Beniak, Tomasz Pyka
Abstract:
The paper compares simulation results for direct and

PWM control of DC motors in a tri-wheel mobile robot
with a castor sliding wheel. Our aim was to determine to
what extent PWM control changes the trajectory accuracy. For this purpose, we compare kinematic and dynamic
control. To make the model more realistic, we considered the impact of viscous and rolling friction of driving
wheels on the motion along the trajectory. We conclude
that dynamic control is of higher quality as compared to
kinematic control, and that there is a significant impact
of PWM control on the trajectory accuracy.
2. Mobile robot model
Simulations were carried out for the model presented

in Fig. 1:
Keywords: mobile robot control, kinematic and dynamic

control, castor sliding wheel, pulse width modulation.
1. Introduction
The issue of trajectory accuracy has not been yet

resolved for mobile robots with to a satisfactory extent.
The regulator is incapable to determine the trajectory accurately enough given surface irregularities impacting
the behaviour of wheels. For this reason, the theoretical
and empirical trajectories might deviate from each other
significantly. The impact of slips on the trajectory has
been considered in [1, 2, 3, 4] for tri-wheel robots, in
[5] for four-wheel robots and in [6] for unicycles. Not
considering wheel slips might lead to significant trajectory errors [7, 8, 9, 10]. Yet, for simulation of trajectory
of tri-wheel robots, the castor free wheel is assumed to be
passive [11] and not to have any impact on the trajectory.
In this paper, we consider a tri-wheel robot with
acastor sliding wheel [12]. The innovation is that the castor wheel does exert an impact on the entire mobile robot. Viscous and rolling frictions do influence the motion
of the castor wheel. Friction coefficients are assumed to
have normal distribution N(0.001, 0.00058). The simulation was carried out for an example trajectory as in [12]
rotation around a fixed axis (Fig. 5), i.e. around a characteristic point A (Fig.1). For simulation purposes, we
assumed the parameters of a Dunkermotoren GR63x25
motor with a PLG52 1:36 transmission.
Next, we compared the kinematic and dynamic control for both direct (without any modulation) and PWM
control types [13]. [6] contains a comparison between
kinematic and dynamic control, though without any restriction imposed on torques and forces. Kinematic [14]
and dynamic control are still applied in robotics [10],
though they are increasingly often combined with adaptive [11] and robust control.
50
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Fig. 1. Tree-wheeled robot with a castor rear wheel

where S center of frame mass, A characteristic point,
l distance between the characteristic point and arm of
the castor wheel, l1 distance from characteristic point
to driving wheel, l2 distance between center of frame
mass and the characteristic point, l3 length of the free
wheel arm, rotary angle of the frame, angle of the
castor wheel along the axis y3, 1, 2, 3 rotary angles
of individual wheels along axis z1, z2 and z3, respectively.
Mobile robot dynamic equation is described as follows:
M (q )q + C(q, q )q = B(q ) + JT (q ) ,
(1)
where:
qT =
3 ,
qT =
3 ,
a11
a
M = 21
a31
a12
a22
a32
0
a13
a23
a33
0
0
c11
c
0
21
, C=
c31
0
0
c12
c22
c32
0
c13
c23
c33
0
0
0
,
0
c44
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The elements of matrix M are described as:
a11 = m3 (l 2 + l32 + 2l3l cos( )) + I y 3 + 2h12 (m1r12 + I z1 ) +

2
2 I y1 + m5l2 + I z 5 , a12 = a21 = m3 r1l3 sin( ),
a23 = a32 = m3 r1l3 sin( ),

a33 = m3l32 + I y 3 , a22 = m3 r12 + 2m1r12 + 2 I z1 + m5 r12 ,
a13 = a31 = m3 (l32 + l3l cos( )) I y 3 .
The elements of C matrix are calculated as follows:
c11 = m3 (3 l3l sin( ) + l3l sin( )) + ( N1 f1 + N 2 f 2 )h12 ,
c12 = m3 (r1l3 cos( )( ) r1l3 cos( )) + ( N1 f1 N 2 f 2 )h1 ,

c13 = m3 l3l sin( ) + D , c23 = m3 r1l3 cos( )( ) + D ,
c21 = m3 ( l3l sin( ) l3l sin( )) + ( N1 f1 N 2 f 2 )h1 ,
c22 = m3 r1l3 cos( )( ) + ( N1 f1 + N 2 f 2 ),

c31 = m3 l3l sin( ), c32 = m3 r1l3 cos( ).
c33 = D , c44 = D3 r32 cos + D 3 ,
( M 1 M 2 )h1 N 3 f3l3 sin(c )

M + M N f l sin( )
1
2
3 3 3
c
T
B(q) + J (q) =
N 3 f3l3 sin(c )
D r3 cos
where c is the natural (non-sliding) angle of the castor

wheel with sliding being exempted, R is the current radius of the trajectory and is the desired velocity of the
castor sliding wheel. N1, N2, N3 are the pressure wheels of
the ground, respectively, M1, M2 are DC torques, f1, f2, f3
are wheels coefficients friction of the ground, respectively and D, D3, D3 are damping factors. Variables , R
and c are calculated from the formulas below:
Fig. 2. Algorithm of DC controller
Fig. 3. Dynamic controller of the robot

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Fig. 4. Kinematic controller of the robot

Inducted voltages are equal to:
l l + (l 2 R 2 + R 4 R 2 l 2 )
3
3
,
l 2 + R2
c = a cos
R=
e1 = k1 1 , e 2 = k2 2 ,
( x 2 + y 2 )3/ 2
,
x y
x y
(r
2
1
The motor armature resistances and voltages are calculated as:
Vd 1 = Ra1M d 1 / (k ) + k1 ,
Vd 2 = Ra 2 M d 2 / (k ) + k 2 ,
(2)
To the robot dynamics equations (1) described above

we added equations describing DC motors [15]:
Q1 = (V1 Ra1Q1 ea1 ) / La ,

Q2 = (V2 Ra 2Q2 ea 2 ) / La ,
where Q1 , Q2 currents, ea1 , ea2 inducted voltages,
La armature inductance.
i =1
j =1
i =1
j =1
Rc1 = Ti RTi + Dj RDj ,
(3)
Rc 2 = Ti RTi + Dj RDj .
4
i =1
(6)
(7)
j =1
Vc1 = TiVC (TO ) + p DjVF (TO ) ,

4
i =1
(8)
j =1
Vc 2 = TiVC (TO ) + p DjVF (TO ) ,

V1 = V Vc1 , V 2 = V Vc 2 ,
where 1 , 2 exciting flux, k gear, 1 = + h1 and

2 = h1 driving wheels velocities.
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(5)
+ l 2 2 + l32 ( ) 2 + 2l3 ( )(r1 sin( ) l cos( )) .
To make the model more realistic, we also modeled

two transistor bridges H, each consisting of four transistors and four diodes. The algorithm which sets the instantaneous value of PWM voltages was presented in
Fig. 2., where K is the duty cycle, DTK 1/20 of PWM
impulse duration , Vd1, Vd2 voltages set by the regulator
based on the set-torque Md1 and Md2, Vmax maximum
voltage (Vmax = 24V), Vmin minimum voltage (Vmin =
0V). Moreover, we assumed that the duration of a single
PWM impulse Tc is 2 ms and that we do not take commutation process into account, dt timestep.
The voltages Vd1 and Vd2 are calculated as follows:
52
(4)
(9)
(10)
where Ra1 resultant resistance of motor 1, Ra2 resultant resistance of motor 2, Ra armature resistance, Rc1,
Rc2 1st and 2nd H-structure inverter resistance, Vc1, Vc2
first and second H-structure inverter voltage reduction, V
voltage value at source, VC(TO) forward voltage of transistor, VF(TO) forward voltage of diode, Kronecker
delta, i, j indexes, T transistor, D diode,
where V=24V while two transistors or two diodes conducting (factor p=1) and V=0V in other cases (factor
p=1). If any T=1 or D=1, that means transistor or
diode conducted.
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The torques used in (1) are calculated as:

M 1 = kQ1 , M 2 = kQ 2 .
(11)
For dynamic and kinematic control (Fig. 4 and Fig. 5)

xd , yd are desired velocities of the characteristic point
A as in Fig. 1., x, y are output velocities of the characteristic point A, xd, yd are desired positions of the characteristic point A, is the vector of general coordinates,
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ref , ref are reference values vectors of general coordinates, I is the vector of currents of DC motors, uref is
the vector of reference voltages of the motor and is the
vector of disturbances (vector of varying coefficients of
the friction between wheels and ground).
Figures 3 and 4 present the controllers structure for
dynamic and kinematic control, respectively. Kinematic
controller is assumed to be as in [14].
Fig. 5. Trajectory of angular velocity for robot moving

around the characteristic point
Fig. 8. Movement of the characteristic robot point A

dynamic control
Fig. 6. Trajectory of first and second wheel for robot

platform moving around the characteristic point A
Fig. 9. Torque in kinematic trajectory control
Fig. 7. Movement of the characteristic robot point A

kinematic control
Fig. 10. Torque in dynamic trajectory control

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Fig. 11. Desired torque in dynamic trajectory control
3. Simulation
The model calibration was inspired with Pioneer 2DX

