ACAD Nuclear Science

KFN01Sr02_Components, Structure, and Identification of the A.
doc r6 6/9/2014 3:21:00 PM

ACAD BASIC CURRICULUM
NUCLEAR SCIENCE
CHAPTER 1
COMPONENTS, STRUCTURE, AND IDENTIFICATION OF THE ATOM

STUDENT TEXT
REV 2
TM

2003General Physics Corporation, Elkridge, Maryland
All rights reserved. No part of this book may bereproduced in any formor by
any means, without permission in writing fromGeneral Physics Corporation.
KFN01Sr02_Components, Structure, and Identification of the A.doc r6 6/9/2014 3:21:00 PM

TABLE OF CONTENTS
FIGURES AND TABLES ........................................................................................................... ii
OBJ ECTIVES ............................................................................................................................ iii
ATOMS ........................................................................................................................................ 1
History ...................................................................................................................................... 1
Structure .................................................................................................................................... 1
Atomic Mass Unit ..................................................................................................................... 2
Identification Of Atoms ............................................................................................................ 3
Isotopes ..................................................................................................................................... 4
Chart of the Nuclides ................................................................................................................ 5
SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................. 7
PRACTICE EXERCISES ............................................................................................................ 8
GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................................. 9
EXAMPLE EXERCISE ANSWERS ......................................................................................... 10
PRACTICE EXERCISE ANSWERS ........................................................................................ 11

NUCLEAR SCIENCE - CHAPTER 1 -
i 2003 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION
COMPONENTS, STRUCTURE AND IDENTIFICATION OF THE ATOM REV 2

FIGURES AND TABLES

Figure 1-1 Structure of Helium Atom ........................................................................................ 2
Figure 1-2 Standard Notation for an Atom ................................................................................ 3
Figure 1-3 Isotopes of Oxygen .................................................................................................. 4
Figure 1-4 Portion of the Chart of the Nuclides ........................................................................ 5

Table 1-1 Electrical Properties of Atomic Particles .................................................................. 2
Table 1-2 Atomic Particle Location ........................................................................................... 2
Table 1-3 Atomic Weight of Atomic Particles .......................................................................... 2
Table 1-4 Standard Notation for Selected Atoms ...................................................................... 3

ii 2003 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this chapter, the student will be able to perform the following
objectives at a minimum proficiency level of 80%, unless otherwise stated, on an oral
or written exam.
1. STATE the characteristics of the following atomic particles, including relative mass, charge,
and location within the atom:
a. Proton
b. Neutron
c. Electron
2. DEFINE the following terms:
a. Atomic Mass Unit (AMU)
b. Nucleons
c. Nuclide
d. Isotope
3. STATE the two terms that represent the method by which atoms and subatomic particles are
measured.
4. Given a sample Chart of the Nuclides, IDENTIFY elements and isotopes.
5. Given a standard X
A
Z
notation for an electrically neutral atom, DETERMINE the following:
a. Number of Protons
b. Number of Neutrons
c. Number of Electrons

iii 2003 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

ATOMS
HISTORY
Early Greek philosophers speculated that the
earth was made up of different combinations of
basic substances, or elements. They considered
these basic elements to be earth, air, water, and
fire. Modern science shows that the early Greeks
held the correct concept that matter consists of a
combination of basic elements, but they
incorrectly identified the elements.
In 1661 the English chemist Robert Boyle
published the modern criterion for an element.
He defined an element to be a basic substance
that cannot be broken down into any simpler
substance after it is isolated from a compound,
but can be combined with other elements to form
compounds. To date, 109 different elements
have been confirmed to exist. Researchers claim
to have discovered nine additional elements. Of
the 109 confirmed elements, 90 exist in nature
and the rest are man-made.
Another basic concept of matter that the Greeks
debated was whether matter was continuous or
discrete. That is, whether matter could be
continuously divided and subdivided into ever
smaller particles or whether eventually an
indivisible particle would be encountered.
Democritus in about 450 B.C. argued that
substances were ultimately composed of small,
indivisible particles that he labeled atoms. He
further suggested that different substances were
composed of different atoms or combinations of
atoms, and that one substance could be converted
into another by rearranging the atoms. It was
impossible to conclusively prove or disprove this
proposal for more than 2000 years.
The English chemist J ohn Dalton first proposed
the modern proof for the atomic nature of matter
in 1803. Dalton stated that each chemical
element possesses a particular kind of atom, and
any quantity of the element is made up of
identical atoms of this kind. What distinguishes
one element from another element is the kind of
atom of which it consists, and the basic physical
difference between kinds of atoms is their
weight.
For almost 100 years after Dalton established the
atomic nature of atoms, it was considered
impossible to divide the atom into even smaller
parts. All of the results of chemical experiments
during this time indicated that the atom was
indivisible. Eventually, experimentation into
electricity and radioactivity indicated that
particles of matter smaller than the atom did
indeed exist. In 1906, J . J . Thompson won the
Nobel Prize in physics for establishing the
existence of electrons. Electrons are negatively
charged particles that have 1/1835 the mass of
the hydrogen atom. Soon after the discovery of
electrons, protons were discovered. Protons are
relatively large particles that have almost the
same mass as a hydrogen atom and a positive
charge equal in magnitude (but opposite in sign)
to that of the electron. The third subatomic
particle to be discovered, the neutron, was not
found until 1932. The neutron has almost the
same mass as the proton, but it is electrically
neutral.
STRUCTURE
All matter (gas, liquid or solid) is made up of
one or more elements (hydrogen, oxygen, gold,
etc.).
An element is a substance that cannot be
decomposed or broken into more elementary
substances by ordinary chemical means. Atoms
make up all elements. An atom is the smallest
amount of matter of an element that retains the
elements properties.
Three fundamental (atomic) particles make up an
atom. The individual numbers of these particles

1 of 13 2003 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION
COMPONENTS, STRUCTURE, AND IDENTIFICATION OF THE ATOM REV 2

within an atom determines the characteristics of
the atom. These particles are as follows:
Table 1-1 Electrical Properties of Atomic
Particles
Particle Charge
Proton +1
Neutron 0
Electron 1
An atom having the same number of electrons in
its shells as protons inside the nucleus is
electrically neutral. Figure 1-1 represents an
electrically neutral atom of helium.
The measurement of energy associated with the
atomic particles is in units termed electron volt
(eV). The electron volt is the amount of kinetic
energy gained by an electron when accelerated
through an electric potential difference of 1 volt.
One electron volt is equivalent to 1.603 10
19

joules, or 1.18 10
19
foot pounds (ft lb
f
). For
larger values, the units of energy are keV for
thousand electron volts, MeV for million
electron volts, or BeV for billion electron volts.
Figure 1-1 represents the traditionally acceptable
model of a helium atom. It shows neutrons and
protons making up a nucleus of the atom.
Particles within the nucleus are often referred to
as nucleons. The electrons are in concentric
orbits (also called shells) around the nucleus.
ELECTRONS
IN VARIOUS
ORBITS P N
N
P

Figure 1-1 Structure of Helium Atom
Table 1-2 Atomic Particle Location
Particle Location
Proton Nucleus
Neutron Nucleus
Electron Shell outside nucleus
ATOMIC MASS UNIT
Atoms and their subatomic particles are
measured on the atomic scale that is based on
mass and energy. Energy measurements are in
units of eV, as discussed previously. The unit of
measure for mass is the atomic mass unit
(AMU).
The AMU is based on the mass of the carbon-12
atom and is equal to 1/12 of the carbon-12 atom
resulting in a value of 1.66 10
24
grams.
Table 1-3 displays the properties of the three
particles that make up the atom.
Table 1-3 Atomic Weight of Atomic Particles
Particle Mass (AMU)
Proton 1.00727
Neutron 1.00866
Electron 0.00055
Nuclides do not vary significantly in size. The
radius of the typical atom is approximately
2 10
8
cm. Significant is that the radius of the
nucleus may vary from approximately
1.25 10
-13
cm for the smaller nuclides to
8 10
13
cm for the largest nuclides. Comparing
this to the typical radius of the entire atom shows
that the entire atom is more than 25,000 times
the size of the largest nucleus.


Complete the table for the properties of an
atom.
Particle Charge Mass
(AMU)
Location
Proton
0
0.00055
Example 1-1
The mass of an electron is:
a. equal to a proton
b. equal to a neutron
c. greater than a proton
d. less than a neutron

Example 1-2
IDENTIFICATION OF ATOMS
The number of protons within the nucleus
determines the atomic number of an element. It
is represented by the symbol Z. This is the
reference number used in the periodic table of
elements (Hydrogen with 1 proton, Helium with
2, Oxygen with 8, Uranium with 92, etc.) for
element identification.
The total number of nucleons (neutrons and
protons) in the nucleus is called the mass
number. It is given the symbol A. The number of
neutrons can be calculated by (A Z =N)
Figure 1-2 shows the standard notation for
identification of an atom:
X
A
Z

Where:
A = atomic mass number (protons and
neutrons)
X = element symbol
Z = atomic number (protons)
Figure 1-2 Standard Notation for an Atom
Table 1-4 provides examples of standard
notation for several elements.
Table 1-4 Standard Notation for Selected Atoms
Helium
He
4
2

Boron
B
10
5

Carbon
C
12
6

Oxygen
O
16
8

Uranium
U
238
92

Plutonium
Pu
239
94

There are many different possible combinations
of protons and neutrons within the nucleus. Each
unique combination is referred to as a nuclide.
Each one of the atoms shown in Table 1-4 is a
nuclide.


ISOTOPES
The number of neutrons in an atom of a
particular element may vary. Atoms of the same
element (those with same number of protons)
with different numbers of neutrons are called
isotopes of the element. It is common to identify
isotopes by including the atomic number with
the symbol or the name of the element.
Figure 1-3 represents three isotopes of oxygen:
O-16, O-17, and O-18.
ISOTOPES OF OXYGEN
16 17 18
8 8 8
O O O
8 PROTONS
8 NEUTRONS
8 PROTONS
9 NEUTRONS
8 PROTONS
10 NEUTRONS
NATURAL ABUNDANCE - ATOM PERCENT
99.758% 0.038% 0.204%

Figure 1-3 Isotopes of Oxygen
Additionally, there are at least eight more
unstable or artificially made isotopes of oxygen.
The Chart of the Nuclides provides a visual
representation of stable and unstable isotopes of
all elements.
Because each isotope represents a unique
combination of neutrons and protons in the
nucleus, they are also nuclides.
Important to note here is that isotopes of the
same element all behave the same in chemical
reactions (because they have the same number of
protons and electrons). Isotopes can behave
significantly different from each other in nuclear
reactions (because they have different numbers
of neutrons).
Define the following Nuclear Science terms:
a. Nucleon

b. Isotope

Example 1-3
How many neutrons are in an atom of U
238
92
?

Example 1-4
State the name of the element and the number of
protons, electrons, and neutrons in the nuclides
listed below.
Symbol Name Neutron Proton Electron
H
1
1

B
10
5

N
14
7

Co
60
27

Pu
242
94

Example 1-5


CHART OF THE NUCLIDES
A tabulated chart called the Chart of the
Nuclides lists the stable and unstable nuclides in
addition to pertinent information about each one.
Figure 1-4 shows a small portion of a chart. This
chart plots a box for each individual nuclide,
with the number of protons (Z) on the vertical
axis and the number of neutrons (N =A Z) on
the horizontal axis.
Located in the box on the far left of each
horizontal row is general information about the
element. The box contains the chemical symbol
of the element, the average atomic weight of the
naturally occurring substance, and the name of
the chemical. The known isotopes (elements
with the same atomic number Z but different
mass number A) of each element are listed to the
right.
Complete charts contain much more details than
shown in the example here. This chart shows the
isotopes, and either the percentage of naturally
occurring atoms or the half-life of radioactive
isotopes. By consulting a complete chart, other
types of isotopes can be found, such as naturally
occurring radioactive types. Complete charts are
commonly color coded to show similar half-lives
and neutron cross section for absorption.
Notice there are three isotopes of Hydrogen;
H
1
1
, hydrogen; H
2
1
, deuterium; and H
3
1
, tritium.
H
1
1
, hydrogen and H
2
1
, deuterium are in gray
boxes, they are stable. Hydrogen occurs
99.985% of the time in nature. Deuterium
occurs 0.015% of the time in nature. Tritium is
unstable; it has a half life of 12.3 years.
4 3
2
6
0 1
1
2
0
3
4
5
N
B 10
19.9
B 9
8E-19 s
B 8
770 ms
B 7
4E-22 s
Be 9
100
Li 8
0.84 s
Be 8
~7E-17 s
Li 7
92.5
Be 7
53.28 d
Li 6
7.5
Be 6
5.0E-21 s
Li 5
~3E-22 s
He 7
3E-21 s
He 6
807 ms
He 5
7.5E-22 s
He 4
99.999862
B 12
20.20 ms
B 11
80.1
Be 11
13.8 s
Li 9
177 ms
He 9
Extremely
short
He 8
199 ms
He 3
0.00138
H 2
0.015
H 1
99.985
H
1.0079
Hydrogen
He
4.002602
Helium
Li
6.941
Lithium
Be
9.012182
Beryllium
B
10.811
Boron
Z
H 3
12.3 a
Be 10
1.6E6 a

Figure 1-4 Portion of the Chart of the Nuclides


Using Figure 1-4 Portion of the Chart of the
Nuclides
a. How many elements are identified?

b. How many isotopes of Lithium are
identified?

Example 1-6

NUCLEAR SCIENCE - CHAPTER 1 - 6 of 13 2003 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

SUMMARY
Atoms consist of three basic subatomic particles.
Protons are particles that have a positive
charge, have about the same mass as a
hydrogen atom, and exist in the nucleus of
an atom.
Neutrons are particles that have no
electrical charge, have about the same
mass as a hydrogen atom, and exist in the
nucleus of an atom.
Electrons are particles that have a negative
charge, have a mass about eighteen
hundred times smaller than the mass of a
hydrogen atom, and exist in orbital shells
around the nucleus of an atom.
The model of the atom consists of a dense nucleus
of protons and neutrons (nucleons) surrounded by
electrons traveling in discrete orbits at fixed
distances from the nucleus.
Nuclides are atoms that contain a particular
number of protons and neutrons.
Isotopes are nuclides that have the same atomic
number and are therefore the same element, but
differ in the number of neutrons.
The atomic number of an atom is the number of
protons in the nucleus.
The mass number of an atom is the total number
of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the nucleus.
X
A
Z
represents a specific nuclide.
A represents the mass number, which is
equal to the number of nucleons (protons
and neutrons).
X represents the chemical symbol of the
element.
Z represents the atomic number, which
is equal to the number of protons (and
electrons).
Number of neutrons N =A Z


PRACTICE EXERCISES
1. Use the figure below of an atom to complete
the exercises below:
a. Assuming the same number of each of
the particles that make up this atom,
give a label to each particle.
b. What would need to be changed in the
figure to make it represent another
isotope?
c. Label each of the particles in the figure
with the appropriate electrical charge.
d. List the atomic number and atomic
mass number for this atom.

2. The two primary means used for
measurement of atoms are: (select one)
a. size and shape
b. mass and energy
c. shape and mass
d. energy and size
3. Complete the following table by inserting the
correct number for each part of the associated
atom.
Proton Neutron Electron Nucleons
Hydrogen
H
1
1

Tritium
H
3
1

Silver
Ag
107
47

Uranium
U
235
92

Uranium
U
238
92

4. Using the figure below,
U236
2.34E7 a
U235
7.04E8 a
U234
2.46E5 a
U233
1.59E5 a
U239
23.5 m
U232
70. a
U237
6.75 d
U238
4.47E9 a
Pu238
87.7 a
Pu237
45.2 d
Pu236
2.87 a
Pu235
25.3 m
Pu241
14.4 a
Pu239
2.41E4 a
Pu234
8.8 h
Pu240
6.56E3 a
Th233
22.3m
Th234
24.10d
Th235
7.2m
Th232
1.40E10a
Th230
7.54E4a
Th231
1.063d
Th236
37.5m
Pa235
24.4 m
Pa234
6.69 h
Pa233
27.0 d
Pa232
1.31 d
Pa238
2.3 m
Pa236
9.1 m
Pa231
3.28E4a
Pa237
8.7 m
Np236
1.55E5 a
Np237
2.14E6 a
Np235
1.085 a
Np234
4.4 d
Np240
1.032 h
Np233
36.2 m
Np238
2.117 d
Np239
2.355 d

a. Identify each nuclide.

b. Determine the number of isotopes of
uranium.


GLOSSARY
Atomic Mass Unit
(AMU)
A unit of measurement equal to 1/12 the mass of a Carbon 12 atom
(1.6605402 x 10
24
grams).
Electron Sub-atomic particle that makes up an atom, has a mass of 0.00055 AMU, a
negative charge, and is located outside the nucleus in probability shells
(orbits).
Electron Volt (eV) Amount of kinetic energy (eV) gained by an electron when accelerated
through an electric potential difference of 1 volt. It is equivalent to
1.603 10
19
joule. It is a unit of energy or work, not of voltage, and is
the common measure of a neutrons energy. Larger multiple units of the
electron volt are frequently used: keV for thousand or kilo electron volts,
MeV for million electron volts, and BeV for billion electron volts.
Element A basic substance that cannot be broken down into any simpler substance
after it is isolated from a compound, but can be combined with other
elements to form compounds.
Isotopes A nucleus of the same element (same number of protons) with a different
number of neutrons.
Neutron Sub-atomic particle that makes up an atom, has a mass of 1.00866 AMU, a
neutral charge, and is located in the nucleus.
Nucleon Any particle that is part of the nucleus of an atom, neutrons and protons.
Nuclide Any atom containing a unique combination of neutrons and protons in the
nucleus.
Proton Sub-atomic particle that makes up an atom, has a mass of 1.00727 AMU, a
positive charge, and is located in the nucleus.


EXAMPLE EXERCISE
ANSWERS
Complete the table for the properties of an
atom.
Particle Charge Mass
(AMU)
Location
Proton +1 1.00727 Nucleus
Neutron 0 1.00866 Nucleus
Electron 1 0.00055 Shell
Example 1-1
The mass of an electron is:
a. equal to a proton
b. equal to a neutron
c. greater than a proton
d. less than a neutron
ANSWER: "d less than a neutron
Example 1-2
Define the following Nuclear Science terms:
a. Nucleon
Any particle that is part of the
nucleus of an atom; neutrons and
protons.
b. Isotope
A nucleus of the same element (same
number of protons) with a different
number of neutrons.
Example 1-3
How many neutrons are in an atom of U
238
92
?
AZ = N
238 92 = 146 neutrons
Example 1-4
State the name of the element and the number of
protons, electrons, and neutrons in the nuclides
listed below.
Symbol Name Neutron Proton Electron
H
1
1

Hydrogen
0 1 1
B
10
5

Boron
5 5 5
N
14
7

Nitrogen
7 7 7
Co
60
27

Cobalt
33 27 27
Pu
242
94

Plutonium
138 94 94
Example 1-5
Using Figure 1-4 Portion of the Chart of the
Nuclides
a. How many elements are identified?
a. Five; hydrogen, helium, lithium,
beryllium, and boron
b. How many isotopes of Lithium are
identified?
b. Five; Li-5, Li-6, Li-7, Li-8, and Li-9
Example 1-6


PRACTICE EXERCISE
ANSWERS
1. Use the figure below of an atom to complete
the exercises below:
a. Assuming the same number of each of
the particles that make up this atom,
give a label to each particle.

b. What would need to be changed in the
figure to make it represent another
isotope?
Change number of neutrons in the
nucleus.
c. Label each of the particles in the figure
with the appropriate electrical charge.
Electrons labeled with negative
charge, neutrons no charge, protons
positive charge.
d. List 1) the atomic number and 2) atomic
mass number for this atom.
Atomic mass number of 4 and atomic
number of 2
2. The two primary means used for
measurement of atoms are: (select one)
b. mass and energy
3. Complete the following table by inserting
the correct number for each part of the
associated atom.
Proton Neutron Electron Nucleons
Hydrogen
H
1
1

1 0 1 1
Tritium
H
3
1

1 2 1 3
Silver
Ag
107
47

47 60 47 107
Uranium
U
235
92

92 143 92 235
Uranium
U
238
92

92 146 92 238
4. Using the figure below,
U236
2.34E7 a
U235
7.04E8 a
U234
2.46E5 a
U233
1.59E5 a
U239
23.5 m
U232
70. a
U237
6.75 d
U238
4.47E9 a
Pu238
87.7 a
Pu237
45.2 d
Pu236
2.87 a
Pu235
25.3 m
Pu241
14.4 a
Pu239
2.41E4 a
Pu234
8.8 h
Pu240
6.56E3 a
Th233
22.3m
Th234
24.10d
Th235
7.2m
Th232
1.40E10a
Th230
7.54E4a
Th231
1.063d
Th236
37.5m
Pa235
24.4 m
Pa234
6.69 h
Pa233
27.0 d
Pa232
1.31 d
Pa238
2.3 m
Pa236
9.1 m
Pa231
3.28E4a
Pa237
8.7 m
Np236
1.55E5 a
Np237
2.14E6 a
Np235
1.085 a
Np234
4.4 d
Np240
1.032 h
Np233
36.2 m
Np238
2.117 d
Np239
2.355 d

c. Identify each nuclide.
5, thorium, protactinium, uranium,
neptunium, plutonium,
electrons
two neutrons and two protons



d. Determine the number of isotopes of
uranium.
8, U-232, U-233, U-234, U-235, U-236, U-
237, U-238, U239


KFN02Sr02_Mass Defect and Binding Energy.doc r8 6/9/2014 3:22:00 PM
NUCLEAR SCIENCE
CHAPTER 2
MASS DEFECT AND BINDING ENERGY
MASS DEFECT
Mass of all of the individual particles is
greater than the mass of the combined
nucleus. The difference is called the
Mass Defect.
INDIVIDUAL
PARTICLES
COMBINED
NUCLEUS
p
p
p
p
p
n
n n
n
n
e
e
e

STUDENT TEXT
REV 2
TM

2003 General Physics Corporation, Elkridge, Maryland

TABLE OF CONTENTS
OBJ ECTIVES ............................................................................................................................ iii
FORCES WITHIN THE ATOM.................................................................................................. 1
Electrostatic and Nuclear Force ................................................................................................ 1
Nuclear Force And Nuclear Stability ........................................................................................ 2
Neutron Contribution To Nuclear Stability .............................................................................. 2
TYPES OF RADIATION ............................................................................................................ 3
Alpha Particles .......................................................................................................................... 3
Beta Particles ............................................................................................................................ 4
Gamma Rays ............................................................................................................................. 4
Neutrons .................................................................................................................................... 4
MASS DEFECT AND BINDING ENERGY .............................................................................. 5
Mass Defect .............................................................................................................................. 5
Binding Energy ......................................................................................................................... 7
Binding Energy Per Nucleon .................................................................................................... 8
Binding Energy Per Neutron ................................................................................................... 10
Energy Released by Fission .................................................................................................... 11
SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................... 13
PRACTICE EXERCISES .......................................................................................................... 14
GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................................... 16

NUCLEAR SCIENCE - CHAPTER 2 - i 2003 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION
MASS DEFECT AND BINDING ENERGY REV 2

FIGURES AND TABLES
Figure 2-1 Electrostatic and Nuclear Forces .............................................................................. 1
Figure 2-2 Nuclear Force Boundary .......................................................................................... 2
Figure 2-3 Neutron to Proton Ratio ........................................................................................... 2
Figure 2-4 Radiation Types ....................................................................................................... 5
Figure 2-5 Mass Defect .............................................................................................................. 5
Figure 2-6 Mass Energy Equivalence ........................................................................................ 7
Figure 2-7 Mass Defect .............................................................................................................. 7
Figure 2-8 Binding Per Nucleon vs. Mass Number ................................................................... 8
Figure 2-9 Binding Energy of a Neutron ................................................................................. 10

No Tables

NUCLEAR SCIENCE - CHAPTER 2 - ii 2003 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

OBJECTIVES
or written exam.
1. DESCRIBE the characteristics of the following, including relative effective distance, change
with distance, and nucleons involved with each:
a. Electrostatic Force
b. Nuclear Force
2. STATE the role that neutrons have regarding the stability of a nucleus.
a. Binding energy
b. Binding energy per nucleon
c. Fission
d. Mass defect
e. Mass-energy equivalence
f. Nuclear Stability
4. STATE the purpose of radioactive decay.
5. IDENTIFY the four basic types of radiation.
6. For each of the four basic types of radiation, DISCUSS the following:
a. Relative ability to penetrate substances when compared to the other three types of
radiation.
b. Size or mass.
c. Electrical charge.

NUCLEAR SCIENCE - CHAPTER 2 - iii 2003 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

OBJECTIVES
7. Given a Chart Of Nuclides, or equivalent information, CALCULATE the binding energy and
binding energy per nucleon of a given nucleus.
8. Given a plot of binding energy per nucleon, EXPLAIN the changing slope of the curve.

NUCLEAR SCIENCE - CHAPTER 2 - iv 2003 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

FORCES WITHIN THE
ATOM
ELECTROSTATIC AND NUCLEAR
FORCE
One basic law of electricity is that objects with
the same electrical charge repel each other and
objects with opposite charges attract. This is
termed electrostatic force (also called coulomb
force). The force acts over relatively long
distances and is cumulative.
Because the nucleus is composed of positively
charged protons and neutrally charged neutrons,
an attractive force of some kind must exist in a
stable nucleus to overcome the repulsive
electrostatic force associated with the protons.
This attractive force is termed nuclear force.
Nuclear forces are much stronger than
electrostatic forces when acting over very short
distances, but decrease dramatically with
increasing distance.
The nuclear forces act upon any adjacent
nucleons: proton to proton, neutron to proton,
and neutron to neutron. Figure 2-1 shows a
simplified diagram of the concept of electrostatic
and nuclear force.
Like charged particles slightly
separated will experience a
coulomb force of repulsion:
Nuclear forces of attraction
are produced when adjacent
nucleons are involved:
ELECTRONS
- -
PROTONS
+ +
PROTONS
+ +
PROTON AND NEUTRON
+ n
NEUTRONS
n n

Figure 2-1 Electrostatic and Nuclear Forces
Nuclear force is strong over ________
(long/short) distances and is _________
(stronger/weaker) than electrostatic forces
at that distance.
Example 2-1


NUCLEAR FORCE AND NUCLEAR
STABILITY
Nuclear stability is the inherent ability of an
atom to resist changing its atomic structure or
energy.
Stability of the nucleus depends upon the
balance between the repulsion of the electrostatic
forces and the attraction by the nuclear force. As
shown in the simplified illustration of Figure 2-2,
there is a short boundary surrounding a proton
within which it is attracted to its nearest protons
or neutrons. Outside this boundary, it repels all
other protons within the nucleus by electrostatic
force.
Proton
Nuclear
Force
Boundary

Figure 2-2 Nuclear Force Boundary
The limited range of effectiveness of the nuclear
force has a major role in the stability of the
nucleus.
Define nuclear stability.

Example 2-2
NEUTRON CONTRIBUTION TO
NUCLEAR STABILITY
Because there is no electrostatic repulsion
between protons and neutrons or between
neutrons and neutrons, the effective boundary for
nuclear force is larger between these nucleons.
To put it another way, the nuclear force is more
effective between a neutron and proton, and most
effective between two neutrons. This might
suggest that a nucleus having a greater number
of neutrons than protons would be more stable
(tightly bound) than one that does not. The
following discussion shows this to be true to a
point.
Figure 2-3 is a graph that has two plots. The
dashed line is a reference plot showing what the
graph would look like if all nuclides had the
same number of neutrons as protons (N=Z). The
line of random dots represents the plot of
naturally occurring stable nuclides.
LINE OF
STABILITY
NUMBER OF NEUTRONS (N=A- Z)
N
U
M
B
E
R

O
F

P
R
O
T
O
N
S

(
Z
)
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
N
Z
=1

Figure 2-3 Neutron to Proton Ratio
The plot shows that for small nuclei the ratio of
neutrons to protons is nearly equal to one. In
progressively larger nuclei the neutron to proton
ratio

Z
Z A
becomes larger. This
phenomenon is mainly due to the neutrons
contributing a strong but very short nuclear force
and no repulsive electrostatic force. With


increasingly larger nuclei the ratio of neutrons to
protons increases to add enough nuclear force to
overcome the sum of the electrostatic repulsive
forces and maintain a stable nucleus.
As the size of the nuclei increases there is a point
where increasing the population of neutrons no
longer results in the balance of the repulsive and
attractive forces within the nucleus. At this
point, the addition of neutrons will result in an
unstable nucleus.
There is no known stable nucleus with an atomic
number larger than bismuth ( Bi
209
83
). Nuclei with
more than 83 protons are unstable and
spontaneously undergo radioactive decay and
emit various types of energy in the process.
Describe the plots shown in Figure 2-3
Neutron to Proton Ratio
Z
N
=1

Line of Stability

Example 2-3
TYPES OF RADIATION
Radioactive decay is the process by which an
unstable nucleus spontaneously transmutes from
one form (element) to another to reach a more
stable state. Radioactive decay is discussed in
greater detail in Chapter 3. The term is
introduced here because it is the birthplace of
most of the radiation occurring in a nuclear
power plant.
The radioactive decay process is normally
accompanied by the emission of one or more
types of radiation. The radiation is in the form
of either particles or electromagnetic energy
(gamma rays or photons).
In general, the following statements are true
regarding radiation interactions:
The larger the mass, the greater the ability to
interact with a target substance, resulting in
lesser ability to penetrate the substance
The greater the electric charge, the greater
the ability to interact with a target substance,
and lesser ability to penetrate the substance.
The greater the velocity, the greater the
ability to penetrate a target substance.
There are four basic types of radiation: alpha
particles, beta particles, gamma rays, and
neutrons.
ALPHA PARTICLES
An alpha particle () is a charged particle
consisting of two protons and two neutrons.
Another way to look at it is as a Helium nucleus
with a double positive charge and a relatively
large mass. The large mass and the double
positive charge cause it to interact easily with
any substance it contacts. The large mass and
charge results in a very short range of travel,


because it interacts so much. A piece of paper
stops most alpha particles. Typically alpha
decay occurs at the upper end of the line of
stability.
BETA PARTICLES
A beta particle () is a positively (
+
) or
negatively (
) charged particle emitted from the

nucleus with a mass equal to that of an electron.
It is a high-energy particle of small mass, but the
electrical charge causes an immediate interaction
with the atoms of any material it comes in
contact with. A thin sheet of metal and most
safety glasses stops beta particles.
There are two types of beta particles: electron
and positron.
An electron (beta minus
) is a negative beta
particle. It is typically emitted from unstable
nuclei decaying below the line of stability. It is
commonly found with fission products created
from the fission of fuel in commercial reactors.
A positron (beta plus
+
) is a positive beta
particle that is typically emitted from unstable
nuclei decaying above the line of stability. It is
not commonly seen in commercial nuclear power
plants.
GAMMA RAYS
A Gamma ray () is an electromagnetic energy
that possesses neither mass nor charge. It is in a
class of energy known as photons. Photons are
discrete bundles of energy that have
characteristics of waves and particles. With
essentially no mass and with generally high
energy (velocity), it penetrates materials easily
and does not interact electrically with a
materials atoms. The distance a gamma ray
travels relies greatly on the density of the
material it interacts with. It often requires
several inches of metal or a couple of feet of
concrete to stop.
NEUTRONS
A Neutron ( n
1
0
) is a particle with no electrical
charge originating in the center (nucleus) of an
atom. Energy level can vary greatly. It has a
relatively large mass when compared to Beta
particles, but small in comparison to an alpha
particle. It has no electrical charge, so it easily
penetrates substances. The only way for a
neutron to interact is through collisions with the
materials atoms. It continues to travel until it
gives up all its energy and is absorbed by the
nucleus of an atom terminating its travel. It
usually requires about a foot of water to stop a
neutron.
Figure 2-4 shows these radiation types.


