Power Quality Analysis of A 110 MW Wind Farm in A 130 KV Switchyard

ES12014
Examensarbete 30 hp
April 2012
Power Quality Analysis of a
110 MW wind farm in a 130 kV
switchyard
My Nslund

Report Number U 11:xx

My Nslund

2012-03-29
POWER QUALITY ANALYSIS OF A 110 MW
WINDFARM IN A 130 KV SWITCHYARD
VATTENFALL RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT AB
Power Technology

(POWER QUALITY ANALYSIS OF A 110 MW
WINDFARM IN A 130 KV SWITCHYARD)
From Date Serial No.
Vattenfall Research and Development AB, Power
Technology
2012-03-29 U 11:xx
Author/s Security class Project No.
My Nslund Internal [S2] PR.xx
Customer Reviewed by
Urban Axelsson
Urban Axelsson

Issuing authorized by
Victoria Neimane

Key Word No. of pages Appending pages
Power Quality, Harmonics, Interharmonics, Flicker,
Unbalance, Standards and regulations
65 30

III

Abstract

Good power quality is not only determined by uninterruptable power
supply, voltage deviations also affect the function of the network and the
equipment connected. Electromagnetic disturbances as flicker, harmonics,
interharmonics and unbalance are decreasing the power quality. How are
the measurement methods and restrictions stated, to keep the voltage
deviations within reasonable limits and thereby maintaining the network
function?

Lillgrund wind farm has power quality restrictions set by E.ON Elnt to
fulfil in the connection point to the subtransmission network. In addition is
a fault ride through requirement set by SVK. All equipment connected to
the network are introducing voltage changes, which can be measured at the
point of connection. The scope of the thesis has been to explicitly
determine Lillgrunds emissions. Three-phase voltage and current
measurements have been performed, with measurement systems
comprising different bandwidth, to analyse the power quality parameters.
Comparisons between standard documentation and technical
specifications have been made in order to precise what is considered as
good power quality and how it can be measured accurately.
Vattenfall Research and
Development AB
U 11:xx (Internal [S2])

IV

Populrvetenskaplig sammanfattning

I dagens samhlle upplever vi ett stndigt kande elberoende, i vra hushll
anvnder vi inte bara brdrostar och elvispar utan antalet tv-apparater och
frmst datorer har kat markant. Vid elavbrott r det uppenbart var felet
ligger, inget fungerar, strmmen r bruten och det r mrkt hos dig och
hos grannen. Men datorer och annan strknslig utrustning kan ven sluta
fungera p grund av den levererade elen. Spnnings- och strmvariationer i
form av vertoner, mellantoner och transienter kan leda till kortare
apparatlivslngd. P samma stt kan anvndningen av olinjra laster som
datorer och energisparlampor pverka elkvaliteten p det verliggande
ntet. Mtning och kontroll av elkvalitetparametrar ufrs fr att ingen
utrustning ska skada eller ta skada av ngon annan apparatur kopplad till
elntet.

De parametrar som avses r vertoner, mellantoner, flimmer, obalans och
transienter. Det finns olika standarder att tillg samt tekniska
specifikationer frn distributionsbolagen. Vattenfall Vindkraft har fr avsikt
att underska om vindkraftparken Lillgrund uppfyller de grnsvrden som
E.ON Elnt har angivit i sammankopplingspunkten Bunkeflo stllverk.
Mtsystemet r installerat p Lillgrundsidan av brytaren i Bunkeflo.
Systemet ugrs av tre olika mtinstrument kopplade till tv uppsttningar
av mttransducers, dessa mter bde strm och spnning p tre faser. En
uppsttning bestr av konventionella mttransducers med begrnsad
bandbredd p 1-2 kHz, medan den andra uppsttningen har en hgre
bandbredd p 400 kHz.

Tv av mtinstrumenten utfr kontinuerliga mtningar medan det tredje
instrumentet mter triggade hndelser med hgupplsning. Elkvalitet-
parametrarna har utvrderats med hjlp av alla tre instrumenten, en
jmfrelse mellan de olika systemen har ocks utfrts. P grund av
svrigheter att genomfra och analysera kontinuerliga mtningar har endast
mtserier med korta tidsintervall utfrts. Under dessa korta tidsintervall
uppfylls kravbilden p Lillgrund i Bunkeflo. Veckomtningar krvs dock
fr att validera resultatet.

Olika standarder och tekniska specifikationer har jmfrts fr att se hur
elkvalitetparameterar kan bestmmas. Dokumenten uppvisar avvikelser
mellan enheter fr grnsvrden samt gentemot vilket frekensomrde som
grnserna avser. Fr mellantoner r kravbilden verlag otydlig och om
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grnsvrden finns anges dessa i procent av den nominella spnningen. Vid
spnningsmtning mts ven distorsion frn verliggande nt, fr att
explicit mta Lillgrunds bidrag i Bunkeflo krvs strmmtning. Om
grnsvrden anges som spnningsvrden br hnvisning gras till
berkningsmetoder frn strm till spnning. En harmonisering av
standarder i Sverige, gllande mtenhet( spnning eller strm) samt
frekvensomrde skulle underltta fr anslutande kunder och ven
ntgarna. I dagslget ligger den strsta bristen inte enbart p grnsvrden i
sig utan ven p krav gllande redovisningar av mtningarna. Det r
normalt s att elkvaliteten utvrderas vid uppkomst av klagoml.

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Executive Summary

The reliability of supply is in general high in Sweden, with around 0.3
interruptions per customer and year in urban areas. (1) Accordingly, the
power quality must be good? This is not given. The electrical grid
comprises numerous of installations, both generating units and loads of
various size. All apparatus connected to a network will affect the voltage
and hence other equipment. In order to keep the apparatus functioning
together a certain quality level of the voltage and frequency must be kept.
Subsequently power quality is determined by reliability of supply, voltage
and frequency quality.

E.ON Elnt is responsible to keep a certain voltage quality in the PCC.
Hence are restrictions on power quality parameters set on Lillgrund wind
farm by E.ON Elnt in the connection point to the subtransmission
network. Parameters of concern are flicker, harmonics, interharmonics and
unbalance. Additionally a fault ride through requirement is set on Lillgrund
by SVK. These parameters have been evaluated with two measurement
systems comprising different frequency ranges. The aim of the thesis has
been to determine the explicit impact from Lillgrund in the PCC and
investigate compliance with the limits along with validation of needed
measurement system.

Voltage measurements include impact from the network on the power
quality parameter and hence current measurements are necessary to prove
Lillgrunds contribution in Bunkeflo. The limitations of the power quality
parameters are stated as voltage and sometimes current values. Therefore
conversion methods from current measurements to voltage values have
been derived. Only short time measurements with high resolution have
been performed. Lillgrund fulfills the restrictions regarding power quality
in Bunkeflo under these conditions. Weekly measurements are needed to
prove the result.

The comparison of selected DSOs technical specifications has shown that
different standards are used as basis which results in different limitations.
This shows the importance to recall that good power quality is the goal and
not only fulfilling standards. Vattenfall Corporation has the advantage of
wearing two hats, in terms of being both wind farm owner and DSO. If the
opinions of the two sides are taken into account necessary (maybe more
accurate) regulations for power quality parameters, measureable and
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quantifiable by both parts, can be formed. In this report important
parameters are proved to be: measurement time, sample rate and
measurement unit.

When it comes to flicker the need for a new and more up to date definition
may be needed. The frequency range of concern for power quality
measurements should be at least to the switching frequency of the
converter used in the wind turbine. Measurements up to 9 kHz seems
unnecessary due to the low distortion in that frequency range. The
suspicion of emissions in even higher frequency ranges need to be discussed
and validated in order to determine whether high frequency measurement
should be established in standards.

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Abbreviations and definitions

DSO Distribution System Operator
EMC Electromagnetic compatibility
FFT Fast Fourier Transform
Flicker Flicker is rapid visible changes of light level in lighting equipment
FRT Fault Ride Through
Harmonics Variations in the wave shape
HF transducers
High frequency measurement transducers
IEC
International Electrotechnical Commission
IGBT
Insulated-gate bipolar transistor
PCC Point of Common Coupling
P
lt
Long-term flicker disturbance factor
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
PQ Power Quality
P
st
Short-term flicker disturbance factor
RMS Root Mean Square
SVK Svenska Kraftnt, TSO in Sweden
TDD
The total Demand Distortion factor is the R.M.S value of current
harmonics expressed as a percentage of the rated or maximum load current
THD Total Harmonic Distortion
Tripping Energy flow from unit to the grid is interrupted immediately
TSO Transmission System Operator
VSC Voltage source converter

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Distribution list

Company Department Name Number of

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Table of Content

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Objective 1
1.3 Limitations 2
1.4 Method 2
2 THE POWER SYSTEM 3
2.1 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) 4
2.2 Network strength 5
2.3 Planning levels 6
3 DESCRIPTION OF POWER QUALITY PARAMETERS 8
3.1 General 8
3.2 Flicker 8
3.2.1 General 8
3.2.2 Evaluation methods 10
3.2.3 Related problems 11
3.2.4 Origin 12
3.3 Harmonics 12
3.3.1 General 12
3.3.4 Origin 14
3.4 Interharmonics 15
3.4.1 General 15
3.4.4 Origin 16
3.5 HF distortion > 2 kHz 16
3.5.1 General 16
3.5.3 Origin 17
3.6 Unbalance 18
3.6.1 General 18
3.6.3 Origin 19
4 RELEVANT DIRECTORIAL DOCUMENTS 20
4.1 Sweden 20

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4.2 Technical specifications 21
4.2.1 Vattenfall Distribution 22
4.2.2 E.ON Elnt 22
4.2.3 Fortum 23
4.2.4 Skelleftekraft 23
4.3 International 23
5 LILLGRUND 25
5.1 General Information 25
5.2 Electrical system 26
5.2.1 General 26
5.2.2 Internal 26
6 BUNKEFLO 28
6.1 General information 28
6.2 Measurement systems 28
6.2.1 Conventional Transducer 30
6.2.2 HF Transducers 31
Rogowski coils 31
Resistive Capacitive Voltage Transformers 32
6.3 ELSPEC G4430 33
6.4 ELSPEC G4500 33
6.5 Yokogawa 34
6.5.1 Processing program MatLab 35
6.6 Summarize Measurement Instruments 37
7 RESULTS 38
7.1 General 38
7.2 Harmonics and Interharmonics 38
7.2.1 Comparison of voltage and current data series 38
7.2.2 Weekly values of individual harmonics 41
7.2.3 Current harmonics compliance with E.ON Elnt limits 43
7.2.4 Voltage interharmonics compliance with E.ON Elnt limits 45
7.3 Compliance with IEC 61400-21 47
7.4 Flicker 49
7.4.1 Measured in Bunkeflo 49
7.4.2 Calculated according to IEC 61400-21 49
7.4.3 Other detecting methods 51
7.5 Unbalance 51
7.6 Fault Ride Through 52
7.7 Summarize of results 52
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8 COMPARISON OF STANDARD AND REGULATIONS 53
9 DISCUSSION 55
10 CONCLUSION 59
11 FUTURE WORK 60
12 BIBLIOGRAPHY 61
APPENDIX A E.ON ELNTS RESTRICTIONS 1
APPENDIX B SVKS RESTRICTIONS 1
APPENDIX C MEASUREMENT METHODS 1
APPENDIX D FLICKER 1
APPENDIX E HARMONICS 1
APPENDIX F UNBALANCE 1
APPENDIX G COMPARISON OF SAMPLE RATE AND TIME INTERVALS 1
APPENDIX H COMPARISON OF MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENTS 1
APPENDIX I MEASUREMENT TRANSDUCERS 2
APPENDIX J MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENTS 1
APPENDIX K PROCESS CHART OF THE SUBTRANSMISSION SYSTEM 1
APPENDIX L MATLAB CODE 1

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Table of Figures
Figure 1. Schematic outline of the Swedish power system including
Lillgrund 3
Figure 2. Power Quality definition 4
Figure 3. Disturbance levels 7
Figure 4. Perfect sinusoidal three phase voltage 8
Figure 5. High flicker levels (11) 9
Figure 6. Voltage, Current and PQ flicker flowchart (15) 11
Figure 7. Harmonic effects on fundamental waveform (19) 13
Figure 8. Interharmonics 5% 16 2/3 Hz (11) 15
Figure 9. Unbalance in magnitude and phase on three phases (12) 18
Figure 10. Zero-sequence components 18
Figure 11. Positive-sequence components 18
Figure 12. Negative-sequence components 19
Figure 13. IEC standards 24
Figure 14. Location of the wind farm Lillgrund 25
Figure 15. Main circuits of Lillgrund 26
Figure 16. Internal electrical layout of one wind turbine 27
Figure 17. Bunkeflo Switchyard 28
Figure 18. Overview of the measurement system in Bunkeflo 29
Figure 19. Rogowski coil and integrator 31
Figure 20. Resistive capacitive voltage transformer 32
Figure 21. Scheme of ELSPEC 4500 34
Figure 22. Summarize of measurement instruments 37
Figure 23. Voltage Harmonics 39
Figure 24. Current harmonics 40
Figure 25. Voltage interharmonics 40
Figure 26. Current interharmonics 41
Figure 27. Active power and harmonic nr. 47 and 48 42
Figure 28. Harmonic nr. 5 42
Figure 29. Current frequency spectrum 0-9 kHz 44
Figure 30. Current harmonics and interharmonics 0-2.5 kHz 45
Figure 31. Interharmonics and harmonics 0- 250 Hz 46
Figure 32. Calculation of voltage interharmonics 47
Figure 33. Interharmonic subgroups 48
Figure 34. High frequency components 2-9 kHz 49
Figure 35. Flicker severity during continuous operation 50
Figure 36. Flicker severity during switching operation 50
Figure 37. Frequency spectrum 0-20 Hz 51
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Figure 38. Short circuits and voltage deviations in large power plants B-1
Figure 39. Flicker curve from IEC 868 C-1
Figure 40. Current harmonics and interharmonics 0-900 Hz E-1
Figure 41. Current harmonics and interharmonics 2.2 2.5 kHz E-1
Figure 42. Simulink process chart F-1
Figure 43. Voltage Unbalance F-2
Figure 44. Current Unbalance F-2
Figure 45. Current harmonics with various sample rate and period G-1
Figure 46. Comparison of measurement instruments caption of current
harmonics H-1
Figure 47. Frequency accuracy test of Rogowski coils I-4
Figure 48. Frequency accuracy test for TRENCH RCVT I-5
Figure 49. Process chart of the overlaying subtransmission system K-1
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1 Introduction

1.1 Background
Our society has a growing need for electricity, it is used in almost every
apparatus available and all of our fundamental infrastructure functions need
power supply. As the apparatus used are becoming more technically
advanced and are required for everyday life, the need for interference free
electricity supply is increasing. To meet the higher electricity demand,
renewable energy sources, foremost wind power, are installed. The
electricity however does not only need to be supplied but also to compass a
certain quality regarding frequency and voltage in order to keep up the
network function and not to harm the equipment it is intended for (2). The
power quality parameters are defined with different accuracies in
recommendations, standards, local grid owners technical specifications and
transmission system owners grid codes. The power quality parameters of
interest are: harmonics, interharmonics, resonances, flicker, voltage sags,
transients and unbalance (3).

