UNIT 13 VOLUME INTEGRAL

Structure
13.1 Introduction
0 bjectives
13.2 Triple Integral
13.2.1 Definition
13.2.2 Pmpenies of Triple Integrals
13.2.3 Volume
13.2.4 Evaluation of Triple integrals
13.2.5 Physical Applications of Triple Integrals
13.3 Transformation of Volume Integrals into Surface Integrals
13.3.1 Gauss Divergence Theorem
13.3.2 Consequen~s and Applications of Divergence Theorem
13.3.3 Integral Definitions of Gradient, Divergence and Curl
13.3.4 Physical Interpretation of Divergence Theorem
13.3.5 Modelling of Heat Flow
13.3.6 Green's Theorem and Green's Formula
13.3.7 A Basic pmperty of Solutions of laplace's Equation
13.4 Irrotational and Solenoidal Vecto. Fields Revisited
13.5 Sununary
13.6 Solutions/Answers
13.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, you have studied about liile integrals, double ilitegrals a~i d surface
integrals. In the process you have learnt to transform double integrals and surface
integral into line integrals. You had learnt that line integral is the generalization of a
single integral and a surface integral is a sort of generalization of a double integral. In
this unit, we shall give another generalization of double integral called triple integrals
o r volume integrals.
We shall first of all define triple integrals in Section 13.2, wherein we shall also give
the properties and evaluation of such integrals. This section will be closed with some
physical applications of triple integrals.
We had made use of integral transform theorems - Green's Theorem and Stoke's
Theorem - in the last unit. In this unit, we shall discuss another important intergral
transform theorem, known as Gauss Divergence Theorem, which helps in the
transformation of volume integral to surface intergal and conversely. Divergence
Theorem has many important consequences and various applications, some of which
have been discussed in Section 13.3.
We had earlier discussed solenoidal vector fields al ~d imtatiollal vector fields in
Unit 11. With our knowledge of vector calculus, we have revisited these concepts in
Section 13.4, where we have now given integral form conditions for vector fields to be
solenoidal and irrotational. The summary of the results discussed in this unit is
presented at the end of this unit.
Objectives
After going through this unit, you should be able to
+ define a triple integral,
*
state properties of triple integrals,
+
evaluate triple integrals as repeated integrals,
*
give some physical applications of triple integrals,
*
lean1 the method and conditions, under which a volume integral can be
transformed into a surface integral and conversely (Gauss Divergence
Ttieorem),
*
apply divergence theorem for the evaluation of surface integrals/volume
integrals,
*
define gradient, divergence and curl in tenns of integrals,
*
understand the physical interpretation of divergence theroem,
Volome Integral
*
use divergence theorem to set up heat equation,
*
derive Green's theorem in space and Green's formula, using divergence
theorem,
*
lean1 the uniqueness property of solutions of Laplace Equation, and
*
express conditions for a vector field to be solenoidal and irrotation in terms of
integrals.
13.2 TRIPLE INTEGRALS
In Section 12.1, the concept of a line integral was introduced. Section 12.2 was devoted
to the properties and evaluation of double integrals, in which the integrand is a function
of two variables. A natural generalization of double integrals was provided in Section
12.5 in terms of surface integrals, where though the integrand may be a function of
three variable, but it is difined on a surface only and it is still evaluated as a double
integral. However, there are many physical and geometrical situations, where the
integrand may be a fuilction defined in a region in space and itegration may have to be
carried out with respect to all the three variables involved. This gives rise to triple
integrals. A triple integral is again a generalization of double integral (introduced in
Section 12.2).
13.2.1 Definition
For defining a triple integral, consider a function f (x, y, z) defined on a bounded region
R in space (such as a solid cube, a ball, a truncated cone or the space between two
concentric spheres). We subdivide the region R into rectangular cells by planes parallel
to the three coordinate plai~es. The parallelopiped cells may have the dimensions of Ax,
Ay and A z. We number the cells inside R in same order
AV,,AV, ,..., AV,
In each such parallelopiped cell; we choose an arbitrary point, say, (xbyb zk) in the kth
Fi gu~13. 1 :Partitioningasolid
with rectangular cells of volume AV.
parallelopiped cell, and form the sum
n
s~ = 1 f (xb Yk, zk)AVk
k - 1 (13.1)
where AVk is the volume of kth cell.
We now arbitrarily do this for larger and larger positive integer 11 so that the lei~gths of
the edges of the largest parallelopiped of subdivision approaches zero as n approaches
infinity. In this way, we obtain a sequence of real numbers S,, , Snz, .... If we assume
that I(x,y, z) is coi~tii~uous in a domain containing R and R is bounded by finitely many
smooth curves, then as Ax, Ay, A z all approach zero with n approaching infinity, the
sum S, will approach a limit [independent of choice of subdivisions and corresponding
points (xb Y b zk)]
Lt s, =$$sf ( 4 Y, Z) dv,
(13.2)
n - r m
R
which is called the triple integral off (x, y, z) over the region R.
