Chapter 3: Relativity

3.1 Einsteins Postulates

3.2 Simultaneity
3.3 The Relativity of Space and Time
3.4 The Lorentz Transformation
3.5 Momentum and Energy
Recommended websites:
http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/einsteinlight/
http://www.onestick.com/relativity/
PH213 2013
3.1
Introductory Concepts
Einsteins Postulates
2
The Special Theory of Relativity was published by
Einstein in 1905
Involves drastic revisions of Newtonian physics
Has important consequences in all areas of physics
Is confirmed by numerous experimental observations
Many of the ideas seem strange different from our
everyday experience!
3
This question is unclear! Do we mean
relative to someone standing by the road?
Answer: (5 + 1) = 6 m/s forwards.
relative to someone sitting on the bus?
Answer: 1 m/s forwards.
relative to a car moving past the bus at 10 m/s?
Answer: 10 6 = 4 m/s backwards
We cannot talk about velocity, only about velocity
relative to a particular observer.
We must define the frame of reference.
Ann is on a bus which is moving forward at 5 m/s.
She walks up the aisle, towards the front of the bus,
at 1 m/s. What is her velocity?
3.1.1 Frame of Reference
4
A frame of reference can be thought of as a person (an
observer) with a ruler and a stopwatch.
I.e. an observer is stationary in his/her own frame of
reference. (Hence for a moving particle we often talk
about the rest-frame of the particle.)
One frame of reference may be moving with respect to
another frame of reference.
y
x O
y'
x'
O'
v
bus

Earth frame
Bus frame
position
of Ann
3.1.2 Inertial Frame of Reference
Newtons First Law: A body acted on by no net force
moves with constant velocity.
An inertial frame is a frame in which this law is true.
- Basically this means it is a frame which is not
accelerating.
Contrast: Imagine a ball lying on the floor of the bus.
If the bus accelerates, the ball starts to move even
though there is no net force on it.
- The earth can normally be treated as an inertial frame.
- Any two inertial frames have a constant relative
velocity.
5
6
We often consider two inertial frames S and S as
shown below. S has constant velocity u relative to S.
O and O coincide at time t = t = 0
y
x O
y'
x'
O'
u
S S'
P
An event at P has space-time coordinates
(x, y, z, t) in S, (x, y, z, t) in S.
These equations are the Galilean coordinate transformation.
According to classical
(Newtonian) physics,
x x ut
y y
z z
t t
'
=
'
=
'
=
'
=
Galilean Transformation
Galilean Velocity Transformation
Now suppose that at P we have a particle moving in
the x-direction.
In S it will be observed to have velocity
In S it will be observed to have velocity
x
dx
v
dt
'
'
=
'
x
dx
v
dt
=
i.e.
x x
v v u
'
=
x x
v v u
'
= +
7
x x ut
'
=
dx dx dx
u
dt dt dt
' '
= =
'
t t
'
=
so
Now and
Note: Measuring Space and Time
We have said that for any event, we can describe its
space-time coordinates in a certain frame, e.g. (x, y, z, t)
in S. But we need to think carefully about how we can
measure these!
For convenience, we consider that
throughout an inertial frame we have
- an infinite 3D array of measuring rods
- a corresponding 3D grid of tiny clocks,
all synchronized.
Then we can determine the space-time coordinates of any
event (without worrying about the time taken for a signal to
travel from the event to an observer elsewhere in the frame.)
8
3.1.3 Einsteins Postulates
Einsteins Special Theory of Relativity is based on just two
brief postulates:
These postulates may sound simple but they have far-
reaching consequences!
9
We say the speed of light in vacuum is c = 3 10
8
m/s
but in what frame of reference?
1) The laws of physics are the same in all inertial
frames of reference.
2) The speed of light in a vacuum, c, is the same in
all directions and in all inertial frames of reference.
Einsteins First Postulate
The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames.
Examples: 1) Throwing and catching a ball on a train
[
F
r
o
m

Y
o
u
n
g

&

F
r
e
e
d
m
a
n
]