Wind power is an intermittent power source and large installations on
weak points of the grid may reduce the power quality. For this reason exact
measurements are needed to prove the power quality level of wind farms in
certain network points. The accuracy of the values is depending on the
measuring instrument, which indirectly depends on the given regulations.
This is because the level of deviation allowed in regulations and standards
determines the required accuracy of the instrument.

The purpose of the thesis is to evaluate if the Swedish standards for grid
owners are guaranteeing a good enough power quality and also to give
recommendations regarding measurement systems.

1.2 Objective
The objective is to determine if the wind power farm, Lillgrund, reaches
the set targets for the Power Quality parameters in the switchyard,
Bunkeflo, set up by E.ON Elnt and to evaluate if the equipment used in
Bunkeflo has sufficient accuracy of measurement. In addition to this
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propose recommendations for grid owners regarding voltage quality
measurement in the PCC.
1.3 Limitations
All power quality parameters where not taken in to account. The main
focus in this report is set on harmonics, interharmonics, flicker and
unbalance. Weakly measurement was not performed due to uncertainties
regarding the measurement instruments, ELSPEC G4430 and G4500,
measurement methods.
1.4 Method
The project will begin with a literature research to analyze why power
quality is of interest. Then a description of the Lillgrund wind farm, of the
Bunkeflo switchyard and the measuring systems will be made. The function
of the measurement systems will be further examined in order to validate
the measured results. A continuous process is the account of the different
PQ-parameters physically as well as the calculation of the PQ-parameters
from measured values in Bunkeflo. Analysis of voltage and current data
series measured on three phases, by both ELSPEC modulus and Yokogawa
instrument will be performed. MatLab will be used as computation tool
and calculations will be performed at normal-, high- and low- electricity
production.

This will result in an evaluation of the power quality in Bunkeflo and also in
a comparison of the measurements performed by the different instruments,
to show the accuracy needed to fulfill the standards and regulations. A
documentary of the standards in question is also included in the project in
order to give reference values. A presentation of the work will be made at
the Vindforsk workgroup meeting, where wind turbine constructors are
represented along with DSOs and wind farm owners. The aim is to precise
measurement and calculation methods of power quality parameters, in
order to continue the validation of power quality in Bunkeflo.

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2 The Power system
The power producing units, e.g. hydropower plants, nuclear power plants
and wind farms, are connected to the consumers via the electrical grid. The
grid in Sweden compasses three different voltage levels, the transmission
network 220 kV, subtransmission network between 30 kV and 130 kV
and the distribution network is < 30kV, Figure 1. The high voltage
transmission network is used for long distance transmission of electricity in
order to minimize losses. Whereas the distribution network is used for
short distance transmission, close to the customers.
Figure 1. Schematic outline of the Swedish power system including Lillgrund
The three network levels are constrained by various regulations and
comprise different level of robustness. The Transmission System Operator
(TSO), Svenska Kraftnt, is responsible for the function of the transmission
network and for keeping the balance between consumption and production
of electricity in Sweden, i.e. for maintaining the frequency at 50 Hz.

It is included in the responsibility to ensure a reliable interaction between
all installations to the electrical system in Sweden. In order to keep a good
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function of the transmission network connected installations must fulfill
specifications regarding functionality. The Distribution System Operators
(DSO) must fulfill the given restrictions but may set additionally
constraints on installations to their networks (4).
2.1 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)
Interoperation between the electrical grid and the equipment connected is
necessary to keep the network function. This is defined by IEC
International Electrotechnical Commission as electromagnetic
compatibility, EMC, the ability of equipment or a system to function satisfactorily
in its electromagnetical environment without introducing intolerable electromagnetic
disturbances to anything in that environment.

On the other hand, power quality is defined in IEC 61000-4-30 as
characteristics of the electricity at a given point in an electrical system, evaluated
against a set of reference technical parameters, including interruptions, i.e. loss
of continuous supply.

The power quality is consequently determined by the supply quota
(number of interruptions), the frequency and the voltage quality. In large
systems the frequency is normally very stable. Variations in the Nordic grid
shall be kept within 50 0.1 Hz during normal operation. The ideal
voltage is a sinusoidal waveform with 120 phase difference, constant
amplitude and frequency. The voltage quality parameters are all affecting
the systems voltage and its waveform in different ways and in different
frequency ranges. The aim of the voltage quality is to achieve
electromagnetic compatibility (5) (6).

Figure 2. Power Quality definition
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The function of a transmission grid is accordingly not only to transfer
electromagnetic energy but also to provide adequate voltage quality at all
connection points. All the parties connected to the power system affect the
voltage quality and when the quality is not satisfactory the key question is
whether the disturbance into the power system is too big or if the power
system (network impedance) at the point of connection is too weak (4).
2.2 Network strength
A grids ability to counter voltage deviations is described as the networks
strength. In terms of power quality the networks strength is of great
importance, since it influences the magnitude of the power quality
parameters. By increasing the networks strength, all the power quality
issues deriving from the customers can be eliminated. This can be
illustrated with Ohms law and fluctuating current output:

Equation 1. Ohms law
This implies theoretically that the voltage would be perfect if the network
impedance was zero (Z=0). Videlicet, an infinitely strong network would
be unaffected by large current outputs (i.e. no voltage variations, U) .It is
physically impossible to build an infinitely strong grid but very strong
networks can be constructed, it is just an economical matter (7).

The short circuit power in the PCC is also a measure of the networks
strength and it generally increases with increased voltage level. It can be
determined either by the operation voltage (U) and the short circuit
current (I
k
) or by using the short circuit impedance (Z
k
).

Equation 2. Short circuit power
The short circuit ratio (SCR) is the ratio between the wind turbine and the
networks apparent power. It determines the necessary short circuit power
of the network in relation to the installed wind power in the PCC; more
power needs a higher short circuit power. (8)

Equation 3. Short circuit ratio

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S
k
= short circuit power in the PCC
S
n
= Wind turbines apparent power

2.3 Planning levels
In order to achieve good power quality and EMC, tools such as
compatibility levels and planning levels for PQ parameters have been
introduced for the network operators.

The electrical grid is not an inference free environment, thus the
equipment
1
connected has to hold resilience against disturbances to be
compatible and able to operate. The method uses the resistance of the
equipment against voltage deviations together with the emissions produced
by the equipment and the networks impact, to provide accurate limits for
power quality parameters. The immunity level is the magnitude of emission
the equipment can handle without being affected. The level of emission
describes the magnitude of emission created by the equipment. The
background level includes all emissions from the grid, i.e. all unknown
emission sources total emissions. Whereas the site disturbance level is the
emission level plus the background level at one point in the electrical
network for one particular electromagnetic phenomenon. The assessed
level is the temporary observed site disturbance level measured at a given
location, Figure 3 (7).

All equipment has fluctuating immunity and emission levels depending on
placement in the network and occurrence rate of electromagnetic
phenomenon. The background level in the grid is also changing with time
and site, therefore has the term compatibility level been introduced. This is
described as the highest level of disturbance where approved equipment
certainly can function. The compatibility level is the emission level the
network operator has to avoid reaching. Restrictions and recommendation
for the compatibility levels are provided by EMC, Voltage characteristics,
EN 50160; highest disturbance level by licensing authority.

The planning level is an internal target for the network owner set up by the
same, in order to keep emission under the compatibility level, see figure 3.

1
The term equipment is used in its broadest sense here, including both apparatus and fixed
installations
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Figure 3. Disturbance levels
The planning level is used to determine allowed disturbance from large
installations in the area. There is often more than one installation to
consider and the planning level can be seen as a support for allocation of the
disturbances from the different sources. Due to the fact that the
disturbance levels as well as the network strength differ from location to
location, the planning level is site specific. Contrarily the compatibility
levels are identical for all PCCs within equal voltage level but can vary
between voltage levels (2), (7), (9).

The compatibility levels are stricter for high voltage networks in order to
limit the transmission of disturbances to lower voltage networks. Therefore
planning levels are introduced to help the future planning of the network,
and give the different sources an allowed disturbance level so that the total
emission is kept below the compatibility level in every site of the network.
This results in maintaining a good voltage quality and fulfilling EMC. (2)
(10)

Examples of planning levels for PCCs in high voltage networks can be seen
in Table 1. The definition of HV level does however differ between the
organizations, both subtransmission and transmission network are
concerned:
Vattenfall, HV: 36 kV < U
n
145 kV
SVK, HV:220 U
n
400 kV
IEC ,HV and EHV (Extra high voltage):35 kV U 230 kV and
EHV > 230 kV
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Vattenfall SVK IEC
P
st
P
lt
P
st
P
lt
P
st
P
lt
Compatibility
level
1. 0 0.8 1.5 1.25 --- ---
Planning
level
0.7 0.5 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.6

Table 1. Planning levels for flicker in high voltage networks

3 Description of power quality parameters
3.1 General
The perfect voltage is a sinusoidal waveform 120 phase difference, with a
constant amplitude and frequency, Figure 4. Any deviation from this is
decrease of the quality. Power quality parameters are defined at different
frequencies, there will be described in increasing order from low to high
frequency phenomenon.

Figure 4. Perfect sinusoidal three phase voltage
3.2 Flicker
3.2.1 General
Flicker is an amplitude modulation of the carrier signal (50 Hz in Sweden)
and is generally expressed as a percentage of the total changes in voltage to
the average voltage over a specified time, Figure 5.

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Figure 5. High flicker levels (11)
In the IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electronic Terms (IEEE
Standard 100-1977) flicker is described as the "impression of fluctuating
brightness or colour, occurring when the frequency of observed variation
lies between a few hertz and the fusion frequency of images.

Accordingly, flicker is fast voltage fluctuations, which results in observable
changes in electrical light output. The frequency of the fluctuations occurs
in the low frequency range, normally between 0.5 and 33 Hz, in which the
human eye is most receptive for light variations (12). A sudden change of
power intensity can be very irritating, depending on the voltage magnitude
and the frequency of occurrence. By studying humans perception of light
fluctuation in a 230V/60 W incandescent lamp the flicker curve (Appendix
D Flicker ) has been defined.

Due to the repetitive pattern voltage flicker can be divided into two
groups: cyclic and noncyclic. Periodic voltage fluctuations in the system
voltage are described as cyclic and occasional voltage fluctuations referred
to as noncyclic
2
(13). Wind power as flicker source, produces both types of
fluctuations. The wind turbulence gives noncyclic flicker and cyclic flicker
is given by the tower shadow effect (14).

The Emergence of flicker is depending on the network stability. Voltage
fluctuations are more common in weak systems with a low short-circuit
ratio (SCR < 20). Consequently, the following parameters determine if the
voltage fluctuations are perceived as flicker (13):

2
Not to confuse with voltage sags.
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Size of flicker producing source
System impedance (stiffness of utility)
Network voltage waveform
Frequency of resulting voltage fluctuations
3.2.2 Evaluation methods
There are several approaches to validate the flicker level. Flickermeters
based on voltage measurements have traditionally been used to quantify the
flicker severity. Flicker can either be of short duration i.e. short-term
flicker P
st
or have long and variable duty cycle i.e. long-term flicker P
lt
. A
10 minute period is used to compute P
st
, which is determined by weighted
percentiles according to the incandescent lamp (coiled filament gas-filled
lamp) eye-brain response (Appendix D Flicker ). A cumulative
probability function which also considers the flicker in voltage is then used
to determine P
st
:

Equation 4. Flicker Severity P
st
Where P
0,1
, P
1s
, P
3s
, P
10s
and P
50s
, are the exceeded flicker levels during
0,1%, 1%, 3%, 10% and 50% of the measured time. The suffix S indicates
that smoothed value should be used. The long term flicker severity, P
lt
, is
stated to two hours in IEC 61000-4-30 and derived from P
st
according to
equation 3.

Equation 5. Flicker Severity P
lt
Where 2 hours gives N=12.

Since voltage measurements are the source of the P
st
and P
lt
values they
display the flicker level in the PCC, which may include voltage fluctuations
from other sources than the intended installation.

In order to quantify flicker emissions from one specific source connected to
the PCC, the IEC 61400 proposes a method using current and voltage
measurements on a fictitious grid. The voltage in the fictitious grid is
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simulated by the current measurements whereas the voltage measurements
are needed to keep the correct phase angle between measured current I
m
(t)
and simulated voltage U
fic
(t). The fictitious grid is constituted by a fictitious
fault level Sk,fic, a grid impedance angle k and an ideal voltage source
u(t). The flicker emission (P
st
or P
lt
) is than calculated using the fictive
voltage, U
fic
(t), as input to the flickermeter, Figure 6. The active and
reactive power can also be used to simulate the fictitious voltage.

Figure 6. Voltage, Current and PQ flicker flowchart (15)
3.2.3 Related problems
The main issue related to flicker is the fact that the human eye percept it as
annoying. Individuals exposed to flicker a longer period of time can
experience concentration difficulties, headaches and in exceptional cases
(with very high flicker levels) epilepsy (16).

Flicker was primarily defined as light intensity fluctuations in incandescent
lamps. The lamp market is however changing towards the use of energy
saving lamps instead i.e. LED-lamps and fluorescent lamps. Energy saving
lamps has shown better resistance against flicker emission in the network.
In order to give a constant light, they function through an electronic ballast
comprising high frequency of 30-50 kHz, which should be undetectable for
the human eye (17) (18).