It may be mentioned that the liinit in equation (13.2) may exist for some discoiitinuous
functions also.
13.2.2 Properties of Triple Integrals
Triple integrals share many algebric properties with double and single integrals.
Writing F for F (x, y, z) and G for G (x, y, z), some of the properties of triple integrals
(i) $$$K F N- K$$F N (any constant K)
R R
(ii) $$$(F * G) N =$$SF ~v*$$$G d v
R R R
(iii) $$$FNZO if F a Oi n R
R
(iv) $$$FN~$$$G~v if F Z G ~ ~ R
R R
The triple integrals have the above properties because the sums that approxiinate the111
have these properties.
Triple integrals also have a domain additivity property that proves useful in physics,
mathematics as well as in engineering. If the domain R of a coi~tinuous function F be
partitioned by smooth surfaces into a finite number of regions R1, R2, . . . Rn in space,
then
$$$FN=$$$F ~v+$$JF d v + ... +$$$F~v
R
R 1 R2 R"
13.2.3 Valume
Iff (x, y, z) = 1 is the constant function whose value is one, then the sums in Equation
(1) reduce to
n n
s , , = c t e A v k = c Avk
k - 1 k - 1
As Ax, Ay and A z all approach zero, the cells A Vkbecome smaller and smaller and
more numerous and fill up more of R. We, therefore, define the volume of R to the
triple integral of constant function f (x, y, z) = 1 over R. Hence,
n
Volume O ~ R = ~t
C A vx =$$$N
n - w
k - 1 R
The triple integral is seldom evaluated directly froin its defiilitioii as the liinit of a sum.
Instead, one applies a three-dimensional version to evaluate the integral by repeated
single integrations. This method is explained below.
13.2.4 Evaluation of Triple Integrals
To express the triple integral as a repeated integral we divide the region R into
eleineiitary cuboids by planes parallel to the three coordinate planes. The volume R
may then be considered as the sum of vertical col un~ns extending from the lower
surface of R, say z = z~ (x, y) to its upper surface z = z2 (x, y). The bases of these
columns are the elementry area bA, which cover a certain region Ain the xy- plane
when all the columns in R are taken.
P
I
X
Figure 13.2 : Evaluation of triple integral
Thus, if we take the sum over the elementary cuboids in the same vertical column first,
and then take the sum for all the columns in R, we can write equation (13.1) as
t
where (xbyb zk) is a point in the ph cuboid above the rth elementary area Mr. Taking
the limit when the dimensions of 6Ar and A z tend to zero, the above sum yields
Now integration with respect to z is performed fint, keeping x and y constant. .The
remaining integration is performed as for the double integral. Therefore, if A is
bounded by the curves
then triple integral in equation (13.5) may be written as
where the three integrations are performed in order from the innermost to the
outermost. It should, however, be noted that the region A is the projection in the xy -
plane of the bounding surface of the volume bounded by R.
In case the lateral surface of the system reduces to zero, as in Figure 13.3, we may find
the boundary of A by eliminating z between the two equations z = fl(x, y) and z = f2(x, y).
Figure 13.3 : Lateral surface reduces to zero
I This gives
an equation that contains no z and that defines the boundary of A in the xy-plane.
To obtain the z-limits of integration in any particular instance, we may use a
procedures as follows :
We imagine a line L through a point (x, y) in area A and parellel to z-axis. As z
increase, the line enters R at z - fi(x, y) and leaves R at z I&, y). These give the lower
and upper limits of the integration with respect to z. The result of this integration is a
function of x and y alone, which we can integrate supplying the limits as in double
integrals.
Let us take up an example to illustrate the evaluation of triple integrals.
Example 1 :
Find the volume enclosed between the two surface
I 7 - S+7 v 2 and z- 8- x2- v 2
Volume ImtqpL
Vector Calculus Solution :
The given two surfaces intersect on the elliptic cylinder
2 + 3 y 2 - 8 - 3 - y 2
* x2 + zy2 = 4
The volume projects into the area A (in the xy-plane) that is enclosed by the ellipse
having tihe same equation. In the double integral with respect to y and x over A, if we
-
integrate with respect to y, holding x fixed, then y varies from - G2) / 2 (0
+q i 7 j 7 T.