[16] technical parameters:
For variable f1 and f2, they are assumed to have normal

distribution N(0.001, 0.00058). The simulation is carried
out for an example trajectory as in [12] and for the robot
platform (Fig. 1.) moving around the characteristic point
A (Fig. 5).
In the first second, the robot accelerated and then next
20 seconds it was moving with the constant velocities.
We also analyze for both control types in direct torque
or voltage control (as exemplary testing base) and the
widely known PWM control. This control (with H Transistor Bridge) is the most popular for changing voltages
in DC motors.
Figures 6, 7 and 8 show cases when PD controller with
gains Kd=141.0 and Kp=473.0 is applied. These gains
were calculated by means of Hooke-Jevees optimization
of the trajectory accuracy [12]. Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 show the
movement of the characteristic point A.
4. Simulation results
The errors of the trajectory as in [12] and, for the trajectory with the robot platform moving around the characteristic point A (Fig. 5), were presented in Tables 1 to 4. The
errors for the whole trajectory are calculated as follows:
1
1
2
2
( di i ) , = n ( di i ) ,
n i =1
i =1
n
2
1
1
2
=
di i , = n ( di i ) ,
n i =1
i =1
(13)
(14)
where: root mean square (RMS) errors of angle ,

RMS error of angle , RMS error of velocity , RMS error of velocity , i an individual
54
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Fig. 12. Torque in kinematic control moving around

The control types are denoted as follows. 1 stands for direct control, 2 denotes direct control with varying friction
coefficients, 3 is PWM control and 4 PWM control with
varying friction coefficients.
Fig. 13. Torque in dynamic control-moving around

Table 1. Root mean square errors for given in [12] trajectory
Kind of
control
Root mean square errors
[rad] [rad] [rad/s]

[rad/s]
Kinematic
direct_f
9.1910-2
3.62100
9.5810-3
2.6110-1
Dynamic
direct_f
5.7010-4
1.4710-4
5.5210-3
2.8410-3
Kinematic
direct
9.1910-2
3.62100
5.9810-3
2.6110-1
Dynamic
direct
5.7110-4
1.4810-4
5.5210-3
2.8610-3
Kinematic
PWM
9.9710-2
3.63100
1.0210-3
2.6210-1
Dynamic
PWM
8.0810-4
2.4910-3
5.7010-3
4.1310-3
Kinematic
PWM_f
9.9710-2
3.63100
1.0210-2
2.6210-1
Dynamic
PWM_f
6.5510-4
1.7610-3
5.7010-3
4.2710-3
step, n number of steps, index d stands for desired values. The maximum errors were calculated as H errors,
i.e. as a maximum absolute error for the whole trajectory.
Angles and and their angle velocities are equal to:
max = , max = ,
max =
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(15)
max =
VOLUME 6,
(16)
where index max denotes the maximum value. Index f in

tables 1 to 4 means that in this simulation we analyzed
the varying wheel friction of the ground.
Table 2. Maximum errors for given in [12] trajectory
Kind of
control
Maximum errors
Fig. 14. Desired torque in dynamic control moving

around
[rad] [rad] [rad/s]

[rad/s]
Kinematic
direct_f
1.4510-1
5.94100
2.5010-1
3.7010-1
Dynamic
direct_f
2.1610-3
1.3910-3
2.5010-1
1.0810-1
Kinematic
direct
1.4510-2
5.94100
2.5010-1
3.6910-1
Dynamic
direct
2.1610-3
1.3910-3
2.5010-1
1.0810-1
Kinematic
PWM
1.5710-3
5.95100
2.5010-1
3.7610-1
Dynamic
PWM
3.0610-3
6.2110-3
2.5010-1
1.0810-1
Kinematic
PWM_f
1.5710-1
5.95100
2.5010-1
3.7510-1
Dynamic
PWM_f
2.8310-3
5.1910-3
2.5110-1
1.1010-1
Table 4. Maximum errors for trajectory of robot moving

around the characteristic A point
Maximum errors
Kind of
control
[rad]
[rad]
Kinematic
direct_f
2.88100
Dynamic
direct_f
[rad] [rad] [rad/s]

[rad/s]
[rad/s]
8.0310-2
1.7210-1
4.9510-3
8.6910-3
3.8310-3
1.4610-2
6.3410-3
2.88100
8.0310-2
1.7210-2
4.2210-3
Dynamic
direct
Root mean square errors
[rad/s]
Kinematic
direct
Table 3. Root mean square errors for trajectory of robot

moving around the characteristic point
Kind of
control
f indicates that in the given simulation we analyzed the

varying wheel friction of the ground.
Tables 3 and 4 show errors of general coordinates for
robot platform moving around the characteristic point A.
For this type of motion, the characteristic point A should
not move. But with the impact of the sliding castor wheel
being considered, the point A moved in the first phase of
the motion.
8.5710-3
3.7710-3
1.4710-2
6.0110-3
Kinematic
direct_f
1.64100
4.5710-2
1.3910-1
3.8710-3
2.89100
5.3210-3
1.7410-1
1.1710-2
Dynamic
direct_f
Kinematic
PWM
8.3610-5
3.6710-3
1.9110-3
8.5110-4
8.6010-3
6.9110-3
1.7010-2
1.5210-2
Kinematic
direct
Dynamic
PWM
1.64100
4.5710-2
1.3910-1
3.8710-3
2.89100
5.4610-3
1.7410-1
1.1810-2
Dynamic
direct
Kinematic
PWM_f
8.3610-5
3.6710-3
1.7310-3
7.6710-4
8.6610-3
6.7910-3
1.7310-2
1.5110-2
Kinematic
PWM
Dynamic
PWM_f
1.65100
3.6410-3
1.3910-1
8.2610-4
Dynamic
PWM
8.3610
6.6810
1.8110
1.6010
Kinematic
PWM_f
1.65100
3.7110-3
1.3910-1
8.2610-4
Dynamic
PWM_f
8.3410-3
6.4710-3
1.9810-3
1.8410-3
-3
-3
-3
-3
Large errors achieved for simulations with the kinematic control indicate that this control type is insufficient
for the mobile robot. As shown in Tables 1 and 3, there is
also a significant difference between PWM and a direct
voltage control. However, in real models we can use only
PWM, as direct control is strictly theoretical. The index
Results shown in Table 3 and 4 are encouraging, because, for the robot moving around the characteristic
point A, the varying friction does not influence the trajectory. In figures below, M1 direct, M2 direct stand for
torques for theoretical direct voltage control. M1 PWM
and M2 PWM denote torques for PWM voltage control.
Even though the simulation results for mobile robot
moving along the trajectory as in [12] seem to be almost
identical as presented Fig. 9-11, results presented in tables 1 and 2 leave no doubt that the kinematic control
causes greater deviations compared to dynamic control.
For comparison, we present the set torques (Fig. 10).
Fig. 12, 13 and 14 show the torque of mobile robot when
rotating around its a fixed axis (characteristic point A).
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55
Fig. 12 and 13 depict theoretical torques for kinematic

and dynamic control, from which, when compared to
Fig. 14 showing the set torques, we can conclude that
for kinematic control the torques are less oscillatory as
compared to dynamic control. The reason for this is the
impact of angle velocity regulation in dynamic control,
which causes a greater sensitivity of the automatic regulation system.
5. Conclusion
In Fig. 9 to 14, we show torques for kinematic and

dynamic control types, with and without PWM. We also
show the impact of the varying friction coefficient on the
trajectory accuracy.
The kinematic controller is not suitable for high accuracy control of the mobile robot, because in our model
with a castor sliding wheel the kinematic controller cannot stabilize the motion, as the errors in kinematic control
are too large. Such magnitude of errors might have been
triggered with too large time constant of the regulator.
Given this, the kinematic control should not be applied
for mobile robots, as it brings about significant trajectory
errors. Our results are conductive for improving the robot
simulation procedure so as to achieve results closer to
robot behavior in reality.
Acknowledgements
The research was co-financed by the European Social