If the magnitude of flicker is large enough within a certain critical
frequency range, it can limit the production. This will then decrease the
equipment performance of e.g. motors, electric devices, UPS-systems and
process controllers (12), (13).
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3.2.4 Origin
The most common sources of flicker are arc furnaces, welding, alternators,
and motors (17) . Flicker can also derive from car scrapyards, mine hoists
(12), generators like wind turbines and wave-power stations. Loads that
are producing subsynchronous frequency components in the flicker
frequency range can also produce flicker (17).

Flicker produced by wind turbines can occur when the wind speed is
around cut-in speed, since this force the generator being frequently
switched on and off. The common generator design places the generator on
top of the tower which leads to a low-frequency oscillation. This mode can
be excited by random wind fluctuations, wind shear and tower shadow
effects, and results in large ripple in the driving torque as well as in the
generated electric power and is considered as flicker (17).

In weak distribution networks flicker has also been detected from
refrigerators compressors, pumps, etc. This is due to the fact that they
have a cyclically motor load that changes with every power stroke and
hence produces an analogous variation in the line current and consequently
voltage fluctuations.
3.3 Harmonics
3.3.1 General
Harmonics are defined as current or voltage components with a frequency
which is an integer multiple of the fundamental frequency (50 Hz in
Sweden), Figure 7. (19)
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Figure 7. Harmonic effects on fundamental waveform (19)
The emissions have traditionally been dominated by the uneven frequency
components: 5, 7, 11, 13, 17 and 19. The origin of the harmonics can be
related to the number of the harmonic and the components can originate
from modern consumer equipment as well as generation units (non-linear
loads). Non-linear loads draw non sinusoidal current although they are fed
with sinusoidal voltage. Loads that consume non sinusoidal currents
generate currents with frequencies that differ from the grid frequency i.e.
harmonics. Studies show that an increased level of distributed generation
will enlarge the amount of traditionally small harmonic components and
interharmonics (20).
The harmonic content in a PCC can be represented in various ways. When
the focus is set on wind power the measurements shall encompass the
continuous harmonic emission. Since short-duration harmonics are
considered harmless no specification of harmonics caused by wind turbine
start-up or other switching operations are necessary. (21) The harmonic
emission is often measured by the total harmonic current or voltage
distortion (THD), which is defined: the ratio of the R.M.S. value of the
sum of all the harmonic components up to a specified order (H=50) to the
R.M.S. value of the fundamental component (22) .Observe that it is a
relative total distortion when current data is used, since the fundamental
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component of the current may be changing considerably depending on the
power output.

Equation 6. THD

Where: h= harmonic order, U
1
= RMS value of the fundamental
component, U can be exchanged for I to give the current distortion.

The total Demand Distortion factor is the R.M.S value of current
harmonics expressed as a percentage of the rated or maximum load
current.

Equation 7. TDD
Where: h= harmonic order, I
n
= RMS value of the nominal current

Individual harmonic limits are often stated in technical specification
together with THD and/or TDD. A different approach is the method of
summarizing subgroups of harmonics that IEC propose.
The reason to reduce the harmonic emission is to avoid related problems,
such as (12):
Losses in machines and apparatus
Resonance between the inductive and capacitive parts of the network
Errors in regulation systems, electronics and computers
High currents in neutral conductor.
Breakdown in capacitor banks
3.3.4 Origin
Harmonics derive from all non-linear loads, example current converters,
arc furnaces, computers, fluorescent lamps, etc. Connection of capacitor
batteries can also lead to increased levels of harmonics (12).

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Another source is modern frequency converters, which are generating a
broadband spectrum of harmonic emissions, due to their switching pattern.
The emission levels for individual harmonics are low but voltage distortion
limits can still be exceeded, because of the spectrums character
(broadband) and the fact that emissions occur at non-characteristic
frequencies (20).
3.4 Interharmonics
3.4.1 General
An interharmonic is described as any frequency which is not an integer
multiple of the fundamental frequency (50 Hz in Sweden), Figure 8 . (10)

Figure 8. Interharmonics 5% 16 2/3 Hz (11)
There are two types of interharmonics that can be distinguished,
interharmonics with continuously spectrum and distinct frequency based
interharmonics. The origin of the emission determinates the type of
interharmonic emitted (11).
The need for regulation and measurement of interharmonics is recently
discovered, therefore no standardized method is developed. So far technical
guidelines often state a maximum emission level as a percentage of the
nominal voltage (0.3 0.1% of U
n
).

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Potential consequences of interharmonics are in IEC-61000-4-7 listed as:
Noise in audio amplifiers
Additional torque on motors and generators
Disturbed zero crossing detectors, for example in dimmers
Additional noise in inductive coils(magnetostriction)
Blocking or unintended operation of ripple control receivers
3.4.4 Origin
Interharmonics mainly derive from the same sources as harmonic
emissions. The interharmonics with a continuous spectrum are foremost
emitted by arc generating equipment, i.e. arc welders, arc furnaces,
mercury lamps and fluorescent lamps. The lamps individually have low
levels of interharmonic emission but the amount of installations is
increasing and the summarized effect is large (11).

Interharmonics also originate from induction motors (wound rotor and sub
synchronous converter cascade), integral cycle control (heating
applications) and low frequency power line carrier (ripple control) (23).
Apparatus and equipment based on Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) can
also be an origin of various interharmonics within a relatively large range of
frequencies (11). The biggest source to interharmonics is the
cycloconverters. (23).

There are also indicators that active power electronic converters (IGBT or
GTO based) generate a more continuous spectrum of emission than
existing power electronics. This will result in more interharmonics which
will lead to increased risk of high distortion caused by resonances (20) (23).

3.5 HF distortion > 2 kHz
3.5.1 General
The high frequency content is defined as components in current or voltage
signals that are above the harmonic frequency range (2 kHz or 2.5 kHz) but
below 9 kHz in IEC 61400-4-7. The components can appear at a single
frequency or as a broadband.

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High frequency measurements have not been common, due to a lack of
measuring equipment and restrictions. However, high frequency
components have less energy and are consequently primarily found in the
immediate surroundings of the converters. They are damped in long cables
and transformers, hence only create disturbance in the low voltage system
where the frequency source (converter) is located (24) (20).

New studies have showed the existence of high frequency components in
low voltage networks. Research concerning high voltage levels has begun.
Of great concern is the possibility of radio communication interference,
thus that the communication signal would drown in the disturbance and the
communication would not succeed
3
. Another concern in Sweden and in
other European countries is that the remote reading of power meters
Automatic Meter Reading (AMR) is performed via the power lines. The
power line communication for AMR uses frequencies between 9 and 95
kHz which might be interfered (25) .
3.5.3 Origin
High frequency distortion can originate from fluorescent lamps with high-
frequency ballast, computers equipped with active power-factor
correction, adjustable-speed drives with active (transistor-based) front-end;
and distributed generation using a power-electronic interface (common for
wind turbines). The power-electronic interfaces often compass voltage
source inverters with very high switching frequency (1 kHz and above).
The switching scheme (PWM) is often creating broadband emission and the
switching frequency may be close to a system resonance which can create
large ripple on the voltage (20).

3
Radio communication is above 9 kHz
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3.6 Unbalance

Figure 9. Unbalance in magnitude and phase on three phases (12)
3.6.1 General
Uneven load between the phases in a tree-phase system is described as
unbalance. The condition occurs when either the RMS value of the phase
voltage or the phase angles between the immediate phases not are similar.
(12) The rate of difference can be evaluated using the method of
symmetrical components, firstly developed by C.L Fortescue in 1918. The
symmetrical components are divided in to zero, positive and negative
components each with equal magnitude but different phase displacement.

Zero-sequence components consist of three phasors with zero phase
displacement.
Figure 10. Zero-sequence components
Positive-sequence components consist of three phasors with 120 phase
displacement and positive sequence.
Figure 11. Positive-sequence components
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Negative-sequence components consist of three phasors with 120 phase
displacement and negative sequence. (26)
Figure 12. Negative-sequence components
During normal conditions, only a positive sequence component exists.
Under unbalanced conditions are additionally a negative sequence
component and/or a zero sequence component present. Unbalance is
normally expressed as the ratio between the negative sequence component
and the positive sequence component. (26)

Equation 8. Voltage Unbalance
There are several approximations which gives plausible correct result of the
normal unbalance.

Equation 9. Approximation of Voltage Unbalance
Consequences of unbalance are overload of AC-machines and current
directing equipment that generates harmonics at more frequencies. A result
of this is shortened lifetime of the machines, more expensive machines and
machine breakdown (12).
3.6.3 Origin
Unbalance origins from one phase loads, trains, electric arc furnace and
twisted transmission lines (12).

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4 Relevant directorial documents
4.1 Sweden
The importance of power quality is primary identified in the Swedish law
Ellagen (1997:875) issued by Nringsdepartementet, in 3 chapter 9 it is
stated that; the electricity transmission shall be of good quality. What actually is
considered good power quality is however not stated in the statutory text.
Energimarknadsinspektionen (EI), operating under Nringsdepartementet,
is the authority responsible for that electricity network companies follows
the demands given by Ellagen regarding good power quality. Owing to the
general nature of the claim in Ellagen EI has introduced supplementary
regulations inter alia EIFS 2011:2.

The regulations are setting minimum requirements on the quality of the
electricity transmission that the network owners must adhere to (i.e. not
planning levels). The restrictions apply to the PCC for customers that are
consumers, producers or both. The measurement shall be performed
according to SS-EN 61000-4-30 (measurement class A) at least a week, the
time could be prolonged for event-driven phenomena. The document
contains limitations concerning; slow voltage changes, voltage harmonics,
unbalance, voltage drop, and fast voltage fluctuations, for flicker
restrictions references are made to SS-EN 50160 or branch praxis. EI is
accordingly responsible for supervision, regulation and permit assessment
on the energy market (27).

Elskerhetsverket is another administrative authority that is responsible for
technical safety issues such as electricity safety and EMC. Elskerhetsverket
is not stating the actual limits concerning the power quality parameters but
is introducing framework provisions in order to reach the targets set in as
example SS-EN 61000-2-2. The authority is however indirect influencing
the limitations since they take part in standardization activities in the
standard organizations SEK Svensk Elstandard, CENELEC and IEC (28).

Guidelines for power quality in Sweden are provided by the branch
organization Svensk Energi and SVK. Svensk Energi is providing guidelines for
power quality parameters in ASP- Anslutning av strre produktionsanlggning
till elntet. The content is based on compliance of the Swedish law Ellagen
and Elskerhetsverkets recommendations. SVKs regulations are also mentioned
and measurement should be performed according to the IEC 61000-series.
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SVKs assignment is determined by the governments instruction to Svenska
Kraftnt Directive (2007:1119). SVK has established regulations
concerning all installations together with technical guidelines for the
transmission network. The technical guideline also concerns installations
directly connected to the transmission network. SVKs documentation
concerns planning and emission levels, measurement methods and
responsibilities regarding power quality in the transmission network. The
target emission limits for power quality parameters in the transmission
network is stated along with Fault Ride Through demands.

SVKs FRT demands concerns wind farms (and other generating units) to
withstand temporary faults or load changes in the network. The wind farm
owner has to prove interference resistance, voltage control and power
control.

Interference resistance; is formed as regulations for stationary deviations in
frequency or/and voltage. Exact limits are displayed in Appendix B SVKs
restrictions. This also includes withstanding of short cicuits and voltage
deviations.

All large installation shall comprise Voltage control and the voltage shall be
controllable within 5 % of the installations nominal voltage. For wind
power shall additionally a reactive power control to zero be made possible.

Power control for wind power units, that are part of a wind farm, shall
compass optional individual setting of the level at which the unit is
automatically stopped due to external conditions. When too strong wind is
initiating the stop all units in the farm are not allowed to stop
simultaneously, a maximum of 30 MW/minute may be disconnected. The
same advice is given for restart. It shall also be possible to regulate the
production from the wind farm so that a given power value (MW) is not
exceeded. The production shall also be reducible to 20 % of the maximum
power within 5 seconds.
4.2 Technical specifications
The subtransmission network owners (DSO) Vattenfall distribution, E.ON
Elnt, Fortum and Skelleftekraft, have to fulfill the demands regarding PQ
and FRT set by SVK as well as EIs and Elskerhetsverkets restrictions. As
long as these restrictions are fulfilled the network owners are free to
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determine the regulations on installations connected to their networks.
Accordingly they provide complementary technical specifications regarding
power quality for installations to their networks. The recent interest in the
power quality issue has led to a diversity of regulations between the
companies.
4.2.1 Vattenfall Distribution
Vattenfall Distributions regulations for connections to the HV network are
mainly based on planning and emission levels determined by the company.
The accumulated value for every harmonic from the entire wind farm in
the PCC shall not exceed the limits calculated by the network owner. The
allowed emission level is derived from Vattenfalls own planning levels. In
order to allocate the allowed emissions between the sources connected to
the PCC calculation models from the technical guidelines IEC 61000-3-6
and IEC 61000-3-7 are used. The spokesman for Vattenfall Distribution,
Christer Kauma, on the Vindforsk workgroup meeting was however
advocating the usage of voltage limits.

The interharmonic restrictions are more vaguely formulated.
Interharmonic emissions shall be avoided if possible. Whereas the voltage
unbalance shall be kept below 1% (U
-
/U
+
).
4.2.2 E.ON Elnt
The restrictions regarding harmonic components are based on IEEE STD
519-2008 whereas the limitations for unbalance are based on IEC 61000-3-
13. IEEE STD 519-2008 is recognized as an American National standard
(ANSI). The harmonic limits are indicated according to system stiffness
and are set as percentage of I
L
for individual current harmonics and into
consideration. I
L
is the fundamental frequency component measured and
averaged over a period of time or I
n
. The system stiffness is determined
by the ratio between the short circuit fault current, I
SC
, at the PCC and the
maximum demand current (I
L
) at the same point (i.e. I
SC
/ I
L
). It is a
measure of the electrical systems stiffness relative to the load, a large
generating unit feeding a small load will have a higher ratio and vice versa.
The lower the ratio, the stricter the limits become, hence an increased
short circuit power will lead to allowance of more emission.