GAMMA
ELECTROMAGNETIC
RADIATION
CHARGE: 0
MASS: 0
NEUTRON
1
0
n
CHARGE: 0
MASS: 1 AMU
n
BETA MINUS
0
-1
e
ELECTRON
CHARGE: -1
MASS: 1/1800 AMU
-
BETA PLUS
+
0
+1
e
POSITRON
CHARGE: +1
MASS: 1/1800 AMU
+
ALPHA
4
2
He
++
HELIUM
NUCLEUS
CHARGE: +2
MASS: 4 AMU
+
+

Figure 2-4 Radiation Types
Of the four radiation types, which one is least
penetrating and why?

Of the four radiation types, which carry no
electrical charge?

Example 2-4
MASS DEFECT AND
BINDING ENERGY
MASS DEFECT
When a nucleus is assembled from its component
parts (protons and neutrons and electrons), the
total mass of the nuclide is less than the total
mass of the individual particles (Figure 2-5).
This mass difference is called the mass defect
(m).

MASS DEFECT
nuclide. The difference is called the Mass
Defect.
INDIVIDUAL
PARTICLES
COMBINED
NUCLEUS
p
p
p
p
p
n
n n
n
n
e
e
e

Figure 2-5 Mass Defect


The mass defect is measured in atomic mass
units (AMU). One AMU is equal to
1.66 10
-24
grams. It is possible to calculate the
mass defect for each nucleus using Equation 2-1.
M m Z) - A ( Zm m
n H
+ =
Where:
m = mass defect (AMU)
Z = atomic number (number of
protons)
m
H
=
mass of H
1
1
atom
(1.0078 AMU)
A = atomic mass number (number
of nucleons)
m
n
= mass of a neutron
(1.0087 AMU)
M = mass of the atom
Equation 2-1
The values for the variables in the above
equation can be found in the Chart of the
Nuclides. To account for the mass of an atoms
electrons, we use the mass of a hydrogen atom
vice the mass of a proton. The mass of the
hydrogen atom has been experimentally
determined and includes the mass of the
electrons.
Calculate the mass defect of the U-235
atom. Uranium-235 has a mass of
235.0439 AMU.
M =235.0439 AMU
M m Z) - A ( Zm m
n H
+ =
0439 . 235
) 92)(1.0087 - 235 ( 1.0078) ( 92 m
+ =

0439 . 235 2441 . 144 7176 . 92 m + =
AMU 9178 . 1 m=
Example 2-5
atom. Uranium has a mass of
238.0508 AMU.

M m Z) - A ( Zm m
n H
+ =

= m
Example 2-6


BINDING ENERGY
Equation 2-2 is derived from Einsteins Theory
of Relativity. Initially postulated, it was later
experimentally proven to be:
2
mc E =
Where:
E = energy released (MeV)
m = mass (AMU)
c =
speed of light
sec
m

Equation 2-2
Figure 2-6 shows a simplified sketch of this
mass
-
energy equivalence.
MASS-ENERGY EQUIVALENCE
E =mc
2
TWO FORMS OF THE SAME THING
MASS ENERGY

Figure 2-6 Mass Energy Equivalence
Incorporating various conversion factors, a
simplified equation for the mass defect to energy
equivalence results:
( ) ( )
=
AMU
MeV
5 . 931 AMU m MeV E

Equation 2-3
The energy term, as related to mass defect, is
known as binding energy (BE). Binding energy
is defined as the energy equivalent of the mass
defect and has units of MeV (mega electron
volts). Binding energy represents the amount of
energy released when protons, neutrons, and
electrons combined to form an atom, as shown in
Figure 2-7.

MASS DEFECT
nuclide. The difference is called the Mass
Defect.
INDIVIDUAL
PARTICLES
COMBINED
NUCLEUS
p
p
p
p
p
n
n n
n
n
e
e
e

Figure 2-7 Mass Defect
Binding energy also represents the amount of
energy that must be supplied to the atom to
separate the atom into its individual protons,
neutrons, and electrons. The more tightly bound
the atom, the greater the binding energy required
to dismantle the atom.
In a previous example, it was determined that a
mass defect occurred when forming a U-235
atom from its component parts. The missing
mass was converted into binding energy that
holds the atom together. It is possible to relate
the mass defect to a certain amount of energy.


Consider the following examples:
Determine the energy equivalence of the
mass defect of a U-235 atom.
The mass defect for a U-238 atom was
1.9178 AMU.
( )
=
AMU
MeV
5 . 931 AMU m E
E =(1.9178)(931.5)
E =1786.4307 MeV
Example 2-7
Determine the energy equivalence of the mass
defect of a U-238 atom. Recall that the mass
defect for a U-238 atom was 1.937 AMU.

Example 2-8
BINDING ENERGY PER NUCLEON
The binding energy of an individual member of
the nucleus, or the binding energy per nucleon
A
BE
, is another important concept. This term
represents the average energy required to remove
a nucleon from a given nucleus. Dividing the
total binding energy by the number of nucleons
equals the binding energy per nucleon.
Plotting binding energy as a function of atomic
mass number results in a curve similar to the one
in Figure 2-8. Note that the binding energy per
nucleon increases to a maximum of 8.6 MeV at a
mass number of 60. Binding energy per nucleon
slowly decreases as the mass number increases
beyond 60. For A >209, no stable nuclei exist.
B
I
N
D
I
N
G

E
N
E
R
G
Y

P
E
R

N
U
C
L
E
O
N

(
M
e
V
)
MASS NUMBER

Figure 2-8 Binding Per Nucleon vs. Mass
Number
The area of interest in this curve is the region of
decreasing binding energy per nucleon with an
increasing mass number.
This occurs because the proton-to-proton
repulsive force increases faster than the nuclear
attractive forces. In this region, there is a net
gain of energy (energy is released) in a fission
reaction. The total binding energy of the system
after a fission reaction is greater than the total
binding energy of the system before the fission


reaction. The increase in binding energy results
in the release of energy from the system. In
other words, some amount of mass is lost after
the fission reaction. This missing mass converts
into energy and radiates from the system.
Calculate the mass defect of the Nickel 58
atom. Ni-58 has a mass of 57.9353 AMU.
M =57.9353 AMU
m = Zm
H
+(A Z) m
n
M
m = 28(1.0078) + (58 28)(1.0087)
57.9353
m = 28.2184 + 30.261 57.9353
m = 0.5441 AMU
Example 2-9
Calculate the binding energy for Ni-58.

Example 2-10
Calculate the binding energy per nucleon for
Ni-58.
nucleon per MeV 74 . 8
58
8 . 506
A
BE
= =
Example 2-11
Given the binding energy for U-238 is
1804.3, calculate the binding energy per
nucleon for U-238.

Example 2-12


BINDING ENERGY PER NEUTRON
Binding energy is similar in terms of neutron
binding energy. As shown in Figure 2-9, this
represents the minimum amount of energy that a
neutron imparts to a target nucleus when
absorbed. This is an important concept; it
determines the feasibility of a fission event
occurring. When the neutron is absorbed by the
target nucleus, the nucleus becomes excited by
an amount equal to the neutron binding energy
and the kinetic energy of the neutron. If this
excitation energy is of sufficient magnitude to
overcome the nuclear forces holding the nucleus
together, the target nucleus splits (fissions). If
the excitation energy is not of sufficient
magnitude, fission does not occur and the atom
reaches stability by radioactive decay.

Figure 2-9 Binding Energy of a Neutron
How much energy does a neutron add when
it is absorbed into a nucleus of a U-235
atom?
mass
defect
=
mass of
original
nucleus and
neutron

mass of
final
nuclei

* 236
92
1
0
235
92
U n U +
Given:
mass of U-235 =235.0439 AMU
mass of n
1
0
=1.0087 AMU
mass of U-236 =236.0456 AMU
Substituting into the mass defect equation:
236.0456 - 1.0087) (235.0439 m + =

Calculating the mass loss from the system:
( ) ( ) 0456 . 236 0526 . 236 m =
AMU 007 . 0 m=
Now using the mass to energy equivalence,
convert the missing mass into the energy
added into the nucleus.
( )
=
AMU
MeV 5 . 931
AMU m E
E =(0.0070)(931.5)
E =6.5205
Neutron absorption into a U-235 nucleus
adds 6.5 MeV of energy.
Example 2-13


Calculate the amount of energy added when
a neutron is absorbed into a nucleus of a U-
238 atom.

* 239
92
1
0
238
92
U n U +
Given:
mass of U-238 =238.0508 AMU
mass of n
1
0
=1.0087 AMU
mass of U-239 =239.0543 AMU

Example 2-14
ENERGY RELEASED BY FISSION
With an understanding of the energy required to
hold the nucleus together, it is easy to see that if
the nucleus is broken apart energy can be
released from the nucleus. The amount of
energy released can be calculated using the same
formulas used to determine the mass defect and
the mass-to-energy conversion. The concept
remains the same to determine the difference
between the mass of the reactants and the mass
of the products. If there is additional mass from
the reactants that is not accounted for in the mass
of the products then energy has been released.


How much energy is released from the
following fission event?

+ + + + n 2 Pd Te n Pu
1
0
108
46
130
52
1
0
239
94

Given:
mass of Pu-239 =239.0522 AMU
mass of n =1.0087 AMU
mass of Te-130 =129.9062 AMU
mass of Pd-108 =107.9039 AMU.
mass
defect
=
mass of
original
nucleus and
neutron

mass of
final
products


( ) [ ] 0087 . 1 2 9039 . 107 9062 . 129
- 1.0087) (239.0522 m
+ +
+ =

( ) ( ) 8275 . 239 0609 . 240 m =
AMU 2334 . 0 m=
released from the system.
( ) AMU m
AMU
MeV 5 . 931
E
=
2334) (931.5)(0. E =
MeV 4 . 217 E =
There are 217.4 MeV released from this
fission event.
Example 2-15
+ + + + n 3 Xe Sr n U
1
0
139
54
94
38
1
0
235
92

Given:
mass of U-235 =235.0439 AMU
mass of Sr-94 =93.9154 AMU
mass of Xe-139 =138.9178 AMU.

Example 2-16


SUMMARY
Mass defect is the difference between the mass
of the atom and the sum of the masses of its
constituent parts.
Binding energy is the amount of energy that
must be supplied to a nucleus to completely
separate its nuclear particles. Binding energy is
the energy equivalent of the mass defect.
Mass defect can be calculated by using the
equation below.
m = [Z(m
H
1
1
) +(AZ)m
n
] m
atom

Binding energy can be calculated by multiplying
the mass defect by the factor of 931.5 MeV per
AMU.
( ) ( )
=
AMU
MeV
5 . 931 AMU m MeV E


PRACTICE EXERCISES
1. Define the term nuclear stability.
2. For each of the following statements,
determine if the statement is applicable to a.
nuclear force or b. electrostatic force.
a. Of the two nuclei, it exists only between
the protons. ___
b. Effective over relatively long distance
within the nucleus.___
c. Very strong for short distances. ___
d. To a point, adding more neutrons to the
nucleus makes the force less effective.
___
e. Exists between both particles in the
nucleus. ___
3. Generally, the ratio of __________ to
___________ is __________ for
___________ nuclei. (Select the correct one
below)
a. protons, neutrons, larger, smaller
b. neutrons, protons, larger, smaller
c. protons, neutrons, smaller, smaller
d. neutrons, protons, smaller, larger
4. For the four types of radiation introduced in
this chapter fill in each column in the table
below, to make the column true
Has
Electrical
Charge
Order Of
Penetrating
Ability
(High-Med-
Low)
Has
Mass?
Is a
Photon

5. Describe the relationship between the terms
mass defect and binding energy.

6. State the condition that determines whether
fission does or does not occur when a
nucleus absorbs a neutron.

7. Calculate the mass defect of the H-1 atom.
Hydrogen-1 has a mass of 1.00782503 AMU.

8. Determine the energy equivalence of the
mass defect of a H-1 atom.

9. Calculate the binding energy per nucleon for
H-1.

10. Calculate the mass defect of the Plutonium-
240 atom. Pu-240 has a mass of 240.053808
AMU.


mass defect of a Pu-240 atom.

Pu-240.


GLOSSARY
Binding Energy (BE) The energy equivalent of the mass defect (MeV). Represents the amount of
energy that is released when an atom is formed from its component protons
and neutrons. Also, represents the amount of energy that must be supplied
to the atom to completely separate it into its individual protons and neutrons.
Binding Energy (BE)
Per Nucleon
Average energy required to remove a nucleon from the nucleus.
Electrostatic Force The attractive or repulsive force that exist between two objects due to their
electrical charge.
Fission The splitting of an atoms nucleus resulting from an energy input (excitation
energy) into the nucleus greater than the nuclear forces holding the nucleus
together.
Mass Defect (m) The difference in mass between a nucleus and the sum of the masses of the
individual protons and neutrons in the nucleus (AMU).
Mass-Energy
Equivalence
The conversion factor equating mass to energy (931.5
AMU
MeV
).
Nuclear Force The strong attractive force in a nucleus between to adjacent nucleons.
Nuclear Stability The inherent ability of an atom to resist changing its atomic structure or
energy level.
Radioactive Decay The process by which an unstable nucleus spontaneously transmutes from
one form to another to reach a more stable state.


EXAMPLE EXERCISE
ANSWERS
Nuclear force is strong over ________
(long/short) distances and is _________
(stronger/weaker) than electrostatic forces
at that distance.
Example 2-1
Define nuclear stability.
The inherent ability of an atom to resist
changing its atomic structure or energy.

Example 2-2
Describe the plots shown in Figure 2-3
Neutron to Proton Ratio
Z
N
=1
The dashed line is a reference plot of
N = Z.
Line of Stability
A plot of naturally occurring stable
nuclides.
Example 2-3
Of the four radiation types, which one is least
penetrating and why?
Alpha - very large mass and very large
electrical charge causing it to interact
with material on contact.
Of the four radiation types, which carry no
electrical charge?
Gamma and neutron.
Example 2-4
atom. Uranium has a mass of
238.0508 AMU.
AMU 0508 . 238 M =
M m Z) - A ( Zm m
n H
+ =
0508 . 238
) 92)(1.0087 - 238 ( 1.0078) ( 92 m
+ =

0508 . 238 2702 . 147 7176 . 92 m + =
AMU 937 . 1 m=
Example 2-6
Determine the energy equivalence of the mass
defect of a U-238 atom. Recall that the mass
defect for a U-238 atom was 1.937 AMU.
( )
=
AMU
MeV
5 . 931 AMU m E
E =(1.937)(931.5)
E =1804.3155 MeV
Example 2-8


Calculate the binding energy for Ni-58.
( ) AMU m
AMU
MeV
5 . 931 E
=
E =(931.5)(0.5441)
MeV 506.8 E =
Example 2-10
Calculate the binding energy per nucleon for
Ni-58.
MeV 7 . 8
58
8 . 506
A
BE
= =
Example 2-11
Given the binding energy for U-238 is
1804.3, calculate the binding energy per
nucleon for U-238.
Me 58 . 7
238
3 . 1804
A
BE
= = V
Example 2-12
Calculate the amount of energy added when
a neutron is absorbed into a nucleus of a U-
238 atom.
mass
defect
=
mass of
original
nucleus and
neutron

mass of
final
nuclei

* 239
92
1
0
238
92
U n U +
Given:
mass of U-238 =238.0508 AMU
mass of n
1
0
=1.0087 AMU
mass of U-239 =239.0543 AMU
239.0543 - 1.0087) (238.0508 m + =
( ) ( ) 0543 . 239 0595 . 239 m =
AMU 0052 . 0 m=
added into the nucleus.
( )
=
AMU
MeV 5 . 931
AMU m E
E =(0.0052)(931.5)
E =4.8438
Neutron absorption into a U-238 nucleus
adds 4.84 MeV of energy.
Example 2-14


+ + + + n 3 Xe Sr n U
1
0
139
54
94
38
1
0
235
92

Given:
mass of U-235 =235.0439 AMU
mass of Sr-94 =93.9154 AMU
mass of Xe-139 =138.9178 AMU.

( ) [ ] 0087 . 1 3 9178 . 138 9154 . 93
- 1.0087) (235.0439 m
+ +
+ =

( ) ( ) 8593 . 235 0526 . 236 m =
AMU 1933 . 0 m=
released from the system.
( ) AMU m
AMU
MeV 5 . 931
E
=
1933) (931.5)(0. E =
MeV 1 . 180 E =
There are 180.1 MeV released from this
fission event.
Example 2-16


PRACTICE EXERCISE
ANSWERS
1. Define the term nuclear stability.
The inherent ability of an atom to resist
changing its atomic structure or energy.
determine if the statement is applicable to A.
nuclear force or B. electrostatic force.
a. Of the two nuclei, it exists only
between the protons. B
b. Effective over relatively long distance
within the nucleus. B
c. Very strong for short distances. A
d. To a point, adding more neutrons to the
nucleus makes the force less effective.
B
e. f. Exists between both particles in
the nucleus. A
3. Generally, the ratio of __________ to
___________ is __________ for
___________ nuclei. (Select the correct one
below)
a. protons, neutrons, larger, smaller
4. For the four types of radiation introduced in
this chapter fill in each column in the table
below, to make the column true.

Has
Electrical
Charge
Order Of
Penetrating
Ability
(H-L)
Has
Mass?
Is a
Photon
Alpha Gamma Alpha Gamma
Beta Neutron Beta
Beta Neutron
Alpha

5. Describe the relationship between the terms
mass defect and binding energy.
Binding energy is equal to the energy
released by the mass defect associated
with the nucleus of any specific atom.
6. State the condition that determines whether
fission may or may not occur when a
nucleus absorbs a neutron.
The target nucleus must receive enough
excitation energy to overcome the
nuclear forces holding the nucleus
together before fission is possible.
7. Calculate the mass defect of the H-1 atom.
Hydrogen-1 has a mass of 1.007825032
AMU.
M =1.007825032 AMU
m =Z(m
p
+m
e
) +(A Z)m
n
M
m =1(1.007276470 +0.0005485) +(1
1)(1.0086649) 1.00782503
m =1.00782497 +0.0 + 1.007825032
m =0.000000062 AMU
mass defect of a H-1 atom.
( ) AMU m
AMU
MeV
5 . 931 E
=
E =(931.5)(0.000000062)
E =5.78 x 10
5
MeV


H-1.
MeV 10 78 . 5
1
10 78 . 5
A
BE
5
5
=
10. Calculate the mass defect of the Plutonium-
240 atom. Pu-240 has a mass of 240.053808
AMU.
M =240.053808 AMU
m =Z(m
H
) +(A Z)m
n
M
m =94(1.00782503) +(240
94)(1.0086649) 240.053808
m =94.73555 +1.47.26508 +
240.053808
m =1.9468 AMU
mass defect of a Pu-240 atom.
( ) AMU m
AMU
MeV
5 . 931 E
=
E =(931.5)(1.9468)
E =1813.4679 MeV
Pu-240.
MeV 56 . 7
240
4679 . 1813
A
BE
= =


KFN03Sr02_Radioactive Decay and Interactions.doc 6/9/14 3:22 PM R11
NUCLEAR SCIENCE
CHAPTER 3
RADIOACTIVE DECAY AND INTERACTIONS
n
n
X
-ray
X*
X

STUDENT TEXT
REV 2
TM


TABLE OF CONTENTS
FIGURES AND TABLES ......................................................................................................... iii
OBJ ECTIVES ............................................................................................................................. iv
RADIOACTIVE DECAY PROCESSES ..................................................................................... 1
Unstable Nuclides ..................................................................................................................... 1
Alpha Decay.............................................................................................................................. 2
Beta Decay ................................................................................................................................ 4
Electron Capture ....................................................................................................................... 6
Photon (Gamma Ray or X-Ray) Decay .................................................................................... 7
Decay By Neutron Emission ..................................................................................................... 7
ELECTRON RADIATION INTERACTIONS ............................................................................ 9
Energy Levels And Location .................................................................................................... 9
Excitation and Radiation ........................................................................................................... 9
RADIATION INTERACTIONS ................................................................................................ 11
Alpha Particle.......................................................................................................................... 11
Beta Particle ............................................................................................................................ 11
Gamma Ray ............................................................................................................................ 12
Photoelectric effect ................................................................................................................. 12
Compton Scattering ................................................................................................................ 12
Pair Production ....................................................................................................................... 13
NUCLEUS RADIATION INTERACTIONS ............................................................................ 15
Excitation And Radiation ........................................................................................................ 15
NEUTRON INTERACTIONS ................................................................................................... 15
Types Of Reactions ................................................................................................................. 15
Scattering Reactions................................................................................................................ 15
Absorption Reactions .............................................................................................................. 16
Radiative Capture ................................................................................................................... 16
Fission ..................................................................................................................................... 17
HALF-LIFE DETERMINATION .............................................................................................. 18
Decay Rates ............................................................................................................................ 18
HALF-LIFE ................................................................................................................................ 19

RADIOACTIVE DECAY AND INTERACTIONS REV 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS
SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................... 22
GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................................... 25


FIGURES AND TABLES
Figure 3-1 Alpha Decay of U-235 ............................................................................................. 2
Figure 3-2 Alpha Decay Using Chart of Nuclides ..................................................................... 3
Figure 3-3 Beta Minus Decay on a Chart of Nuclides ............................................................... 4
Figure 3-4 Beta Plus Decay on a Chart of Nuclides .................................................................. 5
Figure 3-5 Electron Capture Decay using Chart of Nuclides .................................................... 6
Figure 3-6 Orbital Electron Capture by the Nucleus ................................................................. 6
Figure 3-7 Neutron Emission from First Excited Daughter of Decay Chain ............................ 8
Figure 3-8 Neutron Decay using Chart of Nuclides .................................................................. 8
Figure 3-9 Simplified Nucleus and Electron Shells ................................................................... 9
Figure 3-10 Alpha Particle Specific Ionization versus Distance Traveled in Air ...................... 11
Figure 3-11 Photoelectric Effect .............................................................................................. 12
Figure 3-12 Compton Scattering .............................................................................................. 13
Figure 3-13 Pair Production ..................................................................................................... 13
Figure 3-14 Attenuation of Electromagnetic Radiation (in Lead) ........................................... 14
Figure 3-15 Elastic Scattering ................................................................................................. 15
Figure 3-16 Inelastic Scattering ............................................................................................... 16
Figure 3-17 Radiative Capture ................................................................................................. 17
Figure 3-18 Fission of U-235 ................................................................................................... 17
Figure 3-19 Half-Life ............................................................................................................... 19

No Tables


OBJECTIVES
or written exam.
1. Given an atom with multiple electron shells:
a. COMPARE allowed number of electrons in the outer shell to the allowed number of
the inner shell.
b. COMPARE the energy carried by an electron in an outer shell to the energy carried
by and electron in an inner shell.
c. DESCRIBE the response of electrons in the outer shells to the ejection of an electron
in an inner shell.
a. Ground state energy
b. Excited state energy
c. Ion
d. Ionization
e. Gamma ray
f. X-ray
g. Radioactive decay
h. Decay chain
i. Spontaneous fission
j. Half-life
3. EXPLAIN how each of the following forms of radiation interact with the surrounding
environment and lose energy.
a. Alpha

iv 2003 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

OBJECTIVES
b. Beta
c. Gamma (Photoelectric effect, Compton Scattering, and Pair Production)
4. EXPLAIN how each of the following radioactive decay processes occur:
a. Alpha
b. Beta
c. Electron Capture
d. Photon Decay
e. Neutron Emission
5. EXPLAIN the radioactive decay processes, including the following:
a. Difference in atomic and mass numbers between the parent and daughter nuclides
b. Disposition of energy associated with the process
6. COMPARE elastic and inelastic scattering processes.
7. COMPARE radiative capture and fission processes.
8. Given a sample of a radioactive element, EXPLAIN the relationship between the number of
atoms contained in the sample and the activity of the sample.
9. EXPLAIN the half-life method of determining radioactive decay.

v 2003 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

RADIOACTIVE DECAY
PROCESSES
UNSTABLE NUCLIDES
Radioactive decay (or radioactivity) is the
process by which an unstable nucleus
spontaneously transmutes (changes) from one
form (nuclide) to another to reach a more stable
state. It is termed radioactive decay because one
or more forms of radiation, as discussed in
Chapter 2, accompany it. Two terms that will be
used extensively in the discussion of radioactive
decay are:
Parent Nuclide, the original nucleus
which decays.
Daughter Nuclide, the new nucleus
present after the decay event.
Unstable isotopes will emit particles, energy, or
both particles and energy in an attempt to reach a
stable condition. However, not all isotopes
contain the same amount of excitation energy. In
fact, some isotopes have too few neutrons and
others have too many nucleons. An unstable
nuclide will attempt to reach a stable condition
by any one, or combination of several decay
mechanisms. In general, unstable nuclides decay
by six (6) basic decay mechanisms:
Alpha decay
Beta decay [beta minus or beta plus (also
known as positron)]
Electron Capture (k-capture)
Neutron emission
Photon (gamma or x-ray) Decay
Internal Conversion
Equation 3-1 shows a formula symbolizing
radioactive decay.
E R Y X
A
Z
A
Z
+ +
Where:
X
A
Z
=
parent nuclide
Y
A
Z
=
daughter nuclide
R = radiation type
E = energy
Equation 3-1
The energy term here includes the kinetic energy
carried by the daughter nucleus, and the primary
and any secondary radiation particles. It is the
binding energy represented by the mass
difference (m) between the parent nuclide, and
the sum of the masses of the daughter nuclide
and the radiation particles.
A substantial number of radioactive (unstable)
nuclides (also called radionuclides) exist in
nature. These naturally occurring elements have
atomic numbers above 83, and are commonly
referred to as heavy nuclides. Each goes through
a radioactive decay process at a definite rate,
depending upon the nature of the nuclide, to
reach stability.
The daughter nuclide resulting from radioactive
decay is itself often unstable, resulting in
additional radioactive decay. Given that most of
the nuclides contained within a nuclear plant fuel
bundle are heavy nuclides, a significant number
of radioactive decay events are occurring from
this source.
Each fission event within the nuclear reactor
results in two radioactive nuclides, in addition to
one or more neutrons and other types of

NUCLEAR SCIENCE CHAPTER 3 - 1 of 33 2003 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

radiation. These nuclides are commonly referred
to as fission fragments. Each fission fragment
starts a radioactive decay chain resulting in
several stages of radioactive nuclides before
reaching a stable element. This may be
demonstrated as follows:
( ) ( )
( ) .) etc ( E R S W
E R W Y E R Y X
3
A
Z
A
Z
2
A
Z
A
Z
1
A
Z
A
Z
+ +
+ + + +

Equation 3-2 Fission Fragment Decay Chain
The decay chains of the fission products are
significant because after the reactor is shutdown,
the decay of the fission fragments continues. A
very high percentage of the kinetic energy from
the decay process is absorbed in the system and
results in production of heat energy. Nuclear
plant design must consider methods of core
cooling after reactor shutdown. More detail on
this process will be covered in later chapters.
The radioactive decay of a parent nuclide
always results in a stable daughter nuclide
(true/false).
Example 3-1
ALPHA DECAY
Alpha decay involves heavy nuclei, generally
those having mass numbers greater than 210.
These nuclides decay through the emission of an
alpha particle. Equation 3-3 symbolizes alpha
decay of a nuclide.
E Y X
4
2
4 A
2 Z
A
Z
+ +

Where:
X
A
Z
=
parent nuclide
Y
4 A
2 Z
=
daughter nuclide
4
2

= alpha particle
E = Energy
Equation 3-3 Alpha Decay
The daughter nucleus of alpha decay has two
neutrons and two protons less than the parent
nucleus. Figure 3-1 is an example of alpha decay
for uranium-235.
4
2
X
4 A
2 Z
-ray
n
+
+
n
ALPHA ()
X
A
Z

4
2
KINETIC
ENERGY
+ +KE +
+ + + KE Th U
4
2
231
90
235
92

Figure 3-1 Alpha Decay of U-235
The U-235 nucleus emits an alpha particle
resulting in a daughter nucleus of thorium-231.
The energy released in this decay scheme is the
combined kinetic energy (KE) of the alpha
particle and the daughter nucleus, and the energy
possessed by the gamma radiation. Most of the


energy (well over 95%) associated with alpha
decay is possessed by the alpha particle.
Explain the radioactive decay process as
represented by the following:
E Y X
4
2
A
Z
A
Z
+ +

Example 3-2
Compare the differences between the
number of nuclei in a parent nucleus and
daughter nucleus after alpha decay.