Then x varies form - 2 to 2. Thus, we have
312
4 j! 8 4 - 2
=f x - - 2 [ 2 4 8 - 2 ) c - 4 - 3 - ) -
] dx
= *s2 ( 4 - ~ ~ ) ~ ' ~ d x = 8 x . f i
3 - 2
You will recall that there are soinetilnes two different orders in which the single
integratiotls, that evaluate a double integral, inay be worked (refer Section 12.3.4). For
triple integrals there are sometimes (but not always) as inany as six workable orders of
The volume of solid shown in Figure 13.4 (a prism) is given by each of the followillg
six integralls :
1 - y 2
c) s1 o o J ~ ~ - ~ dydzdr
z
1
Figure 13.4 :Volume of prism
13.2.5 Physical Applications in Three Dimensions
The triple integrals find various physical applications in three dimensions. It can be
used to find the mass of any object having variable density, its first moments about the
coordinate planes, the centre of mass, the moments of inertia, the radius of gyration
about any line, etc.
Iff ( x , ~ , 2) = &,.Y, Z) is the density of an object occupying a region R in space, then
some useful farrnulae are summarized as follows :
Mass m -JJJp dV , (p = density)
R
First moments about coordinate planes :
Centre of mass :
Moments of Inertia (second moments) :
1, =$$$P e2 + 2) dv,
1, =JJJp (2 + *) d ~ ,
1, =$$$P (1' + Y2) dV,
ZL =$$$r2 P dV,
where r(x, y, z) - distance from point (x, y, z) to line L.
Radius of gyration about a line L : R = d((.
We now take up an example to illustrate the physical applications of triple integrals.
Example 2 :
Find the centre of gravity of a solid of uniform density p bounded below by the disc
R : 2 +y2 s 4 in the plane z = 0 and above by the paraboloid z = 4 - 2 - y2.
Solution :
The solid is shown in Figure 13.5.
4
By symmetry x = 0 = y. To find ? we calculate
2iT 2
- $ (4 - r dr d0 (in polar coordinates)
2 0 - 0 r - o
A similar calculation gives
Volume Intcgrrl
Figure 13.5
Vector Calculus
- - - 4
Thus, the centre of gravity of the given solid is ( x , y, z ) = (0,0, -)
3
You may naw attempt the following exercises.
E 1.
Find the centre of gravity of the volume cut off from the cylinder 2 + y2 - 2an = 0 by
the planes z = m and z - nu.
E 2.
~val uat eff(* ex*' *' & dy cfx and state precisely what is the region of
0 0 0
integration.
E 3.
Find the mass of a solid in the form of the positive octant of the sphere
A? +yZ + i ? = a', if the density at any point is kxyz.
-.
We shall now show that the triple integral of the divergence of a vector function u over
a region R in space, under certain conditions, can be transformed into a surface integral
of the normal component of u over the boundry S of R. This can be done by means of
the Divergence Theonn, which is the three - dimensional analog of the Green's
Theorem in t he plane considered in Section 12.4. The divergence theorem is of basic
importance ih various theoretical and practical considerations.
13.3 TRANSFORMATION OF VOLUME INTEGRALS INTO
SURFACE INTEGRALS AND CONVERSELY
13.3.1 Gauss Divergence Theorem
Statement :
Let R be a closed bounded region in space whose boundary is a piece-wise smooth
orientable surface S. Let u(x,y,z) be a vector finction, which is continuous and has
continuous first partial derivatives in some domain containing R. Then
Where u,, = us is the component of u is the'imection of the outward normal of S with
A
respect to R and n is the outer unit nonnal vector of S.
A
If we write u and n in terms of components, say,
A A A A A A
u==ul i +u2j +u3k and n = c o s a i + c o s p ~ + c o s y k
A
where a, fl and y are the angles between n and the positive directions of x,y and z axes,
respectively, then formula (13.6) takes the form
Since S is an orientable surface, then, by definition, this means
JJul cos a cir -JJul dy tiz
Then relation (13.7), with the help of relations (13.8 a,b,c), may be written as
It is clear that relation (13.9) is true, if the following three relations hold
simultaneously :
For Divergence Theorem, either the region R in space is some convex region with no
holes (such as the interior of a sphere, or a cube, or an ellipsoid) or R is bounded by a
piecewise smooth orientable surface S. In the later case, region R has the property that
any straigbt line parallel to any one of the coordinate axes and intersecting R has at
most one segment (or a single point) in common with R. This implies that R can be
represented in the form
where (x,y) varies in the orthogolial projection of R in the xy-plane.
It may be added that the divergence theorem is also true for region R which can be
subdivided into finitely many regions of the type discussed above by means of
auxiliary surfaces. It will be seen that the surface integral over the auxiliary surfaces
cancel in pairs, and the sum of the remaining surface integrals is the surface integral
over the whole boulidary S of R.
The proof of Divergence Theorem is given in Appendix 13.1 and t h o ~ interested in
proof may look up the Appendix 13.1.
We shall now take an example to evaluate a surface integral by the divergence theorem.