E.ON Elnt does not normally perform any continuous measurement
series, only customer argumenta (i.e. due to complain). When it comes to
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wind power, portable instruments has been used to supervise the voltage
quality in the PCC when demanded by the wind farm owner. E.ON Elnt
has not experienced or suspected any PQ problems due to wind power
installations.
4.2.3 Fortum
The company has not derived any special regulations for connection of
production units to Fortums network. They use the branch guidelines
provided by Svensk Energi, i.e. ASP und AMP.
4.2.4 Skelleftekraft
The company is using planning levels to allocate the emission levels for new
installations. o other specific consideration is made to power quality issues.
Long term measurements are performed at selected locations and ELSPEC
modules are soon to be taken into operation.
4.3 International
On the international arena there are a couple of organizations developing
standards concerning power quality. IEC, IEEE, MEASNET and VDN are
all developing technical guidelines for Power Quality issues. Focus in this
paper has been on the IEC standard and VDN, MEASNET guidelines has
not been specifically investigated.

The IEC standards have a structure built on separate documents specifying
testing and measurement techniques and others describing limits. A specific
document for wind turbines, IEC 61400-21, was produced in 2008. It
provides recommendations for site-non-specific measurements and
assessment of power quality characteristics of grid connected wind
turbines. The standard is concerning testing of wind turbines although it
contains useful information for testing of wind farms. The standard refers
to IEC 61000-4-30, for measurement of PQ parameters in general and to
IEC 61000-4-7 regarding harmonics and interharmonics.
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Figure 13. IEC standards

The German institute VDN, Verband der Netzbetriber e.V by VDEW has
produced the guidelines; EEG-Erzeugungsanlagen am Hoch- und
Hchstspannungsnetz- Leidtfaden fr Anschluss und Parallelbetrieb von
Erzeugungsanlagen auf Basis ernuerbarer Energien an das Hoch- und
Hchstspannungsnetz in Ergnzung zu den NetzCodes.
4

In the documentation limitation of individual harmonics and interharmonics
are stated as percentages of the nominal current. The values are derived
from voltage limits and are also depending on the short circuit power in the
PCC. A specific statement takes the converter size in to account.
Harmonics and interharmonics above the 13: th order does not need to be
taken in to account if the output of the biggest feeding converter is smaller
than 1/100 of the short circuit power at the connection point. The other
standards do not have anything comparable. (29)

4
Eng: Guidelines for connection and parallel operation of renewable electricity generating units in line
with the grid codes, in the high and highest transmission network.

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5 Lillgrund
5.1 General Information
Lillgrund is an offshore wind farm located 7 km off the coast of Sweden and
7 km south of the resund Bridge as illustrated in figure 14.

Figure 14. Location of the wind farm Lillgrund
The wind farm comprises 48 wind turbines of type Siemens 2.3 MW Mk II
with a total capacity of 110 MW. The Siemens 2.3 MW Mk II wind turbine
is an upwind, 3-bladed, horizontal axis, variable speed machine with pitch
regulation. The construction consists of a standard asynchronous machine
with a squirrel cage generator and is connected to the grid by a four-
quadrant full frequency converter.

The wind turbines are placed densely along five internal feeders, with
4.4*D (i.e. diameter) inter row spacing and 3.3*D row spacing. All are
connected to the offshore substation which comprises the control system
together with the auxiliary supply. The substation is connected to E.ON
Elnts subtransmission network in the switchyard Bunkeflo via a seven km
sea cable and a two km land cable (30).

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5.2 Electrical system
5.2.1 General
A schematic sketch of the overall electrical system can be seen in Figure 15.
There are two transformer steps included, one internal 0.69/33 kV (within
the wind turbines) and one main 33/130 kV (were the feeders connect to
the offshore station). The output voltage at Bunkeflo is rated to 130 kV
with a maximum current of around 650 A.
Figure 15. Main circuits of Lillgrund
There is no circuit breaker between Bunkeflo and the offshore station. The
switchgear is therefore equipped with a pre-insertion resistor to limit the
inrush current. This enables soft-start of the system and reduces oscillations
created by large switching transients between the capacitive cable and the
inductive main transformer (30).
5.2.2 Internal
The asynchronous generator is equipped with a four-quadrant frequency
converter with a three level topology, as seen in Figure 16. The main parts
of the converter are the two Voltage Source Converters (VSC) modules
and an intermediate DC link. Both VSCs, generator converter and grid
inverter, comprise three parallel connected Insulated Gate Bipolar
Transistor modules (IGBTs) which are used as semiconductor switches
(31).
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Figure 16. Internal electrical layout of one wind turbine
One VSC is connected to the generator rotor with a rated voltage level of
750 V and a switching frequency of 1250 Hz. This three phase converter is
controlling the generator speed through torque regulation. The grid
inverter gives a rated voltage of 690 V with a switching frequency of 2450
Hz (30). The main advantage with the four quadrant frequency converter is
that it allows energy flow in both directions (32).The asynchronous
generator is both drawing reactive and active power. Additionally the 130
kV cable system is generating approximately 10 MVAr reactive power (30).
As the converter can control the energy flow it is possible to keep the
power factor equal to one at Bunkeflo, which E.ON Elnt demands (33).
The four quadrant function of the converter realizes the possibility to
control the speed of the turbine, thus soft start and stop the same and
control the power production.

In line with the applied grid codes is a PWM-filter installed between the
grid inverter and the low voltage circuit breaker. The PWM-filter is
however also creating harmonics which then are decreased by the main
filter. Two circuit breakers are installed in order to protect the feeders
from internal wind turbine faults (30).

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6 Bunkeflo

6.1 General information
Bunkeflo is a 130 kV switchyard (Figure 17) were the 110 MW wind farm,
Lillgrund, is connected to the subtransmission network in Sweden (Figure
1). The network impedance (Z=R
k
+ jX
k
) at the connection point is 0.96 +
j7.84 Ohm during normal operation, which is considered a strong grid.

Figure 17. Bunkeflo Switchyard
The subtransmission network in the region is owned by E.ON Elnt.
Actions performed on the network marked with blue (Appendix K Process
chart of the subtransmission system) that compass the same voltage level, 130
kV, as Bunkeflo can be seen by the measurement equipment installed in
Bunkeflo.
6.2 Measurement systems
The measuring systems are installed on the Lillgrund side of the circuit
breaker in Bunkeflo. There are three types of measuring instruments
connected to two set-ups of measurement transducers. The transducers are
measuring voltage and current on each phase. One set-up has a limited
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bandwidth of 1-2 kHz (conventional), while the other has a bandwidth of
400 kHz (HF-transducer). A schematic sketch of the system can be seen in
Figure 18.

Figure 18. Overview of the measurement system in Bunkeflo
The measurement instrument ELSPEC G4430 is located indoors and
directly connected to the conventional transducers, whilst the ELSPEC
G4500 and Yokogawa are placed outdoors. The TRENCH RCVT is
directly connected to both devices while the Rogowski coils are connected
via integrators with different resolution. Two measures with the resolution
5V corresponding to 30 kA and one has a higher resolution of 5V
corresponding to 1 kA.

The reason for the two transducer set-ups, one with higher bandwidth and
one with lower, is to validate power quality measurements up to high
frequencies. According to the Nyquist rate, the minimum sampling rate (f
N

i.e. the Nyquist rate) required to avoid aliasing is equal to twice the highest
frequency contained within the signal.

Where is the highest frequency at which the signal can have nonzero
energy. In order to avoid aliasing, the sampling rate (f
S
) must exceed the
Nyquist rate:

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The Nyquist rate implies that the conventional transducers will measure
accurately up to around 0.5-1 kHz, since they have a bandwidth of c.a. 2
kHz. Comprising a lager bandwidth of 400 kHz, the high frequency
transducers should be able to detect high frequency components. A demand
that the deviation would be maximum 0.5 % for voltage and 1 % for
current measurements was initially set in order to prove accurate
measurements. The frequency accuracy test, performed by the
manufacturers (Appendix I Measurement transducers), indicate a deviation
of 3 dB
5
at 400 kHz for the Rogowski coil and an inaccuracy larger than 3%
at 40 kHz for the RCVT.
6.2.1 Conventional Transducer
The conventional transducer compass instrument transformers of both
current and voltage performance. The instrument transformers transform
the high current and voltage levels on the primary side into proportionally
lower values on the secondary side. This is done to supply the
measurement equipment with current and voltage data at levels that are
easier manageable. Their main objectives are to measure the values
accurately, but also to isolate and protect the measurement circuit from
high current and voltage on the primary side.

The current transformer installed is of tank type, IMB145 kV, containing
five cores. Additionally an inductive voltage transformer of type EMF 145
kV is mounted. Inadequacies in the transformation, due to physical
limitations, result in a ratio error in the transformation step between the
high and low voltage side of the transducer. The voltage on the low level
side is also shifted in time compared to the high voltage side (phase error).
Current transducers experience equivalent complications concerning
current instead of voltage. Therefore accuracy classes based on highest
allowed inaccuracy and phase error are introduced in standards.

The current transducers installed in Bunkeflo possess accuracy class 0.2S,
instrument security factor 5Fs and Fp20 (Appendix I Measurement
transducers). The voltage transducers have an accuracy class 0.2 and 3P
(Appendix I Measurement transducers). A frequency accuracy test to display
the deviations of the measurement transducers has not been provided by
the manufacturer.

5
Observe, 3 dB is a deviation with 0.707 of the maximum value and does not
comply with the allowed deviation of 1 %.
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6.2.2 HF Transducers
The high frequency transducer comprise two parts, the Rogowski coil
measuring phase current and the Resistive Capacitive Voltage Transformers
(RCVT) measuring the voltage.

Rogowski coils
A Rogowski coil has form of a toroid and consists of a helix shaped copper
wire wounded round a plastic core surrounded by insulation. The coil is
enclosing the straight conductor of interest, which induces a voltage in the
coil that is proportional to the derivate of the current in the conductor. In
the coil induced voltage is given by;

e = moNA di/dt = H di/dt

H (Vs/A) = coil sensitivity
i= current to be measured passing through the loop

For this reason it is compulsory to integrate the coil voltage in order to
produce an output voltage proportional the current. This action is
performed by a separate device (i.e. integrator).

Vout = 1/Ti e.dt = RSH.I

Ti=RoC1 and RSH =H/Ti is the transducer sensitivity in (mV/A).
Figure 19. Rogowski coil and integrator

As the transducer register the current as it changes, with time, the current
waveform can be reproduced on an oscilloscope or any type of data
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recorder. The largest disadvantage of the Rogowski coil is the sensitivity
towards nearby interference fields, foremost magnetic ones. The
advantages are (34):
Does not suffer from magnetic saturation
Non-intrusive- the coil draws no power from the circuit under test
Large bandwidth: 0.6 to 1 MHz

Resistive Capacitive Voltage Transformers (RCVT)

The RCVT is also named RC-voltage dividers due to its art of operation. It
consists of a high and a low voltage side, both containing groups of resistors
and capacitors in parallel, connected in series ( Figure 20). The
high input voltage on the primary side is split up by the resistors and
capacitors groups, which gives a lower voltage in the secondary circuit. In
order to adjust the ratio and phase displacement a network factory (F in
figure 21) is connected to the low voltage side. Realizing analyzes
frequency response between 0 Hz and 2MHz requires a 50 coaxial cable
as connection between the voltage transformer and the control center.

Figure 20. Resistive capacitive voltage transformer
An advantage of the RCVTs is that they cannot get into ferro-resonance
since they do not have any saturable cores. In Bunkeflo is an Oil-insulated
voltage transformer type TRENCH RCVT 145 kV installed (35).
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According to a frequency accuracy test made by the product manufacturer
the measurement deviation should be within allowed limits up until c.a. 30
kHz but other test show accurate measurement up to 150 kHz (Appendix I
Measurement transducers).
6.3 ELSPEC G4430
The ELSPEC modulus is installed to perform continuous monitoring of the
Power Quality parameters. Data is logged every network cycle with
selectable sample rate. The choices are; 25 kHz for voltage components
and 6 kHz for current components or 12 kHz for both voltage and current
components. Cycle-by cycle trends can be showed for all RMS values and
harmonics, which together with inter and subsynchronous harmonics can
be measured up to the 511: th order with 0.1 % accuracy. This is made
possible by the use of a data compression algorithm, PQZIP, with a
compression ratio of 1000:1, which gives a practically unlimited onboard
data storage.

Due to the fact that the data is stored in its original format (waveform)
wanted power quality parameters can be calculated from the information.
The implementation of a time synchronization algorithm makes it possible
to log data from different units simultaneously and display it on the same
time scale with a 0.1 ms resolution. This gives the opportunity to compare
different units results, as an example G4430 and G4500 in Bunkeflo.

The hardware is equipped with the software PQSCADA, which enables
control, analysis and monitoring multiple measuring devices at the same
time. PQSCADA can display both real-time system status and retrievals of
compressed PQZIP logged data at given time intervals. The software uses
the Wind data network as communicating channel to control the ELSPEC
hardware (Figure 18). (36)

6.4 ELSPEC G4500
Elspec G4500 encompasses the same functions as ELSPEC G4430. The
main differences are that it is portable, contains an internal UPS
(Uninterruptible Power Supply) with 2 hours battery time and comprises
input channels suitable for splittable Rogowski coils. The instrument can
therefore be connected to the high frequency current transducers, which
Development AB

34

gives an improved measurement range. Nevertheless, ELSPEC G4500
encompasses the same sample rate as G4430 and this will limit the
frequency measurement range, not the measurement transducers. A
scheme describing the function can be seen in Figure 21 below. (37)

Figure 21. Scheme of ELSPEC 4500
6.5 Yokogawa
The Yokogawa instrument is designed for event-based triggers. It is a
combination of an oscilloscope and a recorder. The measurement duration
depends upon the chosen sample rate and number of channels used. In
Bunkeflo three voltage channels and three current channels are used for
measurements, along with two math channels set as trigger levels.

Depending on the selected instrument resolution, totally 2 GPoints
6
,
different sample rates can be obtained with different duration. In order to
continuously save waveforms either an internal 160 GB or an external
HDD (Hard Drive Device) interface can be used. Continuously saved data
can contain the different sample rates described in Appendix J
Measurement Instruments.

6
Point, a data element in a SCADA system representing a single input or output.

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35

There are different trigger settings available, both max/min values and
math triggers*. This gives the option to capture waveform deviations at
high resolution under a short period of time. (38) The Yokogawa software
uses the Testnet communication network, which enables transmission of
larger amounts of data than Wind data network. The measurement series
from the Yokogawa instrument is converted to a csv (comma-separated
values) file in order to be read and processed by MatLab. Too large files
will be hard to handle. The sampling rate and the time range are hence
limited by MatLab and not by the Yokogawa instrument.
6.5.1 Processing program MatLab
In order to process the measurement series from the Yokogawa instrument
more accurately, regarding the PQ-parameters, MatLab has been used as
computation tool. A number of the earlier mentioned PQ-parameters
(flicker, harmonics, interharmonics and HF-tones) are bound or defined to
certain frequency intervals. One way to describe the signals frequency
content is the implementation of a frequency analysis on the measured
signal.