10
2) E.m.f. induced by relative motion between an magnet and
a coil.
Einsteins Second Postulate
The speed of light in a vacuum, c, is the same in all
directions and in all inertial frames.
This accounts for the results of the Michelson-Morley
Experiment (see textbooks).
This means the speed of light is independent of the
motion of the source.
If two observers in different inertial frames both
measure the speed of a beam of light, they get the
same answer!
11
Classical mechanics works

Classical mechanics fails

[From Young & Freedman]
Einsteins second postulate also implies that:
It is impossible for an inertial observer to travel at
speed c.
(Light must travel at speed c relative to any observer, so
the observer cannot be in the rest-frame of the light!)
The Ultimate Speed Limit
The Galilean Transformation Revisited
Consider again our two inertial frames, with a moving
particle P. If P is a beam of light, so has velocity c, the
Galilean transformation predicts
But Einstein and experimental evidence says !
c c u
'
= +
c c
'
=
13
i.e. simultaneity is relative!
14
Consider 2 events. Call them Red and Blue.
Suppose that in frame S these events are simultaneous
(i.e. occur at the same time).
Suppose S moves at constant velocity u with respect to S.
Are the events simultaneous in S?
Whether two events at different locations are
simultaneous or not depends on the state of motion of
the observer.
Answer: No!
3.2 Simultaneity
The time interval between two events may be different
in different frames of reference.
Simultaneity: A Thought Experiment
[
F
r
o
m

H
a
l
l
i
d
a
y

15
Sam concludes that
events Red and Blue
happened simultaneously.
Sally concludes that Red
happened before Blue.
Both observers are correct
in their own frame!
Sally is in a spaceship travelling at
constant velocity u relative to Sam.
Two events (Red and Blue) leave
marks on both ships at positions
equidistant from Sally and Sam.
3.3 The Relativity of Space and Time
16
3.3.1 Relativity of Time
Consider another thought experiment.
Again Sally in rest frame S is travelling past Sam in S.
Two events happen at the same location in S but at
different times. Sally measures the time interval At = At
0
.
Sam observes the events to happen at different points
in space, and with time interval At.
[From Y&F]
http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/einsteinlight/
In time At, Sallys ship travels a distance u At.
So in S, the light travels distance
Hence
In S the light travels further, so we expect At > At
0
.
Sally measures
0
2d
t
c
A =
2 2
2
2 2 ( )
u t
l d
A
= +
Squaring and solving for At gives
0
2 2
1
t
t
u c
A
A =

This is often written as where

2 2
1
1 u c
=

0
t t A = A
17
2 2 2 2 0
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
2
2
2
2 l
t d
c
c t u t u
c
t
c
A = = =
A A A
+ +
Note: so
u = 60 km/s = 0.0002c
gives = 1.00000002
(non-relativistic)
u = 6.0 10
7
m/s = 0.2c
gives = 1.02 (relativistic)
u c s
1 >
[From Y&F]
Time Dilation: Summary
Suppose that in a certain rest frame, two events occur at
the same location with time interval At
0
(the proper time).
Then an observer moving at constant speed u relative to
the rest frame will measure the time interval to be
2 2
1
1 u c
=

0
t t A = A
where

Example 3.1
Muons have a mean lifetime of 2.20 10
-6
s as measured in
their own rest frame. If a muon is moving at velocity 0.9c
relative to the earth, what will be the mean lifetime measured
by an observer on earth?
19
Note: > 1 so
The proper time is the shortest time interval. The time
interval measured in any other frame is dilated (longer).
This can also be summarized as moving clocks run slow
0
t t A > A
Example 3.2
Ed is on Earth, while Sheila flies past Earth at high speed in a
spaceship. When Sheila passes Ed, they both start their
stopwatches. Choose the correct answers below:
(i) As measured in Eds frame of reference, when his watch
shows 10 s, Sheilas clock will show:
(a) less than 10 s, (b) 10 s, (c) more than 10 s.
(ii) As measured in Sheilas frame of reference, when her
watch shows 10 s, Eds clock will show:
(a) less than 10 s, (b) 10 s, (c) more than 10 s.

