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EXPERIMENT 5
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5.1 Experiment Outcomes
The students will demonstrate;
An understanding of the function, operation and limitations of aircraft ADF
system (Course outcome#3 and 5)
An ability to identify various components of the ADF system (Course
outcome# 8 and 10)
An ability to operate and calibrate ADF system (Course outcome# 12)
An ability to work effectively as a member of a team (Course outcome# 13)
An ability to communicate ADF system calibration results clearly and
professionally (Course outcome# 13)

5.2 Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) System

The automatic direction finder (ADF) is an airborne system used to determine the
relative bearing from the aircraft to a ground-based transmitter. It operates in low and
medium frequency band of 190 KHz to 1750 KHz. Operation of ADF is based on
ground waves; hence its range is not limited to line of sight distance. An ADF can
receive on both AM radio stations and NDB (Non-Directional Beacon).

ADF is the oldest of the radio navigation systems and the one most widely used
throughout the world, because of the availability of numerous ground stations to tune
the ADF to.

The concept of ADF navigation is based on the ability of the airborne system to
provide bearing indication with respect to the aircrafts centerline, based on the
direction of arrival of a radio wave from a selected station. If the indicator compass
card is adjusted so the aircrafts present heading is set below the lubber line, then
reading the indicator pointer against the compass card provides a direct magnetic
bearing to the station. Main components of ADF are described below.

Receiver
The ADF receiver contains the necessary circuits for the reception and processing of
radio signals (in the 190 to 1750 KHz range) to provide relative bearing information
to an indicator. The receiver also contains the circuits required to confirm the validity
of the received signal and the reliability of the receiver itself.

Control Head
The ADF control unit provides the control and switching circuits to select the ADF
receiver operating mode and frequency. The control selects the operating frequency in
0.5 KHz increments. The control may also provide audio gain control and/or dual
frequency capability. The control may also have a number of other features to
simplify the use of the system. For example the control may allow the crew to select,
before the flight, the frequencies of the ADF stations along the route. These preset
frequencies can then be recalled during the flight.

Indicator
There are several types of indicators that can be used with an ADF system. All ADF
indicators indicate the bearing of the ground station.
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An ADF indicator will have a needle rotating against a fixed compass card, to indicate
bearing to a ground station, relative to the nose of the aircraft. This type of indicator
was also called a radio compass indicator when first introduced.

Radio Magnetic Indicators (RMI) and other bearing indicators indicate bearing to
station against a rotating compass card that has its "0" marking aligned with magnetic
or true north.

Antenna
The ADF receiver requires two types of antenna. An omnidirectional sense antenna is
required to help tune the receiver and a 1oop antenna is required to provide the
bearing. Both antennas operate in the 190 to 1750 KHz frequency range.

Depending on the ADF system used, there are different antenna types (older systems
require different antenna types). These include 1oop antennas that are mechanically
rotated, electrically rotated, or mounted in a fixed position to the aircraft.

Characteristics of the 1oop antenna are used to determine the bearing to a selected
ground station. Since the loop antenna is directional, the received signal strength is
relative to the position of the antenna with respect to the transmitting ground station.
In current ADF systems, the antennas are mounted in a fixed position to the aircraft.
Two loop antennas are used and are physically positioned 90 apart. The sense
antenna may also be contained in the same package as the 1oop antennas.


5.3 ADF Ground Stations
A number of different types of ground stations are used in ADF. The frequency range
of ground stations used for ADF is from 190 to 1750 KHz. The stations in this range
include commercial standard broadcast stations (550-1660 KHz) and the
nondirectional beacons (NDB) in the 190 to 550 KHz range.

The NDB is a low to medium frequency navigation aid primarily intended to provide
a broadcast signal to a mobile direction finder. The NDB radiates an omnidirectional
signal modulated by 1020 Hz (in Europe a 400 Hz keyed CW carrier is used).

Low powered NDBs are installed at some marker beacon sites to assist the crew in
transitioning to the approach aid and to provide orientation information as the
approach progresses. The low powered NDB has an effective range of 15 to 20 miles.
Higher-powered NDBs are used as outer marker compass locators (LOM) at some
locations and generally carry transcribed weather information or advisories.

5.4 Sources of ADF System Errors

ADF is subject to a number of sources of errors, as briefly outlined below.

Night effect: This is the polarization error due to change in ionosphere. The effect is
most noticeable at sunrise and sunset when the ionosphere is changing most rapidly.
Bearing errors and instability are least when tuned to an NDB at the low end of the
frequency range of the ADF.
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Coastal refraction: The different properties of land and water with regard to ground
radio wave absorption leads to refraction of the NDB signals.The effect is to change
the direction of travel that cause to an indicated bearing different from the actual
bearing of the transmitter.