MatLab takes the given signal x(t) from the time domain and computes its
Fourier transform X(t) i.e. the frequency content of the signal, both to
amplitude and phase. The area underneath the transformed signal denotes
the energy content at the given frequencies. The fundamental tone is a
pure sinusoidal signal, i.e. has all energy concentrated to one frequency,
this can be seen as a spike at 50 Hz. The signal contain distortion in addition
to the fundamental tone, x(t) = f(t) + d(t). Fourier transformation
simplifies the differentiation between the original signal and the distortion
since the effect of the distortion is spread over the frequency spectrum but
with a much lower amplitude (base-line ripple and noise) than the
fundamental tone.

The continuous Fourier transform is valid if the integration is performed
over the interval - to + or over an integer number of cycles of the
waveform. In a practical situation measurements are performed over a set
time and a finite number of data is recorded. Accordingly, the exact
Fourier transform is not computed, some error or loss will be associated
with truncating of the integral. (39) If a non-integer number of waveform
cycles are measured and a DFT (Discrete Fourier Transform) performed,
the signal will be discontinuous and the energy from the signal will be
Development AB

36

spread to surrounding frequencies. The energy leaks out and this is seen as
broader peaks in the frequency spectrum. The phenomenon is called
leakage effect due to the fact that windowing in the time domain introduce
leakage effects in the frequency domain. This may result in drowning of
smaller frequency components in the noise if they appear close to a large
component. The effect can be minimized by usage of tapered window
functions, Hanning window, Hamming window etc. this make the signal
continuous and hence reduce the leakage effect. However the amplitude of
the signal is distorted by the tapered window. The base of the larger
component is decreased which makes the smaller component visible but the
spike itself is broadened. The introduction of a tapered window may
therefore not improve the accuracy. (40) Rectangular window corresponds
to no window at all; this is preferred for harmonics and interharmonics
according to IEC 61000-4-7.

Folding is caused by under sampling. If the frequency components are seen
as vectors, they fold around f
s
/2 and zero until there are in the
observation interval.
7
Folding occur if the sampling theorem is not fulfilled
and interpretation of the signal is thereby made impossible.

The discrete Fourier transform is developed to show a representative
Fourier transform, with a minimum number of values over a given time.
The performance of a DFT in real time while the sampling theorem
fulfilled gives limited bandwidth because of the large number of
mathematical operations. Fast Fourier transform is therefore introduced to
speed-up the computation. The number of necessary mathematical
operations is reduced in order to analyze higher frequencies in real time.
This is done following the FFT-butterfly scheme, based on the principal
that calculation of DFT on the data set dived in two is faster than on the
entire data set. (40) All measurement analysis performed, in the thesis, use
FFT with a rectangular window.

7
Half of the sampling frequency
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37

6.6 Summarize Measurement Instruments

Figure 22. Summarize of measurement instruments

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38

7 Results
7.1 General
Data series from the Yokogawa intrument has been transformed with the
FFT function in Matlab. Further computations of flicker, harmonics and
interharmonics have been made from these results. Harmonics and
interharmonics have been calculated according to IEC standard 61000-4-7
and in line with E.ON Elnts restrictions. Tests have been performed at
different energy production levels, both high and low (and at zero), from
the wind farm. A range of sampling rates as well as time ranges and
summarization methods have been tested and compared.
7.2 Harmonics and Interharmonics
7.2.1 Comparison of voltage and current data series
Tests have been performed at a wind speed close to zero, i.e. no power
output, to see if the emissions from the park increase with higher wind
speed. All turbines were connected at the low production day i.e. all
circuit breakers closed.(Tor Sderlund, Vattenfall Renewables). The values
are shown as RMS values of voltage and current data series in order to
make accurate comparisons.

1 November, high prod. 8 February, low prod.
Time [ms] 200 200
Sample rate [MHz] 1 1
Power output [MW] ~110 ~0
I
actual
[A
RMS
] 433

It is hard to detect a pattern between the voltage harmonics produced both
at low and at high production from Lillgrund, Figure 23. The 3:rd and 4:th
harmonic are of greater magnitude at low production, the 6:th and 7:th are
also significant. At high production are the 5:th, 7:th, 8:th, 11:th and
13:th dominating. A ripple around the switching frequency (2.45 kHz) can
also be detected, which is not seen at low production.

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39

Figure 23. Voltage Harmonics
The measurement series for current harmonics display an obvious
difference between the measurements performed at low compared to high
production. At low production all current harmonics comprise low values,
almost evenly distributed over the frequency spectrum. The ripple around
the switching frequency (2.45 kHz) is visible at high production. The lower
order of harmonics; 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8 as well as 11 and 13 are the dominating
ones at high production, Figure 24.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50
V
R
M
S

Harmonic nr.
Voltage harmonics
Low production
High production
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Figure 24. Current harmonics

The comparison of interharmonics complies very well with the harmonic
series. The column diagrams are only presenting the interharmonics from
55 Hz until 300 Hz since this is where the dominating interharmonics were
found. For lower orders of voltage interharmonics, the measurement
comprises higher values at low than at high production. There is a
broadband of emissions spread over the frequency range, both at low and
high production. When it comes to high production some spikes can be
seen at the 7:th, 12:th, 13:th and 25:th interharmonic, Figure 25.
Figure 25. Voltage interharmonics

0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50
I
R
M
S

Harmonic nr.
Current Harmonics
High production
Low production
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
1 11 21 31 41 51
V
R
M
S

Interharmonic nr.
Voltage Interharmonics
High production
Low production
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The broadband of emission can also be seen for current interharmonics.
The difference from the voltage interharmonics is that the high production
series shows larger values for low order interharmonics (< 25). The
current interharmonics at low production are only seen as a ripple, with a
small peak at the 14: th interharmonic, Figure 26.
Figure 26. Current interharmonics
7.2.2 Weekly values of individual harmonics
The graphics show measurements of power output and selected harmonics
during a week in February, 13 to 20/02/2012, performed by G4500 in
Bunkeflo.

The purple graph shows variety in active power output from Lillgrund
during the given week, Figure 27. The measurements are cycle by cycle
measurements, only showing the min and max values of every cycle. In
Figure 27 are also the switching harmonics displayed by the blue (harmonic
nr. 48) and by the red (harmonic nr. 47) curves in the same graphics. The
harmonic of order 5 is presented by the red graph,
Figure 28. The measurements for all harmonics are cycle by cycle from
channel 6 and showing the max and min values for the current harmonics
during a week.

0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
1 11 21 31 41 51
A
R
M
S

Interharmonic nr.
Current Interharmonics
Interharmonics- low prod.
Interharmonics-high prod.
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Figure 27. Active power and harmonic nr. 47 and 48

Figure 28. Harmonic nr. 5
There is a visible difference between the two different harmonics.
Harmonic number 47 and 48 can clearly be connected to the switching of
the converters since they are zero at no power output and at all other times
they compass a base level of around one Ampere with some ripple above.
When it comes to harmonic nr 5, it is much harder to distinguish a pattern.
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43

Spikes are both occurring at zero and at very high power output. There is a
peak every day around six and seven am every day except the 19.th
(Sunday) but also some peaks at midday. The highest spike is at 18: th
18:30 where the power output also increased around 3 MW.

This also points out the importance of longer measurement times in order
to better validate the impact of different harmonics.
7.2.3 Current harmonics compliance with E.ON Elnt limits
Data series from the high production date, first of November, is used to
show the authentic impact of Lillgrund in Bunkeflo. MatLab was used as
compilation tool (Appendix L MatLab code ).

E.ON Elnts limits are stated for current harmonics and voltage
interharmonics. Due to this only the graphs of the current harmonics and
voltage interharmonics will be presented. The measurements are from the
integrator with higher resolution.

Measurement settings:
I
n
= 460 A
RMS
I
actual
=

432.82 A
RMS
Time: 100 s Sample rate: 20 kHz

The performed FFT demonstrate RMS-values of emission until 9 kHz,

Figure 29. The main distortions are concentrated between 50 and 1000 Hz
along with a ripple around the switching frequency (2.5 kHz). The
emissions are decaying with increasing frequency to a level below 10
^-3
A
RMS
. In the frequency spectrum, the noticeable emissions diminish after
the switching frequency. Distortions from 2.5 kHz to 9 kHz could be white
noise.

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44

Figure 29. Current frequency spectrum 0-9 kHz
E.ON Elnts limits for current harmonics are given in a percentage of the
nominal current. Allowed emission limits are presented together with
measured values and it can be seen that Lillgrund fulfills the restrictions for
harmonics, Appendix A E.ON Elnts restrictions. For harmonics up to
2 kHz (harmonic nr. 40) the measured values in Bunkeflo are well below
the set limits. The values around the switching frequency are just below the
limitation.
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45

Figure 30. Current harmonics and interharmonics 0-2.5 kHz
A clearer view of the individual harmonics can be seen in Appendix E
Harmonics.

The harmonics currents expressed as I
h
shall be less than 2.5 % of I
n
(460
A), which means less than: 460 A *0.025=11.5 A. The value of I
H
is
computed considering harmonic currents up to and including the 50: th
order according to Equation 10:

2
50
2
49
2
3
2
2
.... I I I I I
H

.
Equation 10. I
H

Where: I
H
and I
i
are RMS values
I
H
= 3.3 A < 11.5 A which means that the criteria is fulfilled.

7.2.4 Voltage interharmonics compliance with E.ON Elnt
limits
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E.ON Elnts limits for voltage interharmonics are given in a percentage of
the nominal voltage. The graphic shows that the measured voltage
interharmonics are exceeding the restriction for the 1, 2 and 3
interharmonic,Figure 31.
.
Figure 31. Interharmonics and harmonics 0- 250 Hz
Calculations of voltage interharmonics from current interharmonics have
also been performed to prove the results. Two calculation methods have
been tested with equal outcome.

Ohms law:
Equation 11. Ohms Law for harmonic content

Method from ASP:
Equation 12. Voltage harmonics

Parameter Definition
U
h
Voltage of ordinal h
I
h
Current of ordinal h
2

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47

X
k
System impedance
h Order h (1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.34)
I
max
Maximal current of wind turbine
U
n
Nominell voltage
S
max
Maximal effect of wind turbine

The method presented in the standard document ASP normally regards
harmonics and not interharmonics. The order number is specified to 1,2,3
etc. for every harmonic in the original equation. To take into account that
there are 9 individual interharmonics among two harmonics (when the
spacing between the components are 5 Hz), the following interharmonic
order numbers 1, 1.1, 1.2,1.3..4. were used. The result shows that the
interharmonic emissions in Bunkeflo are well below E.ON Elnts
restrictions, Figure 32.

Figure 32. Calculation of voltage interharmonics
7.3 Compliance with IEC 61400-21
For wind power installations the standard advocates calculation of harmonic
subgroups and interharmonics subgroups. The interharmonic subgroups
shall accordingly be derived using a percentage of the measurements with
the fundamental tone. A comparison has been made between using the
current values of the fundamental tone and the nominal current as
reference. Both subgroup diagrams show high values for the low order of
subgroups diminishing towards high frequencies with a small deviation at
the switching frequency. The difference is overall lower values when the
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
55 65 75 85 95 105 115 125 135 145 155 165 175 185
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

[
%

U
/
U
n
]

Frequency [Hz]
Calculation of voltage
interharmonics
Development AB

48

nominal current is used as base. The difference will increase when using a
measurement series with lower fundamental current, i.e. at lower power
production.
Figure 33. Interharmonic subgroups
The standard is also stating a calculation method for harmonic distortion
above 2 kHz. The current components are summarized in 200 Hz
frequency bands and displayed as RMS values. Emissions in this frequency
range are very low in Bunkeflo, Figure 34. There is a peak
around 2.45 kHz, corresponding to the switching frequency of the VSC.
0 10 20 30 40 50
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
Current, channel -6
Interharmonic Group
%

[
I
/
I
a
c
t
u
a
l
]
0 10 20 30 40 50
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
Current, channel -6
Interharmonic Group
%

(
I
/
I
n
)
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Figure 34. High frequency components 2-9 kHz
7.4 Flicker
7.4.1 Measured in Bunkeflo
The Yokogawa instrument does not compass any program for computation
of flicker. The ELSPEC instruments both compass flicker evaluation
software, for the flicker severity parameters P
st
and P
lt
. Voltage data are the
input to the flicker algorithm in the modulus and the measurements made
are 2 hours values.
Table 2. Measured flicker severity levels
E.ON Elnts recommendations are not fulfilled by the measured values.
However, is the placement of the instruments in Bunkeflo unfavorable to
only measure the flicker emissions from Lillgrund. The instruments
measure the flicker contribution from both the connecting network as well
as the flicker produced by the wind farm at the PCC in Bunkeflo. This
would explain the high flicker values shown by the instruments, Table 2.
7.4.2 Calculated according to IEC 61400-21
Calculations in line with the international standard IEC 61400-21 have
been made in order to explicitly show the flicker emissions from Lillgrund
in Bunkeflo. The flicker severity factors have been calculated for the whole
wind farm with data from the test report of a single wind turbine made by
the accredited institute GL (provided by Siemens Windpower). The flicker
emissions are determined for both continuous operation and switching
mode for different network impedance angles, Figure 35. The emissions
are in all cases very low and the recommendations set by E.ON Elnt are
achieved by using the calculation method.