20
Twins Paradox
Consider a pair of identical twins. One stays on Earth.
The other goes on a long, high-speed journey in space.
When the travelling twin returns, he/she will be younger
(i.e. have lived less long) than the twin who stayed at home.
Is the following true or false?
3.3.2 Relativity of Length
To measure the length of an object, we must note the
positions of its two ends at the same time.
Suppose a rod has proper length L
0
as measured in its
rest frame. An observer moving at speed c relative to this
rest frame, along the direction of the length of the rod, will
measure the rod to have length

0
.
L
L

=
Lengths perpendicular to the direction of relative
motion are unchanged.
0
L L s 1 > so , so this is called length contraction.
It applies to all distances (not just lengths of objects)
21
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/mmedia/specrel/lc.cfm
3.3.2 Length Contraction Proof
Suppose Sam stands on a station platform. He measures
its (proper) length to be L
0
. Sally is on a train that moves
through the platform at speed u.
Consider Event 1: Sally passes the back of the platform
Event 2: Sally passes the front of the platform.
22
Sally measures time interval At between these events.
The platform is moving at speed u relative to her, so she
concludes the the platform has length L = u At.
Sam measures the time interval to be At = L
0
/ u.
By time dilation we know At = At
0
,
L L
u u
=
0
.
L
L

=
So giving
Example 3.3
A car is 2.2 m long. How fast will it have to travel to fit into
a parking space which is 2.0 m long?
23
Example 3.4
Sam is in a spaceship which flies past Anne at a constant
speed 0.210c. Anne measures the time taken for the ship
to pass by to be 3.57 s. Find the proper length of the ship.
24
Example 3.5
Suppose a tiny spaceship flies past you at high speed. At a
certain instant, you observe that the tip and tail of the ship
align exactly with the ends of a 1 m ruler that you are holding.
Rank the following lengths in order from longest to shortest:
25
a) the proper length of the 1 m ruler
b) the proper length of the spaceship
c) the length of the spaceship as measured
in your frame of reference
d) the length of the meter stick as measured
in the spaceships frame of reference
26
Let us return to the general situation of an event
happening at a certain location at a certain time.
If the event has space-time coordinates (x, y, z, t) in S,
then the coordinates in S are (x, y, z, t) where:
These are called the
Lorentz transformation
equations.
What happens to these equations as u 0?
( ) x x ut
y y
z z

'
=
'
=
'
=
2
( )
u
t t x
c

'
=
3.4 The Lorentz Transformation
Note
1) Rearranging, we also have
(I.e. interchange primed and
unprimed quantities, and change
the sign of the relative velocity.)
( ) x x ut
' '
= +
2
( )
u
t t x
c

' '
= +
2) For a pair of events, say 1 and 2, we measure
and in S
and in S
where
or
2
( )
( )
x x u t
u
t t x
c

' '
A = A + A
' '
A = A + A
2 1
x x x
' '
'
A =
2 1
x x x A =
2 1
t t t A =
2 1
t t t
' '
'
A =
At = 0 gives (time dilation)
At = 0, Ax = L
0
, Ax = L gives (length contraction)
0
L L =
27
2
( )
( )
x x u t
u
t t x
c

'
A = A A
'
A = A A
t t
'
A = A
Example 3.6
Two events in a frame S have space-time coordinates:

Is there a frame S in which these events are
simultaneous? If so, find the velocity of S relative to S
and the time at which the events occur in S.
28
0 0
1 1 0 2 0 2
, ) ( , ), , ) (2 ( ( , ).
2
x x
x x
t x t x
c c
= =
The Lorentz Velocity Transformation
Now consider a particle moving in the x-direction. How is
its velocity in S related to its velocity in S?
2 2 2 2
( )
( ) 1 1
dx
dt x
x
u u u dx u
x
dt
c c c c
u
v u dx dx u dt dx u dt
v
dt
dt dx dt dx v

'
'
= = = = =
'

So
x
dx
v
dt
'
'
=
'
x
dx
v
dt
=
Hence we have the Lorentz velocity transformation:
2
1
x
x
x
v u
v
uv c

'
=

What happens to these equations as u 0?

