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,
_
+ +
+ +
k k k
k k
z z
z z
p z H
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
0
1
1
) (
0
2 2
k k
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
18
Cascade Form IIR Digital Cascade Form IIR Digital
Filter Structures Filter Structures
Consider the 3rd-order transfer function
One possible realization is shown below
,
_
+ +
,
_
+ +
+
+
2
22
1
12
2
22
1
12
1
11
1
11
1
1
1
1
0
z z
p z H
z z
z
z
) (
4
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
19
Cascade Form IIR Digital Cascade Form IIR Digital
Filter Structures Filter Structures
Example - Direct form II and cascade form
realizations of
are shown on the next slide
3 2 1
3 2 1
2 0 18 0 4 0 1
02 0 362 0 44 0
+ +
+ +
z z z
z z z
z H
. . .
. . .
) (
,
_
,
_
+ +
+ +
1
1
2 1
2 1
4 0 1 5 0 8 0 1
02 0 362 0 44 0
z
z
z z
z z
. . .
. . .
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
20
Cascade Form IIR Digital Cascade Form IIR Digital
Filter Structures Filter Structures
Direct form II Cascade form
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
21
Parallel Form IIR Digital Filter Parallel Form IIR Digital Filter
Structures Structures
A partial-fraction expansion of the transfer
function in leads to the parallel form I
structure
Assuming simple poles, the transfer function
H(z) can be expressed as
In the above for a real pole
,
_
+ +
+
k
z z
z
k k
k k
z H
2
2
1
1
1
1 0
1
0
) (
0
1 2
k k
1
z
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
22
Parallel Form IIR Digital Filter Parallel Form IIR Digital Filter
Structures Structures
A direct partial-fraction expansion of the
transfer function in z leads to the parallel
form II structure
Assuming simple poles, the transfer function
H(z) can be expressed as
In the above for a real pole
,
_
+
+ +
+
k
z z
z z
k k
k k
z H
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
0
1
0
) (
0
2 2
k k
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
23
Parallel Form IIR Digital Filter Parallel Form IIR Digital Filter
Structures Structures
The two basic parallel realizations of a 3rd-
order IIR transfer function are shown below
Parallel form I Parallel form II
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
24
Parallel Form IIR Digital Filter Parallel Form IIR Digital Filter
Structures Structures
Example - A partial-fraction expansion of
in yields
3 2 1
3 2 1
2 0 18 0 4 0 1
02 0 362 0 44 0
+ +
+ +
z z z
z z z
z H
. . .
. . .
) (
2 1
1
1
5 0 8 0 1
2 0 5 0
4 0 1
6 0
1 0
+ +
+ +
z z
z
z
z H
. .
. .
.
.
. ) (
1
z
5
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
25
Parallel Form IIR Digital Filter Parallel Form IIR Digital Filter
Structures Structures
The corresponding parallel form I realization
is shown below
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
26
Parallel Form IIR Digital Filter Parallel Form IIR Digital Filter
Structures Structures
Likewise, a partial-fraction expansion of
H(z) in z yields
The corresponding
parallel form II
realization is shown
on the right
2 1
2 1
1
1
5 . 0 8 . 0 1
25 . 0 2 . 0
4 . 0 1
24 . 0
) (
+ +
+
+
z z
z z
z
z
z H
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
27
Realization Using MATLAB Realization Using MATLAB
The cascade form requires the factorization
of the transfer function which can be
developed using the M-file zp2sos
The statement sos = zp2sos(z,p,k)
generates a matrixsos containing the
coefficients of each 2nd-order section of the
equivalent transfer function H(z) determined
from its pole-zero form
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
28
Realization Using MATLAB Realization Using MATLAB
sos is an matrix of the form
whosei-th row contains the coefficients
and , of the the numerator and
denominator polynomials of the i-th 2nd-
order section
6 L
1
1
1
]
1
2L 1L 0L 2L 1L 0L
22 12 02 22 12 02
21 11 01 21 11 01
d d d p p p
d d d p p p
d d d p p p
sos
} {
l i
p
} {
l i
d
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
29
Realization Using MATLAB Realization Using MATLAB
L denotes the number of sections
The form of the overall transfer function is
given by
Program 6_1can be used to factorize an
FIR and an IIR transfer function
+ +
+ +
L
i i i i
i i i
L
i
i
z d z d d
z p z p p
z H z H
1
2
2
1
1 0
2
2
1
1 0
1
) ( ) (
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
30
Realization Using MATLAB Realization Using MATLAB
Note: An FIR transfer function can be
treated as an IIR transfer function with a
constant numerator of unity and a
denominator which is the polynomial
describing the FIR transfer function
6
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
31
Realization Using MATLAB Realization Using MATLAB
Parallel forms I and II can be developed
using the functions residuezand
residue, respectively
Program 6_2 uses these two functions
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
32
Realization of Realization of Allpass Allpass Filters Filters
An M-th order real-coefficient allpass
transfer function is characterized by