Example 3 :
Evaluate
~ = ~ ~ ( x ~ d ~ & + ~ ~ d z d r + x ~ z d r d y )
S
Where S is the closed surface consistintof the cylinder 2 +y2 = d (0 s z s b) and
2 - 2
the circular disks z = 0 and z = (x2 + y s a ).
43olution :
If we compare the given surface integral with the right-hand side of relation (13.9)
above for divergence theorem,
Vector Calculus
Hence, if we use the symmetry of the region R bounded by S, the volume integral in
relation (13.9) assumes the form
-
Thus
= 201) 4
Let y = a c o s t
2-0 y - o 3 d y = - a s i i ~ t d t
JC
where y =O, t =,
where y = a , t = O
2 2
a 2 - y 2 = a sin t
We take up another example wherein we shall verify the divergence theorem.
Example 4 :
Verify divergence theorem for the region
Solution :
Here
and
The given region can be expressed as 1 5 p s 2, (aimular region between two
spheres).
Thus, throughout the region 1 s p s 2, all functions considered are continuous.
Also
Thus
$$$div F dV = 0
R
On the outer sphere (p = 2), the unit normal is
Hence
On the inner sphere (p l), the positive unit nonnai points towards the origin and it
is given by
Hence
Thus,
1
J$F-; ~s=JJ - ds =4np2( -2 P- 1 -4x. (13.1
The sum of equations (13.14) and (13.15) is the surface integral over the complete
boundary of the given region, which is
- 4n+4n=O,
which agrees with equation (13.13) and this verifies the divergence theorem.
You may now attempt the following exercises.
E 4.
Verify divergence theorem for the sphere
Use divergence theorem to evaluate the surface integral J$F dS, where
S
F = 41 f- 2y2j^+ 2 and S is the surface bounding of the region x2 + y2 = 4, z = 0 and
2-3.
There are many important consequences and various applications of divergence
theorem, some of which we shall take up next.
13.3.2 Consequences and Applications of Divergence Theorem
The Gauss's Divergence Theorem enables us to express a normal surface integral as a
volume integral. We shall now see that with the help of this theorem, we are able to
express the other two types of surface integral as volume integral, i.e, we shall show
that
and
Volume lnttgral
Vector Calculus
where S is the surface bounding a region R in space, satisfying the condil
divergence theorem. We write
Where a is a constant vector and apply divergence theorem to the vector function f.
Thus, we have
But
JJ(a x F) . ; d!3 =JJJdiv (a x F)dV
S R
A
( a x ~ ) - ; = a - F x n
and d i v ( a x F) =V. ( a x F ) = - a . Vx F (13.20)
From equations (1 3.18), (1 3.19) and (1 3.20), we get
Since a is an arbitrary vector, thus relation (1 3.21) yields
Thus we have proved relation (1 3.16)
To prove relation (1 3.17), let us write
Where a is a constant vector and is a scalar function. Applying Gauss's theorem tof,
we have
1 R 1
Since vector a is arbitrary, thus we obtain
which is relation (13.17).
1333 Integral Definitions of Gradient, Divergence and Curl
With the help of the results obtained above, we can state the following integral
expressions for grad @, div F and Curl F. Let S be a closed surface bounding a volume
I
I
I
V in space, @ be a scalar function and F be a vector function defined at every point of
I V. Then we have
IS+ 'IS
Vdumc lntcgrnl
div F = Lt
S
v-bo v '
and Curl F = Lt
S
v-0 v
These expressions are often adopted as definitions of the differential operators. It
becomes particularly simple to prove the divergence and Stoke's theorem starting from
these definitions.
13.3.4 Physical Interpretation of Divergence Theorem
I
We consider the steady flow of an incompressible fluid of constant density p = 1. Such
a flow is determined by the field of its velocity vector q. Let S be any closed surface
drawn in the fluid, which is enclosing a volume V. By Gauss's Divergence Theorem,
h
Now q . n is the component of the velocity at any point of S in the direction of the
A
outward drawn normal. Thus q - n denotes the amount of the fluid that flows out in
unit time through the element W. Hence, the lefi hand side of equation ( 1 3.22) denotes
the amount of fluid flowing across the surface S in unit time from the inside t o the
outside. This amount may be positive, negative of zero.
Now the total amount flowing outwards must be continuously supplied so that inside
the region we must have sources producing fluid. We know that div q at any point
denotes the amount of fluid per unit time per unit volume that goes through ally point.
Thus, div q may be through of as the source-intensity of the incon?pressible fluid at
any point P. Hence, the right-hand side of equation (13.22) denotes the amount offluid
per unit time supplied by the source within S. Thus the equality in (13.22) appears
intuitively evident.
We know that in body heat flows in the direction of decreasing temperature. Physical
experiments show that the rate of flow is proportional to the gradient of the
temperature. This means that the velocity q of the heat flow in a body is of the form
where U(x,y,z) is the temperature, t is the time and k is called the thermal conductivity
of the body - in ordinary physical circumstances k is a co~stant. Using this information
and Gauss's divergence theorem, we now set up the mathematical model of heat flow,
the so called heat-equation.