29
2
( )
u
c
dt dt dx
'
= ( ) dx dx u dt
'
=
From the Lorentz transformation, taking differentials we
get and .
2
1
x
x
x
v u
v
uv c
'
+
=
'
+
Example 3.7
A spaceship moves away from Earth at speed 0.900c.
The ship fires a probe in the same direction as its motion
with speed 0.700c relative to the ship. Find the velocity
of the probe relative to Earth.
30
31
One of the important conservation laws in physics is the
Principle of Conservation of Momentum.
We need this to be true in all inertial frames of reference.
But defining momentum as , it is not conserved!
3.5 Momentum and Energy
m = p v
Relativistically, to preserve the principle of conservation
of momentum we need a new definition:
m : measured in rest-frame of particle
Ax : measured by a stationary observer
At
0
: measured in rest-frame of particle
Consider a particle of mass m moving with constant speed
v in the x direction. Classically,
.
x
p mv m
t
A
= =
A
0
.
x
p m
t
A
=
A
If a particle has mass m as measured in its rest frame,
then at velocity v, its relativistic momentum is
where
m = p v
1
2 2
1
.
v c

=
With this new definition of
momentum, Newtons second
law is still true in the form
but !
d
dt
=
p
F
m = F a
[From Y&F]
0
m x t
p
t t
A A
=
A A
0
t t A = A p mv =
We have
and
so
Relativistic Momentum
What happens to this equation as v 0?
If v doubles, does p more or less than double?
3.5 Relativistic Kinetic Energy
Classically, kinetic energy is given by
1
2
2
K mv =
Relativistically it can be shown that the kinetic energy of
a particle of rest mass m moving with velocity v relative to
the observer is
where .
1
2 2
1 v c

=
2
( 1) K mc =
What happens as v 0?
If v doubles, what
happens to K?
[From Halliday]
34
A mass 1 kg moves at speed 2 10
8
m/s.
Find its momentum and kinetic energy
according to (a) classical physics, (b) relativity.
Example 3.8
35
Example 3.9
(a) How much work must be done on a mass m to accelerate it
(i) from rest to speed 0.90c ? (ii) from speed 0.90c to 0.99c ?
(b) At what speed is the momentum of a particle twice as great
as the result obtained from the non-relativistic expression mv ?
For a particle of mass m,
E
total energy
Einsteins theory of relativity indicates an equivalence
between mass and energy!
Total Energy and Rest Energy
2 2
E K mc mc = + =
For K = 0, .
2
E mc =
Name some scientific processes and technologies
which are based on E = mc
2
.
36
mc
2

rest energy
K
kinetic energy
+ =
It can be shown (by eliminating velocity) that total energy
and momentum are related by
Energy and Momentum
If p = 0 then again
2
E mc =
2 2 2 2 2
( ) . E mc p c = +
37
E pc =
Massless particles do exist! For example the photon.
Such particles always travel at speed c.
If m = 0 then
38
Electron Volts
Particle energies are often expressed in electronvolts.
When a charge q moves through a potential difference
V its energy changes by qV.
The electron volt is the energy of an electron
accelerated through a p.d. of 1 V. So 1 eV = 1.6 10
-19
J.
Particle masses may be expressed in eV/c
2
.
Particle momenta may be expressed in eV/c.
Note
If a physicist talks about, for example, a 2 MeV particle,
the figure 2 MeV refers to the particles kinetic energy,
not its total energy.
(a) Find the rest energy of an electron, in joules and in eV.
Now consider a 1.00 MeV electron.
(b) Find its total energy (in MeV).
(c) Find its momentum (in MeV/c).
Example 3.10
39
[Electron mass: m
e
= 9.11 10
-31
kg]
40
(a) A neutral pion is said to have mass 135 MeV/c
2
. Find its
mass in kilograms.
Example 3.11
(b) The pion is unstable and can decay into electromagnetic
radiation. If it is at rest before it decays, find the total energy of
the radiation produced.