Mountain effect: If the wave is reflected by mountains, hills and large structures, the
ADF may measure the direction of arrival of the reflected wave.The nearer the
reflecting object is to the aircraft the greater the error.

Static interference: Static build-up on the airframe reduces the effective range and the
accuracy of an ADF. Thunderstorms are also a source of static interference and may
give rise to large bearing errors.

Loop alignment error: If the longitudinal loop plane is not parallel to the aircraft
longitudinal axis then a constant loop alignment error will exists.

Polarization error: Vertically polarized NDB signal traveling over non-homogenous
earth and striking reflecting objects, including the ionosphere (sky wave), can arrive
at the loop antenna with a good amount of horizontally polarized component. The
current in the loop will then be due to two sources, the vertical and horizontal
components and this may produce a non-zero resultant null this is know as
polarization error and should taken seriously.

Quadrantal error: Some ADF systems require that the fixed mounted antenna be
adjusted for quadrantal error. Performing a swing of the aircraft on a compass rose,
while having an ADF station tuned with a known bearing relative to the aircraft does
this. Some of the newer systems will automatically align themselves, but must be
installed in alignment with the centerline of the aircraft.

Quadrantal error is not man made, but can be compensated for. Quadrantal error is the
error induced in the apparent direction of the received signal by the presence of the
aircraft in the electromagnetic field the radio wave travels in. ADF antennas contain
circuits to compensate for this error.

The maximum quadrantal error can be expected near angles of 45, 135, 225 and
315 relative to the nose of the aircraft. This error cannot be completely compensated
for, so it is best that when the installation is checked, it be checked at these angles.

Checking the audio output is another good hint. If the ID tones (code or call letters)
are being heard properly, it indicates the antenna and receiver sections are operational.
Ant trouble would then be isolated in the indicator driver section or the indicator.


5.5 Calibration and Testing of ADF System

The procedure for determining the size of errors in an ADF installation is known as a
loop swing. On initial installation a swing should be carried out at 15 heading
intervals. Control of swing should be performed under following conditions:


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Whenever called for in the maintenance schedule
After a lighting strike
When an airframe modification close to the ADF antenna completed
When a new avionic system is installed

A swing should not be carried out within 2 hours of sunset or sunrise to avoid night
effect. Swing control may be carried out in the air or on the ground. The advantage of
an air swing is that the aircraft is operating in its normal environment away from the
external disturbances; but, a ground swing control is to be preferred since readings
may be taken more accurately.

Ground Swing Control:
A ground loop swing must be carried out at a place which does not introduce a
bearing error. If the swing calibration is made with reference to magnetic north, the
loop should be calibrated using a datum compass such as aircraft gyro compass
provided that this device has been recently corrected and calibrated. Ground swing
control is performed as follows:

The ADF Relative Bearing Indicator is tuned to an NDB with a known
magnetic bearing.
Then various readings are taken from ADF and compass (magnetic heading
data) at different position of the aircraft.
These readings are recorded on a "loop swing record chart" (Table 5.1)
The correction (column D) is calculated as follows :

Correction =Magnetic bearing (B +C ) (5.1)

Example for second row:

D =029.5 - ( 041 +354) =-5.5

When completed, D is plotted against C (Figure 5.1).This curve is known as
quadrantal error correction curve.
The average of the absolute values of the peaks (maximum and minimum)
gives the amount of quadrantal correction required, its sign being given the
sign of the correction in the first quadrant.
The loop alignment error is given by the average of the peaks (with their
signs) .It should be less then +/-0.25.

5.6 Description of Equipment

In this experiment ADF system (Figure 5.2) installed on the avionics trainer will be
used. The basic ADF system includes the KR 87 receiver, the KI 227 indicator with
compass card and the aerodynamically designed KA 44B combined loop and sense
antenna, plus mounting racks and connectors.




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Table 5.1 Loop swing record chart


















Figure 5.1 Plot of quadrantal error correction vs. ADF bearing


Antenna:
The KA 44B combined loop and sense antenna is an aerodynamically clean design,
and greatly simplifies installation. It contains preamplifier and modulator circuits
which combine the antenna signals into a single signal input to the receiver. Cable
length is not critical, and, as only one cable is required, this ADF system is simple and
fast to install.

Receiver:
The all solid-state KR 87 receiver will operate on any DC voltage from 11 to 33 volts.
It draws only 12 watts power, so no external cooling is required.

Indicator:
The standard KI 227 ADF indicator has an optically coated, non-reflecting glass lens
that can be cleaned without scratching and has a manually rotated compass card.
Loop alignment error
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Figure 5.2 ADF system


5.7 Experimental Procedure
This exercise is composed of three sections.

a. ADF system operation
b. ADF Test (Pre-Flight or In-Flight)
c. ADF system calibration

5.7.1 ADF system operation

Refer to Figure 5.3 throughout this part of the exercise.