Fund
AUTHORS
Ryszard Beniak* Opole University of Technology,

Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Automatic Control
and Computer Science, Prszkowska Street No. 76,
45-758 Opole, Poland,
e-mail: r.beniak@po.opole.pl
Tomasz Pyka Opole University of Technology,
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Automatic Control
and Computer Science, Prszkowska Street No. 76,
45-758 Opole, Poland,
e-mail: t.pyka@doktorant.po.edu.pl
References
[1] R. Balakrishna and A. Ghosal, Modelling of Slip

for Wheeled Mobile Robots, IEEE Transactions on
Robotics and Automation, vol. 11, no. 1, February
1995.
[2] Xiaocai Zhu et al., Robust Tracking Control of
Wheeled Mobile Robots Not Satisfying Nonholonomic Contraints. In: Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Intelligent Systems Design
and Applications (ISDA06), 2006.
[3] Y. P. Li, T. Zielinska, M. H. Jr Ang and W. Lin,
Vehicle dynamics of redundant mobile robots
with powered caster wheels, Proceedings of the
Sixteenth CISMIFToMM Symposium, Romansy
16, Robot Design, Dynamics and Control, Warsaw:
Springer, 2006, pp. 221228.
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VOLUME 6,
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[4] K. Zdanowska, A. Oleksy, Motion planning of

Wheeler mobile robots subject to slipping, Journal
of Automation, Mobile Robotics & Intelligent Systems, vol. 5, no. 3, 2011.
[5] Ch. C. Ward and K. Iagnemma, Model-Based
Wheel Slip Detection for Outdoor Mobile Robots,
IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation Roma, Italy, April 2007.
[6] D. DeVon and T. Bretl, Kinematic and Dynamic
Control of a Wheel Mobile Robot, Proceedings of
the 2007 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems San Diego, CA, USA,
29th Oct. 2nd Nov. 2007.
[7] N. Sidek and N. Sarkar, Dynamic Modeling and
Control of Nonholonomic Mobile Robot with Lateral Slip, Proceedings of the 7th WSEAS International Conference on Signal Processing, Robotics
and Automation (ISPRA08), 2008.
[8] Yin-Tien Wang,Yu-Cheng Chen and Ming-Chun
Lin, Dynamic Object Tracking Control for a NonHolonomic Wheeled Autonomous Robot, Tamkang Journal of Science and Egineering, vol. 12,
no. 3, 2009, pp. 339350.
[9] N. Sidek, N. Sarkar, Inclusion of Wheel Slips in
Mobile Robot Modeling to Enhance Robot Simulator Performance, The 3rd Int. Conf. on Mechatronics (ICOM 08), 18th20th Dec. 2008.
[10] R. Dayal Parhi and B. B. V. L. Deepak: Kinematic
model of three wheeled mobile robot, Journal of
Mechanical Engineering Research, vol. 3(9), 2011,
pp. 307318.
[11] F.N. Martins, W.C. Celeste, R. Carelli, M. Sarcinelli-Filho, T.F. Bastos-Filho, An adaptive dynamic
controller for autonomous mobile robot trajectory
tracking, Control Engineering Practice, vol. 16,
2008, pp. 13541363.
[12] R. Beniak, T. Pyka, Selection of controller setpoints
for a tri-wheel robot taking into account the impact
of the dragged wheel and varying coefficients of
wheel friction, The Measurements, Automation
and Monitoring, no. 11, 2010. pp. 13901395. (in
Polish)
[13] M. Kamierkowski, R. Krishnan, F. Blaabjerg,
Control in Power Electronics, Academic Press an
impring of Elsevier Science, 2002.
[14] L. Gracia, J. Tornero, Kinematic control of wheeled
mobile robots, Latin American Applied Research,
vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 716.
[15] R. Beniak, T. Pyka, Control stepsize optimization
for tri-wheel mobile robot, 3rd International Students Conference Electrodynamics and Mechatronics, Opole, 2011.
[16] M. J. Giergiel, Z. Hendzel, W. ylski, Modeling
and control of wheeled mobile robots, Warsaw:
Polish Scientific Publishers PWN, 2002. (in Polish).
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Robot for Monitoring Hazardous Environments as a

Mechatronic Product
Submited 10th July 2012; accepted 7th September 2012
Leszek Kasprzyczak, Stanisaw Trenczek, Maciej Cader
Abstract:
The mining mobile inspective robot is designed for

monitoring explosive hazardous environments, where
unknown gas mixtures consisting of explosive, toxic and
suffocating gases can be present. This situation is often
observed in mining hard coal excavations where inertia
processes are carried out during or after a fire. Then
the gas mixtures include, among others, significant
concentrations of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide
and methane. In the paper the principle of operations
and the robot assemblies which consist of mechanical,
electronic, pneumatic and software elements were described. Furthermore in the paper initial traction tests
of the robot were discussed.
Keywords: mobile robot, hazardous environments,
mine.
1. Introduction
In the hard coal excavations, toxic and explosive
gas mixtures can exist. In order to isolate the hazard
zone from the remaining parts of a mine it is necessary
to build isolated dams in the inlet and outlet sides. Fig.
1 shows the longwall as an example of isolated excavation, where valuable mining machines were trapped,
like a shearer, conveyor belts, powered roof supports.
In order to enable accurate measurements of dangerous gases in an isolated excavation, the Institute of
Innovative Technologies EMAG and the Industrial Research Institute for Automation and Measurement PIAP
elaborated a mobile inspective mining robot GMRI
for working in explosive hazardous zones. The robot,
as a vehicle, is equipped with appropriate sensors for
measurements of some gases concentration, cameras,
transmission system, control and visualization systems
as well as electrical accumulators. The device is built
according to explosion-proof techniques [1315].
The first and most important issue which had to be
solved was determining the functional assumptions
and the robot technical concepts solutions. In the paper [1] minimal dimensions of the robot were specified,
as well as the dimensions of solid and water obstacles.
Moreover the range of operation, kinds of analyzed
gases, extreme climatic conditions and selection of suitable materials were discussed. Selection of sensors for
measuring parameters of a mining atmosphere and the
analysis of regulations and standards concerning the
measurements accuracy and explosion-proof aspects
were described in the paper [2].
2. The review of existing mining robots

The leading world organizations attempt to construct
mining inspection and rescue robots. The most recognized solutions are the following:
1. NUMBAT a mine reconnaissance robot designed in
the 1990s by the Australian Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (Fig. 2)
[35],
E
C
D
Fig. 1. Scheme of the isolated excavation monitored by

the mobile robot A/B explosion-proof inlet/outlet dams
with the 80 cm diameter sluice, C shearer, D conveyor
belts, E powered roof supports, F operators console,
G mobile robot
Fig. 2. NUMBAT [3]

2. REMOTEC WOLVERINE V-2 robot developed by
the Mine Safety and Health Administration of America (Fig. 3) [5, 6],
3. GROUNDHOG robot developed by Carnegie Mellon University Robot Research Center USA (Fig. 4)
[5, 7]
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57
4. GEMINI-SCOUT Mine Rescue Robot Sandia National Laboratories USA (Fig. 5) [8]
5. Chinese constructions: CMU-1 developed by China
University of Mining and Technology, LURKER-1
and LURKER-3 developed by the Robotics Research
Centre of Shandong University and others [912].
The above listed robots are driven by electric DC
motors. It is often difficult to obtain their full technical
data. Sometimes only media reports exist and there are
no scientific descriptions in the form of available articles, like in the case of Gemini-Scout [8].
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it is constructed according to the M1 category in compliance with EN 50303 [14]. The device has the M1 category if it has double security or the ia intrinsic safety.
Taking into account the above information, the robots
with DC engines should have double security in order to
be continuously utilized in the explosive atmospheres of
coal mines. The use of a flameproof casing only qualifies the device to the M2 category which means that a
machine has to be turned off once dangerous concentration of methane is detected. In the quoted articles [312]
sometimes there is no information about categories of
robots and in some cases the authors admit that their solutions do not have proper anti-explosion measures [9].
Fig. 3. REMOTEC WOLVERINE V-2 [5]

Fig. 6. Prototype of GMRI
Fig. 4. GROUNDHOG [7]
This was achieved through the use of the compressednitrogen pneumatic drive and through limiting the speed
of movable elements. Decompressed nitrogen cools the
inside of the actuators which becomes an extra security
measure against overheating of friction elements. Electronic assemblies of GMRI were designed for the ia
intrinsic safety category in compliance with EN 6007911 [15]. The prototype of the robot, along with technical
documentation, was tested and analyzed by an independent notified body for compliance with the ATEX directive and received the M1 category.
3. Robot measuring functions
Fig. 5. GEMINI-SCOUT [8]

