SOLAR RADIATION

1.1.Introduction
The Sun as an average star is a typical main-sequence dwarf of spectral class G-2. Its
radius is 6.96 ! "
#
m. The mean distance $etween the Sun and the %arth is ".&96 ! "
""
m
and is 'nown as the astronomical unit ()*+. Solar radiation is the electromagnetic radiation
emitted $y the Sun. )lmost all 'nown physical and $iological cycles in the %arth system are
driven $y the solar radiation reaching the %arth. Solar radiation is also the cause of climate
change that is truly e!terior to the %arth system.
1.2. Difinition
Solar radiation is radiant energy emitted $y the sun, particularly electromagnetic
energy. )$out half of the radiation is in the visi$le short-wave part of the electromagnetic
spectrum.The other half is mostly in the near-infrared part, with some in the ultraviolet part
of the spectrum. The portion of this ultraviolet radiation that is not a$sor$ed $y the
atmosphere produces a suntan or a sun$urn on people who have $een in sunlight for e!tended
periods of time.
Solar radiation is more than the light and heat that we perceive from the sun. The sun
is a star and it produces energy in many forms, from percepti$le heat, visi$le and invisi$le
spectrums of light, radiation, and more. -ife on earth would $e impossi$le without the sun,
$ut our atmosphere also protects us from the more dangerous aspects of solar radiation.
-oosely defined, solar radiation is the total frequency spectrum of electromagnetic radiation
produced $y the sun.
This spectrum covers visi$le light and near-visi$le radiation, such as !-rays,
ultraviolet radiation, infrared radiation, and radio waves. The visi$le light and heat of the sun
ma'es life possi$le, and is called daylight or sunshine. The earths atmosphere deflects or
filters the ma.ority of the suns harmful radiation, and our near-perfect positioning in the solar
system allows us to receive the $enefits pro!imity to the Sun without $eing $a'ed or $roiled
li'e /enus or 0ercury.
Solar radiation and sunlight ma'e it possi$le for the %arth to house life. The negative
aspects of our relationship with the sun are primarily the result of human irresponsi$ility1 we
develop s'in cancer when we ignore our $odies signals to avoid sunlight, and we struggle
with glo$al warming $ecause weve ignored the environmental concerns of our actions. 2hen
we dont give solar radiation the respect it deserves, we are literally playing with fire.
The total amount of radiation received at the earth3s surface depends on four (&+
factors1
1. The distance of the sun. )ny change in the distance the %arth and the Sun cause the
variation of the acceptance of solar energy.
2. Intensitas solar radiation that is the si4e of the angle of incidence of sunlight at the
earth3s surface. The amount received is directly proportional to the magnitude of the
angle of incidence angles. 5eam with o$lique incidence angle which gives less energy
on the earth3s surface caused $y the energy spread wide on the surface and also $ecause
the rays have to travel further atmospheric layer than if the $eam at an angle
perpendicular to come.
3. The length of day (sun duration+, ie the distance and duration $etween sunrise and
sunset.
4. The influence of the atmosphere. 5eam through the atmosphere will $e partially
adsor$ed $y the gases, dust and water vapor, is reflected $ac', and the rest is emitted
forwarded to the earth3s surface.
)s human $eings, we tend to have a love-hate relationship with the sun on one hand,
sunlight 'eeps us warm, creates food and shelter for us via plant life, and gives us light. 6n
the other hand, as greenhouse gases trap more heat and the o4one layer allows more
dangerous */ radiation in, the suns rays can $e distinctly dangerous. */ rays cause s'in
cancer in humans and animals, $ut can contrastingly improve other s'in conditions li'e
psoriasis. 2e need the sun $iologically, as well, as it causes our $odies to produce vital
vitamin 7.
Solar radiation that falls is usually estimated $y using a sunshine recorder is $y
8amp$ell Sto'es. This tool measures the length or duration of $right sunshine and consists of
a solid sphere made of glass. The sun3s rays will $e focused or concentrated $y the glass $all
was on a heavy paper that is sensitive and specific. 9ias scale on the cloc' mounted on a half-
$owl shaped metal concentric with the glass $alls. Sunlight is focused on 9I)s will $urn and
leave mar's on the pale. Total duration of $right sunshine during the day at get $y measuring
the total length of the former on the pias.
)cceptance of solar radiation at the %arth3s surface varies according to place and time1
". )ccording place:
)t the macro level due to differences in the location of latitude and the
state of the atmosphere (clouds+.