13.3.5 Modelliig of Heat Flow
Let R be a region in the body and let S be its bounding surface. Then the heat leaving R
per unit time is
S
where, q,, - q . (; is the component of q in the direction of the outward unit normal
vector of S. From the relation (13.23) and the divergence theorem, we obtain
On the other hand, the total amount of heat H in R is
where the constant 0 is the specific heat of the material of the body and p is the density
( ass per unit volume) of the material. Hence, the time rate of decrease of H is
- --
au
aH - -JJJCJ p z&dy dz.
at R
This rate of decrease of total heat must be equal to the above amount of heat leaving R.
Thus from equation (13.24) we have
au
- JJJo - &dYdz =- k J J J v 2 U ~ X dYdz.
R
at.
R
Since this holds for any region R in the body, thus the integrand (if continuous) must
be zero every where, i.e.,
j - c 2 v 2 u , where c 2 k =-
at UP
The above partial differential equation is called the heat - equation and it is
fundamental for heat conduction.
- -~
We next take up a basic conseque~~ce of divergence theorem, know~l as Green's
theorem.
13.3.6 Green's Theorem and Green's Formula
Let f and g be scalar functions such that u = f grad g satisfies the assupt i o~~s of the
divergence theorem in some region R. Then
div u = div (fgrad g) = f v2 g + grad f - grad g.
A A A
Also u. n=n. Cfgradg)=f(n. gradg)
A
The expressioqn . grad g is the directiol~al derivative of g in the direction of outward
normal vector n of the surface S in the divergence theorem. If we denote this derivative
by * the11 the fonnula in the divergence theorem becomes
an'
which is called Green's First Formula o r the first form of Green' s Theorem.
Interchanging f and g, we call obtain a similar formula. Substractil~g the two Green's
first Formulae, we shall obtain,
which is called Green's Second Formula o r the second form of Green' s Theorem.
In Green's Theorem, we have assumed that f and ,gare two colltinuously differentiable
scalar point functio~l such that Vf and Vg are aso contiiluously differentiable.
In particular, if we take
where I; is the position vector of any point relative to a fixed point 0, within the region
R, then g is twice continuously differentiable scalar function except at 0.
We surround 0 by small sphere of radius E. Let S1 be the surface of this sphere and R1
Volume Integral
be the region bounded by S and S1.
We apply Green's Theorem to the region R1, enclosed by surface S and S1 and taking
the limit as E --, 0, we can obtain
This result is known as Green's Formula.
Another important application of divergence theorem is in terms of a basic property of
solutions of Laplace's Equation, which we take up next.
13.3.7 A Basic Property of Solutions of Laplace's Equation
Consider the formula in the divergence theorem, namely,
Let us assume that f is the gradient of a scalar function, say, f = grad 7P. Then
div f = div (grad a) = v27P
A A
Further, f , =f . n=n. gr adcP.
Since the right hand side of f , represents the directional deviative of @ in the outward
a7P
direction of S, it may be denoted as -. Then formula (13.27) becomes
an
Obviously this is the three-dimensional analog of the formula obtained in 12.4.3 (iii).
Taking into account the assumptions under which the divergence theorem holds, we
immediately obtain, form above, the following result :
Theorem 1 :
Let @(x, y, z) be a solution ofLaplace 's Equation
in some domain D, and suppose that the secondpartial derivations of 7P are
continuous in D. Then the integral of the normal derivative of the jknction a over
any piecewise smooth closed orientable surface S in D is zero.
Now if we suppose that the assumptions in above result are satisfied by 7P and is zero
everywhere on a piece wise smooth closed orientable surface S in D, then putting
f = g =
in fonnula (13.25) in the first form of Green's Theorem (Section 13.3) and
denoting the interior of S by R, we get
J J $ ( g r a d @ ) . ( g ~ d @ ) m = J J J i p ~ d d ~ ~ ~ ~ = ~
R R
Since by assumption lglad @( is continuous in R and on S and in non-negative, it
must be zero everywhere in R. Hence, - a@ = - = = 0 and @ is constant inR and,
ax ay . az
because of continuity, equal lo its value 0 on S. Thus,
Theorem 2 :
If a function @(x, y, 2) satisfies the assumptions of Theorem 1 and is zero at all points
of a piecewise smooth orientable surjice S 112 D, then it vanishes identically in region
R bounded by S.
Theorem 2 has an important consequence in that it gives the uniqueness theorem for
Laplace's Equation, which can be stated as below :
Vector Calculus
Let O be a solution of Laplace's Equation which has continuous secondpartial
derivatives in a domain D, and let R be a region in D wliich satisfies the assumption
of the divergence theorem. Then O is uniquely determined tn R by its value on the
bounding surface S of R.