Munique coefficients as here the numerator
is the mirror-image polynomial of the
denominator
A direct form realization of requires
2Mmultipliers
Objective - Develop realizations of
requiring only Mmultipliers
) (z A
M
) (z A
M
) (z A
M
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
33
Realization Using Multiplier Realization Using Multiplier
Extraction Approach Extraction Approach
Now, an arbitrary allpass transfer function
can be expressed as a product of 2nd-order
and/or 1st-order allpass transfer functions
We consider first the minimum multiplier
realization of a 1st-order and a 2nd-order
allpass transfer functions
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
34
First First--Order Order Allpass Allpass Structures Structures
Consider first the 1st-order allpass transfer
function given by
We shall realize the above transfer function
in the form a structure containing a single
multiplier as shown below
1
d
1
d
1
X
2
X
1
Y
2
Y
1
1
1
1
1
1
) (
+
+
z d
z d
z A
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
35
First First--Order Order Allpass Allpass Structures Structures
We express the transfer function
in terms of the transfer parameters of the
two-pair as
A comparison of the above with
yields
1
1
1
1
1
1
+
+
z d
z d
z A ) (
22 1
21 12 22 11 1 11
22 1
1 21 12
11
1 1
1
t d
t t t t d t
t d
d t t
t z A
+
) (
) (
1 1 1
X Y z A / ) (
1
21 12 22 11
1
22
1
11
t t t t z t z t , ,
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
36
First First--Order Order Allpass Allpass Structures Structures
Substituting and in
we get
There are 4 possible solutions to the above
equation:
Type 1A:
Type 1B:
1
21 12 22 11
t t t t
1
11
z t
1
22
z t
2
21 12
1
z t t
1 1
21
2
12
1
22
1
11
t z t z t z t , , ,
1
21
1
12
1
22
1
11
1 1
+ z t z t z t z t , , ,
7
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
37
First First--Order Order Allpass Allpass Structures Structures
Type 1A :
Type 1B :
We now develop the two-pair structure for
the Type 1A allpass transfer function
2
21 12
1
22
1
11
1 1
z t t z t z t , , ,
1
21
1
12
1
22
1
11
1 1
+ z t z t z t z t , , ,
t
t
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
38
First First--Order Order Allpass Allpass Structures Structures
From the transfer parameters of this allpass
we arrive at the input-output relations:
A realization of the above two-pair is
sketched below
2
1
1 2
X z X Y
2 2
1
2
2
1
1
1
1 X Y z X z X z Y + +
) (
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
39
First First--Order Order Allpass Allpass Structures Structures
By constraining the , terminal-pair
with the multiplier , we arrive at the
Type 1A allpass filter structure shown
below
2
X
2
Y
1
d
Type 1A
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
40
First First--Order Order Allpass Allpass Structures Structures
In a similar fashion, the other three single-
multiplier first-order allpass filter structures
can be developed as shown below
Type 1B Type 1A
t
Type 1Bt
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
41
Second Second--Order Order Allpass Allpass
Structures Structures
A 2nd-order allpass transfer function is
characterized by 2 unique coefficients
Hence, it can be realized using only 2
multipliers
Type 2 allpass transfer function:
2
2 1
1
1
2 1
1 2 1
2
1
+ +
+ +
z d d z d
z z d d d
z A ) (
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
42
Type 2 Type 2 Allpass Allpass Structures Structures
8
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
43
Type 3 Type 3 Allpass Allpass Structures Structures
Type 3 allpass transfer function:
2
2
1
1
2 1
1 2
3
1
+ +
+ +
z d z d
z z d d
z A ) (
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
44
Type 3 Type 3 Allpass Allpass Structures Structures
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
45
Realization Using Multiplier Realization Using Multiplier
Extraction Approach Extraction Approach
Example - Realize
A 3-multiplier cascade realization of the
above allpass transfer function is shown
below
3 2 1
3 2 1
2 0 18 0 4 0 1
4 0 18 0 2 0
3
+ +
+ + +
z z z
z z z
z A
. . .
. . .
) (
) . . )( . (
) . . )( . (
2 1 1
2 1 1
5 0 8 0 1 4 0 1
8 0 5 0 4 0
+ +
+ + +
z z z
z z z
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
46
Realization Using Two Realization Using Two--Pair Pair
Extraction Approach Extraction Approach
The stability test algorithm described earlier
in the course also leads to an elegant
realization of an Mth-order allpass transfer
function
The algorithm is based on the development
of a series of th-order allpass transfer
functions from an mth-order allpass
transfer function for
) ( 1 m
) (z A
m 1
) (z A
m
1 1 , . . . , , M M m
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
47
Realization Using Two Realization Using Two--Pair Pair
Extraction Approach Extraction Approach
Let
We use the recursion
where
It has been shown earlier that is
stable if and only if
m
m
m
m
m m
m m m
z d z d z d z d
z z d z d z d d
m
z A
+ + + + +
+ + + + +
) (
) (
. . .