In the light of Polish and European laws as well as
standards harmonized with the 94/9/EC (ATEX) [13] directive, the device can work continuously in an atmosphere with methane and/or coal dust explosion hazards if
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The main task of the robot is transmitting data regarding the composition of mining excavation atmosphere to
an operator. Values of concentrations of the following
gases are transmitted:
explosive methane CH4,
toxic carbon monoxide CO,
and others carbon dioxide CO2 and oxygen O2.
For the sake of limited oxygen content in the tested
gas mixture which is due to the inertia process (with
nitrogen), it was obligatory to apply sensors which do
not need the presence of oxygen or they need very small
amounts of it.
Moreover the robot is equipped with temperature and
humidity sensors for measuring the ambient gas mixture.
The robot also has to transmit video from cameras to enable the operator to make an evaluation of excavation conditions and to control the robot remotely. The user interface includes software for the visualization of films from
cameras and values of measurements from all sensors.
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Fig. 7 presents a view of the robot chassis model with

the jib as a pipe, through which the tested atmosphere is
sucked into the gases meter.
In the isolated region there is high humidity usually
close to 100%. If we do not fulfil the requirement of
95%RH without condensation, then the life expectancy
and accuracy of sensors will decrease. Therefore a drier
system was elaborated in EMAG which dries the tested gas mixture before introducing it to the sensors. The
block scheme of the system is shown in Fig. 8.
In the elaborated equipment (E) the mining atmosphere (MA) is sucked in from the jib thanks to a gas
pump (GP). The gas mixture is at first dried in the dryer
(D). Then the tested gas is introduced to the sensors (S)
and leaves the equipment.
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3.1. Infrared sensors
The range of infrared radiation which is typically used in

the sensors, it is between 3-5 m. In this band there are
absorption lines of many essential gases, and for 4 m
there is no absorption line. The radiation of 4 m wavelength is used as a reference signal in NDIR sensors. Besides, simple bulbs with filaments emit radiation between
2 to 5 m (depending on the filament temperature and
bulb enclosure material). Moreover within the range 3-5
m there is a water window, which means that water
steam does not absorb radiation in this band and thereby
does not influence the measurements values.
Table 2 shows the lengths of waves of infrared radiation which are absorbed by gases typically occurred
in mining atmospheres. The sensors manufacturers give
different values because an absorption line of a gas is
usually not a single value but a narrow band.
Table 2. Values of absorption lines/bands of selected
gases [16-19]
Gas
Methane CH4
E
MA
D
MA
MA
S
GP
Fig. 8. Block scheme of a drier system for measuring

gases concentrations of mining atmospheres with high
humidity (designed by EMAG)
In table 1 the measuring ranges of the robot sensors
were given. The non-dispersive infrared sensors (NDIR)
for measuring methane and carbon dioxide were applied.
Electrochemical sensors were used for detecting oxygen
and carbon monoxide. In the next sections of the paper
the operating principles of the sensors were described.
Table 1. Measuring ranges of the GMRI sensors
Tested gas
0 25%
Temperature
-40 ~+120C
Humidity
100%
b)
0 1000 ppm
Oxygen O2
a)
0 5%
Carbon monoxide CO
Gases, with particles consisting of two or more different atoms, absorb appropriate infrared wave lengths
which are compatible with their natural frequency vibrations. The amplitude of the interatomic bonds vibrations
increases along with the temperature of the particles
(Fig.9). However other gases, like nitrogen, oxygen and
noble gases cannot be detected using this method.
0 100%
Carbon dioxide CO2
4,2 4,3
Measuring range
Methane CH4
3,0 3,5
Carbon dioxide CO2
MA
3,32 or 3,4
Hydrocarbons CxHy
Fig. 7. Model of the GMRI robot chassis with jib (designed by PIAP)
Wave length [m]
Fig. 9. Increase of the amplitude of interatomic bonds

vibrations after absorption of the IR radiation [16]
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59
An operating principle of gas sensors which uses

abulb as the radiation source and a pyroelectric detector
is shown in Fig. 10. The bulb is supplied with a rectangular signal with frequency between 1 to 10 Hz. At the
pyroelectric detector output, near sinusoidal voltage appears with the same frequency as the rectangular signal.
When the concentration of the target gas increases, the
amplitude of the output signal decreases, according to
exponential expression described by the Beer-Lambert
law [1721].
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gas concentration is calculated from the ratio of the two

output peak to peak signals. In practice more complicated
equations are used for measuring concentrations, which
compensate the influence of temperature and sometimes
pressure.
3.2. Electrochemical sensors
Electrochemical sensors use chemical reactions for

measuring target gas concentrations. A typical electrochemical sensor consists of a sensing electrode (working) and a counter electrode which are separated by an
electrolyte (Fig. 12). At first a gas passes through the diffusion barrier, charcoal filter and hydrophobic membrane
and then the reaction on the sensing electrode begins.
Fig. 12. Structure of a typical electrochemical sensor

[16]
Fig. 10. Principle of operations of gas sensors with the

IR radiation [19]
Pyroelectricity is the ability of certain materials to
generate a temporary electrical potential when they are
heated or cooled. The electric potential disappears after
a relaxation time, that is why the fallen radiation has to
be changeable. Thus the bulb command signal is a period rectangular one. All pyroelectric materials are also
piezoelectric ones, so it is necessary to protect sensors
against forces.
In Fig.11 the structure of an IR gas sensor with two
measuring channels is shown. In the active channel there
is an optical filter which passes radiation with wave
length as the wave length for the target gas. In the reference channel the optical filter passes radiation with wave
length 4 m.
The signal amplitude of the active sensor decreases
together with the increasing concentration because more
energy is absorbed by the gas particles. The reference
channel is used to compensate for changes in source intensity, optical degradation and temperature to some degree. The amplitude of this detector will not show any
changes due to the effects of the target gas. The target
Fig. 11. Structure of an IR gas sensor [17]

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The target gas reacts at the surface of the working electrode involving either oxidation or reduction reactions.
These mechanisms are catalyzed by the electrode materials specifically selected for the tested gas. Through an
external resistor which connects working and counter
electrodes proportional to the concentration electrical
current flows [16, 17, 22].
It is required to have a stable and constant potential
at the working electrode. In reality the sensing electrode
potential does not remain constant due to the continuous
electrochemical processes. That is why the metrological
parameters deteriorate. In order to improve the performance of the sensor, a reference electrode is introduced
between the sensing and counter electrodes, and to the
working electrode, a fixed stable constant potential is applied. No current flows between the sensing and reference electrodes.
The hydrophobic membrane enables a protection
against humidity and prevents the sensor from drying
out as well as leaking the liquid electrolyte. Moreover it
allows enough gas molecules to reach the working electrode. The membrane is made of thin, porosity Teflon.
The filter is installed in order to eliminate cross-sensitivity for unwanted gases. It is usually made of activated
charcoal, which filters out most chemical compounds
except carbon monoxide and hydrogen gases. By correctly selecting the filter, the sensor is more selective.
The electrodes are usually made of noble metals such as
gold or platinum. Every electrode can be made of different material, which enables suitable chemical reactions
with a target gas. The electrolyte allows to carry the ionic
charge across the electrodes.
Typical chemical reactions for the measurement of
oxygen and carbon monoxide are as follows:
for an oxygen sensor [17]:
cathode:
4H+ + O2 + 4e- 2H2O,
anode:
2H2O 4H+ + O2 + 4e-,
for a carbon monoxide sensor [22]:
anode:
CO + 2OH- CO2 + H2O+2e-,
cathode:
O2 + H2O + 2e- 2OH-,
total reaction: CO + O2 CO2.
As we can see from the above reactions, the carbon
monoxide sensor needs small amounts of oxygen for correct functioning. Too low an amount of oxygen causes
significant shortening of the sensor life (even to several
hours). The oxygen sensor fills up with water thanks to
absorption of steam water from an ambient environment.
Temperature is a factor which has a big influence on the
measurement accuracy. So it is necessary to compensate
it [16, 17, 22].
4. Robot transmission system
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two intrinsically safe circuits which are galvanically separated by optocouplers.
5. Robot supply system

The robot is equipped with two accumulators which
supply two separated intrinsically safe circuits. The
CAD prototypes of accumulators designed by EMAG
are shown in Figs. 14 and 15. The main issue was to design accumulators which are intrinsically safe and can
work properly up to +60C. The cells should not cause
a fire even in failure situations. Thus copper plates and
encapsulation were used for dispersion of potential heat
especially in damage situations. Accumulators have an
electronic output current limiter as well as overcharge
and overdischarge protection.
On the robot platform there are 4 programmable controllers which are placed in a metal casing (Fig. 13). For
communication with the operators console the main microcontroller is applied. It receives commands from the
operators console and distributes them among other controllers. On the robot board there are also:
Valves controller which is designed for robot motion
control and data conditioning from state sensors,
Sensors microcontroller which is used for triggering
and conditioning measurements of the atmosphere
parameters,
Auxiliary controller for remote switching of front and
rear cameras with lighting system and for controlling
the state of a lit-ion accumulator.
Fig. 14. CAD model of the lit-ion accumulator
Fig. 13. Transmission system of the robot GMRI

The transmission line has two-wire pairs. One pair is
used for half-duplex V23 modem and the second pair is
used for data streaming from the cameras in the RS485
standard. Commands concerning the robot motion are
sent through V23 modem from the operators console
to the valves controller (through main C). Also queries about measuring data are sent from the console to
the sensors C as well as commands which camera with
lighting should be switched to the auxiliary C.
All circuits of the robot are intrinsically safe because
the robot is designed for working in explosive zones, so
the circuits of the console are galvanically isolated from
the robot circuits. Moreover the robot is equipped with
Fig. 15. CAD model of the Ni-Cd accumulator