Let us consider the following example.
Example 5 :
Show that two functions which are harmonic in a region enclosed by a surface and
take on the same values at any point of the surface are identical.
Solution :
Let O and Y be two harmonic functions in a region bounded by a surface S and let
O = Y at every poi~lt S.
On applying Green's divergence theorem to the function 8 V 8, we obtain
Let us take 8 = O - Y so that v2 0 = v2 O - V ~ Y = 0 at everypoint of Vand 8 - 0 at
everypoint of S.
* 8 is constant.
As 8 is zero at every point of S, thus 8 is zero everywhere.
Let us take another example.
Example 6 :
If F = grad O and v2 O = - 4 n p, prove that
Whem the symbols have their usual meaning and assu~nptio~ls of divergence theore111
are satisfied.
Solution :
From divergence theorem, we have
=$$$div (grad O) dV
v
You may now try the following exercises.
E 6.
Let F = M(x, y, z) i^+ N(x, y, 2)3+ P(x, y, z) 2 be a vector field whose components
M, N and P are continuous and have continuous second partial derivatives of all
kinds. Show that
$$(curl F) ; B = o
S
for any surface to which the divergence theorem applies.
[Hint : By direct computation, show that div (Curl F) = 0 and then apply divergellce
theorem to (Curl F)]. --
Let S be the spherical cap A? + yZ + 2 = 2aZ, z r a together with its base 3 + y2 s a',
z = a. Find the flux of F = xz i^- yzj^+ y2 $ outwad through S by applying the
divergence theorem.
[Hint : Flux =$SF - ; &]
S
If q(x, y, z) is the velocity vector of a differentiable fluid flow through a region D in
space, p(x, y, z, t) is the density of the fluid element at each point (x, y, z) at time t,
then taking F - pq and using devergence theorem obtain the continuity equation of
hydrodynamics in the farm.
div (pq) + 2 = 0,
In Unit 11 Sections 11.6 and 11.7.3, we had defined solenoidal and irrotational vector
fields as divergence free and crul free vectors respectively. We shall revisit the
concepts of solenoidal and irrotational vector fields in the next section and express the
conditions for such vector fields in terms of integrals of vector fields and show that the
two approaches are equivalent.
13.4 SOLENOIDAL AND IRROTATIONAL VECTOR FIELDS
REVISITED
bSect i on 11.6, we had defined a solenoidal vector F in a region if for all points in that
region
In Section 13.3 above, we have given an integral definition of divergence of a vector
field F as
- -
div F - Lt
S
v-0 v
At any point in region of volume V bounded by surface S.
Volume Iotcllrpl
veawcblcuh
Now if div F - 0, then
Also from divergence theorem, we have
S v
Now if div F = 0, then above result yields
$SF. d s - o
S
across every closed surface S.
AISOJJF dS represents flux of vector point function F in a simply connected region
S
V bounded by S.
Thus we can define Solenoidal Vector Field as
A vector point function F is said to be solenoidal in a region of its flux across every
closed surfoce S on that region is zero, i.e., JJF . dS = 0.
S
If F is a solenoidal vector, then there exists a vector point finction f such that
In Section 11.7.3, we had defined a vector point function F to be irrotation when
curl F = O or there exists a scalar function O such that
By Stoke's theorem, we have
f F . dr =J$(curl F) . l
C S
Thus, when curl F is zero, we get
~ F . & = o
C
The above relation provides another definition of an irrotational vector. We may now
define an irrotational vector as
A contirtuous vector point function F is said to be irrotational if its circulation along
every clbsed contour C in the region is zero.
This above definition can be useful in determining the scalar point function @ such that
F being a given irrotational vector function. In this regard we have to remember that
D
A being any fixed point.
Let us take some examples to illustrate the above theory.
Example 7 :
Show that the vector point function
i w irrntatinml and find the mms nondi n~ scalar function such that F - V a.
Solution :
We may verify that curl F = 0.
Vdumc Integral
= 0
To determine a, we may take fixed point as 0(0,0,0) and general point P as (x, y, z).
Then
Here
I
(~0. 0) ( ~y. 0)
= xy sin z + cos x
1 (~,o.o) + Ixysinz+y2z 1 ( 4, o)
+ Ixysinz+y2z
=cos x- 1 +xysi nz+y2z
curl F =
If we omit the constant - 1, then
?*
1 j^ k;
a
-
a
-
a
-
ax ay az
F = V(cos x + xy sin z + y2z).
Example 8 :
A A
If F = 0, - z) i + (z - x) j + (x - y) $ be a continuous vector point function, verify that
it is solenoidal and find the function f such that F = curl$
Solution :
Here,
~f F = cur^^ letf=fl f+f2j^+h k;.