6n the micro level, the amount of radiation received $y the specified $y
the direction of the slope.
2. )ccording to the time, the difference of radiation received:
;appen in a day (from morning to evening+
Seasonally (from day to day+
9icture 2.". Greenhouse %ffect
1.3. Distance of the Sun to the Earth
The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It is almost perfectly spherical and
consists of hot plasma interwoven with magnetic fields. It has a diameter of a$out
",<92,6#& 'm (#6=,<>& mi+, around "9 times that of %arth, and its mass (".9#9?"
<
'ilograms, appro!imately <<, times the mass of %arth+ accounts for a$out 99.#6@ of the
total mass of the Solar System. 8hemically, a$out three quarters of the Sun3s mass consists of
hydrogen, while the rest is mostly helium. The remainder (".69@, which nonetheless equals
=,6 times the mass of %arth+ consists of heavier elements, including o!ygen, car$on, neon
and iron, among others.
The Sun formed a$out &.6 $illion years ago from the gravitational collapse of a region
within a large molecular cloud. 0ost of the matter gathered in the center, while the rest
flattened into an or$iting dis' that would $ecome the Solar System. The central mass $ecame
increasingly hot and dense, eventually initiating thermonuclear fusion in its core. It is thought
that almost all stars form $y this process. The Sun is a G-type main-sequence star (G2/+
$ased on spectral class and it is informally designated as a yellow dwarf $ecause its visi$le
radiation is most intense in the yellow-green portion of the spectrum, and although it is
actually white in color, from the surface of the %arth it may appear yellow $ecause of
atmospheric scattering of $lue light. In the spectral class la$el, G2 indicates its surface
temperature, of appro!imately =>># A (=== B8+, and V indicates that the Sun, li'e most
stars, is a main-sequence star, and thus generates its energy $y nuclear fusion of hydrogen
nuclei into helium. In its core, the Sun fuses a$out 62 million metric tons of hydrogen each
second.
The Sun is currently traveling through the -ocal Interstellar 8loud (near to the G-
cloud+ in the -ocal 5u$$le 4one, within the inner rim of the 6rion )rm of the 0il'y 2ay. 6f
the = nearest stellar systems within "> light-years from %arth (the closest $eing a red dwarf
named 9ro!ima 8entauri at appro!imately &.2 light-years away+, the Sun ran's fourth in
mass. The Sun or$its the center of the 0il'y 2ay at a distance of appro!imately 2&C
26 light-years from the galactic center, completing one cloc'wise or$it, as viewed from
the galactic north pole, in a$out 22=C2= million years. Since the 0il'y 2ay is moving with
respect to the cosmic microwave $ac'ground radiation (805+ in the direction of the
constellation ;ydra with a speed of == 'mDs, the Sun3s resultant velocity with respect to the
805 is a$out <> 'mDs in the direction of 8rater or -eo.
The mean distance of the Sun from the %arth is appro!imately " astronomical unit
("=,, 'm: 9<,, mi+, though the distance varies as the %arth moves from
perihelion in Eanuary to aphelion in Euly. )t this average distance, light travels from the Sun
to %arth in a$out # minutes and "9 seconds. The energy of this sunlight supports almost all
life
F$G
on %arth $y photosynthesis, and drives %arth3s climate and weather. The enormous
effect of the Sun on the %arth has $een recogni4ed since prehistoric times, and the Sun has
$een regarded $y some cultures as a deity. )n accurate scientific understanding of the Sun
developed slowly, and as recently as the "9th century prominent scientists had little
'nowledge of the Sun3s physical composition and source of energy. This understanding is still
developing: there are a num$er of present day anomalies in the Sun3s $ehavior that remain
une!plained.
The sun rotates on its a!is for a$out 2> days to reach one round. This rotational
movement was first noticed through o$servation of sunspots change position. The sun3s
rotation a!is tilted as far as >.2= B from the a!is of %arth3s or$it so that the north pole of the
Sun will $e visi$le in Septem$er while the south pole of the Sun is more visi$le in 0arch.
