Amalgam-Chemical Composition, Mechanical

Properties and Common Applications

Introduction
Mercury alloyed with a number of metals forms amalgam, which is primarily used for
dental fillings. The common constituents of amalgam are mercury, tin, silver, copper and
other trace metals. The use of amalgam in the dental sector dates back to the 1800s
since it is easy to apply, has good durability and strength and is economical.
The popularity of amalgam has diminished in recent years especially due to its Mercury
content and since reliable composite materials have become widely available.
There are several different types of Amalgams, that include the following:
Dental amalgam
Potassium amalgam
Sodium amalgam
Aluminium amalgam
Ammonium amalgam
Dental amalgam is classified into the following two types:
Low-copper dental amalgam These were being used in the past and have almost
fully been replaced by high-copper amalgams.
High-copper dental amalgam - High-copper alloys exhibit properties of high strength,
less corrosion and tarnish, less creep and minimal sensitivity to handling variables
producing long-term clinical results. When compared to low-copper amalgam, high-
copper amalgam restorations exhibit fewer incidences of marginal failure.
Chemical Properties
The composition of amalgam is given in the table below:
Silver 40-60%
Tin 27-30%
Copper 13-30%
Zinc 1%
High-copper amalgam includes 40-60% silver, 27-30% tin and 13-30% copper and 1%
zinc set with mercury. Indium and palladium are also included. Silver enables setting
expansion and causes an increase in strength and resistance to corrosion. Tin may cause
setting contraction whereas copper improves strength, minimizes corrosion and tarnish,
brings down creep and brings down cases of marginal leakage. Zinc brings down the
oxidation of other alloys in the metal. It has been proved that zinc-containing amalgams
have a longer life when compared to non-zinc amalgams. Indium reduces creep and
increases strength whereas palladium reduces corrosion and tarnish.
Tarnishing is the loss of luster from a metal or alloy surface because of the formation of a
surface coating. The alloy remains unchanged and the mechanical properties also remain
the same. A sulphide layer formed in the surface causes amalgam to tarnish.
Galvanic corrosion takes place when two dissimilar metals are present in a wet
environment. The flow of electric current between the metals results in one of the metals
getting corroded. Surface corrosion may cause a change of color of an amalgam
restoration and may result in pitting. Surface corrosion fills the amalgam/tooth interface
with corrosion products bringing down microleakage. Internal corrosion will result in
marginal breakdown and fracture. Galvanic corrosion is promoted by an acidic
environment.
Mechanical Properties
An amalgam restoration needs to be strong enough so as to resist the biting forces of
occlusion. Dental amalgam has high compressive strength, which is 380MPa for low-
copper amalgam and 414MPa for high-copper amalgams. However shear and tensile
strengths are quite low. Hence it in essential that tooth structures support the amalgam
to ensure long-term clinical success.
Creep is a gradual change in shape due to compression because of dynamic intra-oral
stresses. Creep causes the flow of amalgam, hence unsupported amalgam will protrude
from the cavity margin. These unsupported edges are quite weak and corrosion may
cause further lowering of strength. Creep may also result in an overhang on fillings
causing food to be trapped leading to secondary decay. The gamma-2 phase of amalgam
is key to the considerably high creep values exhibited by certain materials.
Dimensional change is the net expansion or contraction of an amalgam. In case the
amalgam contracts, dimensional change is negative and is positive in case of expansion
during setting. According to the ADA/ANSI specification, the dimensional change should
be a contraction or expansion of not more than 20 m/cm.
Dimensional change is impacted by a number of factors such as the alloy/mercury ratio
and also condensation and trituration techniques. Contraction and expansion take place
simultaneously during the amalgamation reaction.
Manufacturing Process
For the preparation of dental amalgams, liquid mercury is mixed with a powdered alloy
mainly comprising tin and silver. Lathe cutting or milling of a cast ingot of the silver-tin
alloy is done to produce the powder. The particles formed are shaped irregularly.
Alternatively, the liquid alloy may be atomized and condensed, a process that causes
particles with a spherical morphology. Both these alloy types are used in clinical
amalgams as a mixture of spherical and lathe-cut particles. For clinical purposes,
amalgam is mixed with mercury in a process called trituration. Previously, they were
formed manually; however, presently vibratory mixers are present and manufacturers
prepare the unmixed amalgam in two chambers of a tiny capsule.
Before mixing, the thin membrane separating the alloy powder from the liquid mercury is
destroyed and the capsule is placed in the mechanical mixer arm and vibrated for a
specific amount of time to enable thorough mixing of liquid and powder. The extrusion of
the freshly mixed amalgam with a plastic consistency is done from the capsule into the
cavity. During the trituration process, the surface layer of the silver-tin alloy dissolves in
the liquid mercury and the reaction causes new phases to be formed. These new solid
phases cause solidification of the plastic amalgam paste.
Applications
The applications of amalgams are the following:
Dental amalgam is an excellent and versatile restorative material and is used in
dentistry for several reasons. It is economical and quite easy to use and can be
manipulated during placement. Amalgam remains soft for a brief time period so it is
possible to fill it into any irregular volume and then a hard compound is formed.
Amalgam has a greater longevity when compared to other direct restorative
materials, like composites.
Sodium amalgam has been used in organic chemistry as a powerful reducing agent,
which is much safer than sodium. Sodium amalgam is also used while designing the
high pressure sodium lamp providing sodium to obtain the right color and mercury to
fine-tune the electrical features of the lamp.
Mercury has been used in gold and silver mining since it amalgamates very easily
with them. In gold placer mining, mercury is used for the separation of gold from
other minerals.
Aluminium amalgam is used as a reducing agent.
Thallium amalgam finds use in low-temperature thermometers.

Effect of admixed indium on properties of a dispersed-phase high-copper
dental amalgam.
A new dental amalgam alloy containing admixed indium is available for clinical use. The
purpose of this study was to conduct a full range of laboratory tests on two alloys containing
differing amounts of admixed indium and on a similar alloy that did not contain indium.
Results showed that less mercury was required to mix the alloys containing indium since
admixed indium promotes wetting of the alloy. Back-scattered electron images showed the
Ag-Hg matrix to be in good apposition to the Ag-Sn particles and to the Ag-Cu eutectic
spheres, and there was no evidence of unreacted indium. The alloys containing admixed
indium demonstrated improved resistance to creep and very little dimensional change upon
setting. The early compressive strength was low for the alloys containing indium, but
compressive strengths were significantly higher than those of the alloy without indium at 24 h
and 7 d. Some improvement in resistance to marginal leakage and to corrosion was shown for
the alloys containing indium.