We suppose that fl = 0, then using expression of curl, we get
Let us take xo - 0, yo = 0
Now
and
\
Hence
Vector Calculus
The general form off; where = Curlf, is
where g is any scalar point function.
You may now try the following exercises to access your knowledge.
m
E 9.
Show that the vector function
A A
F = (sin y + z cos x)i + (x cos y + sin z)3+ 0, cos z + sin x)k
is irrotational and find the corresponding scalar @ such that F = V a.
E 10.
Show that the following vector functions F are solenoidal and find the function f
such that F = curl f :
A A A
i )F' =xb-z)i + y(z-x)j + t(x-y)k
A A A
i i ) F=yz i +t xj +xyk
13.5 SUMMARY
We will now summarize the results of this unit.
*
Iff (x, y, z) is continuous in a domain containing R and R is bounded by
finitely many smooth curves, then, as A x, A y, & all approach zero with n
n
approaching infinity, then limit of the sum S, - 2 f (xk, yk, zk) AVk is called
k - 0
the triple integral off (x, y, z) over the region R and is denoted by
*
Properties of triple integral are
The volume of a region R in 3dimensions is given by
I
n
VolumeofR= Lt T]Av~=SSS~V
To evaluate a triple integral, we divide the region& into elemenkly cuboids
by planes parallel to say zmordimte plane and if z = zl(x, y) and z - q(x, Y)
are the lower and upper surfaces and A is the base of these columns and if A is
bounded by the curves
Y = Y AX), Y = Y~(x), x = a, x = b,
6
then triple integrallJ$ f (x, y, z)dV may be written as repeated integrals as
R
n
The various physical quantities of any object in 3dimensions having variable
density p(x, y, z) which can be evaluated with the help of triple integration are
R
First Moments about Coordinate Planes :
I Centre of Mass :
Moments of Intertia (Second moments) :
and 1, -JSJr2 P dV.
R
where r(x, y, z) = distance of (x, y, z) to line L.
Radius of Gyration about a Line L :
Transformation of Volume Integrals into Surface Integrals and conversely is
based on Gauss Divergence Theorem, according to which
" I ~ R be a closed bounded region in space whose boundary pieeewise
smooth orfenfable surface S and if u(x, y, z) is a vector bfldioq
wj,jCL
!- nd h ~ e -
ontinuous first pa~i al derivatives in some donu;,
1 al--
R, then ~ -
Volume I n t e
<'
Where ; is the unit outward normal to the surface S bounding the region R,"
*
Under the conditions of divergence theorem,
I ~ F X a = -$JScurl F dV '
S R
and
JJ* n^ a =JJJv 9 d v
S R
*
Integral definitions of gradient, divergellce alld curl are
JS*
S
grad@= Lt -
v - 0 v
SSF-ds
di vF=Lt
v - 0 v
J J F X ~ S
and curl F = Lt
S
v - 0 v
*
We can physically interpret divergence theorem as
The amount of fluid flowing across the surfaces in unit time from inside to
outside equals the amount of fluid per unit time supplied by the sources within
S.
*
If 4- - k grad U is the velocity of heat flow in a body, the11 using divergence
theorem, heat-flow equation is
-- au - c2v2u1
at
k
where c2 = -, where rr is the specific heat of the material of the body and p is
of'
the density of the material.
* Green's Theorem states
Iff and gare two continuous functions, possessing continuous partial
derivatives andS is the bounding surface of a region R satisfying conditions of
divergence theorem, then
Sfl f v2g - 6'1) d v =s J ( f vg - RV!). dS.
R
*
If 9 be a solution of Laplace's equation which has co~ltinuous second partial
derivatives in a domain D, and if R be a region in D satisfying the assumptions
of the divergence theorem, the11 is u~~iquely determined in R by its values on
the boundry surface S of R.
* A vector point function F is said to solenoidal in a region if its flux across
every closed surface S in that region is zero, i.e.,$JF - dS = 0.
S
*
A continuous vector point ful l ct i o~~F is said to irrotatio~lal if its circulatioll
along every closed center C in the region is zero, i.e., $ F - dr = 0.
C
SOLUTIONSIANSWERS
The gjven volulne is symnetrical about the plane XOZb
0)- 'IJ~erefore 7 = 0-
T~ find?, we may consider only half the volume standing over the semicircle
enclosed by
I 3 P.
p(m - mx) dy dx
n I 2
2(2u)'JO sin% cos28 de
-
- , on putting x = 2 a sin2 8
2 ( ~ ) 3 $ : 1 2 si de cos20 d0
2a Y~ a r - x L
p dzdy dx
L V k - x Z 1
-p(n2x2 - m22) dy dx
-
- Jx.o[v.o - x2 2
p(m - mx) dy dr
1
= $n + m) x expression o t ?