Example 3-3
Each of the following nuclides undergo alpha
decay. Write the decay equation for each
nuclide.
a. Th to U
?
?
238
92

a. U to Pu
?
?
239
94

Answer
a. + + + KE Th U
4
2
234
90
238
92

b. Pu
239
94

Example 3-4
If you looked at an alpha decay on the chart of
nuclides, you would find the resulting daughter
as shown in Figure 3-2.
in
-
out
Original
Nucleus
out
+
out
out
H
3
1
+ + +
in
n
1
0
out
p
1
1
in
p
1
1
out
n
1
0
in
He
3
2
+ + +
out
H
2
1
+ +
in
H
2
1
+ +
out
He
3
2
+ + +
in
H
3
1
+ + +
Lose 2 Neutrons
Down two
Lose 2 Protons
Left two

Figure 3-2 Alpha Decay Using Chart of
Nuclides


BETA DECAY
Beta decay results in the emission of either a
positive or negative electron from the nucleus.
Beta decay involving negative electrons is
referred to as beta minus (
-
) decay. This is the
most common form of beta decay, especially
when associated with the operation of a nuclear
reactor.
As we know, the nucleus does not contain
electrons. In the case of beta minus decay, a
neutron within the parent nucleus spontaneously
converts to a proton and an electron. Most
fission fragments contain an abundance of
neutrons, providing the environment for a
significant number of beta decay events.
An additional particle is given off, common with
beta decay that has zero charge and negligible
mass, but does possess some of the energy from
the conversion. This particle is called a
neutrino (
0
0
). Neutrinos travel at near the speed
of light, and since they have essentially no mass
or charge, they do not interact with material.
These properties result in the energy that they
carry being lost to the system.
The daughter product nucleus of
-
decay has one
less neutron and one more proton than the parent
nucleus. The mass number remains unchanged
and atomic number is increased by one.
Equation 3-4 represents
-
decay of neptunium-
239.
+ + +

0
0
0
1
239
94
239
93
KE Pu Np
Equation 3-4 Beta Minus Decay of Np-239
in
-
out
Original
Nucleus
out
+
out
out
H
3
1
+ + +
in
n
1
0
out
p
1
1
in
p
1
1
out
n
1
0
in
He
3
2
+ + +
out
H
2
1
+ +
in
H
2
1
+ +
out
He
3
2
+ + +
in
H
3
1
+ + +
Neutron converted to
Proton and electron
Lose neutron left one
Gain proton up one

Figure 3-3 Beta Minus Decay on a Chart of
Nuclides
The kinetic energy for this particular decay is
carried by the beta particle (
0
1
) and the
neutrino. The neutrino, on the average, carries
away approximately 2/3 of the kinetic energy
leaving the beta particle with approximately 1/3
of the energy. It is also possible for a gamma
radiation to accompany beta decay and share the
kinetic energy carried.
Unstable nuclides of intermediate to low mass
numbers generally decay by the beta plus (
+
)
method. This decay mode is the result of a
proton transforming to a neutron by emitting a
+

particle (also called a positron). As with the case
of the beta minus decay, a neutrino accompanies
this decay mode and gamma radiation is
possible.
An example of
+
decay mode is provided in
Equation 3-5.
+ + +
+
0
0
0
1
13
6
13
7
KE C N
Equation 3-5 Beta Plus Decay of Nitrogen-13


Again, if you look at a beta plus decay on the
chart of nuclides, you would find the resulting
daughter as shown in Figure 3-4.
in
-
out
Original
Nucleus
out
+
out
out
H
3
1
+ + +
in
n
1
0
out
p
1
1
in
p
1
1
out
n
1
0
in
He
3
2
+ + +
out
H
2
1
+ +
in
H
2
1
+ +
out
He
3
2
+ + +
in
H
3
1
+ + +
Proton and electron collide
Neutron and positron
Lose proton down one
Gain neutron right one

Figure 3-4 Beta Plus Decay on a Chart of
Nuclides
In
+
decay, the atomic mass number remains the
same and the atomic number decreases by one.
Beta plus decay is relatively rare in the nuclear
plant environment. With few exceptions, the
fission fragments produced in the reactor have an
excess of neutrons that decay by beta-minus
decay.
Beta _______ (plus/minus) decay is the most
common of beta decay occurring in a nuclear
reactor. The atomic number of a beta minus
decay daughter nuclide is __________ (the
same/ one higher/one lower) than the parent
nuclide and the atomic mass number is
______________ (the same/one higher/
one lower).

Example 3-5
Beta positive decay causes the atomic number to
_________ (increase/decrease/remain the same)
and the atomic mass to __________
(increase/decrease/remain the same)

Example 3-6
Each of the following nuclides undergo beta
minus decay. Write the decay equation for each
nuclide.
a. N to C
?
?
14
6

b. Xe to I
?
?
131
53

Answer
a. + + +

KE N C
0
1
14
7
14
6

b. I
131
53

Example 3-7
plus decay. Write the decay equation for each
nuclide.
a. O to F
?
?
18
9

b. Te to I
?
?
124
53

Answer
a. + + +
+
KE O F
0
1
18
8
18
9

b. I
124
53

Example 3-8


ELECTRON CAPTURE
Electron capture is a decay process that occurs
after a nucleus captures one of its own orbital
electrons. Recall from Chemistry that the orbits
where electrons exist are known as shells and are
given letter designations, such as K, L, and M.
The K shell is the shell closest to the nucleus of
the atom. The captured electron neutralizes a
proton and transforms it into a neutron. This is
how this decay process got the name Electron
Capture or sometimes known as K Capture.
This process can be represented by the following
reaction:
n e p
0
1
0
1
1
1
+

Equation 3-6
Once again looking at the chart of the nuclides,
we can find the resulting daughter as shown in
Figure 3-5.
in
-
out
Original
Nucleus
out
+
out
out
H
3
1
+ + +
in
n
1
0
out
p
1
1
in
p
1
1
out
n
1
0
in
He
3
2
+ + +
out
H
2
1
+ +
in
H
2
1
+ +
out
He
3
2
+ + +
in
H
3
1
+ + +
Proton and electron collide
Lose proton down one
Gain neutron right one

Figure 3-5 Electron Capture Decay using Chart
of Nuclides
Figure 3-6 shows the K-capture process:
53 p
+
72 n
e
-
52 p
+
73 n
I
125
53
Te
125
52
n e p
0
1
0
1
1
1
+

Te e I
125
52
0
1
125
53
+

Figure 3-6 Orbital Electron Capture by the
Nucleus
In the case of K-capture, as in positron emission,
atomic number of the daughter is one less than
the parent, while atomic mass number remains
unchanged.
The following reactions give examples of
electron capture for decay of copper-64 to
nickel-64.
) stable ( Ni ) shell K ( e Cu
64
28
0
1
64
29
+

Equation 3-7


Each of the following nuclides undergo electron
capture decay. Write the decay equation for
each nuclide.
a. Ne to Na
?
?
22
11

b. Eu to Gd
?
?
152
64

Answer
a. Ne e Na
22
10
0
1
22
11
+

b. Gd
151
64

Example 3-9
PHOTON (GAMMA RAY OR X-RAY)
DECAY
Whenever an atom radioactively decays by
alpha, beta, or electron capture, the event is
usually accompanied by another decay
mechanism. The other mechanism is photon
decay.
When a parent nucleus emits an or a particle,
the resulting daughter product formed may still
be in an excited state. The energy difference
between the excited state and the ground state is
released almost instantaneously as a gamma.
It is important to note that no change in A and Z
numbers accompany the gamma emission. The
only effect on the nucleus involved is to leave it
with less energy and usually less tendency for
further decay. This process is often shown as:
+ + + KE Th U
4
2
231
90
235
92

Equation 3-8 Gamma Decay Accompanying
Alpha Decay of Uranium 235
DECAY BY NEUTRON EMISSION
Uranium and transuranic elements (elements
with atomic numbers greater than 92) normally
undergo alpha decay to reach a more stable state.
In very rare cases, these nuclides can undergo
spontaneous fission.
Spontaneous fission differs from neutron-
induced fission in the fact that the excitation
energy input from an absorbed neutron is not
required to initiate the fission event. The process
is similar to neutron-induced fission since it
emits two daughter products, some neutrons, and
a large amount of energy that may include one or
more of the other radiation types. The two
daughter products share most of the energy.
U-235, U-238, and Pu-240 are three examples of
elements that can fission spontaneously.
Important to note here, is that in a nuclear reactor
environment, the neutrons that are a product of
spontaneous fission can cause neutron-induced
fission if absorbed by fuel nuclei.
For nuclides with atomic numbers less than 92,
some form of energy input is required to cause
the nucleus to emit a neutron. It is a rare process
because of the large amount of energy required
to overcome the nuclear forces holding the
nucleus together.
In reactor operations, a small fraction of the
fission fragments has the necessary excitation
energy to emit a neutron from the first excited
daughter of the decay chain. The emission occurs
shortly after the formation of the excited nucleus.
An example of this type of neutron emission is
shown in Figure 3-7.



Figure 3-7 Neutron Emission from First
Excited Daughter of Decay Chain
The figure shows that the neutron emission
occurs approximately 2% of the time for each
Br-87 nuclide. Beta decay occurs the other 98%
of the time.
n Kr Kr
Kr Br
1
0
86
36
* 87
36
0
1
* 87
36
87
35
+
+

Equation 3-9
Neutron emission lowers the neutron-to-proton
ratio, similar to beta decay. This process leads to
a more stable daughter nuclide.
The decay process due to a neutron emission and
the subsequent daughter product can also be
illustrated by use of the chart of nuclides, as
in
-
out
Original
Nucleus
out
+
out
out
H
3
1
+ + +
in
n
1
0
out
p
1
1
in
p
1
1
out
n
1
0
in
He
3
2
+ + +
out
H
2
1
+ +
in
H
2
1
+ +
out
He
3
2
+ + +
in
H
3
1
+ + +
Neutron ejected
Lose neutron left one

Figure 3-8 Neutron Decay using Chart of
Nuclides
List 3 elements that can undergo

Example 3-10


ELECTRON RADIATION
INTERACTIONS
ENERGY LEVELS AND LOCATION
Electrons move around the nucleus of an atom in
well-defined orbits called shells, as illustrated in
Figure 3-9.

Figure 3-9 Simplified Nucleus and Electron
Shells
This is a simplification of a more complex
arrangement, but is sufficient to support the
discussion in this text.
Each electron has a certain level of kinetic
energy that determines the distance it orbits the
nucleus. The electrons of lowest kinetic energy
reside in the inner shell, and the kinetic energy
increases with increasing distance from the
nucleus.
The number of electrons in each shell is limited.
In general, the maximum number of electrons
per shell increases with distance from the
nucleus. For example, the inner shell may have
two electrons while the fifth shell may contain
50 electrons.
An atom is said to be at ground state (lowest
energy state) when all allowed energy shells are
filled by electrons. Figure 3-9 represents a neon
atom, with two electrons in the first shell and
eight electrons in the outer shell. This is its
ground state configuration.
Electrons always seek the lowest energy state
available. If an electron is ejected from an inner
shell, an electron from an outer shell will migrate
to the vacant position in the inner shell. With
multiple shells, this could be a cascading effect
impacting all shells outside of the one with the
vacant electron position.
Electrons with the least energy reside in the
shell ________ (closest/farthest) to the
nucleus.
Example 3-11
Electron energy is _________
(proportional/inversely proportional) to the
distance from the nucleus.
Example 3-12
EXCITATION AND RADIATION
An electron can also absorb energy from an
outside source that causes it to move to a higher
energy state. When this occurs the atom is no
longer at ground state energy and is said to be
excited. An atom always seeks to return to its
ground state. It does this by emitting energy in
the form of electromagnetic radiation; in this
case in the form of an x-ray. The amount of
energy given off is equal to that gained by the
subject electron.
If an electron gains enough energy, it can escape
the atoms shell and become a free electron. This
leaves the atom in an excited state. It has a net
positive charge equal to the negative charge of


the ejected electron. The atom returns to ground
state by a high-energy outer electron filling the
vacancy of the ejected electron. This electron
gives up energy when filling the lower energy
shell vacancy in the form of an x-ray. The energy
given off can be in the range of a few eV to
100,000 eV.
A free electron is any electron that is not
electrically bound to an atoms nucleus. It exists
as a free electron until coming into contact with
an atom that has a positive charge nearly equal to
that of the electron. The atom then captures it
and any energy difference is given off in the
form of an x-ray.
The energy required to remove an electron from
the atom is termed ionization energy. Any
process that causes the atom to have a net
positive or negative charge is termed
ionization. The atom that has undergone
ionization is an ionized atom and hence, is
called an ion.
Select the choice below (a, b, c, d,) that best
completes the following phrase.
An atom is missing an electron in its inner
shell. This atom is said to be 1)_________.
The atom is not at ground state and is said
to be 2)__________. It returns to ground
state by emitting a 3)_______________
a. 1) excited 2) ionized 3) gamma ray
b. 1) ionized 2) excited 3) x-ray
c. 1) electromagnetic 2) ionized
3) electron
d. 1) electromagnetic 2) excited
3) electron
Example 3-13
The energy to remove an electron from the atom
is termed _________ energy.
a. Excitation
b. Binding
c. Ionization
d. Comptons
Example 3-14


RADIATION
INTERACTIONS
ALPHA PARTICLE
The alpha particle is a massive particle
consisting of two protons and two neutrons and
has a resultant charge of +2. The alpha particle
is basically a helium nucleus. Alpha particles are
produced from the radioactive decay of heavy
metals and some nuclear reactions. Alpha decay
often occurs among nuclei that have a favorable
neutron/proton ratio, but contain too many
nucleons for stability.
Alpha particles are the least penetrating
radiation. The major energy loss for alpha
particles is due to electrical excitation and
ionization. As an alpha particle passes through
air or soft tissue, it loses, on the average, 35 eV
per ion pair created. Due to its highly charged
state, large mass, and low velocity, the specific
ionization (ionization per unit length traveled) of
an alpha particle is very high.
Figure 3-10 illustrates the specific ionization of
an alpha particle, on the order of tens of
thousands of ion pairs per centimeter in air. An
alpha particle travels a relatively straight path
over a short distance.

Figure 3-10 Alpha Particle Specific Ionization
versus Distance Traveled in Air
BETA PARTICLE
There are two types of beta particles. A beta
particle is formed when the particle is ejected
from an unstable nucleus. Both particles have
the mass of an electron. There are beta positive
particles (
+
, beta plus or positrons) and beta
negative particles (

, beta minus or electrons).
They are high energy particles with a small mass.
The electrical charge causes an immediate
interaction with atoms of any materials they
come in contact with.
The interaction of a beta particle and an orbital
electron leads to electrical excitation and
ionization of the orbital electron. These
interactions cause the beta particle to lose energy
in overcoming the electrical forces of the orbital
electron. The electrical forces act over long
distances. Therefore, the two particles do not
have to come into direct contact for ionization to
occur.
The amount of energy lost by the beta particle
depends upon both its distance of approach to the
electron and its kinetic energy. Beta particles
and orbital electrons have the same mass.
Therefore, they are easily deflected by collision.


Because of this fact, the beta particle follows a
tortuous path as it passes through absorbing
material. The specific ionization of a beta
particle is low due to its small mass, small
charge, and relatively high speed of travel.
GAMMA RAY
The gamma ray () is a photon of
electromagnetic radiation with a very short
wavelength and high energy. It is emitted from
an unstable atomic nucleus. Because it has no
mass or electrical charge, it has high penetrating
power.
There are three methods of attenuating (reducing
the energy level) gamma rays:
photoelectric effect
Compton scattering
pair production
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
The photoelectric effect occurs when a low energy
gamma strikes an orbital electron, as shown in
Figure 3-11. The total energy of the gamma is
expended in ejecting the electron from its orbit.
Photoelectric effect results in ionization of the
atom and expulsion of a high-energy electron.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
PHOTON
ELECTRON
-

Figure 3-11 Photoelectric Effect
The photoelectric effect is most predominant with
low energy gammas and rarely occurs with
gammas having energy above 1 MeV (million
electron volts).
COMPTON SCATTERING
Compton scattering is an elastic collision between
an electron and a photon. In this case, the photon
has more energy than is required to eject the
electron from orbit, or it cannot give up all of its
energy in a collision with a free electron. Since
not all of the energy from the photon can be
transferred, the photon must be scattered. The
scattered photon must have less energy, or a
longer wavelength. Compton scattering results in
ionization of the atom, expulsion of a high-energy
electron, and a gamma at a lower energy level than
the original.
Compton scattering is most predominant with
gammas at an energy level in the 1.0 to 2.0 MeV
range.


-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
PHOTON
PHOTON
ELECTRON
-

Figure 3-12 Compton Scattering
PAIR PRODUCTION
At higher energy levels, pair production is the
predominate interaction between a gamma ray
and matter. When a high-energy gamma passes
close enough to a heavy nucleus, the gamma
disappears, and its energy reappears in the form
of an electron and a positron (same mass as an
electron, but has a positive charge), as shown in
Figure 3-13.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- -
-
-
-
-
>1.02 MeV
PHOTON
POSITRON
ELECTRON
+
-
-
+
0.51 MeV
PHOTON
0.51 MeV
PHOTON
HEAVY
NUCLIDE

Figure 3-13 Pair Production
This transformation of energy into mass must take
place near a particle, such as a nucleus, to
conserve momentum. The kinetic energy of the
recoiling nucleus is very small; therefore, all of the
photon's energy that is in excess of that needed to
supply the mass of the pair appears as kinetic
energy of the pair of particles. For this reaction to
take place, the original gamma must have at least
1.02 MeV energy.
The electron loses energy by ionization. The
positron interacts with other electrons and loses
energy by ionizing them. If the energy of the
positron is low enough, it will combine with an
electron (mutual annihilation occurs), and the
energy is released as a pair of 0.51 MeV
gammas. The probability of pair production
increases significantly for higher energy
gammas.
Gamma radiation has a very high penetrating
power. A small fraction of the original stream
will pass through several feet of concrete or
several meters of air. The specific ionization of
a gamma is low compared to that of an alpha
particle, but is higher than that of a beta particle.
The three methods for gamma interaction work
together to cover the entire range of gamma
energy levels as shown in Figure 3-14.


0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100
Energy (MeV)
M
a
s
s

A
t
t
e
n
u
a
t
i
o
n

C
o
e
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

(
c
m
2
/
g
)
0
.
0
0
1

0
.
0
1

0
.
1
1
.
0

1
0

1
0
0

2
0
0
Compton
Scattering
Photoelectric
Effect
Pair
Production
Total Attenuation

Figure 3-14 Attenuation of Electromagnetic Radiation (in Lead)


NUCLEUS RADIATION
INTERACTIONS
EXCITATION AND RADIATION
The structure of the nucleus is similar to that of
the electrons in the fact that the nucleons exist in
shells that correspond to distinct energy states.
The nucleus also has a ground (lowest energy)
state, in addition to allowed excited states, each
requiring a discrete excitation energy. The
excitation energy required for the nucleus is
considerably higher than that required for the
electron shells, generally measured in the MeV
range.
When excited, a nucleus can also return to
ground state by emitting electromagnetic
radiation. This radiation is called a gamma ray
(-ray). The differences between the x-ray and -
ray are their energy levels and where they
originate in an atom.
State the primary differences between x-
rays and gamma rays.

Example 3-15
Where are gamma rays originated or
emitted?

Example 3-16
NEUTRON INTERACTIONS
TYPES OF REACTIONS
Theoperation of a nuclear reactor depends upon
the interaction of neutrons with the nuclei of
atoms contained within the reactor. Both fuel and
non-fuel materials interact with neutrons in the
reactor.
There are two major categories of neutron
interactions: absorption and scattering. The
absorption reactions are classified as either
radiative capture or fission reactions, and the
scattering reactions are classified as either elastic
or inelastic scattering reactions.
SCATTERING REACTIONS
Elastic scattering occurs when a neutron is
deflected by a nucleus without being absorbed.
Elastic scattering conserves kinetic energy.
Elastic scattering is often visualized as a
Billiard Ball type of collision (Figure 3-15).
In this case, some kinetic energy of the neutron
is transferred to the nucleus of the target atom.
Depending upon the mass of the nucleus, the
amount of kinetic energy transferred from the
neutron to the nucleus varies.
n
X
n
X
n =NEUTRON
X =TARGET NUCLEUS

Figure 3-15 Elastic Scattering


Inelastic scattering is similar to elastic scattering,
except that kinetic energy is not conserved. In
this case, some of the kinetic energy raises the
internal energy of the target nucleus. The target
nucleus returns to the ground state by emitting a
gamma ray (Figure 3-16).
X
n
X*
n
X
X* =EXCITED TARGET NUCLEUS
-ray

Figure 3-16 Inelastic Scattering
Compare elastic and inelastic scattering
reactions. Include distribution of kinetic
energy and probability of an excited
nucleus.
Elastic -

Inelastic -

Example 3-17
The figure below represents:
a. Elastic Scattering
b. Inelastic Scattering
n
X
n
X
n =NEUTRON
X =TARGET NUCLEUS

Example 3-18
ABSORPTION REACTIONS
Absorption reactions in a nuclear plant have a
great importance in the operation of the reactor.
These reactions, radiative capture and fission,
determine whether reactor power will increase or
decrease. This section will look at both
reactions.
RADIATIVE CAPTURE
In radiative capture, a neutron is absorbed by the
target nucleus, resulting in an excited compound
nucleus. The compound nucleus returns to
ground state by emitting gamma rays
(Figure 3-17). The results of this reaction are the
disappearance of a neutron and the formation of
a new nucleus and a gamma ray. The original
target nucleus acts as a neutron absorber. The
loss of neutrons by this reaction is an important
consideration in reactor physics calculations.


n
X
-ray
X
*
X
1
X = TARGET NUCLEUS
X* = EXCITED ISOTOPE
X
1
= ISOTOPE OF TARGET NUCLEUS

Figure 3-17 Radiative Capture
FISSION
Neutron induced fission is similar to radiative
capture, except that sufficient energy is added to
the target causing the target nucleus to split. The
splitting of the nucleus typically releases two
fission fragments, some neutrons, and energy
(Figure 3-18).
U-235
n
U-236*
FISSION FRAGMENT 1
FISSION FRAGMENT 2
n
n
-ray
-ray

Figure 3-18 Fission of U-235
Compare radiative capture and fission.
Include the interaction between the neutron
and nucleus and any resulting products.
Radiative capture -

Fission -

Example 3-19
Where is the origin of the gamma ray
emitted during fission?

Example 3-20


HALF-LIFE
DETERMINATION
DECAY RATES
It is not possible to point to a specific
radionuclide and calculate when it decays. As is
the case with other random process, it is possible
to statistically determine the average behavior of
a large sample of a specific radionuclide.
In doing so, it is found that a given radionuclide
has a definite probability per unit time of
decaying. This rate of decay at any instant is
directly proportional to the number (N) of
radioactive atoms present in the sample at that
instant. With each decay, the number of
radionuclides decreases.
The term decay constant () is the probability
per unit time that a decay event will occur within
a radioactive sample. It relates decay rate to the
number of nuclei present in a given sample.
Values for decay constant can be found
expressed in terms of inverse time, such as
1/second, 1/hour, 1/year, etc. Values are also
expressed as second
-1
, minute
-1
, hour
-1
, etc.
The decay rate of a sample can be determined by
dividing the change in the number of
radionuclides (N) by the time interval required
for the change to occur (t).
The term activity is synonymous with decay
rate. The term is often used in reference to the
radiation properties of a given sample. It is
expressed in disintegrations per unit of time,
normally disintegrations per second (dps), but
could be any other units of time.
Equation 3-10 can be used to relate the terms
decay constant, decay rate, and activity.
N A =
Where:
A = activity
= decay (proportionality
constant)
N = number of radionuclides
Equation 3-10
The units in time must be the same for the decay
constant and the activity.
From a radiological perspective, knowing the
activity of a given sample of a radionuclide at
any given time can be useful. For planning
purposes, it is often desirable to know how much
of a sample is left after a given amount of time.
This can be done using the following equation:
t
0
e N N

=
Where:
N =
number of atoms present
after time (t)
N
0
=
number of atoms initially
present
e = natural logarithmic base
(2.718)
t = time in appropriate units
(seconds, hours, years, etc.)
= decay constant (per unit
time)
Equation 3-11


Because of the proportionality between the
number of radionuclides and the activity within a
given sample, Equation 3-11 could be rewritten
by exchanging N (number of nuclides) with A
(activity). A
0
would be the initial activity and A
the activity after time (t)
t
0
e A A

= . The units
for A
0
and A must always be the same.
HALF-LIFE
The method most used to represent the rate at
which a radionuclide decays is by means of the
radioactive half-life of the nuclide. Half-life is
defined as the time required for one half of a
given number of radionuclides to disintegrate.
Figure 3-19 is a graphical representation of the
process.
100
0
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
1 2 3 4 5 6
TIME ( ) IN UNITS OF HALF-LIFE t
N
U
M
B
E
R

O
F

A
T
O
M
S

(
N
)
50%
25%
12.5%
6.25%
3.125%
1.5625%

Figure 3-19 Half-Life
Using Figure 3-19, exchange the number of
atoms for grains of sand 10
6
, and consider
the time to be in units of days. Now consider
the following:
You are given a truckload of sand to unload.
You are instructed to unload one half of what is
on the truck each day. The first day you unload
one half of the loaded truck, leaving you with
one half (50%) of the original load for tomorrow.
When tomorrow arrives you, unload one half of
what is on the truck, leaving you with 25% of the
original load. The next day you unload half of
what is on the truck, leaving you with 12.5% of
the original full load. Theoretically, you are
never going to get all of the sand off the truck
using this method. In reality, you will get to a
point where nobody cares about what is left on
the truck.


This analogy can be applied to radioactive
nuclides. In reality, the number (and activity)
can become small enough such that it is no
longer a concern for most radionuclides,
assuming we have the time to wait. The values
for half-life range from fractions of a second, to
billions of years, depending upon the specific
radioactive nucleus.
Using Equation 3-11, an equation for
determining half-life can be developed as
follows:
t
0
e N N

=
t
0
e
N
N

= and substituting
0
N
N
for
2
1

=
693 . 0 2 ln 2
1
ln
t
2
1

Equation 3-12
Half-life for radionuclides is also given on the
Chart of the Nuclides. The equation for
determining half-life is more often used for
determining the value for decay constant, as
follows:
2
1
t
693 . 0
=
Where:
= decay constant (per unit
time)
0.693 = natural log of 2
2
1
t = half life (time in appropriate
units; seconds, hours, years,
etc.)
Equation 3-13
A radioactive sample is determined to have a
half-life of 30 minutes. Using Equation 3-11
and Equation 3-13, determine how long it takes
the sample to decay to of its original value.
Solving for decay constant ()
1
2
1
min 0231 . 0
min 30
693 . 0
t
693 . 0

= = =
Equation 3-11 can now be used, inserting
values for N
0
=4 and N =1, as follows:
( )
t
e 4 1

=
= =
) t ( 0231 . 0
e
4
1

) t ( 0231 . 0
4
1
ln =
min 60
0231 . 0
3863 . 1
0231 . 0
4 ln
0231 . 0
4
1
ln
t = =
=
Example 3-21


Determine the number of Californium 252
atoms that will be present in 12 years.
Given:
N
0
=4.78 10
16

Half Life =2.638 years
t
0
e N N

=

Example 3-22
At time zero, a radioactive sample contains
1 10
10
atoms. After 31 days, the sample
contains 3.6 10
4
atoms. Determine the half
life of the sample.
e N N
t
0

=

=
2
1
t
693 . 0
=

=
2
1
t
Example 3-23


SUMMARY
Modes of Radioactivity Decay
Alpha decay is the emission of an alpha particle
(2 protons and 2 neutrons) from an unstable
nucleus. The daughter nuclide has an atomic
number 2 less than the parent nuclide and a mass
number 4 less than the parent nuclide. The
daughter nucleus commonly releases its
excitation energy by gamma emission.
Beta-minus decay effectively converts a neutron
to a proton and an electron, which is immediately
ejected from the nucleus. The daughter nuclide
has its atomic number increased by one and has
the same mass number as the parent.
Beta-plus decay effectively converts a proton to
a neutron and a positron, which is immediately
ejected from the nucleus. The daughter nuclide
has its atomic number decreased by one and has
the same mass number as the parent.
In electron capture, the nucleus absorbs an
electron from the innermost orbit. This electron
combines with a proton to form a neutron.
Internal conversion occurs when a gamma ray,
emitted by the nucleus as it goes from the excited
state to the ground state, interacts with one of the
innermost electrons of the same atom. The
electron is ejected from the atom.
Decay chains can be found by tracing the steps
an unstable atom goes through as it tries to
achieve stability.
Many modes of radioactive decay result in a
daughter nuclide that has an energy level above
the ground state. This excitation energy is
usually released immediately in the form of a
gamma ray.
The type of decay that a nuclide will typically
undergo can be determined by its relationship to
the line of stability on the Chart of the Nuclides.
Nuclides that lie below and to the right of the
line of stability will typically beta minus decay.
Nuclides above and to the left of the line will
typically beta plus decay or electron capture.
Most alpha emitters are found in the upper, right-
hand corner of the chart.
Interaction of Radiation with Matter
An alpha particle deposits a large amount of
energy in a short distance of travel due to its
large mass and charge.
Beta-minus particles interact with the electrons
orbiting the nucleus of atoms, causing ionization
by displacing the electrons. The beta particle
loses energy with each interaction. After the
beta particle loses enough energy, it is captured
in the orbital shells of an atom.
Positrons interact with matter much the same
way as beta minus particles. After the positron
has lost most of its energy by ionizing atoms, it
is annihilated by interaction with an electron.
The electron-positron pair disappears and is
replaced by two gammas, each with the energy
equivalent of the mass of an electron (0.51
MeV).
Neutrons interact with matter by elastic
scattering, inelastic scattering, or absorption.
Photoelectric effect is where a gamma interacts
with an electron orbiting an atom. The entire
energy of the gamma is transferred to the
electron, and the electron is ejected from its
orbit.
In Compton Scattering, a gamma interacts with
an orbital electron, but only part of the gamma
energy is transferred to the electron. The
electron is ejected from its orbit, and the gamma
is scattered off at a lower energy.


In Pair-production, a gamma interacts with the
electric field of a nucleus and is converted into
an electron-positron pair. The gamma must have
energy greater than 1.02 MeV for this to occur.
Neutron Interactions
Interactions where a neutron scatters off a target
nucleus are either elastic or inelastic. In elastic
scattering, kinetic energy and momentum are
conserved and no energy is transferred into
excitation energy of the target nucleus. In
inelastic scattering, some amount of kinetic
energy is transferred into excitation energy of the
target nucleus.
The conservation principles that apply to an
elastic collision are conservation of kinetic
energy and conservation of momentum.
Radioactive capture is the absorption of a
neutron by the target nucleus, resulting in an
excited nucleus that subsequently (typically
within a small fraction of a second) releases its
excitation energy in the form of a gamma ray.
Particle ejection occurs when a neutron is
absorbed by a target nucleus, resulting in the
formation of a compound nucleus. The
compound nucleus immediately ejects a particle
(for example, alpha or beta).


PRACTICE EXERCISES
1. An atom is missing an electron within an
inner shell.
a. What will be the response of the other
electrons of this atom, and why?
b. What type of radiation is released?
2. What must occur in order for an atom to
become an ion?
3. Compare the energy required to cause
excitation in the nucleus to that to excite the
electrons.
determine which type of neutron interaction
is applicable (inelastic scattering, elastic
scattering, radiative capture, neutron induced
fission)
a. Energy is conserved. ______________
b. Results in first daughter products
emitting neutrons. ______________
c. Billiard ball type collision.
___________
d. Absorption reaction where target
nucleus reaches ground state by
emitting a gamma. ________________
e. Results in fragments, neutrons, and
gamma emission.
f. A scattering reaction that results in a
loss of kinetic energy.
5. Describe the radioactive decay process.
6. For each of the following statements, select
the applicable decay mode (alpha, beta,
neutron emission)
a. Occurs with fission fragments 98% of
the time
b. Occurs with fission fragments about 2%
of the time.
c. Results in the daughter product having
two less protons and two less neutrons
then the parent nuclide.
d. Atomic number increases by one in the
daughter product.
7. Two terms may be used to describe the
radiation properties of a sample of
radioactive material and is measured in
disintegrations per unit of time, normally
disintegrations per second (dps). What are
these terms?
8. Explain the half-life method of determining
the decay rate of a radioactive sample.
9. Explain the three methods used by a gamma
to interact with surrounding materials.
10. Explain how each of the following decay
processes affect the parent nucleus
a. Alpha
b.

c.
+

d. Gamma
e. Electron capture


GLOSSARY
Compound Nucleus The unstable nucleus of an atom immediately following the absorption of a
neutron.
Daughter Nuclide The new nucleus present after the decay event.
Decay Chain A process involving the decay of a daughter product of radioactive decay,
which may result in transformation to another daughter product that
decays, etc. It is termed decay chain because a single decay event results in
several orders of decays before reaching a stable nuclide.
Decay Constant () The probability per unit time that a decay event will occur within a
radioactive sample.
2
1
t
693 . 0
=
Decay Rate The rate at which the atoms of a sample of radioactive material
disintegrates.
Elastic Scattering The interaction between a neutron and nucleus of an atom resulting in the
neutron transforming some of its kinetic energy to the nucleus with all
kinetic energy shared between the neutron and nucleus and total KE
conserved.
Excited State
Energy
Any condition that results in an atom being electrically charged or at an
energy level above its ground state energy.
Fission Fragments Highly excited radionuclides that are the result of a fission event and
generally initiate a decay chain with beta decay.
Free Electron Any electron that is not electrically bound to an atoms nucleus.
Gamma Ray (-ray). A type of electromagnetic radiation emitted from an unstable nucleus
allowing the nucleus to give off energy and return to a stable ground state.
Ground State
Energy
The normal energy level of an atom when it is electrically neutral and not
influenced by any outside energy inputs.
Half-Life The time required for a radioactive sample to decay to one half of its
original value.