1) Turn on the ADF unit
2) Rotate the ON/OFF/VOL knob clockwise from the OFF position.
3) The unit will be activated and will be ready to operate. Rotation of this
control also adjusts audio volume. The KR 87 has audio muting which
causes the audio output to be muted unless the receiver is locked on a valid
station.



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Figure 5.3 ADF control head and relative bearing indicator (RBI)

4) Select operating frequency: The active frequency (to which the ADF is tuned)
is displayed in the left side of the window at all times. A standby frequency is
displayed in the right side when FRQ is annunciated. The standby
frequency is placed in blind memory when either FLT (Flight Time) or ET
(Elapsed Time) mode is selected.
5) Select the standby frequency using the frequency-select knobs which may be
rotated either clockwise or counter clockwise.
6) Pull the small inner knob out to tune ls.
7) Push the small inner knob in to tune 10s. The outer knob tunes the 100s and
the 1000s up to 1799.
8) Enter a few operating frequency to get used to the equipment.
9) The standby frequency selected may then be put into the active window by
pressing the FRQ button. The standby and active frequencies will be
exchanged (flip-flopped), the new frequency will become active, and the
former active frequency will go into standby.

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10) Check for various operating modes
11) Antenna (ANT) mode is selected and annunciated when the ADF button is
in the out position. ANT provides improved audio reception from the
station tuned and is usually used for identification. The bearing pointer in the
indicator will be deactivated and immediately turn to the 90 relative position
and remain there during ANT reception.
12) The ADF mode is selected and annunciated when the ADF button is in the
depressed position. ADF activates the bearing pointer in the indicator,
causing it to move without hesitation to point in the direction of the station
relative to the aircraft heading. The compass card on the indicator may be
rotated as desired by using the heading knob.
13) Outside of the United States some stations are un-modulated and use an
interrupted carrier for identification purposes. The BFO mode, activated and
annunciated when the BFO button is depressed, permits the carrier wave
and the associated Morse code identifier broadcast on the carrier wave to be
heard.

5.7.2 ADF test (Pre-Flight or In-Flight)
1) Select ANT mode while observing ADF indicator.
(a) Describe what happens on the indicator.

.
2) Make sure the unit is tuned to a usable frequency.
3) Now select ADF mode
(b) Describe what happens on the indicator.

4) Excessive sluggishness, wavering or reversals indicate a signal that is too
weak or a system malfunction.

5.7.3 ADF system calibration

A loop swing calibration of ADF system is performed in this part. Use Table 5.2 to
record the data.

1) Record the magnetic bearing of NDB station given by instructor.
2) Attach the compass on the trainer.
3) Rotate the nose of the aircraft (trainer) clockwise and record the compass
reading in column#1 and RBI reading in column#2 in Table 5.2.
4) Rotate the nose of the aircraft further and record at least 24 readings from
compass and RBI until you cover 360.
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5) Calculate the correction for each row using Eq.5.1.
6) Plot correction curve (Correction vs. ADF relative bearing) (column#3 vs.
column#2)
7) Calculate the required average correction.
8) Calculate loop alignment error.

Note: Use suitable computer program for calculations, table, and plot.


5.8 Review Questions
a. What are the max and min frequencies for ADF operation?
b. List three operating modes of ADF. What are the differences among them?
c. List three sources of ADF system errors


5.9 Laboratory Report

Your report should include the followings.

a. Title page
Use standard title page format with the number and title of the experiment

b. Introduction
Describe the purpose of the experiment. Summarize operation of ADF system.

c. Equipments
List the equipments used in the experiment.

d. Results and discussions
Write the answers of questions in sections 5.7.2. Is there any discrepancy what you
have expected and what you have observed? Why?
Attach Table 5.2 and calibration curve. Indicate sample calculation.
Discuss the result of calibration. What are the required quadrantal error correction
and loop alignment error? Is the loop alignment error within the acceptable range?
Answer review questions in section 5.8.

e. Conclusion
Summarize your findings briefly and evaluate the effect of the experiment on
yourself towards achieving the expected outcomes.






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A/C TAIL NO : ................. A/C TYPE : .....................
Date : BASE : .
Station : MAG. BRG. : 031.5


Magnetic Heading
Datum Compass
(degrees)
ADF Relative Bearing
(degrees)
Correction
(degrees)
030 001.5
041 354
054.5 346
073 333
089 318
105.5 298
122 272
135 247
154 224
172 206
184 197
198 187
213 179
230 169
242.5 160
257 148
271.5 134
286 115
302 088
317 063
332 045
345 032
358 021


Table 5.2 ADF loop swing record chart