The lit-ion accumulator contains 4 cells. This accumulator is not charged in explosive atmospheres. It supplies cameras with lighting, electrovalves, state sensors,
valves controller and auxiliary microcontroller.
The nickel-cadmium accumulator contains 6 cells. It
supplies transmission circuits and atmosphere parameters sensors with their microcontroller. The accumulator
is charged through the modem line which has certain DC
level voltage. The charge and discharge characteristics
of singular lit-ion and Ni-Cd cells are shown in Figs. 16
and 17. It is visible that the electrochemical processes are
different.
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6. Traction tests
The drive structure of the robot is based on system of
movable supports (legs) and system consists of wheels
two widely spaced wheels in the back and two narrowly
spaced ones in the front (Fig. 16). This solution was elaborated by PIAP and submitted to the Polish Patent Office.
Drive system of the robot GMRI are supplied by compressed nitrogen from a tank placed in the robot platform (Fig. 17). Pneumatic actuators of the drive system
are controlled by 2-state valves. Nitrogen is a neutral
gas which does not have any influence on fire progress
and measurements. The reserve of the bottle volume is
enough for the distance of 500 m.
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The robot is able to widen/narrow the back wheels independently (Fig. 18). When the back wheels are widened, the stability of the robot is better on an irregular
floor of an excavation (max. width is 1.1 m). When the
back wheels are narrowed, the robot can be transported
along an 80-cm diameter pipe.
The support system enables to lift or lower the platform evenly or non-evenly. The even lift is performed
when the whole mobile body is lifted parallel to the floor
up to the given height (max 0.5 m). The platform can
be positioned in 4 heights minimal, maximal and two
medium ones. The non-even lift enables to lift only one
side of the mobile body back or front, left or right (Fig.
19). This functionality meets the requirements of the
floor conditions (longitudinal and lateral slopes) which
the robot has to cope with. Thanks to this functionality
the mobile platform of the robot can remain in a horizontal position irrespective of the floor conditions in a mine.
Additionally, the robot has the jib for taking samples of
a gas mixture. The probe is driven by a rotational pneumatic drive. The length of the probe is 1 meter. The robot
can lift its whole body so the range of the probe is extended. Manipulating the robot body is aimed at directing
two immovable wide-angle cameras to a desired place.
The robot can lift its front wheels with the use of
its front legs and a special actuator connected with the
Fig. 16. Motion systems: 1 wheel system, 2 support

system
Fig. 19. GMRI with a platform in a first medium position
Fig. 17. Pneumatic scheme of the robot drive system
Fig. 18. Widening back wheels of GMRI

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Fig. 20. GMRI turns left
structure of the front bridge. Thanks to that the robot can

pass over the obstacle or mount it with the front wheels.
The turning of the robot is performed by the front bridge
which is connected with linear actuators by means of
joints. When the robot turns left (Fig. 20), the piston rod
of the right actuator is moved forward and the left one
retracted simultaneously.
The robot moves forward or backward thanks to linear
pneumatic actuators and interlocking brakes which are
turned on in proper sequences and time intervals. A typical movement sequence on a flat ground (Fig. 21) lies in
blocking of the brakes in the back wheels and releasing
the brakes in the front wheels. Then the piston rods of the
actuators of back wheels are moved forward. This way
the robot can move 30 cm forward.
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(Fig.22), water obstacles of at least 10 cm, lengthways

slopes of at least 30 (Fig. 24) and go up side slopes of
at least 30 (Fig. 23). The rear wheels are independent
and can adapt to the ground shape. Moreover the robot
dimensions should enable it to move through an 80 cm
diameter sluice of dams (Fig. 25).
Fig. 24. Going uphill of a 30 slope

Fig. 21. Simulation of the GMRI movement (30 cm forward)
The functional assumptions described in the paper
[1] defined the traction requirements. Generally, the robot should overcome solid obstacles at least of 20 cm
Fig. 25. Moving through an 80 cm diameter sluice
7. Summary
Fig. 22. Overcoming a solid obstacle
Fig. 23. Driving through a 30 side slope (rear view)
Designing and building a mobile robot for working in

explosive zones is very difficult because one has to fulfil
the ATEX directive and harmonized standards. Additionally, the communication between the operators stand and
the robot is limited only to wired connections because radio waves are attenuated by rock mass and isolated dams.
The robot prototype was subject to traction tests at
EMAGs and PIAPs headquarters with a view to prepare it for testing in a real mining excavation. The tests
were carried out in a working excavation on the level of
726m in the Bobrek coal mine of Kompania Wglowa
S.A. with positive results [23]. The ergonomics of the
remote manual control of the robot has to be improved.
It is necessary to improve the robot lighting system for
better recognition of encountered obstacles in completely
dark excavations. In a future project we intend to build
a mining robot with electrical drives for better passing
over more demanding obstacles and on expanding the
operations range of the robot.
The project to construct a mobile inspection robot is
important for the mining industry due to the possibility of
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using the robot to assess the state of the excavation and

atmospheric parameters. Thanks to this, it will be possible to make faster and more accurate decisions about further operations related to the dangerous area of the mine.
AUTHORS
Leszek Kasprzyczak* Institute of Innovative Technologies EMAG, Leopolda St. 31, 40-189 Katowice, Poland,
E-mail: kasprzyczak@emag.pl
Expert in mechatronics, functional safety, measurement
systems, construction and operation of machinery
Stanisaw Trenczek Institute of Innovative Technologies EMAG, Leopolda St. 31, 40-189 Katowice, Poland.
E-mail: s.trenczek@emag.pl
Deputy Director for Research, a specialist in the field of
mining aerology.
Maciej Cader Industrial Research Institute for Automation and Measurements, Al. Jerozolimskie 202, 02486 Warsaw, Poland.
E-mail: mcader@piap.pl
Expert in mobile systems construction, simulation and
Rapid Prototyping technology.
References
[1] L. Kasprzyczak, S. Trenczek, Z. Borkowicz, M.
Cader, Functional assumptions and concepts of
technical solutions of mobile inspective robot for
working in explosive hazardous environments. In:
Proc. of EMTECH 2009 Conf. Supply, computer
science and automatics in excavation industry, Poland, 2009, pp.99-105 (in Polish).
[2] L. Kasprzyczak, P. Dzierak, Sensors for measurement mining atmosphere parameters of mobile inspective robot, Mechanizacja i Automatyzacja Grnictwa, vol. 466, no. 12, 2009, pp.1930.
[3] D. W. Hainsworth, Teleoperation user interfaces
for mining robotics, Autonomous Robots, no. 11,
2011, pp. 19-28.
[4] J.C. Ralston, D. Hainsworth, Recent advances in
remote coal mining machine sensing, guidance, and
teleoperation, Robotica, no. 19, 2001, pp. 513-526.
[5] R. Murphy, J. Kravitz, S. Stover, R. Shoureshi, Mobile robots in mine rescue and recovery, IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine, 2009, pp. 91103.
[6] R. Murphy, J. Kravitz, Preliminary report: Rescue
robot at Crandall Canyon, Utah, mine disaster.
IEEE Int. Conf. on Robotics & Automation, Pasadena, 2008, pp. 19-23.
[7] S. Thruny, D. Hahnel, A System for Volumetric
Robotic Mapping of Abandoned Mines. In: Proc.
of ICRA 2003.
[8] https://share.sandia.gov/news/resources/news_releases/miner-scou/
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[9] X. Rongb, R. Songb, Mechanism and explosionproof design for a coal mine detection robot, Advanced in Control Engineering and Information Science, no. 5, 2011, pp.100-104.
[10] YunWang Li, Shirong Ge, Hua Zhu, Explosionproof design for coal mine rescue robots, Advanced
Materials Research, 2011, pp. 1194-1198.
[11] W. Wang, Z. Du, L. Sun, Kinematics Analysis for
Obstacle-climbing Performance of a Rescue Robot, IEEE Int. Conf. on Robotics and Biomimetics,
2007, pp.1612-1617.
[12] J. Gao, X. Gao, J. Zhu, Coal mine detect and rescue robot technique research, IEEE Int. Conf. on
Information and Automation, 2009, pp. 10681073.
[13] Directive 94/9/EC of the European Parliament and
the Council of 23 March 1994 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States concerning
equipment and protective systems intended for use
in potentially explosive atmospheres (ATEX)
[14] EN 50303 Group I, Category M1 equipment intended to remain functional in atmospheres endangered
by firedamp and/or coal dust
[15] EN 60079-11 Explosive atmospheres. Equipment
protection by intrinsic safety i
[16] www.intlsensor.com
[17] www.e2v.com
[18] www.citytech.com
[19] www.dynament.com
[20] S. Lang, Pyroelectricity: from ancient curiosity to
modern imaging tool, Physics Today, vol. 58, no.
8, 2005, pp. 31-36.
[21] J. Piotrowski, A. Rogalski, Semiconductor infrared detectors, WNT, Warszawa 1985 (in Polish)
[22] www.figaro.co.jp
[23] Report from traction tests of the GMRI mobile inspection robot, Mining Rescue Center, 2010, p. 9
(in Polish).
VOLUME 6,
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2012
Analysis of Influence of Drive System Configurations