GLOSSARY
Inelastic Scattering The interaction between a neutron and nucleus of an atom resulting in
some of the kinetic energy being transferred from the neutron to the
nucleus and causing excitation of the nucleus such that it returns to ground
state by gamma emission. KE is not conserved.
Ion An atom or a group of atoms that has acquired a net electric charge by
gaining or losing one or more electrons.
Ionization Any process that causes an atom or group of atoms to have a net electric
charge resulting from losing or gaining one or more electrons.
Ionization Energy The energy required to remove one or more electrons from an atom.
Neutron Induced
Fission
The interaction between a neutron and nucleus resulting in capture of the
neutron with enough energy to cause the resulting excited nucleus to split
into two fission fragments and the release of neutrons and radiation.
Parent Nuclide The original nucleus that decays.
Radiative Capture The interaction between a neutron and nucleus resulting in capture of the
neutron and excitation of the nucleus such that it returns to ground state by
gamma emission.
Radioactive Decay The process by which an unstable nucleus spontaneously transmutes from
one form to another to reach a more stable state.
Spontaneous
Fission
Any fission event that occurs independent of neutron induced fission.
Generally occurs in radioisotopes with atomic numbers of 92 and above.
Transuranic
Element
Any of the radionuclides with atomic numbers greater than 92.
X-Ray A bundle of energy (photon) emitted from the electron shell of an excited
atom.


KFN03Sr02_Radioactive Decay and Interactions.doc6/9/14 3:22 PM
EXAMPLE EXERCISE
ANSWERS
The radioactive decay of a parent nuclide
always results in a stable daughter nuclide
(true/false).
Example 3-1
Explain the radioactive decay process as
represented by the following:
E Y X
4
2
A
Z
A
Z
+ +

A parent radionuclide changes to a
daughter nuclide, emits an alpha particle
and energy (which may be in the form of
kinetic energy and gamma emission).
Example 3-2
Compare the differences between the
number of nuclei in a parent nucleus and
daughter nucleus after alpha decay.
The daughter nucleus of alpha decay has
two neutrons and two protons less than
the parent nucleus.
Example 3-3
Each of the following nuclides undergo alpha
decay. Write the decay equation for each
nuclide.
a. Th to U
?
?
238
92

a. U to Pu
?
?
239
94

Answer
a. + + + KE Th U
4
2
234
90
238
92

b. + + + KE U Pu
4
2
235
92
239
94

Example 3-4
Beta _______ (plus/minus) decay is the most
common of beta decay occurring in a nuclear
reactor. The atomic number of a beta minus
decay daughter nuclide is __________ (the
same/ one higher/ one lower) than the parent
nuclide and the atomic mass number is
______________ (the same/one higher/ one
lower).

Example 3-5
Beta positive decay causes the atomic number
_________ (increase/decrease/remain the same)
and the atomic mass to __________
(increase/decrease/remain the same)

Example 3-6


minus decay. Write the decay equation for each
nuclide.
a. N to C
?
?
14
6

b. Xe to I
?
?
131
53

Answer
a. + + +

KE N C
0
1
14
7
14
6

b. + + +

KE Xe I
0
1
131
54
131
53

Example 3-7
plus decay. Write the decay equation for each
nuclide.
a. O to F
?
?
18
9

b. Te to I
?
?
124
53

Answer
a. + + +
+
KE O F
0
1
18
8
18
9

b. + + +
+
KE Te I
0
1
124
52
124
53

Example 3-8
Each of the following nuclides undergo electron
capture decay. Write the decay equation for
each nuclide.
a. Ne to Na
?
?
22
11

b. Eu to Gd
?
?
151
64

Answer
a. Ne e Na
22
10
0
1
22
11
+

b. Eu e Gd
151
63
0
1
151
64
+

Example 3-9
List 3 elements that can undergo
U
235

U
238

Pu
240

Example 3-10
Electrons with the least energy reside in the
shell ________ (closest/farthest) to the
nucleus.
Example 3-11
Electron energy is _________
(proportional/inversely proportional) to
the distance from the nucleus.
Example 3-12


Select the choice below (a, b, c, d,) that best
completes the following phrase.
An atom is missing an electron in its inner
shell. This atom is said to be 1)_________.
The atom is not at ground state and is said
to be 2)__________. It returns to ground
state by emitting a 3)_______________
a. 1) excited 2) ionized 3) gamma ray
b. 1) ionized 2) excited 3) x-ray
c. 1) electromagnetic, ionized, electron
d. 1) electromagnetic, excited, electron
Example 3-13
The energy to remove an electron from the atom
is termed _________ energy.
a. Excitation
b. Binding
c. Ionization
d. Comptons
Example 3-14
State the primary differences between x-
rays and gamma -rays.
X-rays are emitted from electron shell
and gamma from nucleus
Example 3-15
Where are gamma rays originated or
emitted?
Nucleus
Example 3-16
Compare elastic and inelastic scattering
reactions. Include distribution of kinetic
energy and probability of an excited
nucleus.
Elastic - neutron collides with nucleus,
exchanges some of its kinetic energy, the
nucleus is not excited.
Inelastic - neutron collides with nucleus,
exchanges some of its kinetic energy,
nucleus is excited and emits gamma.
Example 3-17
The figure below represents:
a. Elastic Scattering
b. Inelastic Scattering
n
X
n
X
n =NEUTRON
X =TARGET NUCLEUS

Example 3-18


Compare radiative capture and fission.
Include the interaction between the neutron
and nucleus and any resulting products.
Radiative capture - nucleus captures
neutron, is excited and emits gamma to
reach stability.
Fission - nucleus captures neutron, is
excited and splits into two fission
fragments, releases neutrons and
radiation.
Example 3-19
Where is the origin of the gamma ray
emitted during fission?
Nucleus
Example 3-20
Determine the number of Californium 252
atoms that will be present in 12 years.
Given:
N
0
=4.78 10
16

Half Life =2.638 years
e N
= N
t
o

1
2
1
yr 263 . 0
yr 6387 . 2
693 . 0
t
693 . 0

= = =
e
t
N
o
= N

( )
e 10
4.78 =
yr) (12 /yr) (0.263 16

10
2.04 =
15

2.04 10
15
atoms
Example 3-22


At time zero, a radioactive sample contains
1 10
10
atoms. After 31 days, the sample
contains 3.6 10
4
atoms. Determine the half
life of the sample.
e N
= N
t
o

( )
) d 31 ( 10 4
e 10 1 10 6 . 3

=
) d 31 (
10
4
e
10 1
10 6 . 3

=

) d 31 (
10 1
10 6 . 3
ln
10
4
=
d 31
10 1
10 6 . 3
ln
10
4

1
d 404 . 0

=
2
1
t
693 . 0
=
2
1
1
t
693 . 0
d 404 . 0 =

1
2
1
d 404 . 0
693 . 0
t

=
days 71 . 1 t
2
1
=
Example 3-23


PRACTICE EXERCISE
ANSWERS
1. An atom is missing an electron within an
inner shell.
a. What will be the response of the other
electrons of this atom, and why?
An electron from an outer shell will fill
the vacant position because the electrons
always seek the lowest energy state
available.
b. What type of radiation is released?
X-ray
2. What must occur in order for an atom to
become an ion?
Enough energy must be expended on an
electron to cause it to be ejected from the
atom, leaving the atom with a net positive
charge equal to the negative charge of the
ejected electron.
3. Compare the energy required to cause
excitation in the nucleus to that to excite the
electrons.
Excitation of the nucleus requires larger
amounts of energy.
determine which type of neutron interaction
is applicable (inelastic scattering, elastic
scattering, radiative capture, neutron
induced fission)
a. Energy is conserved. Elastic
scattering
b. Results in first daughter products
emitting neutrons. Fission
c. Billiard ball type collision. Elastic
Scattering
d. Absorption reaction where target
nucleus reaches ground state by
emitting a gamma. Radiative Capture
e. Results in fragments, neutrons, and
gamma emission. Fission
f. A scattering reaction that results in a
loss of kinetic energy. Inelastic and
Elastic scattering
5. Describe the radioactive decay process.
An unstable nuclide transmutes to
another nuclide by emitting radiation and
energy.
6. For each of the following statements, select
the applicable decay mode (alpha, beta,
neutron emission)
a. Occurs with fission fragments 98% of
the time. Beta
b. Occurs with fission fragments about
2% of the time. Neutron Emission
c. Results in the daughter product having
two less protons and two less neutrons
then the parent nuclide. Alpha
d. Atomic number increases by one in the
daughter product. Beta
7. Two terms may be used to describe the
radiation properties of a sample of
radioactive material and is measured in
disintegrations per unit of time, normally
disintegrations per second (dps). What are
these terms?
Activity and decay rate


8. Explain the half-life method of determining
the decay rate of a radioactive sample.
The half-life is the time required for one
half of a radioactive sample to
disintegrate. The method allows the user
to determine how long it will take until
the radioactive sample has decayed to
some predetermined desired level.
9. Explain the three methods used by a gamma
to interact with surrounding materials.
a. Photoelectric effect
b. Compton scattering
c. Pair Production
11. Explain how each of the following decay
processes affect the parent nucleus
a. Alpha parent loses two neutrons and
two protons. Loss of four AMUs and
two positive charges.
b.
a neutron is converted into a

proton. No loss of mass, nucleus
gains one positive charge.
c.
+
a proton is converted into a
neutron. No change in mass, nucleus
losses one positive charge.
d. Gamma no change in mass or charge
energy is lost
e. Electron capture an inner orbital
electron collides with a proton, loss
of one positive charge as proton is
converted into a neutron. No loss of
mass.


KFN04Sr02_Nuclear Cross Section, Fission and Neutron Classif.doc6/9/14 3:23 PM
NUCLEAR SCIENCE
CHAPTER 4
NUCLEAR CROSS SECTION, FISSION, AND NEUTRON
CLASSIFICATION

STUDENT TEXT
REV 2
TM


TABLE OF CONTENTS
OBJ ECTIVES ............................................................................................................................ iii
CROSS SECTIONS ..................................................................................................................... 1
Microscopic Cross Section ....................................................................................................... 1
Atomic Density and Macroscopic Cross Section...................................................................... 2
Mean Free Path ......................................................................................................................... 3
THE FISSION PROCESS ............................................................................................................ 4
Fission Liquid Drop Model ....................................................................................................... 4
Critical Energy .......................................................................................................................... 5
Fissile and Fissionable Material................................................................................................ 5
Fission Product Yield Curve ..................................................................................................... 7
DECAY HEAT ............................................................................................................................ 8
Sources of Decay Heat .............................................................................................................. 9
NEUTRON CLASSIFICATIONS ............................................................................................. 10
Energy Level Classifications ................................................................................................... 10
Origin Classifications ............................................................................................................. 10
Production Time Classification .............................................................................................. 11
SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................... 12
GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................................... 14

NUCLEAR SCIENCE - CHAPTER 4 i 2003 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION
NUCLEAR CROSS SECTION, FISSION, AND NEUTRON CLASSIFICATION REV 2

FIGURES AND TABLES
Figure 4-1 Microscopic Cross Section Model ........................................................................... 1
Figure 4-2 Microscopic Absorption Cross Section Relation to Neutron Energy ...................... 1
Figure 4-3 Cross Section Relationship ...................................................................................... 2
Figure 4-4 Macroscopic Cross Section ...................................................................................... 2
Figure 4-5 Fission Liquid Drop Model ...................................................................................... 5
Figure 4-6 Critical (Activation) Energies for Heavy Nuclei ...................................................... 5
Figure 4-7 Cross Sections for Neutron-Induced Fission of U-235 and U-238 .......................... 7
Figure 4-8 Fission Product Yield Curve for U-235 ................................................................... 8
Figure 4-9 Neutron Energy Classifications ............................................................................. 10
Figure 4-10 Fission Neutron Energy Spectrum (U-235) ......................................................... 11
Figure 4-11 Fission Product Decay Scheme ............................................................................ 11

Table 4-1 Fissile Materials ......................................................................................................... 6
Table 4-2 Fissionable Materials ................................................................................................. 6
Table 4-3 Fissile and Fissionable Nuclides Present in Light Water Reactors ........................... 7
Table 4-4 Fission Energy ........................................................................................................... 9

NUCLEAR SCIENCE - CHAPTER 4 ii 2003 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this chapter, the student will be able to perform the following objectives at a
minimum proficiency level of 80%, unless otherwise stated, on an oral or written exam.
1. STATE the difference between microscopic cross section and macroscopic cross
section.
2. DEFINE the following:
a. Mean free path
b. Critical energy
c. Fissile material
d. Fissionable material
e. Fission
f. Ternary fission
g. Prompt neutron
h. Fast neutron
i. Intermediate neutron
j. Slow neutron
k. Thermal neutron
l. Delayed neutron
m. Source neutron
3. DESCRIBE neutron induced fission using the liquid drop model method.
4. EXPLAIN the reason for the shape of the Fission Product Yield Curve.
5. LIST the components and energy breakdown resulting from the fission of U-235.
6. EXPLAIN how the fission process results in heat within the reactor.
7. STATE the meaning of the term decay heat and explain why it is a concern in the nuclear
power plant.
8. EXPLAIN why decay heat is present following reactor operation.
9. LIST three variables that will affect the amount of decay heat present following reactor
shutdown.
10. ESTIMATE the approximate amount of decay heat that will exist one hour after a shutdown
from steady state conditions.

NUCLEAR SCIENCE - CHAPTER 4 iii 2003 GENERAL PHYSICS CORPORATION

CROSS SECTIONS
MICROSCOPIC CROSS SECTION
Chapter 3 describes the interactions that can
occur between neutrons and a nucleus. The
subject of cross sections addresses the
probability that a given reaction can occur. It is
significant because it aids in understanding the
various interactions impacting the fission
process.
Microscopic cross section is a measure of the
probability that a given interaction will occur
between a single target nucleus and an incident
neutron. It is defined as the effective area
presented by the target nucleus to the incident
neutron, for a particular reaction. The model is

TARGET
NUCLEUS
INCOMING
NEUTRON

Figure 4-1 Microscopic Cross Section Model
The microscopic cross section is designated by
the Greek lower case sigma () and is expressed
in units of barns, where 1 barn is equal to
1 10
-24
square centimeters. There are several
stories on how the term barn was coined, but in
all cases, it describes the relative size of the
target.
Nuclear cross sections, however, are determined
experimentally and denote the relative
probability area for the incident neutron. For
example, a target with a high microscopic cross
section appears to be a large target to an
incident neutron. As a result, the probability that
an interaction will occur is high.
Examples of this concept are as follows:
Boron-10, which is a nuclide of relatively
low mass, has a cross section of 3838 barns
for a neutron interaction that results in an
ejected alpha particle.
Lead-208 has an 8 microbarn (8 10
-6
barn)
cross section for the same reaction.
Therefore, cross section is based on the makeup
of the nucleus and, hence, on its willingness to
absorb the neutron, not on the size of the
nucleus.
Each particular interaction has its own unique
microscopic cross section. That is to say,
T
(total),
a
(absorption),
s
(scattering),
c
(capture),
f
(fission),
se
(elastic scattering)
and
si
(inelastic scattering) exist for any given
target (isotope). Microscopic cross section for
capture uses two conventions. If a gamma ray
results from the capture,

is used. If an alpha
particle results from the capture,
is used.
The value of the cross sections depends upon the
energy of the incident neutron and the energy of
the target nucleus as shown in Figure 4-2.
SLOW
(THERMAL)
FAST INTERMEDIATE
(EPITHERMAL)
RESONANCE
PEAK
a
eV
MeV
DIFFERENTIAL ENERGY
10
-2
1 10
-1`
10 10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
10
-8
10
-6
10
-7
10
-5
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
1 10

Figure 4-2 Microscopic Absorption
Cross Section Relation to Neutron Energy
This figure represents the microscopic cross
section for absorption of a material for a neutron


of a given energy level. The resonance peaks
indicate the material's large affinity to absorb
neutrons with specific energy levels in the
intermediate (epithermal) region.
A target nucleus may have a high microscopic
cross section for absorption of a neutron of low
energy; yet have a low microscopic cross section
for absorption of a neutron of high energy.
The total microscopic cross section (
T
) is the
sum of the absorption and scattering cross
sections Figure 4-3.

Figure 4-3 Cross Section Relationship
s a T
+ =
Equation 4-1
The absorption microscopic cross section is the
sum of all the absorption interactions:
f c a
+ =
Equation 4-2
While the scattering microscopic cross section is
the sum of all the scattering interactions:
si se s
+ =
Equation 4-3

ATOMIC DENSITY AND
MACROSCOPIC CROSS SECTION
If a single neutron has a certain probability of
interacting with a single target nucleus, then
presenting multiple nuclei packed together
should increase the probability of an interaction,
as illustrated in Figure 4-4.

TARGET
ATOMS
INCOMING
NEUTRON

Figure 4-4 Macroscopic Cross Section
Thus, the probability that a given interaction will
take place in a unit volume depends on the
number of target nuclei available with which to
interact.
The atomic density is the number of atoms of a
given isotope in a unit volume. Atomic density
uses the symbol N as a designation, and the
units are atoms per cubic centimeter. If the
atomic density increases, the number of target
nuclei per unit volume increases, and the
probability of an interaction increases.
The macroscopic cross section is the probability
of an incident neutron interacting with a target
nucleus per unit length of travel of the incident
neutron. The macroscopic cross section uses the
Greek upper case sigma () as a designation and
has units of per centimeter travel (1/cm or cm
-1
).
Mathematically, the macroscopic cross section is
the product of the atomic density and the
microscopic cross section.


=
Where:

= macroscopic cross section
(cm
1
)
N = atomic density (atoms/cm
3
)

= microscopic cross section
(cm
2
)
Equation 4-4
Calculate the macroscopic cross section for
fission of a sample of U-235, which has a
fission microscopic cross section of
585 barns and an atomic density of
6.0 10
21
atoms/cm
3
.
=
f

( ) barns 585
cm
atoms
10 0 . 6
3
21
f

barn
cm
10 1
2
24

1
f
cm 51 . 3

=
Example 4-1
As with the microscopic cross section, the
macroscopic cross section is subscripted to
indicate the interaction of interest, e.g.,
f
,
a
,
etc.
thermal neutron absorption in iron, which
has a microscopic cross section for neutron
absorption of 2.56 barns and an atomic
density of 8.48 10
22
atoms/cm
3
.
=
a

=
a

Example 4-2
One neutron moving near one target
nucleus would be a phrase included in the
discussion of (microscopic/macroscopic)
_____________ cross section.
The product of the atomic density and the
microscopic cross section represents
(microscopic/macroscopic)____________
cross section.
Example 4-3
MEAN FREE PATH
A neutron has a probability of undergoing an
interaction in a centimeter of travel, as defined
by the macroscopic cross section. The inverse of
this cross section describes how far the average
neutron travels before an interaction takes place.
This is known as the mean free path. The mean
free path is designated by the Greek lower case
lambda () and has the units of cm.


=
1

Where:

= mean free path (cm)

= macroscopic cross section
(cm
-1
)
Equation 4-5
The smaller the value of , the more likely a
neutron interaction will occur per unit of travel.
The macroscopic cross section
is
1
cm 5 . 0

= .
Calculate the distance a neutron will travel
before interacting (mean free path).
1
cm 5 . 0
1
=
cm 2 =
Example 4-4
The average distance that the neutron would
travel through this material before undergoing an
interaction would be 2 cm. Another way of
expressing this is that there is a 50% probability
that the neutron would interact per each
centimeter of its travel. This is the physical
meaning of the macroscopic cross section (). It
represents the interaction probability per unit
length of the neutrons travel.
THE FISSION PROCESS
The most important neutron interaction
concerning power production in a reactor is
fission. This section addresses the theory
associated with the fission process, including
ingredients required for fission to occur and the
products of the fission process.
FISSION LIQUID DROP MODEL
The most important neutron interaction
concerning power production in a reactor is
fission. When an incident neutron strikes a target
fuel nucleus and undergoes an absorption
interaction, excitation of the target occurs by an
amount equal to the neutron binding energy plus
the neutrons kinetic energy. The addition of this
excitation energy causes the target nucleus to
vibrate and deform into a dumbbell shape. This
is referred to as the Liquid Drop Model for
Fission and is illustrated in Figure 4-5.
If the combined binding energy and kinetic
energy added by the neutron is not sufficient to
overcome the nuclear forces of the target
nucleus, the target nucleus returns to its original
shape. If the added energy is sufficient to
overcome the nuclear forces, fission is likely to
occur.
The basis for the liquid drop model is the theory
that the nucleus, in many ways, resembles a drop
of liquid. Cohesive forces between molecules
hold the liquid drop together. Adding more water
to the drop causes the deformation and the
cohesive forces may be insufficient to restore the
drop to its original shape.


Separation into one
possible fragment
pair combination.
Distortion of compound
nucleus.
NEUTRON
Neutron incident on
fissionable nucleus.
Neutron is absorbed
and energy of system
is raised by binding
energy and kinetic
energy of neutron.
1)
2)
3)
4)

Figure 4-5 Fission Liquid Drop Model
As the fission occurs and the particles and
energy are liberated, the motion and energy
results in the generation of heat. The atoms
adjacent to the fission atom receive additional
molecular kinetic energy from the rapidly
moving fission fragments and neutrons through
collision. The adjacent atoms also receive
energy through ionization and excitation
reactions with the charged radioactive particles
and gamma rays. The increase in molecular
kinetic energy causes the atoms to vibrate more
rapidly. This heat generated in the fuel is
transferred by conduction and convection into
the primary coolant.
CRITICAL ENERGY
Each fuel type requires a minimum amount of
energy for fission to occur. This energy level is
termed critical energy (E
c
), or activation energy.
Figure 4-6 shows a graph of critical energy
versus nuclide mass number for heavy nuclei.
The basis for this figure is the liquid drop model
previously discussed. The graph shows a family
of curves where the number designations refer to
the Z number (proton number) for these heavy
nuclei.
The incident neutron excites the target nucleus
by an amount equal to the binding energy of the
neutron plus the neutrons kinetic energy. If the
binding energy is less than the critical energy,
additional energy is required to cause fission.
This added energy can come from the kinetic
energy associated with the incident neutron.
This concept is vital to understanding why
neutrons of low kinetic energy cannot cause
fission for some fuel types.
100
50
10
5
1
0.5
0.1
200 220 240 260
85
90
92 9495 100
C
R
I
T
I
C
A
L

E
N
E
R
G
Y

E
c

(
M
e
V
)
MASS NUMBER A
NUMBERS ON GRAPH DENOTE
NUCLIDE ZNUMBERS

Figure 4-6 Critical (Activation) Energies for
Heavy Nuclei
FISSILE AND FISSIONABLE
MATERIAL
Fuel types that fission due to the neutron binding
energy are termed fissile materials (Table 4-1).
Fuel types that require additional energy (above
the binding energy of the neutron, in the form of
neutron kinetic energy) to cause fission are
referred to as fissionable materials (Table 4-2).


Table 4-1shows that the critical energy needed to
fission U-235 is 6.2 MeV. When a thermal
neutron is absorbed in U-235, 6.5 MeV of
binding energy is released. This makes the
fission of U-235 highly probable. The 6.5 MeV
binding energy release is also listed in Table 4-1.
Experimentally, it has been shown that when a
thermal neutron is absorbed in U-235, fission
occurs about 85% of the time, and neutron
capture forming U-236 occurs the remaining
15%.
Table 4-1 Fissile Materials
Fuel
Type
Critical
Energy
Binding
Energy
Kinetic
Energy
Needed
U-235 6.2 MeV 6.5 MeV 0 MeV
Pu-239 6.0 MeV 6.5 MeV 0 MeV
Pu-241 6.0 MeV 6.3 MeV 0 MeV
Pu-239 and Pu-241 are capable of thermal
fission readily, and explained similarly.
Table 4-2 shows that the binding energy for
certain nuclides is less than the critical energy.
These nuclides are termed as fissionable
materials. To enable the target nucleus to reach
critical energy (and fission), the incident neutron
must possess a minimum kinetic energy.
Table 4-2 Fissionable Materials
Fuel
Type
Critical
Energy
Binding
Energy
Kinetic
Energy
Needed
U-238 6.6 MeV 4.8 MeV 1.8 MeV
Pu-240 6.3 MeV 5.3 MeV 1.0 MeV
Pu-242 6.2 MeV 6.19 MeV 0.01 MeV
U-238 has a similar binding energy calculation.
In this case, the release of 4.8 MeV of binding
energy occurs as shown in Table 4-2. This time,
however, the 4.8 MeV is smaller than the
6.6 MeV of critical energy needed to fission the
U-238 nucleus. As a result, U-238 requires fast
neutrons in the MeV range for it to fission.
Pu-240 and Pu-242 require incident neutrons of
some specific kinetic energy to create the fission
event. Therefore, they are also termed fissionable
nuclides.
Technically, all of the nuclides listed in both
Table 4-1and Table 4-2 are capable of fission by
thermal neutrons. However, Table 4-1 only lists
those of high probability for thermal fission.
These are termed fissile materials. Table 4-3 lists
the thermal neutron microscopic cross sections
for fission for all of the nuclides listed in
Table 4-1 and Table 4-2.


Table 4-3 Fissile and Fissionable Nuclides
Present in Light Water Reactors
Nuclide
Thermal Neutron
Microscopic
Cross Section for
Fission (barns)
Fissile or
Fissionable
U
235
92
585 Fissile
U
238
92

5 10
-6
Fissionable
Pu
239
94
750 Fissile
Pu
240
94
0.05 Fissionable
Pu
241
94
1010 Fissile
Pu
242
94
<0.2 Fissionable
Figure 4-7 shows the cross section behavior for
fission as a function of incident neutron energy
for both U-235 and U-238. U-235 has a high
cross section for fission at thermal energy
(585 barns). The graph shows how cross
section diminishes in magnitude for intermediate
and fast neutrons.
Figure 4-7 also shows that an incident neutron
energy, in the MeV range, is required for fission
of U-238. The thermal neutron fission cross
section for U-238 is 5.0 microbarns. That means
that the thermal neutron fission of U-238 is
virtually nonexistent.
10
-3
10
-3
NEUTRON ENERGY (eV)
F
I
S
S
I
O
N

C
R
O
S
S

S
E
C
T
I
O
N

(
b
a
r
n
s
)
10
-2
10
-1
1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
10
-2
10
4
10
3
10
2
10
1
10
-1
U-235
U-238
585 barns
0.025 ev

Figure 4-7 Cross Sections for Neutron-Induced
Fission of U-235 and U-238
A fuel type that requires kinetic energy in
addition to the binding energy for fission to
occur is termed (fissile/fissionable)
_________________.
Example 4-5
A material that has binding energy greater
than critical energy is said to be a
_____________ (fissile/fissionable)
material.
Example 4-6
FISSION PRODUCT YIELD CURVE
Upon fissioning, the target usually splits into two
fission fragments, as discussed in the liquid drop
mode and as shown in Figure 4-8, the Fission
Product Yield Curve.


MASS NUMBER
F
I
S
S
I
O
N

Y
I
E
L
D

(
%
)
70 160 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
LIGHT
FISSION
FRAGMENTS
HEAVY
FISSION
FRAGMENTS
A
95 A
139
0.01
0.1
1
10

Figure 4-8 Fission Product Yield Curve for
U-235
Figure 4-8 indicates the percentage of fission
fragments produced from U-235 with a given
mass number. A brief inspection of the
experimental data depicted by this curve shows
that one of these fission fragments is lighter
(A95) while the other is heavier (A139). A
split into two identical masses (A=118) is a low
probability event.
Ternary, or three-way, fission occurs rarely.
For example, experimental evidence discloses
that ternary fission, producing the third fission
product, results in the production of tritium in
about one out of every 12,500 fission events.
Fissioning of U-235 normally results in two
fission fragments of nearly equal mass
(TRUE or FALSE).
Example 4-7
Ternary fissioning of U-235 results in three
fission fragments (TRUE or FALSE).
Example 4-8
DECAY HEAT
The various processes that accompany fission
result in the liberation of energy. The total
energy produced from fission of U-235 is
approximately 200 MeV and distributed as
shown in Table 4-4.
The overwhelming majority of the energy
released (approximately 83%) is in the form of
the initial kinetic energy of the fission fragments.
The kinetic energies of the fission neutrons and
gamma rays make up the rest of the
instantaneous energy released (approximately
6%). The fission fragments are unstable and
decay by beta and gamma emission. The
energies that accompany the delayed release of
gamma rays and beta particles are small in
comparison to the instantaneous energy release
(approximately 7%), but are significant when the
reactor is shutdown because of the decay chains
associated with the fission fragments.
Neutrinos produced during beta decay, have an
extremely low mass and no charge. They do not
interact with the core materials. Approximately
5% of the fission energy released (10 MeV) is
lost from the reactor in the form of neutrinos.
The remaining 190 MeV appears as heat
resulting from interactions with the core
material. The water flowing through the reactor
core provides the means of removing
(transferring) the heat from the fuel.
The delayed energy released by decay of the
fission fragments after reactor shutdown is
referred to as decay heat. Means of removing the
decay heat from the core after the reactor is
shutdown must be in place at all times. The loss
of decay heat removal capability would result in
overheating the fuel and probable core damage.


Table 4-4 Fission Energy
INSTANTANEOUS
Kinetic Energy Fission Fragments 165 MeV
Kinetic Energy of Fission Neutrons 5 MeV
Instantaneous Gamma Rays 7 MeV
DELAYED
Kinetic Energy of Beta Particles 7 MeV
Decay Gamma Rays 6 MeV
Neutrinos 10MeV
Total Energy Released 200 MeV

Briefly, explain how the decay of fission
fragments complicates operations after the
reactor is shutdown.

Example 4-9
The _________ energy released by decay
of the fission fragments after reactor
shutdown is referred to as decay heat.

Example 4-10
SOURCES OF DECAY HEAT
About 7 percent of the 200 MeV produced by an
average fission is released at some time after the
instant of fission. This energy comes from the
decay of the fission products. When a reactor is
shut down, fission essentially ceases, but decay
energy is still being produced. The energy
produced after shutdown is referred to as decay
heat. The amount of decay heat production after
shutdown is directly influenced by the power
history of the reactor prior to shutdown. A reactor
operated at full power for 3 to 4 days prior to
shutdown has much higher decay heat generation
than a reactor operated at low power for the same
period.
The amount of decay heat depends on:
1. Pre-shutdown power level
2. How long the reactor operated
3. Time since shutdown
The decay heat produced by a reactor shutdown
from full power is initially equivalent to about 6 to
7% of the thermal rating of the reactor. This
decay heat generation rate diminishes to less than
1% approximately one hour after shutdown in a
BWR and after about 2 hours in a PWR.
However, even at these low levels, the amount of
heat generated requires the continued removal of
heat for an appreciable time after shutdown.
Decay heat is a long-term consideration and
impacts spent fuel handling, reprocessing, waste
management, and reactor safety.