P
st
P
lt
G4500 0.5 0.5
G4430 0.5-2.5 0.5-2.5

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Figure 35. Flicker severity during continuous operation

P
st
*= The results applies to both P
st
and P
lt

The switching operations are displayed at wind turbine start-up and cut-in
wind speed, 3 m/s for Lillgrund, and for wind turbine start-up at rated
wind speed or higher wind speed 8.5 m/s for Lillgrund. The black symbols
represent P
st
values and the red P
lt
values, whereas the different shapes
denote the impedance angles, Figure 36.
Figure 36. Flicker severity during switching operation

0.004
0.005
0.006
0.007
0.008
0.009
0.01
0.011
1 3 5 7 9
Wind speed [m/s]
Switching operation
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
4 6 8 10 12
F
l
i
c
k
e
r

e
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

[
P
s
t
*
]

Wind speed [m/s]
Continuous operation
30 k []
50 k []
70 k []
85 k []
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7.4.3 Other detecting methods
Measurement instrument: Yokogawa
I
actual
~432 A
RMS

Time: 100 s
Sampling rate: 20 kHz

A frequency spectrum from the Yokogawa instrument has also been made
in order to show the flicker content. The spectrum shows two peaks: one
lower at 9.8 Hz with 0.03 A
RMS
and one at 16.7 Hz with a value of 0.3
A
RMS
. The second spike at 16 2/3 is assumed to be dragged in by the
converters inside the wind turbine from SJs rotating inverters. This
indicates that other sources may contribute to the measured flicker severity
factor in Bunkeflo.
Figure 37. Frequency spectrum 0-20 Hz
Torbjrn Thiringer at Chalmers University has developed a method for
flicker calculations from current and voltage measurements, which gives
the following results in Bunkeflo: P
st
values in a range from 0.04 - 0.06.
7.5 Unbalance
The unbalance in Bunkeflo has been computed using Simulink and for a 10
minute data series with a sample rate of 2 kHz, Appendix F Unbalance.
Voltage unbalance: around 0.3 %
Current unbalance: around 2 %
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E.ON Elnts limit: 5 % concerning current
This means that the unbalance values are within the limits in Bunkeflo.
7.6 Fault Ride Through
Validation of SVKs restrictions for FRT has not been completed due to lack
of short circuits in the subtransmission grid. Lillgrund has experienced two
short circuits detected by the Elspec modules and the Yokogawa
instrument. The power production at the two occasions was too low, to
draw any conclusions regarding the FRT capability.
7.7 Summarize of results
During short time measurements, 100 s and 10 minutes for unbalance, the
compliance with E.ON Elnts limits was as follows:

Parameter Measurement Computed
Harmonics
I
H
OK
OK
-----
Interharmonics Not OK OK
8

Flicker Not OK OK
9

Unbalance OK

Table 3. Fulfillment of restrictions

8
Converted from current measurements
9
Calculated from flicker coefficients
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8 Comparison of standard and regulations

The large divergence between the technical specifications of the different
DSOs is due to the fact that their restrictions are based on various standards
which recommend different units and values, see Table 4.

Vattenfall Research and Development AB U 11:xx (Internal [S2])

54

Table 4. Comparison of power quality limitations

10
The values is not stated in the VDN document but in the standard EN 50160 which is used as reference
E.ON Vattenfall Fortum VDN
Harmonics
Unit Current Voltage Voltage

Current

Order
2-33
> 34 -?
2- 50:e 2-40:e 5 - 40:e

THD(U) ---- <1.5 % No spec. value ---

I
H
2,5 % of Iactual --- --- ---
HF- distortion
Unit --- --- --- Current

Freq. 10 kHz
Interharmonics

0.1 % of U
n

0.3 % of U
n

(Planninglevel)

Shall
be avoided

Specified percentage of nominal
current for individual interharmonics.

Flicker

P
st
=0.25
P
lt
=0.15
P
st
och P
lt

(Planning level)

P
st
=0.35
P
lt
= 0.25

P
lt
= 0.37
Unbalance
Unit
Current
< 5%
Voltage
<1%
Voltage
Voltage
10

< 2%
Vattenfall Research
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9 Discussion
The power quality restrictions set on Lillgrund in Bunkeflo are fulfilled
during the short time measurements (100 s). The flicker severity levels are
however difficult to validate, since the ELSPEC modules flicker
measurements are based on voltage values and hence can contain flicker
from other sources. The flicker values (0.5 for P
st
and P
lt
respectively)
shown by ELSPEC G4500 are measuring the total flicker severity in the
PCC and are below E.ON Elnts planning levels in the PCC (P
st
=1.0

and
P
lt
=0.8). Whereas ELSPEC G4430 gives various flicker values, sometimes
very high values, which are exceeding the planning levels. Further
investigation is needed to find the reason behind the difference between the
ELSPEC modules.

The optional calculation method proposed by IEC 61400-21 is not
satisfying either, since it is based on measurements of one wind turbine.
The summarizing effect is very small and may not consider different wind
farm layouts. The Lillgrund wind turbines are densely placed, 4.4*D for
inter row spacing and 3.3*D for row spacing, while recommendations
advice at least 5D between the turbines. This could increase the wake
effect and wind turbulence and amplify the flicker values from the farm.
The flicker algorithm derived at Chalmers may increase the accuracy and
shows very low values.

The calculated flicker severity levels are very low compared to the
measured values in the PCC. This implies that there might be other large
flicker sources in the surroundings. Another reason for the deviation could
be that the calculation methods reduce the actual flicker levels from
Lillgrund or that the flicker level from the farm varies a lot with time and
the used 10 minute period were during low flicker conditions. Weekly
measurements would give a more accurate value. Another rising question is
the accuracy of the flicker definition nowadays? All light-bulbs are being
phased out and exchanged with fluorescent and LED lamps. The definition
of flicker is still based on the eye-brain response curve of a 60 W light-
bulb.

The harmonic limits in Bunkeflo are set as current values and are easily
measured. The values are less than half of the threshold values except
around the switching frequency of the converter. The upper limit of the
Vattenfall Research
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56

harmonic measurement range is seldom precisely stated both in the
directive from E.ON Elnt as well as in many other technical specifications.
It is clearly shown, by the result from Bunkeflo, that the switching
frequency of the converter creates measurable harmonics and
interharmonics. If harmonic measurements are only performed to order 40
this emission is not seen.

The switching frequency of the converters used in Lillgrund are 2.45 kHz
and hence precisely within the scoop of the specification. However, the
trend is going towards wind turbine converters with higher switching
frequencies or a variable switching frequency (Jon Jensen, Siemens Wind
Power A/S). Higher switching frequencies will lead to increased emissions
at higher frequencies which are not taken into account by the network
companies today. It might be necessary to clearly state the switching
frequency of the converter in order to determine limitations needed for
that frequency. Another possibility would be to enlarge the frequency
range, to which current and voltage components should be measured. IEC
is already proposing measurements up to 9 kHz.

The question does however also have economic aspects, since
measurements into higher frequency ranges demand improved and more
expensive measurement equipment. In order to stay within the Nyquist
range, the sampling rate should be around 20 kHz which few DSOs are
using today. New equipment would need to be purchased along with more
working hours, since the amount of data to analyze would increase. The
measurements made in Bunkeflo are showing very low values from 2.5 kHz
to 9 kHz, this may be due to damping in the long cables and in the two
transformation steps. This implies that there is very little distortion in that
frequency range. Acquiring measurement up to that frequency level may
therefore not be necessary and also not economically defendable.

The measurement range is an important topic of discussion, since
suspicions still exist regarding harmonic distortion at even higher
frequencies. Skelleftekraft, represented by Mats Wahlberg, performed
measurements on low voltage networks and found emission around 150
kHz. The measurements in Bunkeflo indicate lower emission at higher
frequencies but if some apparatus only emit in a high narrow frequency
band this might not be displayed. Measurements up to higher frequencies
are necessary to prove the power quality, which requires accurate
measurements up to these frequencies. The current transducers comprise a
Vattenfall Research
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57

high level of accuracy to c.a. 150 kHz, Appendix I Measurement transducers.
The accuracy test performed with the RCVT shows a large deviation
around 30-40 kHz, which would imply inaccurate measurements above
that range. In other test have RCVTs proven good accuracy up to 150 kHz ,
these type of test are demanding an undisturbed electromagnetic
environment. The tests are therefore difficult to perform and a
measurement error is probably causing the inaccuracy at low frequencies.
The ELSPEC modulus has a maximum sampling rate of 12 kHz, which
would be too low for high (150 kHz) measurements. Continuous weekly
measurements would therefore not be possible, but the Yokogawa
instrument can be used for short time measurement of high frequency
distortion.

If on the other hand variable switching converters are to be used, it will
possibly decrease the values of the harmonics. The harmonics will be spread
along the variable switching frequency. This type of power electronics is
not allowed in UK and Ireland since it increases the amount of
interharmonics. The reason for it is that filters cannot be designed for
filtering specific interharmonics over a large frequency range and therefore
will each frequency hold a higher value.

Guidelines and restrictions for interharmonics are very limited because it is
a relatively new phenomenon, growing with the increased use of nonlinear
loads. All Swedish restrictions are presented as a percentage of the nominal
voltage, if a restriction is given. Voltage measurements give the
interharmonic emission in the measurement point and not the explicit
contribution of a specific source. In order to only show Lillgrunds emission
of interharmonics, current measurements were done. To convert the
current values into voltage a reformulated version of ASP method,
originally used for harmonic conversion, was applied. If interharmonics are
to be measured and evaluated, the restrictions should either be given as a
current value or a proposed method for calculating current interharmonics
to voltage harmonics shall be stated in the guideline.

The network owners, the wind farm owners and the measurement
acquired personnel have different points of view when it comes to
measurements of PQ-parameters. Network owners (E.ON Elnt, Fortum,
Skelleftekraft AB and Vattenfall Distribution) have restrictions regarding
voltage quality level at certain connection points. Planning levels are
introduced to share the possible level, of disturbance between interests. To
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prove that the voltage quality is kept at a decent level measurements are
performed at the PCC before and after installation of the generating unit.
The difference in the disturbance level is assumed to be contributed by the
new installed source.

The wind farm owners do not have access to any pre measurement of the
disturbance levels. Restrictions regarding voltage quality are given by the
responsible network owner. The regulations are often given as maximal
limits in voltage distortion. If a wind farm comprises a number of wind
turbines, it might also have an internal grid and one or even two
transformer steps. Only calculations of emissions based on equations for
one WT with summarizing methods for more units may either over
estimate or under estimate the actual level of distortion. Measurements are
therefore necessary to prove the voltage quality of the wind farm. If
however the voltage output of the farm is measured, disturbances from
other surrounding sources will be included in the result since changes in the
voltage are communicated over long distances. For example, the 16 .7 Hz
sub harmonic which can be seen at the Yokogawa instrument in Bunkeflo,
has a physical distance of more than 20 km. Measurements of the current
would give a more accurate picture of the power quality disturbance from
Lillgrund, explicitly in the PCC Bunkeflo. Therefore the wind farm owner
(Vattenfall) and the measurement group would prefer restrictions based on
current values instead of voltage to make measurements possible.

A compromise between the two perspectives could be voltage regulations
based on current measurements and a specification of computation methods
from current to voltage for the different power quality parameters. If the
agreements were stated together with the decided calculations methods in
the contract between the network owner and the wind farm owner the
evaluation of the explicit emission from the wind farm in the PCC could be
done both by the wind farm owner and the network owner.

In Sweden power quality measurements have in general not been of great
concern since no big problems have been noticed. The most important
thing is not only the limitation itself but the validation of the
measurements. Lillgrund was built in 2007 and the power quality is still not
validated.

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10 Conclusion
Lillgrund fulfills the restrictions regarding, harmonics, interharmonics,
flicker and unbalance set up by E.ON Elnt in Bunkeflo, during the short-
time measurements (100 s). The FRT demand has not been studied due to
a lack of short circuits in the subtransmission network. In order to validate
the result and determine Lillgrund impact in Bunkeflo, weekly
measurements are necessary. The directorial documentation in the field
shows variance in required measurement ranges, limiting unit as well as in
strictness in limitations towards higher frequency ranges.

With the aim of presenting accurate results, current measurements are
preferred. Hence, limits given as current values or specification of
conversion method from current to voltage values are to be included in the
DSOs technical specifications. Presentation and validation of the measured
results are important since measurements otherwise are unnecessary.

Recommendations
Measurement Sampling rate should be at least > 2
times the required frequency.
Concerns both measurement
transducers and measurement
instruments
DSOs Requirement specifications Clarifying the required measurement
range (40:th, 50:th order or higher).
Limits should be given as current
values otherwise should a conversion
method to voltage values be stated.
A connection to planning levels
express as voltage values could be a
way to set restrictions based on
network strength.

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11 Future work
The first step necessary in order to prove Lillgrunds fulfillment of E.ON
Elnts demands in PCC Bunkeflo, is weekly measurements of the power
quality parameters.

In the case of Bunkeflo, the Yokogawa instrument is not an option for
continuous weekly measurements of power quality. The ELSPEC modules
are constructed for this and to improve the accuracy of measurement the
sampling frequency should be changed to 12 kHz for current respective
voltage components. This would fulfill the Nyquist theorem until around 6
kHz. The limiting factor for Vattenfall R&D would then be the
transmission capacity of the communication Wind data network. A solution
to the problem would be to cut the connection for a week and store the
data sets on the hard drive in Bunkeflo and later collect the hard drive in
order to analyze the data.

The Yokogawa instrument will be used to perform series of short time
measurements, with high resolution, during a week. Measurements will be
made once every 10 minutes, during 200 ms intervals, with a sample rate
of 1 MHz. As the Yokogawa instrument has a larger bandwidth than the
ELSPEC G4500, the measurement range will be increased. The limit will
be the frequency, at which the high frequency transducers has acceptable
fault in amplitude and angle, around 150 kHz.