of a Four Wheeled Robot on its Mobility
Submitted: 24th July 2012; accepted 7th September 2012
Maciej Trojnacki
Abstract:
The work covers analysis of mobility of a four-wheeled

robot based on its dynamics model. Several configurations of robots drive system are considered: one driven
axle, two independently driven axles and drive transmission from one axle to another by means of a toothed
belt. The analysis of robots mobility is limited to cases
of its motion with constant velocity on the ground with
various inclinations and mechanical characteristics. It is
assumed that robots wheels roll without sliding. In the
conducted investigations of robots mobility, limitations
resulting from wheels interaction with the ground are
taken into account. Based on results of the investigations,
advantages and drawbacks of each of drive system configurations of the robot are discussed.
Keywords: mobile robot, mobility analysis, dynamics
model, computer simulation.
1. Introduction
Motion of a robot on diverse terrain depends on its

movement abilities, in the literature often termed as mobility. It can be defined as robots ability to move with
desired parameters of motion in defined conditions of environment, with limitations of the robot itself taken into
account [3]. For determination of the mobility, analysed
are robots motion on the ground with various mechanical
properties and inclinations and its ability of negotiation of
environment obstacles of various shape and height (e.g.,
kerbs, stairs).
Robots movement abilities on particular terrain are affected by a number of factors, including:
geometry and type of a locomotion system (e.g.,
wheeled, tracked, hybrid, legged, jumping),
properties of effectors (e.g., tyre type for wheeled robots),
mass properties of a robot,
constraints resulting from characteristics of drives
(e.g. power, maximum rotational speed, maximum
driving torque),
battery parameters (e.g., maximum continuous discharge current), etc.
So far, a very popular locomotion system intended for
moving in diverse terrain was the tracked system. However, observation of mobile robots market reveals that
even more often the tracked locomotion system gives
way to the wheeled system [4] and the hybrid system,
that is, the one which incorporates features of both continuous and discrete locomotion [5].
The analysis of mobility of a particular robot can be
carried out for two principal purposes, that is, for the purpose of:
designing and testing of robots mechanical structure,
synthesis of robots control system.
At the stage of mechanical design, the mobility analysis
based on robots dynamics model allows testing of fulfilment of the imposed requirements and design optimization. The analysis can be repeated on the robots physical
prototype in order to verify results of the analysis carried
out using the robots virtual model.
An important assumption associated with the analysis
of robot mobility is whether sliding of robots wheels is
taken into account. The problem of modelling of motion
of mobile robots including wheel slip was discussed, for
instance, in [6]. From previous research it follows that the
longitudinal slip of wheels should be taken into account
mainly in case of significant accelerations and sometimes
also in case of transition from one type of grounds material into another (e.g., from concrete onto ice). On the other hand, side slip of wheels should be considered during
negotiation of a curved path always if the robot is of the
skid-steered type. Side slips tend to increase with increasing robots velocity of motion and with decreasing radius
of curvature of the path.
In the present work, mobility of a four-wheeled robot
is analysed for different configurations of the drive system and including constraints which follow from robots
dynamics and type of terrain on which the motion takes
place. Aim of the analysis is discussion of advantages
and disadvantages of different configurations of the robots drive system. The analysis is limited to the case of
translational motion of the robots body with constant
velocity. For this reason, the occurrence of wheel slip is
neglected.
2. Model of the robot
The subject of this paper is a small four-wheeled

mobile robot whose parameters are based on the PIAP
SCOUT mobile robot (Fig. 1). This robot was designed
for quick reconnaissance of field and places difficult to
access, such as, the bottom of vehicles chassis, spaces
under seats in means of transportation, narrow rooms and
ventilation ducts.
The robot is equipped with the hybrid locomotion system which combines tracks and wheels. Back wheels of
the robot are independently driven with two servomotors.
The drive is transmitted from the back wheels to the front
wheels via two toothed belts, which also play the role of
caterpillar tracks.
In the present work, the following configurations of
robot drive are considered:
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65
single-axle drive,
drive transmission from one axle to another by means
of a toothed belt,
independent two-axle drive.
Fig. 1. PIAP SCOUT mobile robot

The robots model (Fig. 2) consists of the frame (0)
and driven wheels (1, 2, 3, 4). Additionally, the front
wheels can be connected with the back wheels by means
of toothed belts. Origin of the coordinate system of the
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robot is chosen at the point R, which is located in the

middle of the distance between the front and back wheels
and in the middle of the distance between wheels of the
left-hand side and right-hand side. For particular pairs of
wheels the following subscripts are introduced: l wheels
of the left-hand side (l = { 1,3 } ), r wheels of the righthand side (r = { 2,4 } ), f front wheels (f= { 1,2 } ), b
back wheels (b = { 3,4 } ). The following symbols for the
ith wheel have been also introduced in the robots model:
Ai geometrical center, rgi = rg geometrical (unloaded)
radius, i rotation (spin) angle. The distance of the front
axle from the back axle (wheelbase) is denoted with L,
whereas the distance of the left-hand side wheels from the
right-hand side wheels (track width) with W.
For the mobility analysis assumed are the following
values of robot geometric parameters: L = 0.35 [m], W=
0.42 [m], rg = 0.085 [m], and mass parameters:
robots total mass: mR = 13.73 [kg],
coordinates of the mass centre: xCM = 0 [m], yCM = 0 [m],
mass moment of inertia of the wheel about its spin axis
IWy = 0.006 [kg m2].
2.1. Dynamics of the robot
Within the present work robot motion on inclined terrain will be analysed, which results in the robot being
tilted about x- or y-axis (see Fig. 2a-b). The analysis will
be constrained to the case of translational motion of robots body. It is assumed that robots wheels roll without
sliding, so the following relationships are satisfied:
a)
vR = vRx = i rg => i = vR / rg = i = vR / rg , (2.1)
where: vR value of velocity of the characteristic point R

of the robot.
Dynamic equations of motion, for the case when robot is tilted about y-axis with pitch angle =const, have
the form (see Fig. 2b):
b)
mR xCM = i =1 Fix + mR g sin( b) =

4
= 2 Ffx + 2 Fbx + mR g sin( b)

mR zCM = i =1 Fiz mR g cos( b) =
4
= 2 Ffz + 2 Fbz mR g cos( b) = 0

I Ry b = i =1 Fix h i =1 Fiz xi =
4
= (2 Ffx + 2 Fbx ) h 2 Ffz x f 2 Fbz xb = 0
c)
(2.3)
(2.4)
where: h = rg + zCM, xf = L/2 xCM, xb = L/2 xCM, xCM and

zCM coordinates of the robots mass centre in the robots
coordinate system, GR = mR g, mR and GR respectively
mass and value of gravity force for the robot, g= 9.81
[m/s2] the acceleration of gravity, IRy mass moment of
inertia about the axis parallel to y and passing through the
mass centre of the robot.
Dynamic equations of motion for the robots wheels
can be written as:
Fig. 2. A simplified model of the robot moving on the inclined terrain resulting in robots tilt about its x-axis (a)
and about its y-axis (b), driving torque as well as reaction forces and moments of forces acting on the wheel (c)
(l ={1, 3}, r={2, 4}, f = {1, 2}, b={3, 4}, L = Af Ab =
2AfR = 2AbR, W = Al Ar = 2AlR = 2ArR)
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(2.2)
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IWy q i = t i Fix rg + Tiy Tt
(2.5)
where: Iiy mass moment of inertia of a wheel about its

spin axis, i driving torque, Tiy = Fiz fr rg rolling
resistance moment, fr coefficient of rolling resistance,
Tt moment transmitted to the wheel by the toothed belt.
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Moment of force Tt occurs only in case of transmitting

drive from one wheel to another by means of the toothed
belt. The + sign in the above equation pertains to the
wheel being driven, and to the driving wheel.
In equation (2.4), the rolling resistance moments of
wheels were neglected, because they have only minor
influence on dynamics of the robot treated as a whole as
compared to other moments of forces.
In turn, dynamic equations of motion of the robot, for
the case when it is tilted about x-axis at roll angle =
const, have the form (see Fig. 2a):
mR yCM = i =1 Fiy mR g sin( a) = 0 ,
(2.6)
mR zCM = i =1 Fiz mR g cos( a) = 0 ,
(2.7)
I Rx a = i =1 Fiy h + i =1 Fiz yi = 0
(2.8)
where: yl = W/2, yr = W/2, l = {1, 3} , r= {2, 4} , IRx