NEUTRON
CLASSIFICATIONS
There are three different ways that neutrons are
classified: energy level, origin, and production
time.
Some of the terms associated with the study of
neutron classifications can be confusing because
they may seem redundant if not well understood.
For example, the definition of a fast neutron is
not the same as a prompt neutron even though all
prompt neutrons are fast neutron, and a slow
neutron is not equivalent to a delayed neutron.
ENERGY LEVEL CLASSIFICATIONS
Fast neutrons are neutrons with a kinetic energy
greater than 0.1 MeV (10
5
eV) All fission
neutrons are born as fast neutrons.
SLOW
(THERMAL)
FAST INTERMEDIATE
(EPITHERMAL)
RESONANCE
PEAK
a
eV
MeV
DIFFERENTIAL ENERGY
10
-2
1 10
-1`
10 10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
10
-8
10
-6
10
-7
10
-5
10
-4
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
1 10

Figure 4-9 Neutron Energy Classifications
Intermediate neutrons (also, epithermal neutrons)
are neutrons with kinetic energies between 1 eV
and 0.1 MeV.
Neutrons having kinetic energies less than 1 eV
are termed slow neutrons.
Thermal neutrons are neutrons in thermal
equilibrium with their surroundings. Depending
on their surroundings, thermal neutrons can be
fast, intermediate, or slow. For conditions in
commercial power plants, a thermal neutron is in
the slow energy region. Typical energies of
thermal neutrons are 0.025 eV at 68F and
0.049 eV at 550F.
Thermal neutrons are the desired energy level for
fission of fuel that requires minimal kinetic
energy to reach critical energy.
ORIGIN CLASSIFICATIONS
Neutrons produced from neutron-induced fission
are termed fission neutrons.
Neutrons produced independently of fission are
termed source neutrons. Source neutrons consist
of neutrons produced by installed neutron
sources and intrinsic neutron sources.
Intrinsic neutron sources include neutrons
produced by spontaneous fission and by alpha
and gamma-neutron reactions. Intrinsic neutron
sources are highest right after a shutdown and
slowly diminish over time.
Installed neutron sources consist of materials
installed in the reactor and designed to produce a
specific number of neutrons per unit time. They
are used when core conditions are such that the
intrinsic neutron sources are not producing
neutrons at a high enough rate to register on the
reactor startup instrumentation. This would be
the case for a reactor with a core load of
primarily new fuel, or for a reactor startup after
an abnormally long reactor shutdown. Normally,
these sources are not installed in the reactor
except under the conditions described above.
The on-scale readings on the startup instruments
is important since it provides the operator with a
reference point of when the neutron population
in the core is starting to increase during a reactor
startup.


PRODUCTION TIME
CLASSIFICATION
Neutrons emitted within 10
-14
seconds of the
fission event that are a direct result of the fission
process are defined as prompt neutrons. The
number of prompt neutrons emitted depends on
the type of fuel used. For example, prompt
neutrons account for 99.36% of all U-235 fission
neutrons. The most probable energy for a prompt
neutron is approximately 1 MeV, and the
average energy is approximately 2 MeV
(Figure 4-10).
NEUTRON ENERGY (MeV)
0
0.0
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.35
0.40
0.30
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
F
R
A
C
T
I
O
N

O
F

N
E
U
T
R
O
N
S

P
E
R

M
e
V

Figure 4-10 Fission Neutron Energy
Spectrum (U-235)
Neutrons born more than 10
-14
seconds after the
fission event are defined as delayed neutrons. On
average, approximately 12.7 seconds after the
fission event, the emission of a delayed neutron
occurs. Delayed neutrons are born fast, but at a
lower average energy level than prompt neutrons
(approximately 0.5 MeV). They are termed
delayed neutrons because these neutrons
appear well after the fission event.
As previously discussed, a fission event
produces two fission fragments. These fission
fragments are highly unstable and undergo decay
to achieve stability. Initially, a beta minus decay
occurs, and an excited daughter product is the
result. This excited daughter product also decays.
One possible outcome of decay is neutron
emission. This neutron is a delayed neutron
(Figure 4-11).
Specifically, a delayed neutron is the result of the
decay of the first excited daughter of a fission
fragment generated during the fission process.
The fission fragment that gives rise to the
delayed neutron is termed a delayed neutron
precursor.
Even though the number of delayed neutrons is
small (0.64% for a U-235 fission), delayed
neutrons are very important to the overall control
of the reactor.

Figure 4-11 Fission Product Decay Scheme
The majority of delayed neutrons are also
slow neutrons (TRUE or FALSE).
Example 4-11
Some source neutrons are the result of
spontaneous fission (TRUE or FALSE).
Example 4-12


SUMMARY
The fission process can be explained using the
liquid drop model of a nucleus. In the ground
state, the nucleus is nearly spherical in shape.
After the absorption of a neutron, the nucleus
will be in an excited state and start to oscillate
and become distorted. If the oscillations cause
the nucleus to become shaped like a dumbbell,
the repulsive electrostatic forces will overcome
the short-range attractive nuclear forces, and the
nucleus will split in two.
Excitation energy is the amount of energy a
nucleus has above its ground state.
Critical energy is the minimum excitation energy
that a nucleus must have before it can fission.
Fissile material is material for which fission is
possible with neutrons that have zero kinetic
energy. Fissionable material is material for
which fission caused by neutron absorption is
possible provided the kinetic energy added with
the binding energy is greater than the critical
energy.
The heaviest nuclei are easily fissionable
because they require only a small distortion from
the spherical shape to allow the coulomb forces
to overcoming the attractive nuclear force,
forcing the two halves of the nucleus apart.
Uranium-235 fissions with thermal neutrons
because the binding energy released by the
absorption of a neutron is greater than the critical
energy for fission. The binding energy released
by uranium-238 absorbing a neutron is less than
the critical energy, so additional kinetic energy
must be possessed by the neutron for fission to
be possible.
The delayed energy released by decay of the
fission fragments after reactor shutdown is
referred to as decay heat.
The decay heat produced by a reactor shutdown
from full power is initially equivalent to about 6 to
7% of the thermal rating of the reactor. This
decay heat generation rate diminishes to less than
1% approximately one hour after shutdown for a
BWR and after 2 hours in a PWR.
There are three different ways that neutrons are
classified: energy level, origin, and production
time.
Energy Level
Fast neutrons are neutrons with a kinetic energy
greater than 0.1 MeV (10
5
eV) All fission
neutrons are born as fast neutrons.
Intermediate neutrons (also, epithermal neutrons)
are neutrons with kinetic energies between 1 eV
and 0.1 MeV.
Neutrons having kinetic energies less than 1 eV
are termed slow neutrons.
Origin
Neutrons produced from neutron-induced fission
are termed fission neutrons.
Neutrons produced independently of fission are
termed source neutrons.
Production Time
Neutrons emitted within 10
-14
seconds of the
fission event that are a direct result of the fission
process are defined as prompt neutrons.
Neutrons born more than 10
-14
seconds after the
fission event are defined as delayed neutrons.


PRACTICE EXERCISES
1. Explain the difference between
Microscopic and Macroscopic cross
sections.

2. Explain neutron induced fission using the
liquid drop model for the fission process.

3. Define the term critical energy and
relate this energy to the energy required
by a neutron to achieve critical energy.

4. The average distance that a neutron
travels before an interaction occurs it
termed __________________________.

5. Select the answer below that makes the
following statement correct.
Pu-241 fissions with neutrons that require
no 1)______________ and therefore is
termed 2)______________.
a. 1) binding energy 2) fissionable
b. 1) kinetic energy 2) fissionable
c. 1) binding energy 2) fissile
d. 1) kinetic energy 2) fissile
6. Explain the plot on the following curve.
MASS NUMBER
F
I
S
S
I
O
N

Y
I
E
L
D

(
%
)
70 160 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
LIGHT
FISSION
FRAGMENTS
HEAVY
FISSION
FRAGMENTS
A
95 A
139
0.01
0.1
1
10

Fission Product Yield Curve for U-235

7. Explain how the kinetic energy from
fission fragments is dissipated within the
reactor.

8. Neutrons found in an operating reactor at
any given time fall under one or more of
the following classifications:
1) Energy Level, 2) Origin, 3) Production
time
Match the correct classification to each of
the following descriptions of a neutron:
a) Delayed neutron. _____________
b) Produced from other than neutron
induced fission. ______________
c) Is in thermal equilibrium with its
surroundings. ________________
d) Prompt neutron. _____________


GLOSSARY
Atomic Density The number of atoms of a given isotope in a unit volume. Atomic density
uses the symbol N as a designation, and the units are atoms per cubic
centimeter.
Barn Unit of measurement, where 1 barn is equal to 1 10
-24
square centimeters.
Critical Energy
(E
c
)
The minimum amount of energy required for fission to occur in a specific
fuel type.
Delayed Neutron A neutron born more than 1 10
-14
seconds after a fission event.
Decay The delayed energy released by decay of the fission fragments after reactor
shutdown.
Fast Neutron A neutron that has a kinetic energy greater than 0.1 MeV.
Fissile Material A fuel type that will fission due to the binding energy of an incident
neutron.
Fission A neutron reaction in which an incident neutron is absorbed by a target
nucleus, resulting in the splitting of the target nucleus into two new atoms,
some neutrons, and gamma rays.
Fission Neutron A neutron emitted as a direct result of the fission process.
Fission Product Any particle created as the result of a fission event.
Fissionable
Material
A fuel type that requires kinetic energy in addition to binding energy of an
incident neutron for fission to occur.
Intermediate
Neutron
A neutron that has a kinetic energy between 0.1 MeV and 1 eV.
Macroscopic Cross
Section
A measure of the probability that a given interaction will occur between a
single target nucleus and an incident neutron. The effective area presented
by the target nucleus to the incident neutron, for a particular reaction.
Mean Free Path The average distance a neutron travels before an interaction occurs.
Microscopic Cross
Section
The probability that a given interaction will occur between a target nucleus
and neutron (barns or cm
2
).


GLOSSARY
Prompt Neutron A neutron that is emitted within 10
-14
seconds of a fission event and is a
direct result of the fission process (fission neutron).
Slow Neutron A neutron that has a kinetic energy less than 1 eV.
Source Neutron A neutron that is produced independently of neutron induced fission.
Ternary Fission Any fission that results in the production of three fission fragments.
Thermal Neutron A neutron that is in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings.


EXAMPLE EXERCISE
ANSWERS
thermal neutron absorption in iron, which
has a microscopic cross section for neutron
absorption of 2.56 barns and an atomic
density of 8.48 10
22
atoms/cm
3
.
=
a

( ) barns 56 . 2
cm
atoms
10 48 . 8
3
22
a

barn
cm
10 1
2
24

1
a
cm 217 . 0

=
Example 4-2
One neutron moving near one target
nucleus would be a phrase included in the
discussion of microscopic_____________
cross section.
The product of the atomic density and the
microscopic cross section represents
macroscopic____________ cross section
Example 4-3
A fuel type that requires kinetic energy in
addition to the binding energy for fission to
occur is termed fissionable
_________________.
Example 4-5
A material that has binding energy greater
than critical energy is said to be a
_____________ fissile material.
Example 4-6
Fissioning of U-235 normally results in two
fission fragments of nearly equal mass
FALSE.
Example 4-7
Ternary fissioning of U-235 normally
results in three fission fragments TRUE.
Example 4-8
Briefly, explain how the decay of fission
fragments complicates operations after the
reactor is shutdown.
Results in heat that must be removed
from the core for long periods.
Example 4-9
The _________ energy released by decay
of the fission fragments after reactor
shutdown is referred to as decay heat.
DELAYED
Example 4-10
The majority of delayed neutrons are also
slow neutrons FALSE.
Example 4-11


Some source neutrons are the result of
spontaneous fission TRUE.
Example 4-12


PRACTICE EXERCISE
ANSWERS
1. Explain the difference between
Microscopic and Macroscopic cross
sections.
Microscopic cross section is the
relative cross section for an interaction
between a single neutron and single
nucleus. Macroscopic is the
probability of the interaction between
a single neutron and multiple nuclei.

2. Explain neutron induced fission using the
liquid drop model for the fission process.
A neutron is absorbed in a fissionable
nucleus, raising the energy of the
nucleus. The nucleus deforms and
separates into two fission fragments.

3. Define the term critical energy and
relate this energy to the energy required
by a neutron to achieve critical energy.
Critical energy is the minimum
amount of energy required for fission
to occur in a specific fuel type. In order
for a neutron to cause fission of the
fuel type it must reach the fuel with the
energy equivalent to the critical
energy. This energy may be the
binding energy of the neutron, or may
be the combination of binding energy
and kinetic energy.

4. The average distance that a neutron
travels before an interaction occurs is
termed mean free path.
5. Select the answer below that makes the
following statement correct.
Pu-241 fissions with neutrons that require
no 1)______________ and therefore is
termed 2)______________.
a. 1) binding energy 2) fissionable
b. 1) kinetic energy 2) fissionable
c. 1) binding energy 2) fissile
d. 1) kinetic energy 2) fissile

6. Explain the plot on the following curve.
MASS NUMBER
F
I
S
S
I
O
N

Y
I
E
L
D

(
%
)
70 160 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
LIGHT
FISSION
FRAGMENTS
HEAVY
FISSION
FRAGMENTS
A
95 A
139
0.01
0.1
1
10

Fission Product Yield Curve for U-235
The plot represents the mass number
percentage of fission fragments produced
from fission of U-235


7. Explain how the kinetic energy from
fission fragments is dissipated within the
reactor.
The kinetic energy is expended as heat
as the fission fragments interact with
adjacent material.
8. Neutrons found in an operating reactor at
any given time fall under one or more of
the following classifications:
1) Energy Level, 2) Origin, 3) Production
time
Match the correct classification to each of
the following descriptions of a neutron:
a) Delayed neutron. ___3)_
b) Produced from other than neutron
induced fission. ___2)_
c) Is in thermal equilibrium with its
surroundings. ___1)_
d) Prompt neutron. ___3)_


KFN05Sr02_Neutron Life Cycle.doc r4 6/9/2014 3:21:00 PM
NUCLEAR SCIENCE
CHAPTER 5
NEUTRON LIFE CYCLE
435
NEUTRONS
FROM
THERMAL
FISSION
START CYCLE
HERE
965
THERMAL
NEUTRON
1384 FAST
NEUTRONS
1017
THERMAL
NEUTRONS
1038
THERMAL
NEUTRON
1442 FAST
NEUTRONS
1400 FAST
NEUTRONS
BORN
1400 FAST
NEUTRONS
346
RESONANCE
LOSSES
21
THERMAL
NEUTRON
LEAKAGE
52
THERMAL NEUTRONS
ABSORBED BY
NON-FUEL ATOMS
58
FAST NEUTRON
LEAKAGE
NEUTRONS
FROM
FAST FISSION
42
p
f
L
th
L
f
U-235 FUEL

MODERATOR
U-
235
238
239

STUDENT TEXT
REV 2
TM


TABLE OF CONTENTS
OBJ ECTIVES ............................................................................................................................. iii
STEADY STATE NEUTRON BALANCE ................................................................................ 1
Six Factor Formula ................................................................................................................... 2
Fast Fission Factor - .............................................................................................................. 2
Fast Non-Leakage Probability - L
f
............................................................................................ 2
Resonance Escape Probability - p ............................................................................................ 2
Thermal Non-Leakage Probability - L
th
.................................................................................... 3
Thermal Utilization Factor - f ................................................................................................... 3
Reproduction Factor - ........................................................................................................... 3
The Six Factors ......................................................................................................................... 4
REACTIVITY ............................................................................................................................. 7
SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................... 10
GLOSSARY .............................................................................................................................. 12
EXAMPLE EXERCISE ANSWERS ........................................................................................ 14

NEUTRON LIFE CYCLE & REACTIVITY REV 2

FIGURES AND TABLES
Figure 5-1 Neutron Multiplication Factor ................................................................................. 1
Figure 5-2 Characteristic Resonance Absorption Cross Section ............................................... 3
Figure 5-3 Neutron Reproduction Factor, .............................................................................. 4
Figure 5-4 Neutron Cycle .......................................................................................................... 4

Table 5-1 Reactor Reactivity Values ......................................................................................... 9


OBJECTIVES
or written exam.
1. DEFINE effective multiplication factor and discuss its relationship to the state of the reactor.
2. DEFINE the following terms with respect to the reactor:
a. Neutron generation time
b. Critical
c. Subcritical
d. Supercritical
3. DESCRIBE the neutron life cycle using the following terms:
a. Fast fission factor
b. Fast non-leakage probability factor
c. Resonance escape probability factor
d. Thermal non-leakage probability factor
e. Thermal utilization factor
f. Reproduction factor
4. DEFINE reactivity.
5. STATE the relationship between reactivity and effective multiplication factor.
6. Given specific values of k
eff
, CALCULATE values of reactivity.
7. Given specific values of reactivity, CALCULATE values of k
eff
.
8. CONVERT given values of reactivity to other expressions of reactivity.


STEADY STATE NEUTRON
BALANCE
The neutron, from its birth as a fission neutron to
its absorption in the core, undergoes several
processes. The neutron life cycle is used to
represent these various processes and the effect
each has on sustaining a steady state condition.
The neutron population in any given volume
depends on the processes that add or remove
neutrons from the volume. The time dependent
behavior of the neutron population in any reactor
at power is given by the mathematical
expression:
Rate of
Neutron
Production
-
Rate of
Neutron
Removal
=
Rate of
Change of
Neutron
Population

Equation 5-1
When the reactor is in a steady state condition,
the rate of neutron production is equal to the rate
of neutron removal. Under these conditions, the
rate of change of the neutron population is zero,
and reactor power will remain constant.
Neutrons are primarily produced by fission and
are removed by either absorption or leakage from
the reactor. Several processes determine a
neutrons fate. The neutron life cycle is used to
represent these various processes and the effect
each has on sustaining a steady state condition.
They are discussed in greater detail later in this
chapter. For purposes of simplification, the
following assumptions can be made regarding
the neutron life cycle:
All neutrons are born as fast neutrons.
Some fast neutrons can be absorbed by fuel
and cause fast fission.
Some fast neutrons can leak out of the
reactor core.
Some fast neutrons can be resonantly
captured while slowing down.
All remaining neutrons become thermalized.
Some thermal neutrons can leak out of the
core.
Some thermal neutrons can be absorbed by
non-fuel material.
Some thermal neutrons can be absorbed by
fuel and not cause fission.
All remaining thermal neutrons are absorbed
by fuel and cause thermal fission.
Neutron generation time is defined as the time
from the birth of one generation of neutrons to
the time of the birth of the next generation of
neutrons. By comparing the number of neutrons
produced from fission in one generation to the
number of neutrons produced from fission in the
next generation, an indication of the rate of
change in neutron population is obtained. The
effective neutron multiplication factor (k
eff
) is
defined as the factor by which the number of
neutrons produced from fission in one generation
is multiplied to determine the number of
neutrons produced from fission in the next
generation, as shown in Figure 5-1.
Neutrons Out
(Generation #2)
Neutrons In
(Generation #1)
Effective
Neutron
Multiplication
Factor In the
Reactor

Figure 5-1 Neutron Multiplication Factor
The effective neutron multiplication factor can
be mathematically expressed as:
generation previous the in
fission by produced neutrons of #
generation one in
fission by produced neutrons of #
k
eff
=

Equation 5-2
The effective multiplication factor is the product
of several factors that address everything that can
happen to a neutron during its lifetime. The

NUCLEAR SCIENCE CHAPTER 5 -

values of k
eff
determine whether the neutron
population in the core is increasing, decreasing,
or remaining the same.
If the number of neutrons produced by fission in
one generation equals the number of neutrons in
the previous generation, k
eff
=1. This indicates
a steady state condition and defines an exactly
critical reactor.
SIX FACTOR FORMULA
The six factor formula is used to describe the
processes that occur during the neutron life
cycle. The starting point in the neutron
generation process is taken to be the birth of all
the fast neutrons from thermal fission events and
represents the numerator in the k
eff
formula.
FAST FISSION FACTOR -
In light water reactors most fissions are caused
by thermal neutrons, however there are an
appreciable number of fast neutrons that cause
fission in U-235, U-238, and Pu-239. These
fissions, known as fast fissions, produce fast
neutrons in addition to the fast neutrons starting
the cycle that were produced from thermal
fissions. The fast fission factor () accounts for
the neutrons produced by fast fission and is
given by the equation:
events fission THERMAL
by produced neutrons fast
events fission ALL
=
Equation 5-3
Because the fast fission factor represents a net
gain in neutron population, the fast fission factor
is slightly greater than one, typically between
1.03 and 1.10.
FAST NON-LEAKAGE
PROBABILITY - L
f

As the fast neutrons produced by fission begin
their process of slowing down, there exists a
possibility that a given neutron will be lost from
the core due to leakage. The fast non-leakage
probability (L
f
) represents that fraction of fast
neutrons that do not leak out of the core and is
given by the equation:
L
f
events fission ALL from
produced neutrons fast
down slow start to
that neutrons fast
=
Equation 5-4
The fast non-leakage probability represents a net
loss in neutron population and has a typical value
of 0.96. This means that 96 percent of fast
neutrons remain in the core. The effective core
size and moderator density impacts the value of
the fast non-leakage probability.
RESONANCE ESCAPE
PROBABILITY - p
All nuclei have some probability of absorbing a
neutron, as indicated by the microscopic cross
section for absorption (
a
). The microscopic
cross section for absorption is not a constant
value but is dependent on the energy level of the
neutron. In general, the cross section for
absorption increases as the neutron energy level
decreases. However, certain nuclei (U-238 and
Pu-240, in particular) show an extremely high
absorption cross section for neutrons at specific
energy levels.
At certain neutron energy levels the cross section
can be as much as 1,000 times the cross section
for a neutron of a slightly higher or lower energy
level (Figure 5-2).


SLOW (THERMAL) FAST INTERMEDIATE (EPITHERMAL) RESONANCE PEAK 0.01 0.1 1 10 102 103 104 105 106 107 NEUTRONENERGY a MeV eV 3 10- 4 10- 2 10- 1 . 0 0 . 1 10 7 10- 5 10- 6 10- 8 10-
SLOW
(THERMAL)
FAST INTERMEDIATE
(EPITHERMAL)
RESONANCE
PEAK
NEUTRON ENERGY
a
MeV
3
10
- 4
10
- 2
10
-
1 . 0 0 . 1 10
7
10
- 5
10
- 6
10
- 8
10
-
1 10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
10 eV
2
10
- -1
10

Figure 5-2 Characteristic Resonance
Absorption Cross Section
The resonance escape probability (p) is the
fraction of neutrons that are not absorbed while
slowing to thermal energy.
down slow start to that neutrons fast
thermal become that neutrons fast
p=
Equation 5-5
The resonance escape probability represents a
net loss in neutron population and has typical
value of approximately 0.75. There are several
factors that affect the value of the resonance
escape probability, such as the moderator-to-fuel
ratio, fuel temperature, core age, and fuel
enrichment.
THERMAL NON-LEAKAGE
PROBABILITY - L
th

As thermal neutrons begin the diffusion process,
there is a possibility that some of the neutrons
will be lost to core leakage. The thermal non-
leakage probability (L
th
) represents the
probability that a thermal neutron will not leak
out of the core and is given by the following
equation:
L
th =
core in the absorbed neutrons thermal

Equation 5-6
The effective core size and moderator density
impacts the thermal non-leakage probability.
The effect of these parameters is small because
the distance that a neutron travels in the thermal
energy range is much less than that of a fast
neutron.
The thermal non-leakage probability represents a
net loss in the neutron population and has a
typical value of 0.98. As with the fast non-
leakage probability, this leakage term is often
neglected due to the relative infinite size of the
reactor. A factor so close to 1.0 does not change
the value of k
eff
very much.
THERMAL UTILIZATION FACTOR - f
All materials in the reactor absorb neutrons to
some extent. By carefully selecting the materials
that go into the reactor, control of neutron
absorption is accomplished and non-fuel
absorption is minimized.
The thermal utilization factor (f) is the ratio of
the number of thermal neutrons absorbed in the
fuel to the number of thermal neutrons absorbed
in the core. The term core includes the fuel,
moderator, fuel cladding, structural members,
control rods, etc.
core in absorbed neutrons thermal
fuel in absorbed neutrons thermal
f =
Equation 5-7
The thermal utilization factor represents a net
loss in neutron population and has a typical value
of 0.95.
REPRODUCTION FACTOR -
The reproduction factor () represents the
number of fast neutrons produced from fission
compared to the number of thermal neutrons
absorbed in the fuel, as shown in Figure 5-3.


Fast
Neutrons Out
Thermal
Neutrons In
Neutron
Reproduction
Factor

Figure 5-3 Neutron Reproduction Factor,
In equation form, becomes:
fuel in the absorbed
neutrons thermal
events fission by thermal
=
Equation 5-8
The reproduction factor represents a net gain in
neutron population and has a typical value of
approximately 1.45. The value varies with fuel
enrichment and core age.
THE SIX FACTORS
435
NEUTRONS
FROM
THERMAL
FISSION
START CYCLE
HERE
965
THERMAL
NEUTRON
1384 FAST
NEUTRONS
1017
THERMAL
NEUTRONS
1038
THERMAL
NEUTRON
1442 FAST
NEUTRONS
1400 FAST
NEUTRONS
BORN
1400 FAST
NEUTRONS
346
RESONANCE
LOSSES
21
THERMAL
NEUTRON
LEAKAGE
52
THERMAL NEUTRONS
ABSORBED BY
NON-FUEL ATOMS
58
FAST NEUTRON
LEAKAGE
NEUTRONS
FROM
FAST FISSION
42
p
f
L
th
L
f
U-235 FUEL

MODERATOR
U-
235
238
239

Figure 5-4 Neutron Cycle
Using Figure 5-4, assume that the neutron life
cycle begins with 1,400 fast neutrons. Recall
that these fast neutrons are born from thermal
fission of U-235 fuel.
Of these neutrons, some will cause fast fission in
U-235, U-238, and Pu-239, producing additional
fast neutrons. The fast fission factor () is
represented by the equation:
events fission THERMAL
events fission ALL
=
Equation 5-9
The number of fast neutrons has increased
from 1,400 to 1,442. Calculate the fast
fission factor.
=

Example 5-1
Thus, the fast fission factor () in this example is
1.03. The 1,442 fast neutrons exist to continue
through the neutron life cycle.
Some of the fast neutrons will be lost due to fast
leakage. The fast non-leakage probability (L
f
)
represents the fraction of fast neutrons that do
not leak out of the core and is given by:
L
f
=
events fission ALL from
down slow start to
that neutrons fast

Equation 5-10
The number of fast neutrons decreased
from 1,442 when 58 fast neutrons leak out
of the core. Calculate the fast non-leakage
factor.
L
f
=
Example 5-2
In this example, 1,384 fast neutrons remain in
the core and begin to slow down. Therefore, the
L
f
is determined to be 0.96.
As the remaining neutrons begin to slow down,
they will pass though the resonance region and
are subject to resonance capture. The resonance


escape probability defines the probability that a
given neutron will escape capture and is given
by:
down slow start to that neutrons fast
p=
Equation 5-11
Of the 1,384 neutrons that begin to
thermalize, it is determined that 346
neutrons are absorbed in the resonance
peak regions.
Calculate the resonance escape probability.
= p

Example 5-3
Therefore, 1,038 neutrons reach thermal energy
and p =0.75.
A fraction of the thermal neutrons will be lost to
thermal leakage. The fraction of neutrons that
are not lost is given by the thermal non-leakage
probability (L
th
) and is given by:
L
th
=

Equation 5-12
Of the 1,038 neutrons that are thermalized
it is determined that 21 thermal neutrons
leak out of the core, that leaves 1,017 to be
absorbed in the core (fuel and non-fuel
materials). Calculate the thermal non-
leakage probability.
L
th
=

Example 5-4
Therefore, in this example, L
th
is equal to 0.98.
The next factor to be determined in this neutron
life cycle is the thermal utilization factor (f). It is
written mathematically by:
fuel in absorbed neutrons thermal
f =
Equation 5-13
Of the 1,017 thermal neutrons that remain
in the core it is determined that 52 thermal
neutrons are absorbed into non-fuel atoms
in the core, that would leave 965 neutrons
to be absorbed into the fuel.
Calculate the thermal utilization factor.
= f
Example 5-5
The thermal utilization factor (f =0.95) denotes
the ratio of the thermal neutron absorbed in the
fuel to those absorbed in the core.
The last factor to be considered is the
reproduction factor (). The reproduction factor
is given by the equation:
fuel the in absorbed
neutrons thermal
events fission thermal
=
Equation 5-14
There are 965 thermal neutrons available
for absorption into the U-235 fuel. As a
result of these absorptions, fast neutrons are
born from fission. The fission process
produces 1,400 fast neutrons.
Calculate the reproduction factor.
=

Example 5-6


In this example, the neutron reproduction factor
() is equal to 1.45.
Note that the number of neutrons produced by
fission in this generation equals the number of
neutrons produced in the previous generation.
By definition, k
eff
is equal to one, and the reactor
is exactly critical. The effective multiplication
factor, k
eff
, is equal to the product of the six
factors and is independent of neutron sources
other than fission.
k
eff
=L
f
p L
th
f
Where:
k
eff

=
effective multiplication
factor
= fast fission factor
L
f
= fast non-leakage probability
p = resonance escape probability
L
th
=
thermal non-leakage
probability
f = thermal utilization factor
= reproduction factor
Equation 5-15

Using the six factors as determined from
Figure 5-4, k
eff
becomes:
965
400 , 1
017 , 1
965
038 , 1
017 , 1
384 , 1
038 , 1
442 , 1
384 , 1
400 , 1
442 , 1
k
eff
=

k
eff
=1.03 0.96 0.75 0.98 0.95 1.45
0 . 1 k
eff
= (The reactor is critical.)
Example 5-7
The effective multiplication factor (k
eff
) is
essentially a measure of the probability that one
fission event will cause another fission. As
illustrated by the six factor formula, core size
and materials affect this probability. However, it
is not affected by the introduction of non-fission
neutrons.