A harmonization of the interharmonic limitation in Sweden should improve
power quality measurements, since ASP (which is a commonly used
document) not even has a limit.
Should be avoided ASP
0.1 % av U
n
E.ON Elnt
0.2 % av U
n
IEC 61000-3-7

An unanswered question is if there is incitement for power quality
measurements above 9 kHz. The Vindforsk work group is investigating the
possible presence of distortion up to 150 kHz, with the described weekly
Yokogawa measurements. This would give the possibility to decide
whether the power quality measurement performed in Sweden should
encompass these frequencies or not. Recommendations regarding
frequency range for power quality measurements will be formulated.
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12 Bibliography
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ntanslutna aggergat. Kista : Svensk elstandard, 2009. SS-EN 61400-21.
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22. International Electrotechnical Commission . Electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC) - Part 4-30: Testing and measurement techniques- Power
quality measurement methods. Geneva : IEC, 2009. EN 61000-4-30:2009 E..
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1998. ISBN 91970956-6-4.
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Frequency Range 2 to 150 kHz with different types of Lightning. Frankfurth :
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and Design. Stamford : Cengage Learning, 2012. ISBN-13: 978-1-111-
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och allmnna rd om krav som ska vara uppfyllda fr att verfringen av el ska vara
av god kvalitet;. [PDF] Bromma : EI, 2011. ISSN 2000-592X.
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VDN, 2002.
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and Wind Energy Applications. [PDF] Gteborg : Chalmes University , 1998.
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33. E:ON Elnt AB. Offert anslutning av produktionsanlggningar -
Elkvalitetskrav fr anslutning av anlggningar med en produktionsfrmga strre n
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37. Elspec Ltd.G4500 BLACKBOX Portable Operational Manual. [PDF] Viana
do Castelo : Elspec Ltd, 2009.
38. Yokogawa. Yokogawa DL850 ScopeRecorder. [PDF] Japan : Yokogawa
Meters & Instrument Corperation, 2010.
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Applications. New York : PALGRAVE MACMILLAN, 2003. ISBN-13: 978-
0-333-96356-2.
40. Bengtsson, Lars. Elektriska mtsystem och mtmetoder. Lund :
Studentlitteratur, 2003. ISBN 91-44-02903-9.
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Standardization. Spnningens egenskaper i elnt fr allmn distrubution.
Kista : Svensk Elstandard, 2008. SS-EN 50160.
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Power Systems. St. Petersburg : Vlll International Symposium and Exhibition
on Electromagnetic Compatibility and Electromagnetic Ecology, 2006.
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Stockholm : Energimarknadsinspektionen, 2009.
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45. Power Electronic Measurement. IRF- Thin, clip around ac current
transducer in IP 65 enclosure. Nottingham : Power Electronic Measurement
Ltd, 2005.
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kraftnts freskrifter och allmnna rd om driftskerhetsteknisk utformning av
produktionsanlggningar. [PDF] Stockholm : SVK, 2005. ISSN 1402-9049.
48. Hibbard J.F, Lowenstein M.Z. Meeting IEEE 519-1992 - Using
HarmonicGuard Passive filters. [PDF] Milwaukee : Transcoil.
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Appendix A E.ON Elnts restrictions
E.ON Elnts technical specifications concerning power quality in Bunkeflo.
Flicker
(Planing levels: P
st
= 1.0 and P
lt
=0.8)
Pst < 0.25
Plt < 0.15

Harmonics
10 minute average
Total harmonic current I
h
< 2.5 % of I
n

Instanstaneous < 2.0 * Table values

Harmonic nr. Max level, % of I
n

<11 2,0
11-16 1,0
17-22 0,75
23-34 0,30
>34 0,15
Table 5. E.ON Elnts limits for current harmonics

Interharmonics
< 0.1 % of U
n

Measured with 10 Hz bands

Unbalance
The currents negative sequence component < 5% of the positive
sequence component.
10 s average of the present operating current.

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Appendix B SVKs restrictions

Large installations shall with maintained grid connection withstand
variations in voltage on one or more phases in the connecting meshed grid
down to 0 % during 0.25 s, followed by a rise of 25 % and then manage a
linear increase of voltage during 0.5 s until 90 % voltage and endure.

Figure 38. SvKFS 2005:2 Short circuits and voltage deviations in large power plants

0
20
40
60
80
100
120
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
U [%]
Time (s)
90 %
25 %
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Appendix C Measurement methods
Weakly measurements of power quality parameters are needed to include
different operating conditions as well as variations between weekdays and
weekend. These methods are from IEC 61400-21 if nothing else is stated.

Harmonics, Interharmonics and HF-tones
Measurement time: 1 week for evaluation of 10 minute values.
Daily evaluation of 150-cycles values during one week. The 150
cycles values are continuously aggregated from fifteen 200 ms
measurements.
The values shall be presented as 95 % probable weakly values.

The individual current components (harmonics, interharmonics and HF
tones) values including THD shall be given as table values in percentage of
I
n
with the active effect bins 0, 10, 20100 % of P
n
. 0, 10, 20100 %
are the bin midpoints.

Where: P
n
= Nominal power

The individual current harmonics shall be specified as subgrouped values up to
the 50: th order, according to 61000-4-7.

Current interharmonics shall be specified as subgrouped values up to 2 kHz
(i.e. 40: th order), according to 61000-4-7.

Current components of higher frequency shall be specified as subgrouped values
between 2 kHz and 9 kHz. The summarizing is performed in 200 Hz bins,
according to 61000-4-7.

Flicker
Flicker values shall be presented for both continuous and switching
operation. The reactive power shall be set to zero, if this is not the case it
should be clearly stated.

Continuous operation; The wind turbine flicker coefficient for continuous
operation, c(k,v
a
), shall be given as 99
th
percentile.

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The coefficient shall be presented in a table for the network impedance
phase angles k = 30, 50, 70 and 85, for four different wind speed
distributions with annual average wind speed v
a
= 6 m/s, 7.5 m/s, 8.5 m/s
and 10 m/s respectively. The annual average wind speed refers to the hub
height of the WT and the 10 minute average values shall be assumed to be
Rayleigh distributed.

Switching operation shall be stated for:
Wind turbine start-up at cut-in wind speed.
Wind turbine start-up at rated wind speed or higher wind speed.
The worst case of switching between generators (applicable only to
wind turbines with more than one generator or a generator with
multiple windings).

The parameters below shall be presented for each of the switching
operations, where N10m and N120m are based on manufacture
information.

The maximum number N10m of the switching operation within a 10
min period.
The maximum number N120m of the switching operation within a 2
h period.
The flicker step factor kf(k) for the network impedance phase
angles k = 30, 50, 70 and 85.
The voltage change factor ku(k) for the network impedance phase
angles k = 30, 50,70 and 85.

Unbalance
Voltage unbalance us defined as a condition when the RMS values and/or
the phase angles of the line voltages (fundamental component) are not equal
in a 3-phase system in the IEC standard 61000-4-30.

Symmetrical components are used to calculate the voltage unbalance. The
fundamental component of the voltage is measured over a 10-cycle time
interval for a 50 Hz power system. The negative sequence voltage shall be
expressed as a percentage and calculated by (negative sequence = zero
sequence for zero unbalance).
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Appendix D Flicker
Periodic stepwise voltage changes shall according to the norm be kept
below the graph. The threshold in the flicker curve has its minimum at 8.8
Hz, due to the fact that the human eye-brain response to variations in
luminosity from an incandescent lamp has it maximum at this frequency.

Figure 39. Flicker curve from IEC 868

Calculation of flicker according to IEC 61400-21

The equations yield for calculation of P
st
and P
lt
with more than one wind
turbine connected to the PCC.

Equation 13. Flicker during continuous operation
S
k
= Short circuit power
N
wt
= number of wind turbines connected to the PCC
C
i
(k, v
a
)= flicker coefficient for continuous operation
Sn,i = the rated apparent power of the individual wind turbine

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Equation 14. Flicker during switching operation

N
10m,i
and N
120m
,i = the number of switching operations of the individual
wind turbine within a 10 min and 2 h period respectively;
K
f,i
(k) = the flicker step factor of the wind turbine for the given k
k= network impedance angle
Flicker Calculations

Given flicker parameters


Network impedance phase angle, k [] 30 50 70 85
Annual average wind speed, va [m/s] Flicker coefficient, c(k,va)
va= 6,0 m/s 3.12 2.8 2.25 1.78
va=7,5 m/s 2.73 2.5 2.12 1.66
va=8,5 m/s 3.73 2.5 2 1.58
va=10,0 m/s 2.57 2.23 1.86 1.54

Switching operations

Start-up at cut-in wind speed

max. number of switching operations, N10m 3
Flicker step factor, kf (k) 0.11 0.1 0.08 0.06
Voltage change factor, ku (k) 0.19 0.15 0.1 0.09

Start-up at rated wind speed or higher

Flicker step factor, kf (k) 0.12 0.11 0.08 0.07
Voltage change factor, ku (k) 0.96 0.73 0.42 0.19

Calculation of flicker parameters

Sn [VA] 2690000

Sk [VA] 2.39E+09

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Annual average wind speed, va [m/s] Pst/Plt
va= 6,0 m/s 0.024327 0.021832 0.017543 0.013879
va=7,5 m/s 0.0212861 0.019493 0.01653 0.012943
va=8,5 m/s 0.0290832 0.019493 0.015594 0.012319
va=10,0 m/s 0.0200386 0.017388 0.014503 0.012008


Start-up at cut-in wind speed

Pst 0.0094037 0.008555 0.006857 0.005154
Plt 0.0090295 0.008215 0.006584 0.004949
d (the relative voltage change in %) 2.14E-02 1.69E-02 1.13E-02 1.01E-02


Start-up at rated wind speed or higher

Pst 0.0102515 0.009404 0.006857 0.006006
Plt 0.0098435 0.00903 0.006584 0.005767
d (the relative voltage change in %) 1.08E-01 8.22E-02 4.73E-02 2.14E-02
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Appendix E Harmonics

Figure 40. Current harmonics and interharmonics 0-900 Hz
The most visible harmonics are hence, order 2,3,4,5,7,8,11,13 and 17.
The higher frequency harmonics are concentrated around the switching
frequency as seen in the figure below.

Figure 41. Current harmonics and interharmonics 2.2 2.5 kHz
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Current, channel -6
Hz
%

[
I
/
I
n
]

limit h<11
limit h 11-16
limit h 17-22
limit h 23-34
limit h>34
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Appendix F Unbalance

A model for simulation of unbalance was constructed in Simulink.
The input data compassed by the Yokogawa instrument:
Time: 10 minutes
Sample rate: 2 kHz
Power output: 60 -70 MW

Figure 42. Simulink process chart
Model description: Matrix collects a time vector and depending on choice, three
phase voltage or current data series. The 3-Phase Sequence Analyzer transforms
the input vectors into symmetrical components and computes the negative and
positive sequences. Only the fundamental component is chosen, based on the
definition of unbalance. The maximum step is determined to 1 ms in Simulink.
The graphics show unbalance in magnitude of the voltage along with current
unbalance. In order to show the percentage, presented values shall be multiplied
with 100.

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Figure 43. Voltage Unbalance

Figure 44. Current Unbalance
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Matlab code:

% Current and voltage unbalance
t=600;
fs=2e3;
N=t*fs;
tidvektor=((1:N)*t/N)';
n=length(tidvektor);

%Voltage input
%The conversion factor from primary to secondary side is 1320
signal1=M(1:n,1)*1320;
signal2=M(1:n,2)*1320;
signal3=M(1:n,3)*1320;

%Current input
%The channels comprises different resolution
signal4=M(1:n,4)*(1000/5);
signal5=M(1:n,5)*(30000/5);
signal6=M(1:n,6)*(30000/5);

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Appendix G Comparison of sample rate and time intervals
Harmonics from five various measurements with different time intervals
and sampling frequency are show in the diagram below. It can be seen that
despite the different resolution of the 200 ms, 2 s both with 1 MHz, 2 s 20
MHz and 100 s 20 kHz measurements the deviation between the harmonic
content is minor. The visible variations may be due to the fact that the
series are gathered during a half hour and the harmonic content might vary
within this time. All data series are from the high production day the first of
November.

Figure 45. Current harmonics with various sample rate and time intervals
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50
%

[
I
/
I
n
]

Harmonic nr.
Harmonics from 100 Hz to 2500 Hz
Yokogawa 200 ms 1 MHz
Yokogawa 2s 1 MHz
Yokogawa 2s 20 kHz
Yokogawa 100s 20 kHz
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Appendix H Comparison of measurement instruments

The ELSPEC values are uncompressed cycle-by-cycle values over a 30 min
period the high production day, first of November, with a sampling
frequency of 6 kHz. The Yokogawa data series is from the same day, but
only one 100 s file comprising a higher sampling frequency, 20 kHz. The
comparison is made on one phase, channel six, which is the one compassing
a more sensitive current transducer. ELSPEC 4500 has not been able to
show the harmonic content on the other two channels which may be a
result of too low resolution on the connected Rogowski integrator units.

The higher spikes seen by the ELSPEC modules at the lower and at the
higher harmonic orders may be a consequence of the longer measurement
time. The Yokogawa instrument is however displaying harmonic content at
more frequencies, which might be a result of the higher sampling
frequency. ELSPEC G4430 is in comparison to G4500 detecting harmonics
at more frequencies. This despite that G4430 is connected to the
conventional measurement transducers with a lower bandwidth.

Figure 46. Comparison of measurement instruments caption of current harmonics
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
2 4 6 8 101214161820222426283032343638404244464850
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

[
A
]

Harmonic nr.
Harmonics comparison: ELSPEC and Yokogawa
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Appendix I Measurement transducers

Conventional transducers

Current transducer

Accuracy class, 0.2S (SV: Noggranhetsklass), applies to both
amplitude and phase error, see table below.

Instrument security factor, FS, is specified for measuring cores to
protect meters and instruments from being damaged by high
currents. This means that the secondary current will increase
maximum five times when the rated burden is connected (for FS 5).

Table 6. Deviation allowance according to IEC 60044-1
"Instrument transformers - current transformers"

Voltage transducer

The voltage transducer comprises a measurement winding and one residual
voltage winding. The residual voltage winding is only loaded during fault,
which makes the effect of its load on the accuracy of the other windings
disregarded in accordance with IEC.

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The accuracy class(mtklasser) for the measurement windings 0.2 for
deviation see table below. The residual voltage winding hold protection
class 3P(skyddsklass).

Table 7 Deviation allowance according to IEC 60044-2 "Instrument transformers - Inductive
voltage transformers"

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HF- Transducers

Rogowski coil type PEM Function

Coil sensitivity: 0.2 mV/A
Frequency (-3dB), 0.05 Hz (low) and 400 kHz( high)
Peak di/dt: 5000A /s

Accuracy test, performed in Bunkeflo Figure 47.
Figure 47. Frequency accuracy test of Rogowski coils

Observe that a deviation larger than one dB will give inaccurate
measurements, since a 3 dB deviation is 0.707 of the maximum value.

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TRENCH RCVT 145 kV
Features:
Accuracy class at 50 Hz: 0.5
Bandwidth: 400 kHz

Figure 48. Frequency accuracy test for TRENCH RCVT by Jahn 04/05/2010

The bandwidth should be 400 kHz and this has been proven in accuracy
tests elsewhere. A high demand on independence of interference is needed
during the test. The manufacture therefore suspects measurements errors
to cause the large deviations at 30 kHz.

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Appendix J Measurement Instruments

Blackbox ELSPEC G4430
The measurement instrument ELSPEC G4430 compasses a blackbox and
local display, monitored by a power quality data center. The blackbox
hardware features are digital fault recorder, power quality analyzer, class-A
power meter and revenue grade energy meter.

