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Associate Professor Associate Professor Associate Professor Associate Professor Radu Hanzu Radu Hanzu Radu Hanzu Radu

adu Hanzu- -- -Pazara, PhD Pazara, PhD Pazara, PhD Pazara, PhD
Lecturer Varsami Anastasia Lecturer Varsami Anastasia Lecturer Varsami Anastasia Lecturer Varsami Anastasia, PhD , PhD , PhD , PhD
Lecturer Tromiadis Ramona Lecturer Tromiadis Ramona Lecturer Tromiadis Ramona Lecturer Tromiadis Ramona, PhD , PhD , PhD , PhD



















ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION
(Course Manual)

























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Chapter I

Hyperbolic navigation



1.1. Introduction


Hyperbolic navigation refers to a class of radio navigation systems based on the difference in
timing between the reception of two signals, without reference to a common clock. This timing
reveals the difference in distance from the receiver to the two stations. Plotting all of the
potential locations of the receiver for the measured delay produces a series of hyperbolic lines on
a chart. Taking two such measurements and looking for the intersections of the hyperbolic lines
reveals the receiver's location to be in one of two locations. Any form of other navigation
information can be used to eliminate this ambiguity and determine a fix.
The first such system to be used was the World War II-era Gee system introduced by the Royal
Air Force for use by Bomber Command. This was followed by the more accurate Decca
Navigator System in 1944 by the Royal Navy, along with LORAN by the US Navy for long-
range navigation at sea. Post war examples including the well-known US Coast Guard LORAN-
C, the international Omega system, and the Soviet Alpha and CHAYKA. All of these systems
saw use until their wholesale replacement by satellite navigation systems like the Global
Positioning System (GPS).

Timing-based navigation. Consider two ground-based radio stations located at a set distance
from each other, say 300 km so that they are exactly 1 ms apart at light speed. Both stations are
equipped with identical transmitters set to broadcast a short pulse at a specific frequency. One of
these stations, called the "secondary" is also equipped with a radio receiver. When this receiver
hears the signal from the other station, referred to as the "master", it triggers its own broadcast.
The master station can then broadcast any series of pulses, with the secondary hearing these and
generating the same series after a 1 ms delay.
Consider a portable receiver located on the midpoint of the line drawn between the two stations,
known as the baseline. In this case, the signals will, necessarily, take 0.5 ms to reach the
receiver. By measuring this time, they could determine that they are precisely 150 km from both
stations, and thereby exactly determine their location. If the receiver moves to another location
along the line, the timing of the signals would change. For instance, if they time the signals at
0.25 and 0.75 ms, they are 75 km from the closer station and 225 from the further.
If the receiver moves to the side of the baseline, the delay from both stations will grow. At some
point, for instance, they will measure a delay of 1 and 1.5 ms, which implies the receiver is
300 km from one station and 450 from the other. If one draws circles of 300 and 450 km radius
around the two stations on a chart, the circles will intersect at two points. With any additional
source of navigation information, one of these two intersections can be eliminated as a
possibility, and thus reveal their exact location, or "fix".







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1.2. Hyperbolic navigation characteristics