REACTIVITY
Reactivity is the measure of the departure of a
reactor from criticality. Reactivity is defined as
the fractional change in fission neutron
population per generation and is indicated by the
Greek letter rho (). The fractional change in
neutron population per generation (reactivity)
can be shown by the equation given below.
eff
ff e
k
1 k

Where:
k
eff

=
factor
= reactivity (k/k)
Equation 5-16
Calculate the reactivity level of a core with
a k
eff
of 0.985.

eff
ff e
k
1 k
=

985 . 0
1 985 . 0
=
k / k 0152 . 0 =

Example 5-8
The following notational changes are used to
simplify the discussion of reactivity:
1 k k
eff eff
=
k
k
k
k
k
1 k
eff
eff
eff
eff

=
=
Where:
k
eff

=
factor
= reactivity (k/k)
Equation 5-17
Besides the k/k unit for reactivity, the fractional
change in neutron population may also be
expressed in terms of % k/k. The % k/k unit
may be obtained as follows:
( ) k / k % % 100
k
k
=

Equation 5-18
Reactivity is also expressed by the term pcm.
k / k 10 pcm 1
5
=

1% k / k =1,000 pcm
Where:
pcm = percent milli rho ().
Equation 5-19
Core reactivity is -0.025 k/k.
Calculate the value of reactivity in pcm.
( ) k / k % 50 . 2 % 100 k / k 025 . 0 =
pcm 2500
k k % 1
pcm 1000
k / k % 50 . 2 =

Example 5-9


Given that the reactivity level of a core is
0.0152 k/k.
Calculate the core reactivity value in % k/k.
( ) k / k % % 100
k
k
=

( ) k / k % 52 . 1 % 100 k / k 0152 . 0 =

Example 5-10
PCM is the acronym for ______ _____ _____.

Example 5-11
Since k
eff
is a dimensionless quantity, reactivity
(k/k) is also dimensionless. It is convenient,
however, to talk about reactivity in units of k/k
or %k/k.
A control rod withdrawal results in the k
eff

of a reactor changing from 0.97 to 0.975.
Calculate how much reactivity was added
to the core by the control rod withdrawal.

eff
ff e
k
1 k

k / k 0256 . 0
975 . 0
1 975 . 0
2
=
=
k / k 0309 . 0
97 . 0
1 97 . 0
1
=
=

1 2
=
) k / k 0309 . 0 ( k / k 0256 . 0 =
k / k 0053 . 0 =
or
k / k % 53 . 0 =
pcm 530 =
Example 5-12
For values of k
eff
very close to 1, k. If the
reactivity of the reactor is known, then k
eff
can
be determined by:

=
1
1
k
eff

Where:
k
eff
=
factor
= reactivity (k/k)
Equation 5-20


A shutdown reactor has a core reactivity of
0.0028 k/k.
Calculate the core k
eff
.

=
1
1
k
eff

) 0028 . 0 ( 1
1
k
eff

=
9972 . 0 k
eff
=
Example 5-13
0.0028 k/k. A control rod movement
inserts a negative 940 pcm.
Calculate the final core reactivity.

Example 5-14
Reactivity is a convenient term to use when
discussing deviations from criticality. For any
power, if the reactor is critical (k
eff
=1, =0), the
reactivity associated with the reactor is zero. For
a supercritical reactor (k
eff
>1), reactivity is a
positive value, and for a subcritical reactor
(k
eff
<1), reactivity is a negative value.
The k
eff
and reactivity equation can be
rearranged to solve for reactivity:
eff
eff
k
1
1
1
1
k =

=
Equation 5-21
Table 5-1 Reactor Reactivity Values
Reactor
Status
k
eff

Critical 1 0
Supercritical >1 Positive
Subcritical <1 Negative

If k
eff
is equal to 1, substituting into the
equation we find that reactivity is equal to
zero.
0
1
1
1
k
1
1
eff
= = =
=0
If k
eff
is greater than 1, substituting into the
equation we find that reactivity is a positive
value.
000999 . 0
001 . 1
1
1
k
1
1
eff
= = =
is positive
If k
eff
is less than 1, substituting into the
equation we find that reactivity is a negative
value.
001 . 0
999 . 0
1
1
k
1
1
eff
= = =
is negative
Example 5-15


SUMMARY
The effective multiplication factor, k
eff
, is the
ratio of the number of neutrons produced by
fission in one generation to the number of
neutrons lost through absorption and leakage in
the preceding generation.
Critical is the condition where the neutron chain
reaction is self-sustaining and the neutron
population is neither increasing nor decreasing.
Subcritical is the condition in which the neutron
population is decreasing each generation.
Supercritical is the condition in which the
neutron population is increasing each generation.
The number of neutrons present at any point in
the neutron life cycle can be calculated as the
product of the number of neutrons present at the
start of the generation and all the factors
preceding that point in the life cycle.
The enrichment of uranium-235, the temperature
of the fuel, and the temperature of the moderator
affect the resonance escape probability.
The thermal utilization factor is affected by the
enrichment of uranium-235, the amount of
neutron poisons, and the moderator-to-fuel ratio.
The reproduction factor is affected by the
enrichment of uranium-235.
Reactivity is a measure of the departure from
critical. If:
k
eff
is equal to 1, =0
k
eff
is >1, =positive
k
eff
is <1, =negative


PRACTICE EXERCISES
1. Define k
eff.

2. The reactor is critical if neutrons produced by
fission in one generation are
________________ (equal to/greater than)
neutrons produced by fission the previous
generation.
3. The fast fission factor () will always be
________ less than/greater than one.
4. (TRUE or FALSE) The Thermal Utilization
factor can vary from 0.9 to 1.1 in a
commercial nuclear reactor.
5. Define Reactivity.
6. The number of fast neutrons has increased
from 1,500 to 1,560 due to fast fission.
Calculate the fast fission factor.
7. The number of fast neutrons decreased from
1,560 when 47 fast neutrons leak out of the
core. Calculate the fast non-leakage factor.
8. Of the 1,513 neutrons that begin to
thermalize, it is determined that 332 neutrons
are absorbed in the resonance peak regions.
9. Of the 1,181 neutrons that are thermalized it
is determined that 30 thermal neutrons leak
out of the core. Calculate the thermal non-
10. Of the 1,151 thermal neutrons that remain in
the core it is determined that 51 thermal
neutrons are absorbed into non-fuel atoms in
the core. Calculate the thermal utilization
factor.
11. The absorption of 1,100 thermal neutrons in
U-235 results in the production of 1500 fast
neutrons. Calculate the reproduction factor.
12. Calculate the reactivity level of a core with a
k
eff
of 0.987.
13. A control rod withdrawal results in the k
eff
of
a reactor changing from 0.975 to 0.980.
Calculate how much reactivity was added to
the core by the control rod withdrawal.


GLOSSARY
Critical The condition of the reactor where the number of neutrons produced by
fission in one generation equals the number of neutrons produced by fission
in the previous generation (k
eff
=1) ( =0).
Effective
Multiplication Factor
(k
eff
)
The factor by which the number of neutrons produced by fission in one
generation must be multiplied to determine the number of neutrons
produced by fission in the next generation.
Fast Fission Factor
()
The ratio of fast neutrons produced from all fission events divided by fast
neutrons produced by thermal fission events.
Fast Non-Leakage
Probability (L
f
)
The ratio of the number of fast neutrons that start to slow down divided by
the number of fast neutrons produced from all fissions.
Neutron Generation
Time
The time from the birth of one generation of neutrons to the time of the
birth of the next generation of neutrons.
Reactivity () The fractional change in fission neutron population per generation, or the
measure of the departure of a reactor from criticality. Reactivity is zero
when the reactor is exactly critical. If positive reactivity is added, reactor
power will increase. If negative reactivity is added, reactor power will
decrease.
Reproduction Factor
()
The ratio of fast neutrons produced by thermal fission events divided by the
number of thermal neutrons absorbed in the fuel.
Resonance Escape
Probability (p)
The ratio of fast neutrons that become thermal divided by the number of
fast neutrons that start to slow down.
Six Factor Formula Used to describe the processes that occur during the neutron life cycle.
Subcritical The condition in which the number of neutrons produced by fission in one
generation is less than the number of neutrons produced by fission in the
previous generation (k
eff
<1) (negative ).
Supercritical The condition in which the number of neutrons produced by fission in one
generation is greater than the number of neutrons produced by fission in the
previous generation (k
eff
>1) (positive ).
Thermal Non-
Leakage Factor (L
th
)
The ratio of the number of thermal neutrons absorbed in the core divided by
the number of fast neutrons that become thermal.


GLOSSARY
Thermal Utilization
Factor (f)
The ratio of the number of thermal neutrons absorbed in fuel divided by the
number of thermal neutrons absorbed in the core.


EXAMPLE EXERCISE
ANSWERS
The number of fast neutrons has increased
from 1,400 to 1,442. Calculate the fast
fission factor.
03 . 1
400 , 1
442 , 1
= =
Example 5-1
The number of fast neutrons decreased
from 1442 when 58 fast neutrons leak out
of the core. Calculate the fast non-leakage
factor.
L
f
= 96 . 0
442 , 1
384 , 1
=
Example 5-2
Of the 1384 neutrons that begin to
neutrons are absorbed in the resonance
peak regions.
75 . 0
384 , 1
038 , 1
p = =
Example 5-3
Of the 1038 neutrons that are thermalized it
out of the core, that leaves 1017 to be
absorbed in the core (fuel and non-fuel
materials). Calculate the thermal non-
L
th
= 98 . 0
038 , 1
017 , 1
=
Example 5-4
Of the 1,017 thermal neutrons that remain
neutrons are absorbed into non-fuel atoms
in the core, that would leave 965 neutrons
to be absorbed into the fuel.
Calculate the thermal utilization factor.
95 . 0
017 , 1
965
f = =
Example 5-5
There are 965 thermal neutrons available
for absorption into the U-235 fuel. As a
result of these absorptions, fast neutrons are
born from fission. The fission process
produces 1,400 fast neutrons.
Calculate the reproduction factor.
45 . 1
965
400 , 1
= =
Example 5-6
PCM is the acronym for ______ _____ _____.
(percent milli rho (P))
Example 5-11


-0.0028 k/k. A control rod movement
inserts a negative -940 pcm.
Calculate the final core reactivity.

-0.0028k/k +(-0.00940k/k) =-.01220k/k
Example 5-14
If k
eff
is equal to 1, substituting into the
equation we find that reactivity is equal to
zero.
0
1
1
1
k
1
1
eff
= = =
=0
If k
eff
greater than 1, substituting into the
equation we find that reactivity is a positive
value.
000999 . 0
001 . 1
1
1
k
1
1
eff
= = =
is positive
If k
eff
less than 1, substituting into the
equation we find that reactivity is a negative
value.
001 . 0
999 . 0
1
1
k
1
1
eff
= = =
is negative
Example 5-15


PRACTICE EXERCISE
ANSWERS
1. Define k
eff.

If the number of neutrons produced by
fission in one generation equals the
number of neutrons in the previous
generation, k
eff
= 1. This indicates a
steady state condition and defines an
exactly critical reactor.
2. The reactor is critical if neutrons produced
by fission in one generation are
________________ (equal to/greater than)
neutrons produced by fission the previous
generation.
3. The fast fission factor () will always be
________ less than/greater than one.
4. (TRUE or FALSE) The Thermal
Utilization factor can vary from 0.9 to 1.1 in
a commercial nuclear reactor.
5. Define Reactivity.
The measure of the departure of a
reactor from criticality or the
fractional change in neutron population
from one generation to another.
6. The number of fast neutrons has increased
from 1,500 to 1,560 due to fast fission.
Calculate the fast fission factor.
04 . 1
500 , 1
560 , 1
= =
7. The number of fast neutrons decreased from
1,560 when 47 fast neutrons leak out of the
core. Calculate the fast non-leakage factor.
L
f
= 97 . 0
560 , 1
513 , 1
=
8. Of the 1,513 neutrons that begin to
neutrons are absorbed in the resonance peak
regions. Calculate the resonance escape
probability.
78 . 0
513 , 1
181 , 1
p = =
9. Of the 1,181 neutrons that are thermalized it
out of the core. Calculate the thermal non-
L
th
= 975 . 0
181 , 1
151 , 1
=
10. Of the 1,151 thermal neutrons that remain
neutrons are absorbed into non-fuel atoms in
the core. Calculate the thermal utilization
factor.
956 . 0
151 , 1
100 , 1
f = =
11. The absorption of 1,100 thermal neutrons in
U-235 results in the production of 1,500 fast
neutrons. Calculate the reproduction factor.
36 . 1
100 , 1
500 , 1
= =
12. Calculate the reactivity level of a core with a
k
eff
of 0.987.

eff
ff e
k
1 k
=

987 . 0
1 987 . 0
=
k / k 0132 . 0 =
13. A control rod withdrawal results in the k
eff

of a reactor changing from 0.975 to 0.980.
Calculate how much reactivity was added to
the core by the control rod withdrawal.

eff
ff e
k
1 k

k / k 0204 . 0
98 . 0
1 98 . 0
2
=
=


k / k 0256 . 0
975 . 0
1 975 . 0
1
=
=

1 2
=
) k / k 0256 . 0 ( k / k 0204 . 0 =
k / k 0052 . 0 =
or
k / k % 52 . 0 =
pcm 520 =


KFN06Sr02_Delayed Neutrons and Reactor Kinetics.doc r20 6/9/2014 3:23:00 PM
NUCLEAR SCIENCE
CHAPTER 6
DELAYED NEUTRONS AND REACTOR KINETICS
10
2
TIME
10
1
1
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
TRIP
PROMPT DROP
DELAYED NEUTRON
EFFECT
-80 SECOND
PERIOD
SUBCRITICAL
MULTIPLICATION
%

R
E
A
C
T
O
R

P
O
W
E
R
10
-1

STUDENT TEXT
REV 2
TM


TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................. i
OBJ ECTIVES ............................................................................................................................. iii
DELAYED NEUTRONS ............................................................................................................ 1
REACTOR KINETICS ............................................................................................................... 7
Reactor Period .......................................................................................................................... 7
Effective Delayed Neutron Precursor Decay Constant ............................................................ 9
Prompt Criticality ................................................................................................................... 10
Stable Period Equation ........................................................................................................... 11
Reactor Startup Rate (SUR) ................................................................................................... 11
Doubling Time ....................................................................................................................... 12
SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................... 15
GLOSSARY .............................................................................................................................. 17

DELAYED NEUTRONS AND REACTOR KINETICS REV 2

FIGURES AND TABLES

Figure 6-1 Prompt Neutron Lifetime......................................................................................... 1
Figure 6-2 Delayed Neutron Lifetime ....................................................................................... 1
Figure 6-3 Prompt J ump .......................................................................................................... 10
Figure 6-4 Prompt Drop .......................................................................................................... 10

Table 6-1 Uranium-235 Delayed Neutron Precursor Groups ................................................... 2
Table 6-2 Delayed Neutron Fraction ......................................................................................... 3
Table 6-3 Fission Yield ............................................................................................................. 4
Table 6-4 Approximate Values for
eff
....................................................................................... 9


OBJECTIVES
objectives at a minimum proficiency level of 80%, unless otherwise stated, on an
oral or written exam.
1. DESCRIBE the production of delayed neutrons.
2. DEFINE delayed neutron fraction and effective delayed neutron fraction; state the reasons
for variation.
3. Given the power equation, SOLVE problems for power changes, startup rate, and period.
4. DEFINE doubling time and calculate it using the power equation.
5. EXPLAIN the effect of delayed neutrons on reactor control.
6. EXPLAIN prompt critical, prompt jump, and prompt drop.
7. DEFINE startup rate.
8. DESCRIBE the factors affecting reactor period and startup rate.


DELAYED NEUTRONS
Prompt neutrons are produced within
approximately 10
-14
seconds after the fission
event. After birth, the prompt neutrons will begin
to slow down via the process of moderation. The
time associated with prompt neutron from the
point of birth to the point where the prompt
neutron reaches thermal energy is known as the
slowing down time. For the prompt neutron, this
time is approximately 10
6
seconds. Once the
neutron becomes thermal it will continue to
travel until it is absorbed or escapes. This
process is known as thermal diffusion. The time
associated with thermal diffusion, thermal
diffusion time, is approximately 10
4
seconds.
NOTE: For a PWR, 10
5
seconds thermal
diffusion time is an approximate value. 10
4

seconds is the correct value for a BWR. We will
use the BWR value for this text.
Adding the times associated with the prompt
neutron results in a prompt neutron generation
time (
*
) of approximately 10
4
seconds. That is
to say that the time from fission to the point of
absorption of a prompt neutron is approximately
10
4
seconds. (10
-14
seconds and 10
-6
seconds
being insignificant).

NEUTRON
RELEASE
TIME
FISSION
EVENT
NEUTRON
RELEASED
NEUTRON
BECOMES
THERMALIZED
NEUTRON IS
ABSORBED
(OR ESCAPES)
10
-6
SEC 10
-4
SEC
SLOWING
DOWN
TIME
THERMAL
DIFFUSION
TIME
PROMPT
NEUTRON
LIFETIME
PROMPT
NEUTRON
GENERATION
TIME
(*)
10
-14
SEC

Figure 6-1 Prompt Neutron Lifetime
The average delayed neutron is born
approximately 12.7 seconds after the fission
event. The slowing down time for a delayed
neutron is approximately 10
6
seconds and the
thermal diffusion time is about 10
4
seconds. As
a result, the delayed neutron generation time
(
d
) is approximately 12.7 seconds.
10
-6
SEC 10
-4
SEC ABOUT 12.7 SEC FOR
DELAYED NEUTRONS
NEUTRON
RELEASE
TIME
FISSION
EVENT
NEUTRON
RELEASED
NEUTRON
BECOMES
THERMALIZED
NEUTRON IS
ABSORBED
(OR ESCAPES)
SLOWING
DOWN
TIME
THERMAL
DIFFUSION
TIME
DELAYED
NEUTRON
LIFETIME
DELAYED
NEUTRON
GENERATION
TIME
(
d)

Figure 6-2 Delayed Neutron Lifetime
In other words, the total time from fission,
through the birth of a delayed neutron, to the
point of absorption in the fuel is approximately
12.7 seconds. It is important to note this is the
average generation time of a delayed neutron.
To fully understand the impact delayed neutrons
have on reactor stability, it is necessary to
discuss delayed neutrons in more detail.
Upon fissioning, U-235 gives rise to many
possible delayed neutron precursors. Delayed
neutron precursors are the fission fragments
whose decay scheme lead to the production of
delayed neutrons. The delayed neutron precursor
decay constant represents the decay rate of a
particular delayed neutron precursor.
The delayed neutron precursor decay constant is
designated by the Greek lower case lambda ()
and is expressed in units of seconds
1
. The
delayed neutron precursor decay constant is the
reciprocal of the mean life. The mean life is
designated by the Greek lower case tau () and is
expressed in units of seconds. The mean life


represents how long, on the average, a delayed
neutron precursor will exist before decaying.
The delayed neutron precursor mean life and the
decay constant are related by the following
equation:
=
1

Where:

= delayed neutron precursor
decay constant (seconds
1
)

= mean life (seconds)
Equation 6-1
Given that the first excited daughter of the
delayed neutron precursor decays by neutron
emission, the mean life represents how soon after
the fission event a delayed neutron is produced.
Both the mean life and the decay constant are
directly determined from the half-life of the
delayed neutron precursor. Recall that half-life
(t
1/2
) is the average time required for one-half of
the atoms of a material to decay.
2 / 1
t
2 ln
=
Therefore:
2 ln
t
2 / 1
=
Where:

= delayed neutron precursor
decay constant (seconds
1
)
ln 2 = natural log of 2
2 / 1
t = half-life (seconds)
Equation 6-2
In order to calculate the delayed neutron fraction
for a particular nuclide, the weighted average for
the delayed neutrons produced from the delayed
neutron precursors must be determined.
In order to facilitate the calculations, the delayed
neutron precursors are grouped according to
half-life. Table 6-1 shows the delayed neutron
precursors for U-235 divided into six groups
based on similar half-life. To determine the
average delayed neutron generation time for a
given fuel it is necessary to take into
consideration the percentage of delayed neutrons
produced by each precursor group. Table 6-1
shows each group has a characteristic half-life
(t
1/2
) and a characteristic mean life (
i
). The
subscript i represents the ith group.
The delayed neutron fraction () is a ratio of the
number of neutrons born delayed to the total
number of neutrons born from fission of a
particular nuclide. () represents the fraction of
neutrons born delayed from fission of a
particular nuclide.
Table 6-1 Uranium-235 Delayed Neutron
Precursor Groups
Group
#
Half
Life sec
(t
1/2
)
Mean
Life sec
(
i
)
Delayed
Neutron
Fraction
(
i
)
Weighted
Mean Life
(
weighted

mean
)
1 55.6 80.2 0.0002 0.0160
2 22.0 31.7 0.0014 0.0448
3 6.2 9.0 0.0012 0.0108
4 2.3 3.3 0.0026 0.0086
5 0.6 0.9 0.0007 0.0006
6 0.23 0.33 0.0003 0.00001
Each precursor group has a representative
delayed neutron fraction (
i
). For example, a
i

of 0.0002 (Group 1) signifies that 2 out of
10,000 fission neutrons were born delayed from
precursor Group 1.


To determine the weighted mean life that a
specific precursor group contributes to the total
delayed neutron population, it is necessary to
multiply the mean life by the delayed neutron
fraction for each precursor group. From the
table, note that the first precursor group has an
average half-life of 55.6 seconds.
2 ln
t
2 / 1
=
693 . 0
sec 6 . 55
=
sec 2 . 80 =
Multiplying the mean life of 80 seconds by the
delayed neutron fraction of 0.0002:
(80 sec)(0.0002) =0.0160 sec
Therefore, 0.0160 sec is the weighted mean
life for this delayed neutron precursor group.
Example 6-1
This implies that, on the average, a delayed
neutron is emitted once every 0.0160 seconds
from a delayed neutron precursor in the first
group.
The sum of the individual groups weighted mean
life divided by the sum of their delayed neutron
fractions results in an average mean life ( ) of
12.7 seconds for the delayed neutron precursors
for U-235.
i
mean weighted
i
i i
=
Where:
= average mean life (seconds)

= mathematical symbol that
means summation (or addition)
Equation 6-3
Taking the weighted average mean life for all
six groups and dividing by the total fraction
they represent, we find the average delayed
neutron birth time:
seconds 7 . 12
0064 . 0
081 . 0
= =
Example 6-2
On the average, for U-235, delayed neutrons are
born 12.7 seconds after the fission event.
Finally, inverting the average mean life yields
the weighted average delayed neutron precursor
decay constant ( ). This value is 0.08 seconds
1

during steady state power operations.
The delayed neutron fraction from fission of the
fuels in the reactor is shown in Table 6-2. The
value of the delayed neutron fraction for each
fissionable nuclide is the sum of the delayed
neutron fraction for each group and is a constant.
Table 6-2 Delayed Neutron Fraction
DELAYED NEUTRON
FRACTION,
U-235
U-238
Pu-239
0.0064 0.0156 0.0021
To determine a core average delayed neutron
fraction, all fuel types must be taken into
consideration. The core average delayed neutron
fraction (
core
) represents the weighted average
of the delayed neutron fraction for each fuel type
in the core. To determine this value, time in core
life (fuel cycle) and the fission yield (or fission


fraction) for each fuel must be considered. The
fission fraction () is defined as the percentage of
fissions that occur in the reactor for each
particular fuel type present.
Table 6-3 lists the fission yield (or fission
fraction) values.
Table 6-3 Fission Yield
FISSION YIELD,
U-235
U-238
Pu-239
Beginning of Life 0.93 0.07 0.00
End of Life 0.55 0.07 0.38
The core average delayed neutron fraction is
determined using the following equation:
core
=(
235
)(
235
) +(
238
)(
238
) +(
239
)(
239
)
Where:
core
= core average delayed
neutron fraction
235
= U-235 delayed neutron
fraction
235
= U-235 fission yield
238
fraction
238
239
= Pu-239 delayed neutron
fraction
239
= Pu-239 fission yield
Equation 6-4
For the beginning of a new reactor core, BOL
(fresh fuel, no Pu-239 present), about 7% of the
total core power (fissions) are produced by U-
238 and the remaining 93% by U-235.
The core average delayed neutron fraction (
core
)
at BOL is calculated as follows:
238 238 235 235 core
+ =
Where:
core
neutron fraction
235
fraction
235
238
fraction
238
Equation 6-5
Using the values in Table 6-2 and Table 6-3,
determine the
core
for a reactor at BOL.
238 238 235 235 core
+ =
( )( ) ( )( ) 07 . 0 0156 . 0 93 . 0 0064 . 0
core
+ =
BOL at 007 . 0
core
=
Example 6-3
Near the end of core life, EOL, due to depletion
of the U-235 and the buildup of Pu-239, the
power distribution changes among the fuels in
the reactor. About 7% of the total core power is
still produced by U-238, 55% of the total core
power is produced by U-235, and about 38% is
from Pu-239. The core average delayed neutron
fraction at the end of life is then:


( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
239 239 238 238 235 235 core
+ + =
Where:
core
neutron fraction
235
fraction
235
238
fraction
238
239
= Pu-239 delayed neutron
fraction
239
= Pu-239 fission yield
Equation 6-6
Using the values in Table 6-2 and Table 6-3,
determine the
core
for a reactor at EOL.
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
239 239 238 238 235 235 core
+ + =
) 38 . 0 )( 0021 . 0 (
) 07 . 0 )( 0156 . 0 ( ) 55 . 0 )( 0064 . 0 (
core
+
+ =

EOL at 0054 . 0
core
=
Example 6-4
Example 6-3 and Example 6-4 show that the core
average delayed neutron fraction decreases over
core life. The effective delayed neutron fraction
(
eff
) is the fraction of neutron induced fissions
caused by delayed neutrons for a particular
nuclide.
There are two reasons why the value of the
effective delayed neutron fraction is different
from the value of the delayed neutron fraction.
The first reason is that the delayed neutrons are
born at a lower average energy level than prompt
neutrons, 0.5 MeV versus 2.0 MeV. This means
that many of the delayed neutrons are born at an
energy level lower than that needed to cause fast
fission. The delayed neutrons are less likely to
cause fast fission, which tends to make the
effective delayed neutron fraction smaller. The
second reason for the difference is that since the
neutrons are born at a lower energy level, they
are less likely to leak out of the core than prompt
neutrons. This effect tends to increase the
effective delayed neutron fraction. The two
factors are competing against each other.
Depending on the core size and fuel loading, the
effective delayed neutron fraction can be smaller,
equal to, or larger than the actual delayed
neutron fraction.
The average effective delayed neutron fraction,
eff
, is a weighted average of the
eff
for each
fuel isotope in the core. Mathematically,
eff
is
the number of fissions caused by delayed
neutrons divided by the total number of fissions
caused by fission neutrons. Because the average
effective delayed neutron fraction takes into
account the effects of the delayed neutrons on
fission in the core, it is used in discussing and
predicting the reactor response to reactivity
changes. For convenience, during the rest of this
chapter,
eff
will be considered equal to
core
.


I
eff
= where is the weighted average of
the delayed neutron fractions for all the
fissile/fissionable nuclides in the reactor core
(same as
core
) and where I is the delayed
neutron importance and is defined as:
) prompt ( eff
) delayed ( eff
k
k
I =
) prompt ( f prompt
) delayed ( f delayed
I
L
L
=
) 96 . 0 )( 03 . 1 (
) 98 . 0 )( 0 . 1 (
I
99 . 0 I
Hence:
core eff

The average neutron generation time ( ) is
defined as the average time from the birth of a
fission neutron to the absorption of the neutron
resulting in fission and the birth of the next
neutron generation. The average neutron
generation time is determined by multiplying the
fraction of prompt neutrons by the prompt
neutron generation time and then by adding this
value to the product of the fraction of delayed
neutrons and the delayed neutron lifetime.
d eff eff
* ) 1 ( + =
Where:

= average neutron generation time
(seconds)
eff

= effective delayed neutron
fraction
* = prompt generation lifetime
d
= delayed neutron lifetime (sec)
Equation 6-7

Calculate average neutron generation time at
beginning of life, given:
007 . 0
BOL eff
=
d eff eff
* ) 1 ( + =
( )( ) ( )( ) 7 . 12 007 . 0 10 007 . 0 1
4
BOL
+ =

( )( ) ( )( ) 7 . 12 007 . 0 10 993 . 0
4
BOL
+ =

089 . 0
BOL
= seconds
Example 6-5
end of life, given:
0054 . 0
EOL eff
=
d eff eff
* ) 1 ( + =

=
EOL

Example 6-6
Note that at the beginning of core life, the
average neutron generation time is
approximately 0.089 seconds. At the end of life,
the average neutron generation time is
approximately 0.069 seconds. This difference is
important because it indicates that as the core
ages, reactor response to reactivity changes will
be quicker.


REACTOR KINETICS
The response of neutron flux and reactor power to
changes in reactivity is much different in a critical
reactor than in a subcritical reactor. The reliance
of the chain reaction on delayed neutrons makes
the rate of change of reactor power controllable.
REACTOR PERIOD
The reactor period is defined as the time required
for reactor power to change by a factor of e
where e is the base of the natural logarithm and
is equal to about 2.718. The reactor period is
usually expressed in units of seconds. From the
definition of reactor period, it is possible to
develop the relationship between reactor power
and reactor period.
=
/ t
o
e P P
Where:
P = transient reactor power
P
o
= initial reactor power
t = time during the reactor transient
(seconds)
= reactor period (seconds)
Equation 6-8
The smaller the value of , the more rapid the
change in reactor power. If the reactor period is
positive, reactor power is increasing. If the reactor
period is negative, reactor power is decreasing.
There are numerous equations used to express
reactor period, but Equation 6-9, or portions of it,
will be useful in most situations. The first term in
Equation 6-9 is the prompt term and the second
term is the delayed term.

+
-
+ =
eff
eff
*

Where:

*

= prompt generation lifetime
(seconds)
= reactivity (k/k)
eff
fraction
eff
precursor decay constant
(seconds
1
)
= rate of change of reactivity
t
k / k

Equation 6-9
Note: For situations where reactivity in the core
is constant ( =0), and the reactor period is
unchanging, Equation 6-9 is simplified to:

-
+ =
eff
eff
*

Equation 6-10


Given that the reactor is at BOL (beginning-of-
life) and a positive reactivity insertion of 0.001
k/k is made, calculate the resultant stable
reactor period in seconds.
Given:
sec 10 *
4
= 007 . 0
eff
=
1
sec 1 . 0

= k / k 001 . 0 =
Find:
? =

( )

+
=
eff
*

( )
( )( )
1
4
sec 1 . 0 001 . 0
001 . 0 007 . 0
001 . 0
sec 10
+ =
sec 60 sec 1 . 0 + =
seconds 1 . 60 =
Example 6-7
Given that the reactor is at EOL (end-of-life)
and a positive reactivity insertion of 0.001
Given:
sec 10 *
4
= 0054 . 0
eff
=
1
sec 1 . 0

= k / k 001 . 0 =
Find:
? =

Example 6-8


EFFECTIVE DELAYED NEUTRON
PRECURSOR DECAY CONSTANT
Another new term has been introduced in the
reactor period () equation. That term is
eff

(pronounced lambda effective), the effective
delayed neutron precursor decay constant. The
decay rate for a given delayed neutron precursor
can be expressed as the product of precursor
concentration and the decay constant () of that
precursor. The decay constant of a precursor is
simply the fraction of an initial number of the
precursor atoms that decays in a given unit time.
A decay constant of 0.1 sec
1
, for example, implies
that one-tenth, or ten percent, of a sample of
precursor atoms decays within one second. The
value for the effective delayed neutron precursor
decay constant,
eff
, varies depending upon the
balance existing between the concentrations of the
precursor groups and the nuclide(s) being used as
the fuel.
If the reactor is operating at a constant power, all
the precursor groups reach an equilibrium value.
During an up-power transient, however, the
shorter-lived precursors decaying at any given
instant were born at a higher power level (or flux
level) than the longer-lived precursors decaying at
the same instant. There is, therefore,
proportionately more of the shorter-lived and
fewer of the longer-lived precursors decaying at
that given instant than there are at constant power.
The value of
eff
is closer to that of the shorter-
lived precursors.
During a down-power transient the longer-lived
precursors become more significant. The longer-
lived precursors decaying at a given instant were
born at a higher power level (or flux level) than
the shorter-lived precursors decaying at that
instant. Therefore, proportionately more of the
longer-lived precursors are decaying at that
instant, and the value of
eff
approaches the values
of the longer-lived precursors.
Table 6-4 Approximate Values for
eff

Steady-
State
Operation
Power
Increase
Power
Decrease
0.08 sec
1
0.1 sec
1
0.05 sec
1

The exact values will depend upon the materials
used for fuel and the value of the reactivity of the
reactor core.
Returning now to Equation 6-11 for reactor
period.
term
delayed

term
prompt

+

+ =
eff
eff
*

Equation 6-11
If the positive reactivity added is less than the
value of
eff
, the emission of prompt fission
neutrons alone is not sufficient to overcome losses
to non-fission absorption and leakage. If delayed
neutrons were not being produced, the neutron
population would decrease as long as the reactivity
of the core has a value less than the effective
delayed neutron fraction. The positive reactivity
insertion is followed immediately by a small
immediate power increase called the prompt jump.
This power increase occurs because the rate of
production of prompt neutrons changes abruptly as
the reactivity is added. Recall from an earlier
module that the generation time for prompt
neutrons is on the order of 10
14
seconds. The
effect can be seen in Figure 6-3. After the prompt
jump, the rate of change of power cannot increase
any more rapidly than the built-in time delay the
precursor half-lives allow. Therefore, the power
rise is controllable, and the reactor can be operated
safely.