-
E 2.
Region is the volume enclosed by the planes
~ 1 0 , x=a, y=O, y=x, z=O and z =x+y.
Here
t! ., , J+Y - pO\ dv dx
Volume Integral
Vector Calculw
E 3.
For the positive octant of the sphereg +y2 + i ? = a2, the limits of integration are
X- Ot ox = a , y = Ot oy = a , z = Ot oz = a .
E 4.
Here
Also volume of sphereg +y2 + 2 a2 is (4x2 i 3).
:. Outward unit nonnal to S, calculated from gradient off ( x, y, z) is
A 2(2+ ,!I+ A) xin+ yj + 2
11 =
~ q 2 + y 2 + Z = a
and
a2
=-dS ,since on the s u r f a c e o f ~ : ~ + ~ * + i ? = a ~
a
From (1) and (2), divergence theorem is verified.
, By divergence theorem,
Here F = 4 2 - 5' 3+ z2
a a a
:. div F- - (4x) + - (- 2 y ) + $2)
ax ay
= 4 - 4 y + &
Here region of integration is 2 +y2 = 4, z - 0 and z - 3
Now
a ap a a ai u ap a aiv a
and div(curlF)-- ax( ay --- 4 +- ay( a= --- ~ J + Z ( Z - ~
Vector Calculus
By divergence theorem
$$(Curl F) - I; dS -$$$div (Cud F) dv- 0 (using result (1) above)
S R
Hence the result.
E 7.
Flux of F outward through
By divergence theorem,
S S
Here
a a
:. div F - ~ X Z ) + -(- yz) + $v2)
ay
Hence ~ ~ u r : - $ $ $ d i v ~ d ~ - $ $ $ ~ d v = 0.
R R
E 8.
Comider a volume Vcontained in a simply connected surface S. Let p(x, y, z) be the
fluid density at any point P(x, y, z) of the fluid in Vat time t.
Let ;; be unit outward normal at element 6S of S at P.
Let ss = (a):
Let q be the fluid velocity at element 6S at P.
The equation of continuity represents the consewation of mass, i.e., mass of fluid
flowing out of S per unit time equals the decrease of mass within S per unit time in
the absence of sources and sinks within V.
Now mass of fluid flowing out of S per unit time
=$$P q . , ds
S
and decrease of mass within S per unit time
:. Continuity equation yields
* j ~ ~ d i v (pq) dV = -$$I$ d l (using divergence theorem)
v V
Thi% result is true for all volumes V. Thus at any point of the fluid, we have
a + div (pqj - 0.
at
E 9.
Here
Volume Integral
A A A
F = (siny +z cos x) i +( xcos y+s i nz ) j +( y wsz+sinx)k
:. Curl F =
a
*
Hence F is an irrotational vector point function.
To find such that F = V a, we may take fixed point as 0(0,0,0) and general pi nt
t
P as (x, y, z). Then
(ws)
+{x,y,o) (y COS z + sinx) dz
I
(x,O,O) (xy,O)
= xsi ny+zsi nx I (o,o,a + ( X sin y + y sin z
1 (x4.0)
= xsiny +ysi nz+zsi nx.
Hence F = V( xsi ny+ysi nz+zsi nx)
E 10.
(i) Here
F =
- z)P+ y(z - x) I + z(x - y)f;
a a a
:. div F = - [x(y - z)] + -b(z - x)] + - [z(x - y)]
ax a~ az
- 0, - z) +( z- x) +( x- y) =O
Hence vector function F is solenoidal.
I ~ F = Curlx letf=fl E+hj'+fi f;
Suppose that fl = 0, then using expression for curl, we get
Now
(ii)
and ~ ( v , i ) = f ~ d y - ~ .
0
Hence f =h i^+j$+f, $
I
I \
The general form off,'where F = curlfj is
I
Where g is any scalar point function.
Answer :
1 1
f = -2y:+ 5 (y2z - 22) i + vg.
2
APPENDIX 13.1
Proof of Gauss Divergence Theorem
Let S be such a surface that a line parallel to z-axis meets it in two points only. Denote
the lower and upper positions of S by S1 and S2 and let their equations be z = fi(x, y) and
z - f2(x, y) respectively.
We denote the projection of S on xy-plane by A.
d -nIen
A
Now for the upper position S2
A A
dxdy = cosy2&S2= k-rids,
and for the lower position S1
A A
dxa' y=mY1dS1 = -k.n&
a negative sign being taken as the normal to dSI makes an obtuse angle x - yl with &.
Substituting in (I), we get
I =JJu31 -;&
I S
This proves relation (13.12) of Section 13.3. Similarly we can prove relations (13.10)
and (13.1 1) of Section 13.3
I
This completes the p m f of relation (13.9) and Gauss Divergence Theorem.