. . .
) (
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1 1 , . . . , , M M m
], [ ) (
) (
) (
z A k
k z A
m
m m
m m
z z A
1
1
m m m
d A k ) (
) (z A
M
1
2
<
m
k for 1 1 , . . . , , M M m
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
48
Realization Using Two Realization Using Two--Pair Pair
Extraction Approach Extraction Approach
If the allpass transfer function is
expressed in the form
then the coefficients of are simply
related to the coefficients of through
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
' ' . . . '
' . . . ' '
) (
1
1
2
2
1
1
1 2
1
1
2 1
1
1
+ + + +
+ + + +
m
m
m
m
m m
m m
z d z d z d
z z d z d d
m
z A
) (z A
m 1
) (z A
m
1 1
1
2
m i
d
d d d
d
m
i m m i
i
,
'
) (z A
m 1
9
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
49
Realization Using Two Realization Using Two--Pair Pair
Extraction Approach Extraction Approach
To develop the realization method we
express in terms of :
We realize in the form shown below
) (z A
m 1
) (z A
m
) (z A
m
) (
) (
) (
z A z k
z A z k
m
m m
m m
z A
1
1
1
1
1
+
+
) (z A
m
) ( z A
m 1
1
X
1
Y
2
X
2
Y
22 21
12 11
t t
t t
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
50
Realization Using Two Realization Using Two--Pair Pair
Extraction Approach Extraction Approach
The transfer function of the
constrained two-pair can be expressed as
Comparing the above with
we arrive at the two-pair transfer parameters
) (
) ( ) (
) (
z A t
z A t t t t t
m
m
m
z A
1 22
1 21 12 22 11 11
1
1 1
X Y z A
m
/ ) (
) (
) (
) (
z A z k
z A z k
m
m m
m m
z A
1
1
1
1
1
+
+
z d z d z d
z z d z d d
3 2 1
3 2 1
3
2 . 0 18 . 0 4 . 0 1
4 . 0 18 . 0 2 . 0
) (
+ +
+ + +
z z z
z z z
z A
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
64
Realization Using Two Realization Using Two--Pair Pair
Extraction Approach Extraction Approach
We first realize in the form of a
lattice two-pair characterized by the
multiplier coefficient
and constrained by a 2nd-order allpass
as indicated below
) (
3
z A
) (
2
z A
2 . 0
3 3
d k
2 . 0
3
k
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
65
Realization Using Two Realization Using Two--Pair Pair
Extraction Approach Extraction Approach
The allpass transfer function is of the
form
Its coefficients are given by
) (
2
z A
2
2
1
1
2 1
1 2
' '
1
' '
2
) (
+ +
+ +
z d z d
z z d d
z A
4541667 . 0
2 2
3
2 3 1
) 2 . 0 ( 1
) 18 . 0 )( 2 . 0 ( 4 . 0
1
'
1
d
d d d
d
2708333 . 0
2 2
3
1 3 2
) 2 . 0 ( 1
) 4 . 0 )( 2 . 0 ( 18 . 0
1
'
2
d
d d d
d
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
66
Realization Using Two Realization Using Two--Pair Pair
Extraction Approach Extraction Approach
Next, the allpass is realized as a
lattice two-pair characterized by the
multiplier coefficient
and constrained by an allpass as
indicated below
) (
2
z A
) (
1
z A
2708333 . 0
'
2 2
d k
, 2 . 0
3
k 2708333 . 0
2
k
12
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
67
Realization Using Two Realization Using Two--Pair Pair
Extraction Approach Extraction Approach
The allpass transfer function is of the
form
It coefficient is given by
) (
1
z A
1
1
1
1
"
1
"
1
) (
+
z d
z d
z A
3573771 . 0
2708333 . 1
4541667 . 0
1 ) ( 1
"
1 '
2
'
1
2 '
2
'
1
'
2
'
1
+
d
d
d
d d d
d
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
68
Realization Using Two Realization Using Two--Pair Pair
Extraction Approach Extraction Approach
Finally, the allpass is realized as a
lattice two-pair characterized by the
multiplier coefficient
and constrained by an allpass as
indicated below
) (
1
z A
1 ) (
0
z A
3573771 . 0
"
1 1
d k
, 2 . 0
3
k
, 2708333 . 0
2
k 3573771 . 0
1
k
) (
2
z A
) (
1
z A
) (
3
z A
Copyright 2001, S. K. Mitra
69
Cascaded Lattice Realization Cascaded Lattice Realization
Using MATLAB Using MATLAB
The M-file poly2rccan be used to realize
an allpass transfer function in the cascaded
lattice form
To this end Program 6_3can be employed