Figure 6-3 Prompt Jump

Figure 6-4 Prompt Drop
Conversely, in the case where negative reactivity
is added to the core there will be a prompt drop in
reactor power. The prompt drop is the small
immediate decrease in reactor power caused by the
negative reactivity addition. The prompt drop is
illustrated in Figure 6-4. After the prompt drop,
the rate of change of power slows and approaches
the rate determined by the delayed term of
Equation 6-11.
PROMPT CRITICALITY
It can be readily seen from Equation 6-11 that if
the amount of positive reactivity added equals the
value of
eff
, the reactor period equation becomes
the following:

*
=
Where:

* = prompt generation lifetime
(seconds)

= reactivity (k/k)
Equation 6-12
In this case, the production of prompt neutrons
alone is enough to balance neutron losses and
increase the neutron population. The condition
where the reactor is critical on prompt neutrons,
and the neutron population increases as rapidly as
the prompt neutron generation lifetime allows is
known as prompt critical. The prompt critical
condition does not signal a dramatic change in
neutron behavior. The reactor period changes in a
regular manner between reactivities above and
below this reference. Prompt critical is, however,
a convenient condition for marking the transition
from delayed neutron to prompt neutron time
scales. A reactor whose reactivity even
approaches prompt critical is likely to suffer
damage due to the rapid rise in power to a very
high level. For example, a reactor that has gone
prompt critical could experience a several
thousand percent power increase in less than one
second.
Because the prompt critical condition is so
important, a specific unit of reactivity has been
defined that relates to it. The unit of reactivity is
the dollar ($), where one dollar of reactivity is
equivalent to the effective delayed neutron fraction


( )
eff
. A reactivity unit related to the dollar is the
cent, where one cent is one-hundredth of a dollar.
If the reactivity of the core is one dollar, the
reactor is prompt critical. Because the effective
delayed neutron fraction is dependent upon the
nuclides used as fuel, the value of the dollar is also
dependent on the nuclides used as fuel.
STABLE PERIOD EQUATION
For normal reactor operating conditions, the value
of positive reactivity in the reactor is never
permitted to approach the effective delayed
neutron fraction, and the reactor period equation is
normally written as follows:

+

=
eff
eff

Where:

eff
fraction
= reactivity (k/k)
eff
(seconds
1
)
= rate of change of reactivity
t
k / k

Equation 6-13
Equation 6-13 is referred to as the transient period
equation since it incorporates the term to
account for the changing amount of reactivity in
the core. The /
*
term (prompt period) is

normally negligible with respect to the remainder
of the equation and is often not included.
For conditions when the amount of reactivity in
the core is constant ( 0 = ), and the reactor period
is unchanging, Equation 6-13 can be simplified
further to Equation 6-14 that is known as the
stable period equation.

-
=
eff
eff

Where:

eff
fraction
= reactivity (k/k)
eff
(seconds
1
)
Equation 6-14
REACTOR STARTUP RATE (SUR)
The reactor startup rate (SUR) is defined as the
number of factors of ten that power changes in one
minute. The units of SUR are powers of ten per
minute, or decades per minute (DPM).
Equation 6-15 shows the relationship between
reactor power and startup rate.
) t ( SUR
o
10 P P =
Where:
P
o
SUR = reactor startup rate (DPM)
t = time during reactor transient
(minutes)
Equation 6-15
The relationship between reactor period and
startup rate can be developed.


/ t
o
e P P = and
) t ( SUR
o
10 P P =
) t ( SUR / t
o
10 e
P
P
= =

Changing the base of the exponential term on the
right side to "e" (10 =e
2.303
) and solving the result
yields the following:
(min)) t ( SUR 303 . 2 / (sec) t
e e =

(min)) t ( SUR 303 . 2
(sec) t
=

SUR 303 . 2
60
=
=
06 . 26
SUR
DOUBLING TIME
Sometimes it is useful to discuss the rate of change
of reactor power in terms similar to those used in
radioactive decay calculations. Doubling or
halving time are terms that relate to the amount of
time it takes reactor power to double or be reduced
to one-half the initial power level. If the stable
reactor period is known, doubling time can be
determined as follows:
DT = (ln 2)
Where:
DT = doubling time (seconds)
= stable reactor period (seconds)
ln 2 = natural logarithm of 2
Equation 6-16
When the doubling time is known, the power level
change from P
o
is given by the following
equation.
DT / t
o
2 P P =
Where:
P
o
t = time interval of transient
(seconds)
DT = doubling time (seconds)
Equation 6-17
The following example problems reinforce the
concepts of period and startup rate.


A reactor has a
eff
of 0.10 sec
1
and an effective
delayed neutron fraction of 0.0070. If k
eff
is
equal to 1.0025, what is the stable reactor period
and the SUR?
Step 1: First solve for reactivity:
k/k 0.00249 =
1.0025
1 - 1.0025
=
k
1 -
k
=
eff
eff

Step 2: Use this value of reactivity in
Equation 6-14 to calculate reactor period.
( )
sec 18.1 =
0.00249
sec
0.10
0.00249 - 0.0070
=

-
=
1 -
eff
eff

Step 3: The startup rate can be calculated from
the reactor period using Equation 6-15.
DPM 1.44 =
sec 18.1
26.06
=
26.06
= SUR

Example 6-9
130 pcm of negative reactivity is added to a
reactor that is initially critical at a power of 100
watts.
eff
for the reactor is 0.05 sec
1
and the
effective delayed neutron fraction is 0.0068. -
Calculate the steady state period and startup rate.
Also calculate the power level 2 minutes after
the reactivity insertion.
Step 1: Use Equation 6-14 to calculate the
reactor period.

=
eff
eff

( ) 0.00130) (
sec
0.05
0.00130) ( 0.0068
=
1

sec 124.6 =
Step 2: The startup rate can be calculated from
the reactor period using
26.06
= SUR
sec 124.6
26.06
=

DPM 0.2091 - =
Step 3: Use Equation 6-8 to calculate the reactor
power two minutes after the reactivity insertion.
=
/ t
o
e P P
( )
e
W 100 =
s) 124.6 / s (120

W 38.2 =
Example 6-10


A reactor has a power level of 1000 watts and a
doubling time of 2 minutes. What is the reactor
power level 10 minutes later?
Use Equation 6-16 to calculate the final power
level.
DT / t
o
2 P P =

P =(1,000 W) (2)
10/2
P =(1,000 W)(2)
5

=32,000 W
Example 6-11


SUMMARY
The delayed neutron fraction () is the fraction
of all fission neutrons that are born as delayed
neutrons for a particular type of fuel (that is,
uranium-235 and plutonium-239).
The average delayed neutron fraction ( ) is the
weighted average of the total delayed neutron
fractions of the different types of fuel used in a
particular reactor.
The effective delayed neutron fraction (
eff
) is
the average delayed neutron fraction multiplied
by an Importance Factor which accounts for the
fact that delayed neutrons are born at lower
average energies than fast neutrons.
The reactor period equation is stated below.
term
delayed

term
prompt

+

+ =
eff
eff
*

The following equations can be used to calculate
the stable reactor period and startup rate.

-
=
eff
eff

26.06
= SUR
Prompt jump is the small, immediate power
increase that follows a positive reactivity
insertion related to an increase in the prompt
neutron population.
Prompt drop is the small, immediate power
decrease that follows a negative reactivity
insertion related to a decrease in the prompt
neutron population.
Prompt critical is the condition when the reactor
is critical on prompt neutrons alone.
When a reactor is prompt critical, the neutron
population, and hence power, can increase as
quickly as the prompt neutron generation time
allows.
Measuring reactivity in units of dollars is useful
when determining if a reactor is prompt critical.
A reactor that contains one dollar of positive
reactivity is prompt critical since one dollar of
reactivity is equivalent to
eff
.
The concept of doubling time can be used in a
similar manner to reactor period to calculate
changes in reactor power using the following.
DT / t
o
2 P P =
The reactor period or the startup rate can be used
to determine the reactor power using the
following.
=
/ t
o
e P P
) t ( SUR
o
10 P P =
Reactor period is the time required for reactor
power to change by a factor of e (2.718).
Doubling time is the time required for reactor
power to double.
Reactor startup rate is the number of factors of
ten that reactor power changes in one minute.


PRACTICE EXERCISES
1. (TRUE/FALSE) Delayed neutrons are
neutrons produced directly from fission.
2. Delayed neutrons are born on the average
________ seconds after fission.
3. The delayed neutron fraction takes into
account all the __________ of each type of
material.
4. The effective delayed neutron fraction takes
into account all the ________ of all the fuels
used in the core.
5. With more delayed neutrons in a generation,
the reactor response will be ___________
(LONGER/SHORTER).
6. When a reactivity addition is equal to one
dollar. The reactor will be said to be:
a. Critical
b. Sub Critical
c. Prompt Critical
d. Super Critical
7. (TRUE/FALSE) Delayed neutrons have no
affect on Start Up Rate.


GLOSSARY
Average Delayed Neutron
Precursor Decay Constant
()
The weighted average of the decay constants for the six groups of
delayed neutron precursors in the reactor core (sec
1
).
Average Effective
Delayed Neutron Fraction
(
eff
)
The weighted average of the effective delayed neutron fraction
for all fissile nuclides in the reactor core.
eff
equals the number
of fissions caused by delayed neutrons divided by the total
number of fissions caused by fission neutrons.
Average Neutron
Generation Time ( )
The average time between the absorption of a neutron which
causes fission and the absorption of resultant neutrons (sec).
The average time from the birth of a fission neutron to the
absorption of the neutron resulting in fission and the birth of the
next neutron generation
Cent A reactivity unit related to a dollar of reactivity, where one cent is
one-hundredth of a dollar.
Core Average Delayed
Neutron Fraction (
core
)
The weighted average of the delayed neutron fractions for all
fissile/fissionable nuclides in the reactor core.
Delayed Neutron A neutron born approximately 12.7 seconds after a fission event.
Delayed Neutron Fraction
()
The fraction of neutrons born delayed from fission of a particular
nuclide. equals the number of neutrons born delayed divided
by the total number of neutrons born from fission of a particular
nuclide.
Delayed Neutron Lifetime
(
d
)
The total time from the fission event to absorption of a delayed
neutron born from a delayed neutron precursor resulting from
that fission event.
d
12.7 seconds.
Delayed Neutron
Precursor Decay Constant
()
The decay constant for a delayed neutron precursor. It is the
probability that a nucleus will decay per unit time (sec
1
).
Dollar ($) A unit of reactivity where one dollar of reactivity is equivalent to
the effective delayed neutron fraction ( )
eff
. If the reactivity of the
core is one dollar, the reactor is prompt critical.


GLOSSARY
Doubling Time (DT) The time required for a reactor to double in power. DT is used to
estimate reactor period (sec).
Effective Delayed
Neutron Fraction (
eff
)
The fraction of neutron induced fissions caused by delayed
neutrons of a particular nuclide.
Fission Fraction () The percentage of fissions that occur in the reactor for each
Fission Yield The percentage of fissions that occur in the reactor for each
Half-Life (T
1/2
) The average time required for one-half of the atoms of a material
to decay.
Mean Life Represents how long, on the average, a delayed neutron precursor
will exist before decaying.
Prompt Critical The condition of the reactor reaching criticality on prompt
neutrons alone. It will occur when positive reactivity added is
equal to, or greater than, the average effective delayed neutron
fraction (
eff
).
Prompt Drop The initial rapid decrease in neutron population following a step
insertion of negative reactivity.
Prompt J ump The initial rapid increase in neutron population following a step
insertion of positive reactivity.
Prompt Neutron Lifetime
(
*
)
The total time from the fission event to absorption of a prompt
neutron born from that fission event.
*
1 10
4
sec.
Reactor Period () The time, in seconds, required to change reactor power by a
factor of e (2.718).
Startup Rate (SUR) The time (in minutes) required to change reactor power by a
factor of 10. Expressed as DPM (decades per minute). It is a
measure of the rate of change of reactor power in DPM.


EXAMPLE EXERCISE
ANSWERS
end of life, given:
0054 . 0
EOL eff
=
d eff eff
* ) 1 ( + =
( )( ) ( )( ) 7 . 12 0054 . 0 10 0054 . 0 1
4
EOL
+ =

( )( ) ( )( ) 7 . 12 0054 . 0 10 9946 . 0
4
EOL
+ =

069 . 0
EOL
= seconds
Example 6-6
Given that the reactor is at EOL (end-of-life)
and a positive reactivity insertion of 0.001
Given:
sec 10 *
4
= 0054 . 0
eff
=
1
sec 1 . 0

= k / k 001 . 0 =
Find:
? =

( )

+
=
eff
*

( )
( )( )
1
4
sec 1 . 0 001 . 0
001 . 0 0054 . 0
001 . 0
sec 10
+ =
sec 44 sec 1 . 0 + =
seconds 1 . 44 =
Example 6-8


PRACTICE EXERCISE
ANSWERS
1. (TRUE/FALSE) Delayed neutrons are
neutrons produced directly from fission.
2. Delayed neutrons are born on the average
________ seconds after fission. (12.7)
3. The delayed neutron fraction takes into
account all the __________ of each type of
material. (fission fragments)
4. The effective delayed neutron fraction takes
into account all the ________ of all the fuels
used in the core. (delayed neutron
fractions)
5. With more delayed neutrons in a generation,
the reactor response will be ___________
(LONGER/SHORTER).
6. When a reactivity addition is equal to one
dollar. The reactor will be said to be:
c. Prompt Critical
7. (TRUE/FALSE)Delayed neutrons have no
affect on Start Up Rate. (FALSE)


KFN07Sr02_Coefficients.doc r4 6/9/2014 3:21:00 PM
NUCLEAR SCIENCE
CHAPTER 7
COEFFICIENTS

OVER MODERATED UNDER MODERATED
k
eff
RESONANCE
ESCAPE PROBABILITY
THERMAL UTILIZATION
FACTOR
MODERATOR-TO-FUEL RATIO, N
m
/N
u

STUDENT TEXT
REV 2
TM


TABLE OF CONTENTS

OBJ ECTIVES ............................................................................................................................. iii
REACTIVITY COEFFICIENTS ................................................................................................. 1
Moderator Effects ..................................................................................................................... 1
Moderator Temperature Coefficient ......................................................................................... 3
Doppler Coefficient .................................................................................................................. 4
Pressure Coefficient ................................................................................................................. 5
Void Coefficient ....................................................................................................................... 5
SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................. 6
PRACTICE EXERCISES ............................................................................................................ 7
GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................................ 8
EXAMPLE EXERCISE ANSWER ............................................................................................ 9

COEFFICIENTS REV 2

FIGURES AND TABLES

Figure 7-1 Effects of Over and Under Moderation on k
eff
........................................................ 2
Figure 7-2 Effect of Fuel Temperature on Resonance Absorption Peaks ................................... 4

No Tables

COEFFICIENTS REV 2

OBJECTIVES
or written exam.
1. EXPLAIN the conditions of over moderation and under moderation.
2. EXPLAIN why many reactors are designed to be operated in an under moderated
condition.
3. STATE the effect that a change in moderator temperature will have on the moderator to
fuel ratio.
4. DEFINE the moderator temperature coefficient of reactivity.
5. EXPLAIN why a negative moderator temperature coefficient of reactivity is desirable.
6. EXPLAIN why the fuel temperature coefficient is more effective than the moderator
temperature coefficient in terminating a rapid power rise.
7. EXPLAIN the concept of Doppler broadening of resonance absorption peaks.
8. LIST two nuclides that are present in most commercial reactor fuel assemblies that
have significant resonance absorption peaks.
9. DEFINE the pressure coefficient of reactivity.
10. EXPLAIN why the pressure coefficient of reactivity is usually negligible in a reactor
cooled and moderated by a subcooled liquid.
11. DEFINE the void coefficient of reactivity.
12. IDENTIFY the moderator conditions under which the void coefficient of reactivity
becomes significant.

COEFFICIENTS REV 2

REACTIVITY
COEFFICIENTS
Changes in the physical properties of the
materials and fluids in the reactor will result in
changes in the reactivity. Reactivity coefficients
are used to quantify the reactivity change that
occurs due to these changes.
MODERATOR EFFECTS
A moderator possesses specific desirable
characteristics. They are,
large neutron scattering cross section
low neutron absorption cross section
large neutron energy loss per collision
With the exception of the Liquid Metal Fast
Breeder Reactor (LMFBR), the remaining major
reactor types that are currently employed use
moderating materials to reduce fission neutron
energies to the thermal range. Light moderators
(composed of light nuclei) are found to be more
effective than heavy moderators because the
light moderator removes more energy per
collision than a heavy moderator. Therefore, the
neutrons reach thermal energy more rapidly and
they are less likely to be lost through resonance
absorption.
The ability of a given material to slow down
neutrons is referred to as the macroscopic
slowing down power (MSDP) and is defined as
the product of the logarithmic energy decrement
per collision () times the macroscopic scattering
cross section for neutrons as follows:
s
= P D S M
Where:
MSDP = macroscopic slowing down
power
= logarithmic energy
decrement per collision
(called squiggle, actually
the lower case Greek letter
xi)
s
= macroscopic scattering
cross section for neutrons
Equation 7-1
Macroscopic slowing down power indicates how
rapidly slowing down occurs in the material in
question, but it does not completely define the
effectiveness of the material as a moderator. An
element such as boron has a high logarithmic
energy decrement and a good slowing down
power, but is a poor moderator. It is a poor
moderator because of its high probability of
absorbing neutrons. This may be accounted for
by dividing the macroscopic slowing down
power by the macroscopic absorption cross
section. This relationship is called the
moderating ratio (MR).

COEFFIECENTS REV 2

a
s
= M R

Where:
MR = moderating ratio
= logarithmic energy
decrement per collision
(called squiggle, actually the
lower case Greek letter xi)
s
= macroscopic scattering cross
section for neutrons
a
= macroscopic absorption cross
section for neutrons
Equation 7-2
The moderating ratio is merely the ratio of
slowing down power to the macroscopic
absorption cross section. The higher the
moderating ratio, the more effectively the
material performs as a moderator.
Another ratio, the moderator-to-fuel ratio
(N
m
/N
u
), is very important in the discussion of
moderators. As the reactor designer increases
the amount of moderator in the core (that is,
N
m
/N
u
increases), neutron leakage decreases.
Neutron absorption in the moderator (
a
)
increases and causes a decrease in the thermal
utilization factor. Decreasing moderator in the
core (that is, N
m
/N
u
decreases) causes an increase
in slowing down time and results in a greater
loss of neutrons by resonance absorption.
This also causes an increase in neutron leakage.
The effects of varying the moderator-to-fuel ratio
on the thermal utilization factor and the
resonance escape probability are shown in
Figure 7-1.

OVER MODERATED UNDER MODERATED
k
eff
RESONANCE
ESCAPE PROBABILITY
THERMAL UTILIZATION
FACTOR
MODERATOR TO FUEL RATIO, N
m
/N
u

Figure 7-1 Effects of Over and Under Moderation on k
eff

COEFFIECENTS REV 2

Because the moderator-to-fuel ratio affects the
thermal utilization factor and the resonance
escape probability, it also affects k
eff
. The
remaining factors in the six factor formula are
also affected by the moderator-to-fuel ratio, but
to a lesser extent than f and p. Figure 7-1
illustrates this relationship in a large core fueled
with low-enriched fuel. As can be seen, there is
an optimum point above which increasing the
moderator-to-fuel ratio decreases k
eff
due to the
dominance of the decreasing thermal utilization
factor. Below this point, a decrease in the
eff
due to the
dominance of the increased resonance absorption
in the fuel. If the ratio is above this point, the
core is said to be over moderated, and if the ratio
is below this point, the core is said to be under
moderated.
In practice, water-moderated reactors are
designed with a moderator-to-fuel ratio so that
the reactor is operated in an under moderated
condition. The reason that most reactors are
designed to be under moderated is if the reactor
were over moderated, an increase in temperature
would decrease the N
m
/N
u
due to the expansion
of the water as its density became lower. This
decrease in N
m
/N
u
would be a positive reactivity
addition, increasing k
eff
and further raising
power and temperature in a dangerous cycle. If
the reactor is under moderated, the same increase
in temperature results in the addition of negative
reactivity, and the reactor becomes more
self-regulating.
MODERATOR TEMPERATURE
COEFFICIENT
The change in reactivity per degree change in
moderator temperature is called the moderator
temperature coefficient of reactivity. The
magnitude and sign (+or -) of the moderator
temperature coefficient is primarily a function of
the moderator-to-fuel ratio. If a reactor is under
moderated, it will have a negative moderator
temperature coefficient. If a reactor is over
moderated, it will have a positive moderator
temperature coefficient. A negative moderator
temperature coefficient is desirable because of its
self-regulating effect. For example, an increase
in reactivity causes the reactor to produce more
power. This raises the temperature of the core
and adds negative reactivity, which slows down,
or turns, the power rise.

COEFFIECENTS REV 2

DOPPLER COEFFICIENT
Another temperature coefficient of reactivity, the
fuel temperature coefficient, has a greater effect
than the moderator temperature coefficient for
some reactors. The fuel temperature coefficient
is the change in reactivity per degree change in
fuel temperature. This coefficient is also called
the "prompt" temperature coefficient because an
increase in reactor power causes an immediate
change in fuel temperature. A negative fuel
temperature coefficient is generally considered to
be even more important than a negative
moderator temperature coefficient because fuel
temperature immediately increases following an
increase in reactor power. The time for heat to
be transferred to the moderator is measured in
seconds. In the event of a large positive
reactivity insertion, the moderator temperature
cannot turn the power rise for several seconds,
whereas the fuel temperature coefficient starts
adding negative reactivity immediately.
Another name applied to the fuel temperature
coefficient of reactivity is the fuel Doppler
reactivity coefficient. This name is applied
because in typical low enrichment, light water-
moderated, thermal reactors the fuel temperature
coefficient of reactivity is negative and is the
result of the Doppler effect, also called Doppler
broadening. The phenomenon of the Doppler
effect is caused by an apparent broadening of the
resonance peaks from thermal motion of nuclei
as illustrated in Figure 7-2. Stationary nuclei
absorb only neutrons of energy E
o
. If the
nucleus is moving away from the neutron, the
velocity (and energy) of the neutron must be
greater than E
o
to undergo resonance absorption.
Likewise, if the nucleus is moving toward the
neutron, the neutron needs less energy than E
o
to
be absorbed. Raising the temperature causes the
nuclei to vibrate more rapidly within their lattice
structures, effectively broadening the energy
range of neutrons that may be resonantly
absorbed in the fuel. Two nuclides present in
large amounts in the fuel of some reactors with
large resonant peaks that dominate the Doppler
effect are uranium-238 and plutonium-240.

Figure 7-2 Effect of Fuel Temperature on
Resonance Absorption Peaks
Which of the following best describes how
Doppler broadening of resonance
absorption peaks contributes to making the
fuel temperature (Doppler) coefficient of
reactivity negative?
As fuel temperature increases,
a. the absorption cross section for the
resonance peaks increases, causing
more absorption of resonant energy
neutrons.
b. absorption of off-resonance neutrons
increases while absorption of
resonant energy neutrons remains
relatively constant.
c. resonance energy absorption cross
sections decrease, resulting in
increased resonance escape.
d. the neutron energy spectrum is
hardened, resulting in more
resonance absorption.

Example 7-1

COEFFIECENTS REV 2

PRESSURE COEFFICIENT
The system pressure can affect the reactivity in a
reactor core. The pressure coefficient of
reactivity is defined as the change in reactivity
per unit change in pressure. The pressure
coefficient of reactivity for the reactor is the
result of the effect of pressure on the density of
the moderator. For this reason, it is sometimes
referred to as the moderator density reactivity
coefficient. As pressure increases, density
correspondingly increases, which increases the
moderator-to-fuel ratio in the core. In the typical
under moderated core the increase in the
moderator-to-fuel ratio will result in a positive
reactivity addition. In reactors that use water as
a moderator, the absolute value of the pressure
reactivity coefficient is seldom a major factor
because it is very small compared to the
moderator temperature coefficient of reactivity.
VOID COEFFICIENT
In systems with boiling conditions, such as
boiling water reactors (BWR), the pressure
coefficient becomes an important factor due to
the larger density changes that occur when the
vapor phase of water undergoes a pressure
change. Of prime importance during operation
of a BWR, and a factor in some other water-
moderated reactors, is the void coefficient. The
void coefficient is caused by the formation of
steam voids in the moderator. The void
coefficient of reactivity is defined as the change
in reactivity per percent change in void volume.
As the reactor power is raised to the point where
the steam voids start to form, voids displace
moderator from the coolant channels within the
core. This displacement reduces the
moderator-to-fuel ratio, and in an under
moderated core, results in a negative reactivity
addition, thereby limiting reactor power rise.
The void coefficient is significant in water-
moderated reactors that operate at or near
saturated conditions.

COEFFIECENTS REV 2

SUMMARY
The temperature coefficient of reactivity is the
change in reactivity per degree change in
temperature.
A reactor is under moderated when a decrease in
the moderator-to-fuel ratio decreases k
eff
due to
the increased resonance absorption. A reactor is
over moderated when an increase in the
eff
due to the
decrease in the thermal utilization factor.
Reactors are usually designed to operate in an
under moderated condition so that the moderator
temperature coefficient of reactivity is negative.
Increasing the moderator temperature will
decrease the moderator-to-fuel ratio. Decreasing
the moderator temperature will increase the
moderator-to-fuel ratio.
A negative temperature coefficient of reactivity
is desirable because it makes the reactor more
self-regulating. An increase in power, resulting
in an increase in temperature, results in negative
reactivity addition due to the temperature
coefficient. The negative reactivity addition due
to the temperature increase will slow or stop the
power increase.
The fuel temperature coefficient is more
effective than the moderator temperature
coefficient in terminating a rapid power rise
because the fuel temperature immediately
increases following a power increase, while the
moderator temperature does not increase for
several seconds.
The Doppler broadening of resonance peaks
occurs because the nuclei may be moving either
toward or away from the neutron at the time of
interaction. Therefore, the neutron may actually
have either slightly more or slightly less than the
resonant energy, but still appear to be at resonant
energy relative to the nucleus.
Uranium-238 and plutonium-240 are two
nuclides present in some reactor fuels that have
large resonance absorption peaks.
The pressure coefficient of reactivity is the
change in reactivity per unit change in pressure.
The pressure coefficient of reactivity is usually
negligible in reactors moderated by subcooled
liquids because the density of the liquid does not
change significantly within the operating
pressure range.
The void coefficient of reactivity is the change in
reactivity per unit change in void volume.
The void coefficient of reactivity becomes
significant in a reactor in which the moderator is
at or near saturated conditions.

COEFFIECENTS REV 2

PRACTICE EXERCISES
1. The temperature coefficient of reactivity is
the change in reactivity per degree change in
____________________.

2. The void coefficient of reactivity becomes
significant in a reactor in which the
moderator is at or near ________________
(subcooled/ saturated) conditions.

3. Compute the approximate negative reactivity
due to voids in a PWR at 100% reactor
power.
Given:
voids %
k / k
10 1
3
V

=

void fraction at 100% power =0.5%
4. Two nuclides present in large amounts in the
fuel of some reactors with large resonant
peaks that dominate the Doppler effect are
_______________.

COEFFIECENTS REV 2

GLOSSARY
Doppler Broadening The widening and flattening effect on resonance capture probability peaks for
epithermal neutrons due to increased kinetic energy of target atoms resulting
from increased fuel temperature.
Doppler Coefficient or
Fuel Temperature
Coefficient (
D
)
The reactivity coefficient that relates the change in reactivity due to a change
in fuel temperature. Given as
D
=/T
fuel
and has the units of k/k/F.
Moderator
Temperature
Coefficient (
m
)
The reactivity coefficient that relates the change in reactivity due to a change
moderator temperature. Given as
m
=/ T
mod
and has units of k/k/F.
Resonance Energy Discrete excitation energy levels exist within a nucleus (such as U-238 or Pu-
240). If the incident neutron kinetic energy is equal to one of these excitation
energy states, the neutron is said to be at a resonance energy for that nuclide.
Note that as the target nucleus vibrational energy increases, the range of
neutron energies broadens where the relative energy between the incident
neutron and target nucleus is equal to one of these resonance energies.
Void Coefficient (
v
) Reactivity coefficient that relates the change in reactivity due to a change in
void fraction. Given as
V
=/ % Voids and has the units k/k/% Voids.

COEFFIECENTS REV 2

EXAMPLE EXERCISE
ANSWER
Which of the following best describes how
Doppler broadening of resonance
absorption peaks contributes to making the
fuel temperature (Doppler) coefficient of
reactivity negative? As fuel temperature
increases,
a. the absorption cross section for the
resonance peaks increases, causing
more absorption of resonant energy
neutrons.
b. absorption of off-resonance neutrons
increases while absorption of
resonant energy neutrons remains
relatively constant.
c. resonance energy absorption cross
sections decrease, resulting in
increased resonance escape.
d. the neutron energy spectrum is
hardened, resulting in more
resonance absorption.
Answer: b
Example 7-1

COEFFIECENTS REV 2

PRACTICE EXERCISE
ANSWERS
1. The temperature coefficient of reactivity is
the change in reactivity per degree change in
____________________.
(moderator and fuel temperature)

2. The void coefficient of reactivity becomes
significant in a reactor in which the
moderator is at or near ________________
(subcooled/ saturated) conditions.