mass moment of inertia with respect to the axis parallel to
x and passing through the robots mass centre.
3. Mobility analysis
The mobility analysis of the robot covers two characteristic cases in which it is tilted about x- or y-axis (see
Fig. 2a-b). In both cases the robots body is in translational motion.
In the investigations five types of ground are analysed.
The interaction of the robots tyre with those types of
ground is described with coefficients of friction, adhesion and rolling resistance. Values of those coefficients
assumed in the work are summarized in Table 1 for
contact of dry surfaces. Coefficients in the table have the
following meanings: s coefficient of static friction, k
coefficient of kinetic friction, p coefficient of peak
adhesion, fr coefficient of rolling resistance.
Because of specifics of interaction of the tyre with the
ground, that is, existence within the contact area of regions of adhesion (where the coefficient s is valid) and
sliding (coefficient k) in the literature usually the coefficient of peak adhesion p is introduced, which reflects
maximum value of adhesion for tyre-ground pair. The
coefficient is defined as ratio of maximum value of longitudinal component of ground reaction force to value of
normal component of ground reaction force at the area of
tyre-ground contact. The coefficient of adhesion depends
not only on types of contacting surfaces of the tyre and
the ground, but also, for example, on tyre tread pattern,
tyre pressure, etc. In turn, the coefficient of kinetic fricTab. 1. Coefficients of: sliding friction, adhesion and
rolling resistance describing interaction of the tyre with
selected ground types according to [1,2,3] other sources
and authors own estimations
type of ground
fr
asphalt and concrete
1.00
0.85
0.75
0.015
unpaved road
0.80
0.68
0.65
0.050
rolled gravel
0.71
0.60
0.55
0.020
compressed snow
0.24
0.20
0.15
0.032
ice
0.12
0.10
0.07
0.010
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2012
tion k can be identified with the coefficient of sliding

adhesion, frequently introduced in tyre modelling.
Due to difficulties with finding in the literature the coefficient of static friction describing the interaction of a
rubber tyre with all considered ground types, its value
was estimated based on the known coefficients of peak
adhesion, with the assumption that p = 0.85 s. This
relationship is obtained on the basis of values of coefficients in the case of the rubber tyre interaction with dry
asphalt, which are easily available.
3.1. Solution for the case of the robot tilted

about x-axis
For the mobility analysis of the robot, in the case when

it is tilted through angle = const equations (2.6) (2.8)
are used and additional constraints are introduced.
The first constraint follows from the fact, that robot
cannot slide sideways, so side components of ground
reaction forces are not allowed to exceed the value of
developed friction. Taking in account the coefficient of
static friction s for the tyre-ground pair, this constraint
can be written in the form:
s Fiz Fiy s Fiz .
(2.9)
One should underline that trivial solution for the

range of robot roll angles :
min1 = arctan( s ) arctan( s ) = max1 . (2.10)
in this case depends only on the value of coefficient s.
Limiting values of this angle (i.e., minimum and maximum) for particular types of ground are given in Tab. 2.
Tab. 2. Limiting values of terrain inclination and robots
roll angles for various types of the ground
type of ground
max1/min1 [o]
45.00
unpaved road
38.66
rolled gravel
35.37
compressed snow
13.50
ice
6.843
From the fact that the robot cannot experience rollover

follows the other constraint, according to which normal
components of ground reaction forces must be positive,
that is:
(2.11)
Fiz 0 .
After taking into consideration critical cases, where
Flz= 0 (so in consequence Fly = 0) and Frz= 0 (hence
Fry=0), one obtains
min 2 = arctan(W / (2h)

arctan(W / (2h) = max 2
(2.12)
It follows that in this case the range of angles of robot

roll depends only on position of the robots mass centre
and the track width.
After taking into account the assumed values of the
robots parameters, the following solution is obtained:
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amin 2 = 67.96 [deg] a 67.96 [deg] = amax 2
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(2.13)
Eventually, the allowable range of robots roll angles

depends on ground type as well as on position of the robots
mass centre and robots track width, and is equal to:
max( min1 , min 2 ) min( max1 , max 2 ) ,
(2.14)
where angles min1 and min2 are negative, while angles

max1 and max2 positive.
3.2. Solution for the case of the robot tilted

about y-axis
(2.15)
(2.16)
for independent drive of each axle

Ffx / Fbx = F fz / Fbz , Tt = 0 ,
(a active axle, p passive axle, a = f and p = b or a=b

and p = f ):
t p = 0, t a = (2 IWy / rg + mR rg / 2)vR +
+ mR g rg ( f r c s ) / 2
(2.21)
Tt = IWy vR / rg +
mR vR rg ( f r h la )c h(2 s vR / g ) /(2 L c ) +
mR g rg ( f r c s )( la c h s ) /(2 L c )
for single-axle drive and transmission of drive to another axle by means of the toothed belt
Ffx / Fbx = Ffz / Fbz , p = 0 ,
(2.22)
(2.17)
(2.23)
mR g t (l p c h s ) /(2 L)
Fpx = mR vR la c h(2 s vR / g ) /(2 Lc ) +
(2.24)
+ mR g t (la c h s ) /(2 L)
where: t = tan() = s / c, and + sign is valid for the

case of driving the front wheels, and for the back
wheels.
3.2.3. Solution for the case of independent driving of
two axles
Solution for the case of independent driving of two
axles (Tt = 0) has the form:
f = IWy vR / rg +
mR vR rg ( f r h lb )c + h(2 s vR / g ) /(2 Lc ) +
where: p passive axle, p = b (for front wheels driven)

or p = f (for back wheels driven).
Based on the above assumptions, the following solutions for driving torques and components of ground reaction forces are obtained.
b = IWy vR / rg +
3.2.1. Solution for the case of single-axle drive

Solution for the case of single-axle drive (a active
axle, p passive axle, a = f and p = b or a=b and p = f)
has the form:
Ffx = mR vR lb c + h(2 s vR / g ) /(2 Lc ) +
t p = 0, t a = (2 IWy / rg + mR rg / 2)vR +
(2.18)
+ mR g rg ( f r c b s b ) / 2, Tt = 0
Fax = 2 IWy L / r + mR ( L f r h) vR /(2 L) +

2
g
mR g Ls + f r (la c h s ) /(2 L)
(2.19)
Fpx = 2 IWy L / rg2 mR f r h vR /(2 L) +

mR g f r (la c h s ) /(2 L)
(2.20)
where: s = sin(), c = cos(), lf=L/2 xCM, lb=L/2 +

xCM, h = rg + zCM, and the + sign is valid for the case of
driving the front wheels, and for the back wheels.
3.2.2. Solution for the case of drive transmission from
one axle to another by means of the toothed belt
Solution for the case of driving one axle, and drive
transmission to another axle by means of the toothed belt
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2012
Fax = mR vR l p c h(2 s vR / g ) /(2 Lc ) +
In order to obtain solutions of dynamic equations of

motion for the case of robot motion on inclined ground,
that is, to determine components of ground reaction forces and driving torques, the following assumptions are
introduced:
for single-axle driver
p = 0 , Tt = 0 ,
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+ mR g rg ( f r c s )(lb c + h s ) /(2 L c )
(2.25)
mvR rg ( f r h + l f )c + h(2 s vR / g ) /(2 Lc ) +

+ mR g rg ( f r c s )(l f c h s ) /(2 L c )
(2.27)
mR g t (lb c + h s ) /(2 L)
(2.26)
Fbx = mR vR l f c h(2 s vR / g ) /(2 Lc ) +
(2.28)
mR g t (l f c h s ) /(2 L)
3.2.4. Relationships common for all cases

The characteristic of the presented dynamic equations
of motion is that for each discussed configuration of the
robot one obtains the same solution for the normal components of ground reaction forces, that is of the form:
(2.29)
(2.30)
Ffz = mR g (lb c + h s ) vR h /(2 L)