Measurement

Averaging every 200 ms, 10 cycles at 50 Hz (Satisfying:
IEC 61000-4-30).

FFT every cycle (Satisfying: 61000-4-30) this is done
simultaneously.

Cycle-by cycle measurements can be performed
Display The power parameters present values are displayed in the
Mode.
Storage Values are continuously saved. The deviation from the last
measured value has to be grater then 0.1 % for individual
harmonics to store a new value.
Power The Blackboxs' internal capacitors provide power supply
for 25 s in case of power loss. This gives the possibility to
monitor the systems Fault Ride Through capacity.

Harmonics Displays Sub-harmonics and interharmonics for every 5 Hz
from DC until 1275 Hz a total of 256 values. Can measure
up till 511: th.

Yokogawa instrument

Sample
rate
With 1 Ch. With 16 Ch.
100 MS/s 20 sec. 2 sec. (using 8 Ch.)
10 MS/s 3min.20
sec.
10 sec.
1 MS/s 30 min. 1 min. 40 sec.
100 kS/s 5 hours 10 min.
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10 kS/s 50 hours 2 hours 30 min.
200 S/s 30 days 50 hours
20 S/ 30 days* 30 days

Table 8. Measurements possible with a 2Gpoint memory

Sample rate With 1 Ch. With 16 Ch.
1 MS/s 10 hours -
200 kS/s 60 hours -
100 kS/s 5 days 10 hours
20 kS/s 20 days 2.5 days
1 kS/s 30 days*2 30 days

Table 9. Measurements possible with various numbers of channels

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Appendix K Process chart of the subtransmission system

Figure 49. Process chart of the overlaying subtransmission system
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Appendix L MatLab code

Code for harmonics, interharmonics and HF-distortion

%ReadOvertone
row = 11; % Read from this row, description of the file is above.
col = 1; % Read from

%Getting time vector, state name of the wanted file
thetime = '200ms feb8 2';
M = csvread(strcat(thetime,'.csv'), row, col);

%Current Harmonics
%Time=t [s], sample frequency=fs [Hz], number of samples= N [st]which makes
N = length(signalwhole);
t = 0.2;
fs = 1e6;
N = fs*t;
signalwhole = M(1:N,:);

% Different resolution of the current transducers is taken in to acount
for j=4:6
column = j;
ch = column+2;
signal = signalwhole(1:N,column);

if column == 4
signal = signal*1000/5;
end
if column == 5
end
if column == 6
end

%Creating frequency vector, freq, and preforming FFT analysis
%p-vector is actual values
%a-vector is RMS values
freq = (0:N/2-1)*fs/N;
p = abs(fft(signal))/(N/2);
a =(p./sqrt(2));

% Creating empty arrays to place summarized values in
b=zeros(1,2500);
G=zeros(0,2500);
U=zeros(1,2500);
joj=zeros(1,2500);
pop=zeros(1,2000);
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group=zeros(0,2500);
highf=zeros(0,2500);
w=zeros(1,2500);
overt=zeros(0,2500);

%Calculating the step with which the calculations are made. This
%determinates the number of values needed to be summarized in order to
create a 5 Hz spectrum. Grundfreq gives the number in the array at which
the frequency 50 Hz can be found.

step= fs/N;
grundfreq= find(freq==50);
overtone=find(freq==100);
grundtonensmarkstrom=a(grundfreq);
G2=find(freq==2100);

if step==0.01

% Summarizing current measurements every 5 Hz.

for H=1:1:2500
b=a((4751+(500*(H-1))):(5252+(500*(H-1))));
joj(45+5*H)=((sqrt(sum(b.^2)))/460)*100;

end
for W=1:49
overt(W)=joj(50+(W*50));
end

%Summarizing interharmonics in order to create interharmonic groups.

for R=1:50
pop=a((106+100*(R-1)):(196+100*(R-1)));
group(R)=sqrt(sum(pop.^2));
end

for D=1:1:35
band=a((G1+400*(D-1)):(G3+400*(D-1)));
highf(2100+(200*(D-1)))=sqrt(sum(band.^2));
end

elseif step==5

% Since the given step from the measurements made are 5 Hz, no
summarization is needed.
d=zeros(1,2500);
mellant=zeros(1,2500);
for H=1:2500
d(H)= a(11+H);
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joj(45+(5*H))=(d(H));

for W=1:49
overt(W)=(joj(50+(W*50)));
end

end

for R=1:50
pop=a((12+10*(R-1)):(21+10*(R-1)));
group(R)=(sqrt(sum(pop.^2)));
end

for D=1:1:35
band=a((G1+40*(D-1)):(G3+40*(D-1)));
highf(2100+(200*(D-1)))=((sqrt(sum(band.^2)))/460)*100;
end
end

% If-loop givs the channels different colour
if ch==6

%Transpose array of harmonics and interharmonic inorder to display
%specific values for individual components

ovi=overt';
interharm=mellant';
inter=a(11:505)';
int1=joj(55:1350)';

% Creating Bar chart for interharmonic group and comparing fundamental
% base, in subplot one, with nominal current as base in subplot two.
figure
subplot(2,2,[1 3]);
kanal1 = bar(((group/grundtonensmarkstrom)*100),'g');
title(strcat('Current, channel -',num2str(ch)))
xlim([0 50])
ylim([0 50])
xlabel('Interharmonic Group')
ylabel('% [I/I_a_c_t_u_a_l]')

subplot(2,2,[2 4]);
kanal2 = bar(((group/460)*100),'g');
xlim([0 50])
ylim([0 1])
ylabel('% (I/In)')

% Creating bar chart for harmonic distortion including E.ONs limits
figure
%limit for harmonic <11
x3=120:575;
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y3=x3*0 + 2;
%limit for harmonic 11-16
x5=575:825;
y5=x5*0+1;
x7=875:1125;
y7=x7*0+0.75;
x9=1175:1725;
y9=x9*0+0.3;
%limit for harmonic >34
x10=1725:2500;
y10=x10*0+0.15;
%subplot(3,1,1)
k3=bar(joj,'g');
title(strcat('Current, channel -', num2str(ch)))
%set(gca,'YScale','log')
xlim([50 2500])
ylim([0 1.6])
xlabel('Hz')
ylabel( '[A_R_M_S]')
%ylabel('% [I/I_a]')

% Plotting and coloring(by set-function) E.ON:s limits
limit1=line(x3,y3);
limit2=line(x5,y5);
limit3=line(x7,y7);
limit4=line(x9,y9);
limit5=line(x10,y10);

set(limit1,'Color','g');
set(limit2,'Color','c');
set(limit3,'Color','b');
set(limit4,'Color','m');
set(limit5,'Color','r');

%hold off;
legend([limit1,limit2,limit3,limit4,limit5],'limit h<11','limit h
11-16','limit h 17-22','limit h 23-34','limit h>34')

%Plotting the high frequency distortion > 2kHz, in line with IEC61000-4-7
figure
%subplot(3,1,3)
bar(highf,'g');
title(strcat('Frequency bands, in the range 2kHz to 9kHz, channel
',num2str(ch)))
xlim([2000 9000])
ylim([0 0.96])
xlabel('Hz')
ylabel('I_R_M_S')

%Plotting the frequency spectra, with logaritmic scale
figure
semilogy(freq(1:90001),a(1:90001),'g')
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xlim([0 9000])
xlabel('Hz')
ylabel('A(RMS), log. scale')

else ch=7;

ovi2=overt';

% Creating Bar chart for interharmonic groups
figure
subplot(2,2,[1 3])
kanal2 = bar(((group/grundtonensmarkstrom)*100),'');
xlim([0 50])
ylim([0 3])

subplot(2,2,[2 4]);
kanal1 = bar(((group/460)*100),'');
xlim([0 50])
ylim([0 1])
ylabel('% (I/In)')

figure
%limit for harmonic <11
x3=120:575;
y3=x3*0 + 2;
x5=575:825;
y5=x5*0+1;
x7=875:1125;
y7=x7*0.75;
x9=1175:1725;
y9=x9*0+0.3;
%limit for harmonic >34
x10=1725:2500;
y10=x10*0+0.15;

%subplot(3,1,1)
k2=bar(joj,'');
xlim([0 700])
ylim([0 0.71])
xlabel('Hz')
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% hold on;
% Plotting and coloring( by set-function) E.ON:s limits
limit1=line(x3,y3);
limit2=line(x5,y5);
limit3=line(x7,y7);
limit4=line(x9,y9);
limit5=line(x10,y10);

set(limit1,'Color','g');
set(limit2,'Color','m');
set(limit3,'Color','k');

%hold off;
legend([limit1,limit2,limit3,limit4,limit5],'limit h<11','limit h
11-16','limit h 17-22','limit h >34')

%figure
%subplot(3,1,3)
% bar(highf,'');
title(strcat('Frequency bands, in the range 2kHz to 9kHz, channel -
',num2str(ch)))
xlim([2000 9000])
ylim([0 1.31])
xlabel('Hz')
ylabel('I_R_M_S')

figure
semilogy(freq(1:90001),a(1:90001))
xlim([0 9000])
xlabel('Hz')
ylabel('A(RMS), log. scale')

end

end

%Harmonics-Voltage

%Time=t, samplefrequency=fs, number of samples= N which makes N =
length(signalwhole);
t = 0.2;
fs = 1e6;
N = fs*t;
signalwhole = M(1:N,:);

tonerProcent = [];
amp1save = [];
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% % Voltage, collecting values from the different channels
for j=1:3
column = j;
ch = column+2;
signal1 = signalwhole(1:N,column);

signal=signal1*1320;

%Creating frequency vector and preforming FFT analysis
freq = (0:N/2-1)*fs/N;
p = abs(fft(signal))/(N/2);
a =(p./sqrt(2));

% Creating empty arrays to place summarized values in
b=zeros(1,2500);
G=zeros(0,2500);
U=zeros(1,2500);
joj=zeros(1,2500);
pop=zeros(1,200000);
group=zeros(0,2500);
overt=zeros(0,2500);

%Calculating the step with which the calculations are made. This
%determinates the number of values needed to be summarzied in order to
%create a 5 Hz spectrum. Grundfreq gives the number in the array at
which the frequency 50 Hz can be found.

step= fs/N;

grundfreq= find(freq==50);
overtone=find(freq==100);
grundtonensmarkspanning=a(grundfreq);

if step==5

% Since the given step from the measurements made are 5 Hz no
summaration is needed
d=zeros(1,2500);
for H=1:2500
d(H)= a(5+H);
joj(45+5*H)=(d(H));
%/57.7)*100;

for W=1:49
overt(W)=(joj(50+(W*50)));
end
end

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for R=1:50
pop=a((12+10*(R-1)):(21+10*(R-1)));
group(R)=sqrt((sum(pop.^2)/57.7)*100);
end

for D=1:1:35
band=a((G1+40*(D-1)):(G3+40*(D-1)));
end

elseif step==0.01

% Summarizing current measurements every 5 Hz.
for H=1:1:2500
b=a((4751+(500*(H-1))):(5252+(500*(H-1))));
%b=a((99+(10*(H-1))):(103+(10*(H-1))));
joj(45+5*H)= sqrt(sum(b.^2));%/(132e3))*100;
end

%Summarizing interharmonics inorder to create interharmonic groups.
for R=1:50
pop=a((5252+5000*(R-1)):(9751+5000*(R-1)));
group(R)=((sqrt(sum(pop.^2)))/57.7)*100;
end

for D=1:1:35
band=a((G1+40*(D-1)):(G3+40*(D-1)));
end
end

% If-loop gives the different channels different colour
if ch==3

ovi=overt';
grupper=joj';
inter=a(11:505)';
int1=joj(55:1350)';

figure
subplot(2,1,1);
k3=bar(joj,'g');
title(strcat('Voltage, channel ',num2str(ch)))
xlim([0 2500])
ylim([0 50])
xlabel('Hz')
ylabel('% (U/Un)')
limit=refline(0,0.1);

% Creating Bar chart for interharmonic group
figure
kanal1 = bar(group,'g');
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xlim([0 50])
ylim([0 1])
ylabel('% (U/Un)')
limit=refline(0,100*0.001);
legend([kanal1,limit,],'Channel 3','E.ON:s limit')

subplot(2,2,[2 4]);
kanal1 = bar(((group/64.82)*100),'g');
xlim([0 50])
ylim([0 1])
ylabel('% (U/U_a_c_t_u_a_l.)')

figure
subplot(2,2,[1 3]);
kanal1 = bar(((sub/57.7)*100),'g');
xlim([0 50])
ylim([0 1])
xlabel('Interharmonic subgroup')
ylabel('% (U/Un)')

subplot(2,2,[2 4]);
kanal1 = bar(((sub/64.82)*100),'g');
xlim([0 50])
ylim([0 1])
xlabel('Interharmonic subgroup')
ylabel('% (U/U_a_c_t_u_a_l)')

figure
subplot(3,1,3)
bar(highf,'g');
title(strcat('Frequency bands, in the range 2kHz to 9kHz,
channel',num2str(ch)))
xlim([2000 9000])
ylim([0 0.02])
xlabel('Hz')
ylabel('V(RMS)')

figure
semilogy(freq(1:90001),p(1:90001),'g')
title(strcat('Voltage, channel',num2str(ch)))
xlim([0 9000])
xlabel('Hz')
ylabel('V(RMS) , log. scale')
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elseif ch==4

ovi2=overt';
% Creating Bar chart for interharmonic groups
figure
subplot(2,1,2);
kanal2 = bar(group,'r');
xlim([0 50])
ylim([0 1.1])
ylabel('% (U/Ufund.)')
hold on;
hold off;

figure
subplot(2,1,1);
k2=bar(joj,'r');
xlim([0 2500])
ylim([0 0.71])
xlabel('Hz')
limit=refline(0,grundtonensmarkspanning*0.001);

figure
subplot(3,1,3)
k5=bar(highf,'r');
title(strcat('Frequency bands, in the range 2kHz to
9kHz',num2str(ch)))
xlim([2000 9000])
ylim([0 0.02])
xlabel('Hz')

figure
semilogy(freq(1:9001),p(1:9001),'r')
xlim([0 9000])
xlabel('Hz')
ylabel('V, log. scale')

figure
plot(freq(1:1001),p(1:1001),'r')
title(strcat('Voltage, kanal ',num2str(ch)))
xlabel('Hz')
end
end

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