The sun is not a solid $all, $ut a $all of gas, so the sun does not rotate with a uniform
velocity. )stronomers suggested that the rotation of the interior of the Sun is not the same as
the surface. The core and the radiative 4one rotates simultaneously, while the convective 4one
and photosphere also rotate together $ut at different speeds. %quatorial part (middle+ rotation
ta'es a$out 2& days while the poles rotate for a$out <" days. Source of the Sun3s rotation
period difference was o$served. The sun and the entire solar system moving in its or$it
around the 0il'y 2ay. The sun is as far as 2#, light-years from the galactic center of the
0il'y 2ay. The average speed of this movement is #2#. 'm D h so it is e!pected to ta'e
2< million years to reach a perfect lap around the gala!y.
Picture 1.2. Solar Rdiation
Table 1.1. Characteristics Solar
0ean distance
from %arth
".&96?"
#
'm
# min "9 s at light speed
/isual $rightness (V+ H26.>&
)$solute magnitude &.#<
Spectral classification G2/
0etallicity Z I ."22
)ngular si4e <".6C<2.>J
)d.ectives Solar
6r$ital characteristics
0ean distance
from 0il'y 2ay core
K 2.>?"
">
'm
2>2 light-years
Galactic period (2.2=C2.=+?"
#
a (years+
/elocity
K 22 'mDs (or$it around the center of the Gala!y+
K 2 'mDs (relative to average velocity of other stars in stellar
neigh$orhood+
K <> 'mDs (relative to the cosmic microwave $ac'ground+
9hysical characteristics
0ean diameter "<926#& 'm
%quatorial radius
696<&2 'm
"9 ? %arth
%quatorial
circumference
&.<>9?"
6
'm
"9 ? %arth
Llattening 9?"
H6
Surface area
6.#>>?"
"2
'm
2
""99 ? %arth
/olume
".&"2?"
"#
'm
<
"< ? %arth
0ass
".9#9"?"
<
'g
<<< ? %arth
)verage density
".&#?"
<
'gDm
<
.2== ? %arth
7ensity
8enter (model+1 ".622?"
=
'gDm
<
-ower photosphere1 2?"
H&
'gDm
<
-ower chromosphere1 =?"
H6
'gDm
<
8orona (avg+1 "?"
H"2
'gDm
<
%quatorial surface
gravity
2>&. mDs
2
2>.9& g
2>=&2.29 cgs
2# ? %arth
%scape velocity
(from the surface+
6">.> 'mDs
== ? %arth
Temperature
8enter (modeled+1 K ".=>?"
>
A
9hotosphere (effective+1 =>># A
8orona1 K =?"
6
A
-uminosity (-
sol
+
<.#&6?"
26
2
K <.>=?"
2#
lm
K 9# lmD2 efficacy
0ean intensity (I
sol
+ 2.9?"
>
2Mm
H2
Msr
H"
)ge K&.6 $illion years
Notation characteristics
6$liquity
>.2=B
(to the ecliptic+
6>.2<B
(to the galactic plane+
Night ascension
of Oorth pole
F""G
2#6."<B
"9 h & min < s
7eclination
of Oorth pole
P6<.#>B
6<B =23 Oorth
Sidereal rotation period
(at equator+
2=.= days
(at "6B latitude+
2=.<# days
2= d 9 h > min "2 s
(at poles+ <&.& days
Notation velocity
(at equator+
>."#9?"
<
'mDh
9hotospheric composition ($y mass+
;ydrogen ><.&6@
;elium 2&.#=@
6!ygen .>>@
8ar$on .29@
Iron ."6@
Oeon ."2@
Oitrogen .9@
Silicon .>@
0agnesium .=@
Sulfur .&@
1.4. Characteristics Solar Radiation
1.4.1. a!elen"th Solar Radiation
The electromagnetic spectrum consists of all ranges of frequency and wavelength.
%lectromagnetic waves can propagate in vacuum or no vacuum. *nder vacuum conditions,
the nature of the wave is more prominent. 0eanwhile, when the waves interact with atoms or
molecules, then the wave $ehaves li'e a $eam 'orpus'ul (small particles+ are called photons
(photon+ or light quanta (quanta+ (Eones "9#6, 5ueche "9#9+. Set the type of energy the
electromagnetic spectrum $y wavelength and frequency. 9ea' wavelength (Qm, in nm+
radiation emitted from an o$.ect is too dependent on the temperature of the o$.ect in
accordance with the laws of the states of the shift 2ien shift law where, Rthe wavelength of
ma!imum intensity decreases with increasing temperatureR
Picture 1.2. Peak waelength calculation
1.4.2. T#$es of Solar Radiation
Solar radiation is the radiation released $y the Sun . )ppro!imately 99.9 percent of
energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths $etween ."= s D d &.