Fbz = mR g (l f c h s ) + vR h /(2 L)
It should be also noted that this solution is independent of the type of terrain on which the robot moves.
However, the type of terrain will affect values of the
tangent components of ground reaction forces, and as a
result, the values of driving torques.
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3.3. Results of mobility analysis for the case of

robot tilted about y-axis and moving with
constant velocity
The analysis of robots mobility, for the case in which

it is tilted at the pitch angle , will cover all possible options of drive system configuration. For each option, considered are equations (2.1) (2.5) and the constraints:
Fiz 0 ,
p Fiz Fix p Fiz ,
(2.31)
that is all robot wheels must be in contact with the ground

at all times and the value of longitudinal component of
ground reaction force cannot exceed the value of developed friction force.
Limiting values of pitch angle are determined after
considering dynamic equations of motion and particular
constraints. In case when for the given constraint is obtained a solution which violates any other constraint, the
solution is discarded. Also, presented are values of driving
torques and ground reaction forces corresponding to those
angles, which may be important from the point of view
of required drives capabilities and mechanical strength of
the robots structure. In particular, the values of driving
torques can become a decisive factor at the choice of specific robots drive system configuration.
Because of very complex form of general solution, the
following analysis will be conducted for specific robot
parameters. In the present work discussed are results of
mobility analysis of the robot for the case of motion with
constant velocity, and:
front-wheel drive only (Tab. 3),
transmission of drive from back axle to front axle by
means of toothed belt (Tab. 4),
independent two-axle drive (Tab. 5).
In tables 3-5 are given the limiting values of terrain
longitudinal inclination, driving torques and ground reaction forces for given constraints. Because of the fact
that the robots mass centre is located at the geometric
centre of the body, robots mobility is affected mainly
by the coefficients of peak adhesion p. With increasing
pitch angle, robot can at first undergo downward slide
(in case when constraint p Fiz Fix p Fiz is not
satisfied), and only then experience overturn (when constraint Fiz 0 is not satisfied). Analogous conclusions
also pertain to the other considered robots drive system
configurations.
4.
N 4
2012
Conclusions and future work
From the conducted analysis of robots mobility for the

case of its motion with constant velocity can be drawn
the following conclusions.
The worst of the analysed options with respect to robots mobility is driving of only one axle, that is, only
front or back wheels. In this case, range of angles of longitudinal terrain inclination, at which motion is possible,
is the narrowest. Moreover, the range is non-symmetric,
so for instance in the case of front-wheel-drive when
going up the hill the angle is smaller, than while going
down.
The allowable range of longitudinal terrain inclination
angles is the same for the case of drive transmission from
back to front axle and for independent two-axle drive.
Additionally, in the case of symmetric robots mass distribution between axles, the range is symmetric.
After assuming the same total robots mass in all analysed cases, it is evident that for single-axle drive and
for back-to-front drive transmission, driving torque necessary for motion is equal to the sum of driving torques
required for independent driving of both axles. The advantage of independent two-axle drive configuration as
compared to the other considered solutions are the smaller required values of driving torques per single drive.
The advantage of solution with back-to-front-axletransmission drive is the analogous robots mobility with
respect to the independent two-axle drive, but with smaller number of applied drives. This solution is associated
with minor increase in complexity of design, because of
application of additional toothed belts. On the other hand,
the belts can enhance robot mobility in case of motion on
uneven terrain if used as a caterpillar track example of
this is the PIAP Scout robot of PIAP Poland. After taking this into consideration, design solution like that can
be optimal in the analysed case and become a reasonable trade-off between single-axle drive and independent
two-axle drive. However, it should be emphasized that
in order to point-out the true optimal solution for the robots drive system configuration, a more comprehensive
research is required.
In accordance, during future research will be analysed robots mobility including:
more advanced cases of motion (e.g., negotiation of
a curved path),
Tab. 3. Results of robots mobility analysis for the case of motion with constant velocity and the front-wheel driv
type of ground
constraint
[o]
f [Nm]
Ffx [N]
Fbx [N]
Ffz [N]
Fbz [N]
Ffx p Ffz
Ffx p Ffz
19.0
28.5
1.95
2.65
22.52
31.79
0.56
0.33
26.50
37.40
37.17
21.80
unpaved road
Ffx p Ffz
Ffx p Ffz
15.0
23.3
1.76
2.00
19.24
25.43
1.84
1.22
28.30
37.40
36.76
24.45
rolled gravel
Ffx p Ffz
Ffx p Ffz
14.1
19.8
1.51
1.84
17.19
22.34
0.73
0.52
28.65
37.23
36.65
26.12
compressed snow
Ffx p Ffz
Ffx p Ffz
4.5
6.9
0.64
0.51
6.45
7.08
1.15
1.01
32.27
35.39
34.86
31.47
ice
Ffx p Ffz
Ffx p Ffz
2.5
3.2
0.31
0.26
3.29
3.45
0.34
0.33
32.92
34.54
34.36
32.70
Articles
69
VOLUME 6,
N 4
2012
Tab. 4. Results of robots mobility analysis for the case of motion with constant velocity and transmission of drivefrom back
axle to the front axle via toothed belt
type of ground
constraint
[o]
b [Nm]
Tt [Nm]
Ffx [N]
Fbx [N]
Ffz [N]
Fbz [N]
Ffx p Ffz
Ffx p Ffz
40.4
40.4
3.77
3.64
1.11
2.57
12.80
30.81
30.81
12.80
15.06
36.25
36.25
15.06
unpaved road
Ffx p Ffz
Ffx p Ffz
34.2
34.2
3.46
2.98
1.16
1.98
12.68
25.19
25.19
12.68
18.65
37.04
37.04
18.65
rolled gravel
Ffx p Ffz
Ffx p Ffz
31.0
31.0
3.04
2.85
1.08
1.84
12.28
22.37
22.37
12.28
20.46
37.29
37.29
20.56
compressed snow
Ffx p Ffz
Ffx p Ffz
11.3
11.3
1.30
0.94
0.59
0.52
5.96
7.25
7.25
5.96
29.81
36.23
36.23
29.81
ice
Ffx p Ffz
Ffx p Ffz
5.7
5.7
0.63
0.51
0.30
0.27
3.19
3.51
3.51
3.19
31.88
35.13
35.13
31.88
Tab. 5. Results of robots mobility analysis for the case of motion with constant velocity and the independent two-axle drive
type of ground
constraint
[o]
f [Nm]
b [Nm]
Ffx [N]
Fbx [N]
Ffz [N]
Fbz [N]
Ffx p Ffz
Ffx p Ffz
40.4
40.4
1.11
2.57
2.67
1.07
12.80
30.81
30.81
12.80
15.06
36.25
36.25
15.06
unpaved road
Ffx p Ffz
Ffx p Ffz
34.2
34.2
1.11
2.57
2.30
1.00
12.68
25.19
25.19
12.68
18.65
37.04
37.04
18.65
rolled gravel
Ffx p Ffz
Ffx p Ffz
31.0
31.0
1.08
1.84
1.97
1.01
12.28
22.37
22.37
12.28
20.46
37.29
37.29
20.46
compressed snow
Ffx p Ffz
Ffx p Ffz
11.3
11.3
0.59
0.52
0.71
0.43
5.96
7.25
7.25
5.96
29.81
36.23
36.23
29.81
ice
Ffx p Ffz
Ffx p Ffz
5.7
5.7
0.30
0.27
0.33
0.24
3.19
3.51
3.51
3.19
31.88
35.13
35.13
31.88
motion with variable speed (accelerating, braking),

motion with occurrence of wheel sliding,
traversing various obstacles of environment, e.g.
kerbs.
Also planned are investigations which will consist in
analysis of various robots drive system configurations
from the point of view of ensuring the best accuracy of
realisation of motion in the presence of wheels slip.
Acknowledgements
The work has been realised as a part of the project

entitled Dynamics modeling of four-wheeled mobile robot and tracking control of its motion with limitation of
wheels slip. The project is financed from the means of
National Science Centre of Poland granted on the basis
of decision number DEC-2011/03/B/ST7/02532.
AUTHOR
Maciej Trojnacki* Industrial Research Institute for

Automation and Measurements PIAP,
Aleje Jerozolimskie 202, 02-486 Warsaw, POLAND,
mtrojnacki@piap.pl
70
Articles
References
[1] HPWizard.com, Tire friction and rolling

resistance coefficients, retrieved 24.09.2012, from
http://hpwizard.com/tire-friction-coefficient.html.
[2] R. N. Jazar, Vehicle Dynamics: Theory and
Application, Springer + Business Media, 2008.
[3] P. Sandin, Robot Mechanisms and Mechanical
Devices Illustrated, McGraw-Hill, 2003.
[4] P. Szynkarczyk, R. Czupryniak, M. Trojnacki and
A. Andrzejuk, Current State and Development
Tendency in Mobile Robots for Special
Applications. Proceedings of the International
Conference WEISIC08, Bucharest, Romania, 2008,
ISSN 1584-5982, pp. 30-41.
[5] M. Trojnacki, Modelling the motion of the mobile
hybrid robot. International Journal of Applied Mechanics and Engineering 15(3), 2010, pp. 885-893.
[6] M. Trojnacki, Modeling and Motion Simulation of
a Three-Wheeled Mobile Robot with Front Wheel
Driven and Steered Taking into Account Wheels
Slip. Archive of Applied Mechanics, 2012, ISSN
0939-1533, 1-16.
[7] J. Y. Wong (2001), Theory of Ground Vehicles,
Wiley-Interscience, 2001.

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JOURNAL of AUTOMATION, MOBILE ROBOTICS

(Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences; PIAP, Poland)

(Research & Advanced Engineering, Ford Motor Company, USA)

(Interdisciplinary Graduate School of Science and Engineering,

Copyright and reprint permissions

Patricia Melin (Tijuana Institute of Technology, Mexico)

Stanisaw Tarasiewicz (University of Laval, Canada)

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JOURNAL of AUTOMATION, MOBILE ROBOTICS

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