3. Compute the approximate negative
reactivity due to voids in a PWR at 100%
reactor power.
Given:

voids %
k / k
10 1
3
V

=

void fraction at 100% power =0.5%
Solution:
voids % 5 . 0
voids %
k / k
10 1
3
voids

=

k / k 10 5 . 0
3
voids
=

k / k 10 5
4
voids
=

pcm 50
voids
=
It can be seen, therefore, that even though
v
is large, the void fraction is small in a
PWR. Hence, the resultant reactivity
defect is often neglected at most PWRs.

4. Two nuclides present in large amounts in the
fuel of some reactors with large resonant
peaks that dominate the Doppler effect are
_______________.
(uranium-238 and plutonium-240)

COEFFIECENTS REV 2

KFN08Sr02_Plant Operations.doc r7 6/9/2014 3:24:00 PM
NUCLEAR SCIENCE
CHAPTER 8
PLANT OPERATIONS
CORE FLOW (%)
R
E
A
C
T
O
R

P
O
W
E
R

(
%
)
APRM
ROD BLOCK
20 40 60 80 100 0 10 30 50 70 90
10
20
30
40
50
0
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
MINIMUM
PUMP SPEED
NATURAL
CIRCULATION
CAVITATION
PROTECTION
80%
LOAD LINE
100%
LOAD LINE
APRM SCRAM
T
E
M
P
E
R
A
T
U
R
E

(
F
)
STEAM PRESSURE
1005 PSIA
620
10 30 50 70 80 0
POWER (%)
610
600
590
580
570
560
550
540
530
520
510
500
20 40 60 90 100
547
STEAM PRESSURE
850 PSIA
609F
580F
549F
525F
TCOLD
TSTEAM
TAVG
THOT

STUDENT TEXT
REV 2
TM


KFN08Sr02_Plant Operations.doc- r7 6/9/2014 3:24:00 PM

TABLE OF CONTENTS
OBJ ECTIVES ............................................................................................................................. iii
POWER OPERATIONS ............................................................................................................. 1
Startup ...................................................................................................................................... 1
Estimated Critical Position ....................................................................................................... 2
Core Power Distribution ........................................................................................................... 3
Power Tilt ................................................................................................................................. 4
Shutdown Margin ..................................................................................................................... 4
OPERATIONS ............................................................................................................................ 5
Temperature .............................................................................................................................. 5
Pressure .................................................................................................................................... 6
Power Level .............................................................................................................................. 6
Flow .......................................................................................................................................... 7
Core Burnup ............................................................................................................................. 7
Shutdown .................................................................................................................................. 8
Decay Heat ............................................................................................................................. 10
SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................... 11
GLOSSARY .............................................................................................................................. 13

PLANT OPERATIONS REV 2

FIGURES AND TABLES

Figure 8-1 Neutron Radial Flux Shapes for Bare and Reflected Cores ...................................... 3
Figure 8-2 Effect of Non-Uniform Enrichment on Radius Flux Shape ...................................... 4
Figure 8-3 Effect of Control Rod Position on Axial Flux Distribution ....................................... 4
Figure 8-4 Typical Power Ascension for a Boiling Water Reactor ............................................ 6
Figure 8-5 Power-to-Flow Map ................................................................................................... 7
Figure 8-6 Scram ......................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 8-7 Decay Heat versus Time ............................................................................................ 10

No Tables


OBJECTIVES
or written exam.
1. EXPLAIN why a startup neutron source may be required for a reactor.
2. LIST four variables typically involved in a reactivity balance.
3. EXPLAIN how a reactivity balance may be used to predict conditions under which the
reactor will become critical.
4. LIST three methods used to shape or flatten the core power distribution.
5. DESCRIBE the concept of power tilt.
6. DEFINE the term shut down margin.
7. IDENTIFY five changes that will occur during and after a reactor shutdown that will affect
the reactivity of the core.
8. EXPLAIN why decay heat is present following reactor operation.


POWER OPERATIONS
It is important to understand the principles that
determine how a reactor responds during all
modes of operation. Special measures must be
taken during the startup of a reactor to ensure that
expected responses are occurring. During power
operation, control of the flux shape is necessary to
ensure operation within limits and maximum core
performance. Even when a reactor is shut down,
the fact that the fission products created by the
fission process continue to generate heat results in
a need to monitor support systems to ensure
adequate cooling of the core.
STARTUP
When a reactor is started up with un-irradiated
fuel, or on those occasions when the reactor is
restarted following a long shutdown period, the
source neutron population will be very low. In
some reactors, the neutron population is
frequently low enough that it cannot be detected
by the nuclear instrumentation during the
approach to criticality. Installed neutron sources
are frequently used to provide a safe, easily
monitored reactor startup. The neutron source,
together with the subcritical multiplication
process, provides a sufficiently large neutron
population to allow monitoring by the nuclear
instruments throughout the startup procedure.
Without the installed source, it may be possible
to withdraw the control rods to the point of
criticality, and then continue withdrawal without
detecting criticality because the reactor goes
critical below the indicating range. Continued
withdrawal of control rods at this point could
cause reactor power to rise at an uncontrollable
rate before neutron level first becomes visible on
the nuclear instruments.
An alternative to using a startup source is to limit
the rate of rod withdrawal, or require waiting
periods between rod withdrawal increments. By
waiting between rod withdrawal increments, the
neutron population is allowed to increase
through sub-critical multiplication. Sub-critical
multiplication is the process where source
neutrons are used to sustain the chain reaction in
a reactor with a multiplication factor (k
eff
) of less
than one. The chain reaction is not
self-sustaining, but if the neutron source is of
sufficient magnitude, it compensates for the
neutrons lost through absorption and leakage.
This process can result in a constant, or
increasing, neutron population even though k
eff

is less than one.
During a reactor startup, equal increments
of reactivity are added, and the count rate is
allowed to reach equilibrium each time.
Choose the statement that best describes
what is observed.
a. The time required to reach
equilibrium is longer each time.
b. The time required to reach
equilibrium is shorter each time.
c. The change in equilibrium count rate
is the same each time.
d. The change in equilibrium count rate
is smaller each time.

Example 8-1


ESTIMATED CRITICAL POSITION
Plotting the change in count rate as the reactor is
taken critical can help to predict critical rod
position. M is defined as the ratio of the final
count rate versus the initial count rate.
M=CR
2
/CR
1
Where:
M

= subcritical
multiplication factor
CR
2
= count rate after
reactivity addition
CR
1
= initial count rate
(source rate)
Equation 8-1
As the reactor approaches criticality, M
approaches infinity. By plotting 1/M we can
predict criticality as that point where 1/M equals
zero.
1/M plots are useful for monitoring the approach
to criticality and predicting when criticality will
occur based on indications received while the
startup is actually in progress. Before the reactor
startup is initiated, the operator calculates an
estimate of the amount of rod movement that
will be necessary to achieve criticality. This
process provides an added margin of safety
because a large discrepancy between actual and
estimated critical rod positions would indicate
that the core was not performing as designed.
Depending upon a reactors design or age, the
buildup of xenon within the first several hours
following a reactor shutdown may introduce
enough negative reactivity to cause the reactor to
remain shutdown even with the control rods fully
withdrawn. In this situation it is important to be
able to predict whether criticality can be
achieved, and if criticality cannot be achieved,
the startup should not be attempted.
For a given set of conditions (such as time since
shutdown, temperature, pressure, fuel burnup,
samarium and xenon poisoning) there is only one
position of the control rods (and boron
concentrations for a reactor with chemical shim)
that results in criticality, using the normal rod
withdrawal sequence. Identification of these
conditions allows accurate calculation of control
rod position at criticality. The calculation of an
estimated critical position (ECP) is simply a
mathematical procedure that takes into account
all of the changes in factors that significantly
affect reactivity that have occurred between the
time of reactor shutdown and the time that the
reactor is brought critical again.
For most reactor designs, the only factors that
change significantly after the reactor is shut
down are the average reactor temperature and the
concentration of fission product poisons.
To arrive at an ECP of the control rods, the basic
reactivity, direct and indirect xenon reactivity,
and temperature reactivity are combined
algebraically to determine the amount of positive
control rod reactivity that must be added by
withdrawing control rods to attain criticality. A
graph of control rod worth versus rod position is
used to determine the estimated critical position.


A reactor is taken critical. The data for the
approach to criticality is below. Using this
data, create a 1/M (or ICRR) plot. After
you have plotted your graph, refer to
graphical solution to compare the results.
Rod
Position
Count
Rate
1/M
(ICRR)
0 400 cps
50 500 cps
100 890 cps
130 1290 cps
160 1905 cps
180 3333 cps
200 8000 cps
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 50 100 150 200 230
1
/
M

O
R

I
C
R
R
ROD POSITION

Example 8-2
CORE POWER DISTRIBUTION
In order to ensure predictable temperatures and
uniform depletion of the fuel installed in a
reactor, numerous measures are taken to provide
an even distribution of flux throughout the power
producing section of the reactor. This shaping,
or flattening, of the neutron flux is normally
achieved through the use of reflectors that affect
the flux profile across the core, or by the
installation of poisons to suppress the neutron
flux where desired. The last method, although
effective at shaping the flux, is the least desirable
since it reduces neutron economy by absorbing
the neutrons.
A reactor core is frequently surrounded by a
reflecting material to reduce the ratio of peak
flux to the flux at the edge of the core fuel area.
Reflector materials are normally not fissionable,
have a high scattering cross section, and have a
low absorption cross section. Essentially, for
thermal reactors a good moderator is a good
reflector.
Figure 8-1 shows the general effect of reflection
in the thermal reactor system where core power
is proportional to the thermal flux. Notice that a
reflector can raise the power density of the core
periphery and thus increase the core average
power level without changing the peak power.
As illustrated in Figure 8-1, the thermal flux in
the reflector may actually be higher than that in
the outermost fuel since there are very few
absorptions in the reflector.

Figure 8-1 Neutron Radial Flux Shapes for
Bare and Reflected Cores


Varying the fuel enrichment or fuel
concentrations in the core radially, axially, or
both, can readily be used to control power
distribution. The simplified example illustrated
in Figure 8-2 shows the effect of using a higher
enrichment in the outer regions of the core.
Varying fuel concentrations or poison loading
for flux shaping is frequently referred to as
zoning. In the example illustrated the large
central peak is reduced, but the average power
level remains the same.

Figure 8-2 Effect of Non-Uniform Enrichment
on Radius Flux Shape
The previous examples discuss changes in radial
power distribution. Large variations also exist in
axial power distribution. Figure 8-3(A)
illustrates the power distribution that may exist
for a reactor with a cylindrical geometry. The
control rods in this reactor are inserted from the
top, and the effect of inserting control rods
further is shown in Figure 8-3(B). The thermal
flux is largely suppressed in the vicinity of the
control rods, and the majority of the power is
generated low in the core. This flux profile can
be flattened by the use of axial fuel and/or poison
zoning.

Figure 8-3 Effect of Control Rod Position on
Axial Flux Distribution
POWER TILT
A power tilt, or flux tilt, is a specific type of core
power distribution problem. It is a
non-symmetrical variation of core power in one
quadrant of the core relative to the others. The
power in one portion might be suppressed by
over-insertion of control rods in that portion of
the core, which, for a constant overall power
level, results in a relatively higher flux in the
remainder of the core. This situation can lead to
power oscillations and is avoided during normal
operations.
SHUTDOWN MARGIN
Shutdown margin is the instantaneous amount of
reactivity by which a reactor is sub-critical or
would be sub-critical from its present condition
assuming all control rods are fully inserted
except for the single rod with the highest integral
worth and equilibrium xenon removed.
Adequate shutdown margin is required to exist at
all times, even when the reactor is critical. It is
important that there be enough negative
reactivity capable of being inserted by the
control rods to ensure complete shutdown at all
times during the core lifetime. A shutdown
margin in the range of one to five percent
reactivity is typically required.
The stuck rod criterion refers to the fact that the
shutdown margin does not take credit for the
insertion of the highest worth control rod. The
application of the stuck rod criterion ensures that
the failure of a single control rod will not prevent
the control rod system from shutting down the
reactor.
The xenon criteria accounts for the eventual
decay of xenon following a shutdown which
would tend to add positive reactivity. If
shutdown margin failed to address this the
reactor could return to criticality as xenon
decayed.


Several factors may change during and after the
shutdown of the reactor that affect the reactivity
of the core:
Control rod position
Soluble neutron poison concentration
Temperature of the fuel and coolant
Xenon concentration
Samarium concentration
OPERATIONS
During reactor operation, numerous parameters
such as temperature, pressure, power level, and
flow are continuously monitored and controlled
to ensure safe and stable operation of the reactor.
The specific effects of variations in these
parameters vary greatly depending upon reactor
design, but generally the effects for thermal
reactors are as follows.
TEMPERATURE
The most significant effect of a variation in
temperature upon reactor operation is the
addition of positive or negative reactivity. As
previously discussed, reactors are generally
designed with negative temperature coefficients
of reactivity (moderator and fuel temperature
coefficients) as a self-limiting safety feature. A
rise in reactor temperature results in the addition
of negative reactivity. If the rise in temperature
is caused by an increase in reactor power, the
negative reactivity addition slows, and
eventually turns the increase in reactor power.
This is a highly desirable effect because it
provides a negative feedback in the event of an
undesired power excursion.
Negative temperature coefficients can also be
utilized in water cooled and moderated power
reactors to allow reactor power to automatically
follow energy demands that are placed upon the
system. For example, consider a reactor
operating at a stable power level with the heat
produced being transferred to a heat exchanger
for use in an external closed cycle system. If the
energy demand in the external system increases,
more energy is removed from reactor system
causing the temperature of the reactor coolant to
decrease. As the reactor temperature decreases,
positive reactivity is added and a corresponding
increase in reactor power level results.
As reactor power increases to a level above the
level of the new energy demand, the temperature
of the moderator and fuel increases, adding


negative reactivity and decreasing reactor power
level to near the new level required to maintain
system temperature. Some slight oscillations
above and below the new power level occur
before steady state conditions are achieved. The
final result is that the average temperature of the
reactor system is essentially the same as the
initial temperature, and the reactor is operating at
the new higher required power level. The same
inherent stability can be observed as the energy
demand on the system is decreased.
If the secondary system providing cooling to the
reactor heat exchanger is operated as an open
system with once-through cooling, the above
discussion is not applicable. In these reactors,
the temperature of the reactor is proportional to
the power level, and it is impossible for the
reactor to be at a higher power level and the
same temperature.
PRESSURE
The pressure applied to the reactor system can
also affect reactor operation by causing changes
in reactivity. The reactivity changes result from
changes in the density of the moderator in
response to the pressure changes. For example,
as the system pressure rises, the moderator
density increases and results in greater
moderation, less neutron leakage, and therefore
the insertion of positive reactivity. A reduction
in system pressure results in the addition of
negative reactivity. Typically, in pressurized
water reactors (PWR), the magnitude of this
effect is considerably less than that of a change
in temperature. In two-phase systems such as
boiling water reactors (BWR), however, the
effects of pressure changes are more noticeable
because there is a greater change in moderator
density for a given change in system pressure.
Figure 8-4 shows the variation in void fraction in
a BWR during power ascension from shutdown
conditions to 100% power. The actual operating
point on this curve depends on the path taken
during the power ascension. The notch in the
curve avoids the forbidden region of high void
fraction with low flow (above and to the left of
the curve).
POWER INCREASE WITH RODS
POWER INCREASE WITH FLOW
V
O
I
D

F
R
A
C
T
I
O
N

(
%
)
POWER (%)
50 100
40

Figure 8-4 Typical Power Ascension for a
Boiling Water Reactor
POWER LEVEL
A change in reactor power level can result in a
change in reactivity if the power level change
results in a change in system temperature.
The power level at which the reactor is
producing enough energy to make up for the
energy lost to ambient is commonly referred to
as the point of adding heat. If a reactor is
operating well below the point of adding heat,
then variations in power level produce no
measurable variations in temperature. At power
levels above the point of adding heat,
temperature varies with power level, and the
reactivity changes will follow the convention
previously described for temperature variations.
The inherent stability and power turning ability
of a negative temperature coefficient are
ineffective below the point of adding heat. If a
power excursion is initiated from a very low
power level, power will continue to rise
unchecked until the point of adding heat is
reached, and the subsequent temperature rise
adds negative reactivity to slow, and turn, the
rise of reactor power. In this region, reactor
safety is provided by automatic reactor shutdown
systems and operator action.


FLOW
At low reactor power levels, changing the flow
rate of the coolant through the reactor does not
result in a measurable reactivity change because
fuel and moderator temperatures and the fraction
of steam voids occurring in the core are not
changed appreciably.
When the flow rate is varied, however, the
change in temperature that occurs across the core
(outlet versus inlet temperature) will vary
inversely with the flow rate. At higher power
levels, on liquid cooled systems, increasing flow
will lower fuel and coolant temperatures slightly,
resulting in a small positive reactivity insertion.
A positive reactivity addition also occurs when
flow is increased in a two-phase (steam-water)
cooled system. Increasing the flow rate decreases
the fraction of steam voids in the coolant and
results in a positive reactivity addition. This
property of the moderator in a two-phase system
is used extensively in commercial BWRs.
Normal power variations required to follow load
changes on BWRs are achieved by varying the
coolant/moderator flow rate.
Most BWRs use power-to-flow maps
(sometimes called operating maps), which, if
used correctly, help avoid operating conditions
that promote core instability.
These maps vary at each plant. Figure 8-5 is an
example provided to clarify the power-to-flow
concept.
CORE FLOW (%)
R
E
A
C
T
O
R

P
O
W
E
R

(
%
)
APRM
ROD BLOCK
20 40 60 80 100 0 10 30 50 70 90
10
20
30
40
50
0
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
MINIMUM
PUMP SPEED
NATURAL
CIRCULATION
CAVITATION
PROTECTION
80%
LOAD LINE
100%
LOAD LINE
APRM SCRAM

Figure 8-5 Power-to-Flow Map
A load line is an experimentally determined
series of flow and power settings. The reactor is
brought to a certain rated power condition (for
example, 80% of rated power at full core flow)
and allowed to reach equilibrium conditions.
Once equilibrium conditions have been
established, the recirculation flow is reduced
while the rods are maintained at the load
condition. Power and core flow are plotted on
the power-to-flow map (Figure 8-5). Once the
recirculation flow has been reduced to the lowest
setting (minimum speed), a line is drawn to
connect the plotted points.
CORE BURNUP
As a reactor is operated, atoms of fuel are
constantly consumed, resulting in the slow
depletion of the fuel frequently referred to as
core burnup. There are several major effects of
this fuel depletion. The first, and most obvious,
effect of the fuel burnup is that the control rods
must be withdrawn or chemical shim
concentration reduced to compensate for the
negative reactivity effect of this burnup.


Some reactor designs incorporate the use of
supplemental burnable poisons in addition to the
control rods to compensate for the reactivity
associated with excess fuel in a new core. These
fixed burnable poisons burn out at a rate that
approximates the burnout of the fuel and they
reduce the amount of control rod movement
necessary to compensate for fuel depletion early
in core life.
As control rods are withdrawn to compensate for
fuel depletion, the effective size of the reactor is
increased. By increasing the effective size of the
reactor, the probability that a neutron slows
down and is absorbed while it is still in the
reactor is also increased.
SHUTDOWN
A reactor is considered to be shut down when it
is sub-critical and sufficient shutdown reactivity
exists so there is no immediate probability of
regaining criticality. Shutdown is normally
accomplished by insertion of some (or all) of the
control rods, or by introduction of soluble
neutron poison into the reactor coolant.
The rate at which the reactor fission rate decays
immediately following shutdown is similar for
all reactors provided a large amount of negative
reactivity is inserted. After a large negative
reactivity addition the neutron level undergoes a
rapid decrease of about two decades (prompt
drop) until it is at the level of production of
delayed neutrons. Then the neutron level slowly
drops off as the delayed neutron precursors
decay, and in a short while only the longest-lived
precursor remains in any significant amount.
This precursor determines the final rate of
decrease in reactor power until the neutron flux
reaches the steady state level corresponding to
the subcritical multiplication of the neutron
source.
The half-life of the longest lived delayed neutron
precursor results in a reactor period of around -
80 seconds or a startup rate of -1/3 DPM for
most reactors after a reactor shutdown. One
noticeable exception to this is a heavy water
reactor. In a heavy water reactor, the photo-
neutron source is extremely large after shutdown
due to the amount of deuterium in the moderator
and the large number of high energy gammas
from short-lived fission product decay. The
photo-neutron source is large enough to have a
significant impact on neutron population
immediately after shutdown. The photo-neutron
source has the result of flux levels decreasing
more slowly so that a heavy water reactor will
have a significantly larger negative reactor
period after a shutdown.
Throughout the process of reactor shutdown the
nuclear instrumentation is closely monitored to
observe that reactor neutron population is
decreasing as expected, and that the
instrumentation is functioning properly to
provide continuous indication of neutron
population. Instrumentation is observed for
proper overlap between ranges, comparable
indication between multiple instrument channels,
and proper decay rate of neutron population.
A distinction should be made between indicated
reactor power level after shutdown and the actual
thermal power level. The indicated reactor
power level is the power produced directly from
fission in the reactor core, but the actual thermal
power drops more slowly due to decay heat
production as previously discussed. Decay heat,
will initially be approximately 5 to 6% of the
steady state reactor power prior to shutdown and
then diminish to less than 1% of the pre-
shutdown power level after about one hour.
After a reactor is shutdown, provisions are
provided for the removal of decay heat. If the
reactor is to be shut down for only a short time,
operating temperature is normally maintained. If
the shutdown period will be lengthy or involves
functions requiring cooldown of the reactor, the
reactor temperature can be lowered by a number
of methods. The methods for actually conducting
cooldown of the reactor vary depending on plant
design, but in all cases limitations are imposed on
the maximum rate at which the reactor systems


may be cooled. These limits are provided to
reduce the stress applied to system materials,
thereby reducing the possibility of stress induced
failure.
Although a reactor is shut down, it must be
continuously monitored to ensure the safety of the
reactor. Automatic monitoring systems are
employed to continuously collect and assess the
data provided by remote sensors. It is ultimately
the operator who must ensure the safety of the
reactor.
10
2
TIME (MINUTES)
10
1
1
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
SCRAM
PROMPT DROP
DELAYED NEUTRON
EFFECT
-80 SECOND
PERIOD
SUBCRITICAL
MULTIPLICATION
%

R
E
A
C
T
O
R

P
O
W
E
R
10
-1
0 15

Figure 8-6 Scram
The following figure shows the response of
reactor power to a scram from 100%
power. Explain the shape of the curve
between points A and B, B and C, and C
and D.
TIME AFTER TRIP
100%
0%
A
B
C
D
R
E
A
C
T
O
R

P
O
W
E
R

(
%
)

A-B:

B-C:

C-D:

Example 8-3


DECAY HEAT
About 7 percent of the 200 MeV produced by an
average fission is released at some time after the
instant of fission. This energy comes from the
decay of the fission products. When a reactor is
shut down, fission essentially ceases, but decay
energy is still being produced. The energy
produced after shutdown is referred to as decay
heat. The amount of decay heat production after
shutdown is directly influenced by the power
history of the reactor prior to shutdown. A
reactor operated at full power for 3 to 4 days
prior to shutdown has much higher decay heat
generation than a reactor operated at low power
for the same period. The decay heat produced by
a reactor shutdown from full power is initially
equivalent to about 5 to 6% of the thermal rating
of the reactor. This decay heat generation rate
diminishes to less than 1% approximately one
hour after shutdown. However, even at these
low levels, the amount of heat generated requires
the continued removal of heat for an appreciable
time after shutdown. Decay heat is a long-term
consideration and impacts spent fuel handling,
reprocessing, waste management, and reactor
safety.
TIME AFTER SHUTDOWN (SEC)
0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 1000 10,000
80
100
60
40
20
0
H
E
A
T
(
%

R
e
a
c
t
o
r

P
o
w
e
r
)

Figure 8-7 Decay Heat versus Time
The most significant amount of heat
generated by the core after shutdown is
produced by:
a. Prompt neutrons
b. Delayed neutrons
c. Gamma and beta decay
d. Alpha and neutron emission

Example 8-4


SUMMARY
An installed neutron source, together with the
subcritical multiplication process, may be needed
to increase the neutron population to a level
where it can be monitored throughout the startup
procedure.
Reactivity balances, such as Estimated Critical
Position calculations, typically consider the basic
reactivity of the core and the reactivity effects of
temperature, direct xenon, and indirect xenon.
A reactivity balance called an Estimated Critical
Position is used to predict the position of the
control rods at which criticality will be achieved
during a startup. To arrive at an ECP of the
control rods, the basic reactivity, direct and
indirect xenon reactivity, and temperature
reactivity are added together to determine the
amount of positive reactivity that must be added
by withdrawing control rods to attain criticality. A
graph of control rod worth versus rod position is
used to determine the estimated critical position.
Three methods are used to shape or flatten the
core power distribution.
Use of reflectors
Installation of neutron poisons
Axial or radial variation of fuel enrichment
Power tilt is a non-symmetrical variation of core
power in one quadrant of the core relative to the
other quadrants.
Shutdown margin is the instantaneous amount of
reactivity by which a reactor is subcritical or
would be subcritical from its present condition
assuming all control rods are fully inserted
except for the single rod with the highest integral
worth, which is assumed to be fully withdrawn
and xenon free.
Several factors may change during and after the
shutdown of the reactor that affect the reactivity
of the core.
Control rod position
Soluble neutron poison concentration
Temperature of the fuel and coolant
Xenon
Samarium
Decay heat is always present following reactor
operation due to energy resulting from the decay
of fission products.
The amount of decay heat present in the reactor
is dependent on three factors.
The pre-shutdown power level
How long the reactor operated
The amount of time since reactor shutdown
Decay heat immediately after shutdown is
approximately 5-6% of the pre-shutdown power
level. Decay heat will decrease to approximately
1% of the pre-shutdown power level within one
hour of reactor shutdown.


PRACTICE EXERCISES
1. Why are neutron sources used in some
reactors?

2. What are four variables that affect a
reactivity balance?

3. How can a reactivity balance be used to
predict criticality?

4. What are two methods used to shape or
flatten core power distribution?

5. Power tilt is a _________________ variation
of core power in one quadrant to the others.

6. Define Shutdown Margin.

7. List five changes that occur after shutdown
that affect reactivity.

8. Decay heat comes from the decay of
_______________.


GLOSSARY
Cooldown Rate (CDR) The temperature decrease per unit time usually measured at the vessel skin,
steam dome, and recirculation loop.
Criticality The reactor sustains a chain reaction with a stable neutron count rate and an
infinite reactor period.
Decay Heat The heat generated in the core from the decay of fission products.
Doppler Defect The negative reactivity contributed to the core by the Doppler coefficient
when the core void fraction is decreased using recirculation flow.
Estimated Critical
Position (ECP)
An estimate, made by the reactor engineers that determines on what rod
pattern what rod, and what rod position the reactor is expected to go critical.
Heatup Rate (HUR) The temperature rise per unit time usually measured at the vessel skin,
steam dome, and recirculation loop.
Point of Adding Heat
(POAH)
The point during a reactor startup where heat production from fission
exceeds ambient heat losses. A further increase in power will raise the
temperature of fuel and moderator.
1/M Plot A plot using the inverse count ratio (ICR) following reactivity change events
to obtain a conservative estimate of critical rod position. May also be used
during fuel loading to monitor for inadvertent criticality. This is sometimes
also referred to as an inverse count ratio plot or an inverse count rate ratio
plot.
Shutdown Margin The instantaneous amount of reactivity by which a reactor is sub-critical or
would be sub-critical from its present condition assuming all control rods
are fully inserted except for the single rod with the highest integral worth
and equilibrium xenon removed.


EXAMPLE EXERCISE
ANSWERS
During a reactor startup, equal increments
of reactivity are added, and the count rate is
allowed to reach equilibrium each time.
Choose the statement that best describes
what is observed.
a. The time required to reach
equilibrium is longer each time.
b. The time required to reach
equilibrium is shorter each time.
c. The change in equilibrium count rate
is the same each time.
d. The change in equilibrium count rate
is smaller each time.
Answer: a
With each added increment, the source
neutron contribution becomes smaller as
a percentage. Therefore, it takes longer
to reach equilibrium.
Example 8-1
A reactor is taken critical. The data for the
approach to criticality is below. Using this
data, create a 1/M (or ICRR) plot. After
you have plotted your graph, refer to
graphical solution to compare the results.
Rod
Position
Count
Rate
1/M
(ICRR)
0 400 cps
50 500 cps
100 890 cps
130 1290 cps
160 1905 cps
180 3333 cps
200 8000 cps
Solution:

0.8
0.45
0.31
0.21
0.12
0.05
400
500
890
1290
1905
333
8000
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 50 100 150 200 230
1
/
M

O
R

I
C
R
R

ROD POSITION
0
50
100
130
160
180
200
ROD
POSITION CPS
1/M
OR
ICCR

Example 8-2


The following figure shows the response of
reactor power to a scram from 100%
power. Explain the shape of the curve
between points A and B, B and C, and C
and D.
TIME AFTER TRIP
100%
0%
A
B
C
D
R
E
A
C
T
O
R

P
O
W
E
R

(
%
)

A-B: The rapid insertion of a large
amount of negative reactivity causes the
prompt neutron population to decrease
rapidly. Segment A-B of the curve
depicts this prompt drop.
B-C: During this period, the neutron
population is dominated by the
appearance of delayed neutrons from
shorter- and intermediate-lived delayed
neutron precursors. These precursors,
which were formed when the reactor was
at 100% power, decay within a few
minutes.
(Cont'd in next Column)
C-D: Once the shorter-lived precursors
have effectively all decayed, neutron
population is controlled by the
appearance of delayed neutrons from the
longest-lived precursors. From this
point, power falls at a constant
exponential rate of 1/3 DPM until
neutron population is low enough for the
effect of source neutrons to be seen and a
subcritical equilibrium is reached.
Example 8-3
The most significant amount of heat
generated by the core after shutdown is
produced by:
a. Prompt neutrons
b. Delayed neutrons
c. Gamma and beta decay
d. Alpha and neutron emission
Answer: c
While other types of decay produce
decay heat, they are insignificant
compared to the heat produced by
gamma and beta decay.
Example 8-4


PRACTICE EXERCISE
ANSWERS
1. Why are neutron sources used in some
reactors?
(Neutron population is frequently low
enough that it cant be detected by
nuclear instrumentation).
2. What are four variables that affect a
reactivity balance?
(Temperature, pressure, samarium,
xenon) Note: other answers may be
acceptable.
3. How can a reactivity balance be used to
predict criticality?
(An ECP is a mathematical calculation
that accounts for changes in the variables
between shutdown and last criticality)
4. What are two methods used to shape or
flatten core power distribution?
(Reflectors, installed poisons)
5. Power tilt is a _________________
variation of core power in one quadrant to
the others.
(non-symmetrical)
6. Define Shutdown Margin.
(Shutdown margin is the instantaneous
amount of reactivity by which a reactor is
sub-critical or would be sub-critical from
its present condition assuming all control
rods are fully inserted except for the single
rod with the highest integral worth, which
is assumed to be fully withdrawn, and
xenon free.)
7. List five changes that occur after shutdown
that affect reactivity.
(Xenon, Samarium, Temperature,
Pressure, Flow (Boron Concentration)
8. Decay heat comes from the decay of
_______________.
(Fission Products)


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