microns with the highest percentage of the intensity of the .& s D d .> microns in the form of
light . The rest of electromagnetic energy in the form of infrared and ultraviolet ( */ + . Solar
radiation which penetrates the lowest layer of the atmosphere can also $e divided into several
classes , namely 1
a) 7irect solar radiation is the solar radiation coming from the sun disc rounded
corners .
b) Glo$al solar radiation that the solar radiation received $y a hori4ontal surface
in the form of direct solar radiation and radiation scattered downwards while
passing through a layer of the atmosphere .
c) S'y radiation is solar radiation scattered downward $y atmospheric layer (the
second part of the glo$al radiation+ .
d) that the reflected solar radiation Solar radiation reflected upward $y the earth3s
surface and scattered $y atmospheric layer $etween the earth3s surface and the
o$servation point .
1.4.3. Solar Radiation at Earth%s Surface
)cceptance of solar radiation at the earth3s surface varies greatly depending on 1
1. 9lace , ie the location and circumstances latitude clouds.
2. Time , which is a day ( morning - afternoon + and seasonal ( day -to-day +
/arious matahri spectrum 1 ( micro meters +
8osmic rays ("-"-"-6 +
Gamma rays ( "-6 -"-2 +
*ltra violet ( "-2 - "" +
/isi$le light
Infra red ( "" -"< +
The radio waves ("< - ""+
1.4.4. &actors Affectin" Acce$tance of Solar Radiation at Earth%s Surface
The distance from the Sun to %arth. %arth around the Sun ( revolution + with elliptical
tra.ectory , distance changes cause variations in solar radiation receipt.
9erihelion 1 0a!imum Nadiation 21" ly.min - " ( Eanuary < closest distance +
)phelion 1 ".## 0inimum Nadiation ly.min -" ( longest distance & Euly +
The length of day and the angle of incidence. In addition to the atmosphere caused $y
solar radiation acceptance angle of fall . 5eam fell on his side , giving less radiation energy as
the layer $ecomes thic'er atmosphere and reflected light stout . )ngle of incidence of
sunlight depending on the location of latitude and season , length of day caused $y latitude
location ( latitude + , occurs as a result of differences in the period of receipt of solar
radiation.
The effect of %arth3s atmosphere The atmosphere as a protection from solar radiation
destructive , solar energy will e!perience penguragan energy $y atmospheric molecules .
)tmospheric ingredients that play a role in the a$sorption of solar radiation
S atomic o!ygen in the air a$ove the lap a$sor$ the e!treme ultraviolet ( 1"2 to 1"# lm +
S o4one , ultraviolet a$sor$ing 122 to 1<< lm , and partly with wavelengths .&&-.>6 lm
2ater vapor a$sor$s infrared 9. Gel .9< , "1"< , "1&2 and "1&> lm 8ar$on dio!ide ,
a$sor$ing spectrum of 2.> lm ( near infra red +. 7iffuse Nadiation 1 a mi! $etween light
scattering ( solar radiation + and light reflection . Glo$al Nadiation 1 Nadiation scattering and
reflection of radiation .
1.5. Surface Ener"# 'alance on Earth
%nergy $alance, according to which energy cannot $e created or destroyed, only
modified in form. Surface %nergy 5alance on %arth calculation1
T n I T s P T l- T sU C T lU
T n 1 netto radiation (2m-2+ T s
T s 1 coming in and out solar radiation (2m-2+ T l
T lU 1 coming in and out longwave radiation (2m-2+.
Picture 1.!. Global "nergu #lows
1.6. Ca($)ell Sto*es
Solar radiation that falls is usually estimated $y using a sunshine recorder is $y
8amp$ell Sto'es. This tool measures the length or duration of $right sunshine and consists of
a solid sphere made of glass. The sun3s rays will $e focused or concentrated $y the glass $all
was on a heavy paper that is sensitive and specific. 9ias scale on the cloc' mounted on a half-
$owl shaped metal concentric with the glass $alls. Sunlight is focused on pias will $urn and
leave mar's on the pale. Total duration of $right sunshine during the day at get $y measuring
the total length of the former on the pias.
Picture 1.$. Ca%&bell Stokes
1.7. Conclution
The radiation coming directly from the Sun received at the %arthUs surface is called
direct solar radiation. The amount of scattered radiation coming from all other directions is
called diffuse solar radiation. The sum of $oth components as received on a hori4ontal
surface is called glo$al solar radiation.