Consider the same examples as our original absolute-timed cases. If the receiver is located on the
midpoint of the baseline the two signals will be received at exactly the same time, so the delay
between them will be zero. However, the delay will be zero not only if they are located 150 km
from both stations and thus in the middle of the baseline, but also if they are located 200 km
from both stations, and 300 km, and so forth. So in this case the receiver cannot determine their
exact location, only that their location lies somewhere along a line perpendicular to the baseline.
In the second example the receivers determined the timing to be 0.25 and 0.75 ms, so this would
produce a measured delay of 0.5 ms. There are many locations that can produce this difference -
0.25 and 0.75 ms, but also 0.3 and 0.8 ms, 0.5 and 1 ms, etc. If all of these possible locations are
plotted, they form a hyperbolic curve centred on the baseline. Navigational charts can be drawn
with the curves for selected delays, say every 0.1 ms. The operator can then determine which of
these lines they lie on by measuring the delay and looking at the chart.
A single measurement reveals a range of possible locations, not a single fix. The solution to this
problem is to simply add another secondary station at some other location. In this case two
delays will be measured, one the difference between the master and secondary "A", and the other
between the master and secondary "B". By looking up both delay curves on the chart, two
intersections will be found, and one of these can be selected as the likely location of the receiver.
This is a similar determination as in the case with direct timing/distance measurements, but the
hyperbolic system consists of nothing more than a conventional radio receiver hooked to an
oscilloscope.
Because a secondary could not instantaneously transmit its signal pulse on receipt of the master
signal, a fixed delay was built into the signal. No matter what delay is selected, there will be
some locations where the signal from two secondary would be received at the same time, and
thus make them difficult to see on the display. Some method of identifying one secondary from
another was needed. Common methods included transmitting from the secondary only at certain
times, using different frequencies, adjusting the envelope of the burst of signal, or broadcasting
several bursts in a particular pattern. A set of stations, master and secondaries, was known as a
"chain". Similar methods are used to identify chains in the case where more than one chain may
be received in a given location.


1.3. Operational systems


Meint Harms was the first to have attempted the construction of a hyperbolic navigation systems,
starting with musings on the topic in 1931 as part of his master's examination at Seefahrtschule
Lbeck (Navigation College). After taking the position of Professor for Mathematics, Physics
and Navigation at the Kaisertor in Lbeck, Harms tried to demonstrate hyperbolic navigation
making use of simple transmitters and receivers. On 18 February 1932 he received Reichspatent-
Nr. 546000 for his invention.

LORAN. The US had also considered hyperbolic navigation as early as 1940, but only halting
progress had been made by the time they were introduced to Gee. Gee was immediately selected
for the 8th Air Force and their attention turned to other uses, eventually considering convoy
navigation in particular. R. J. Dippy, inventor of Gee, moved to the US in mid-1942 to help with
this project, which eventually emerged as LORAN, for LOng RAnge Navigation. LORAN
became LORAN-A when the design of its replacement started, this was initially the LORAN-B
concept, but eventually replaced by the very long-range LORAN-C starting in 1957.
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LORAN-A was essentially a version of Gee with a new selection of frequencies suitable for
long-range transmission over water, eventually selecting 1.950 MHz. 7.5 MHz was selected for
daytime use as an additional channel, but never used operationally. In comparison to Gee's
450 mile range through air, LORAN-A had a range of about 1500 miles over water, and
600 miles over land. Operation was generally similar to Gee, but only one of the secondary
signals was displayed at a time. A fix required the operator to measure one delay, then the other,
and then look up the resulting delays on the charts. The accuracy was quoted as 1% of range.
LORAN-A used two methods to identify a chain. One was the operational frequency, with four
"channels", as in Gee. The second was the rate at which the pulses were repeated, with "high",
"low" and "slow" rates. This allowed for up to 12 chains in any given area. Additionally, the
originally steady repetition of the pulses was later modified to create another eight unique
patterns, allowing a total of 96 station pairs. Any given chain could use one or more pairs of
stations, demanding a large number of unique signals for widespread coverage.

The Decca Navigation System was originally developed in the US, but eventually deployed by
the Decca Radio company in the UK and commonly referred to as a British system. Initially
developed for the Royal Navy as an accurate adjunct to naval versions of Gee, Decca was first
used on 5 June 1944 to guide minesweepers in preparation for the D-Day invasions. The system
was developed post-war and competed with GEE and other systems for civilian use. A variety of
reasons, notably its ease-of-use, kept it in widespread use into the 1990s, with a total 42 chains
around the world. A number of stations were updated in the 1990s, but the widespread use of
GPS led to Decca being turned off at midnight on 31 March 2000.
Decca was based on comparing the phases of continuous signals instead of the timing of their
pulses. This was more accurate, as the phase of a pair of signals could be measured to within a
few degrees, four degrees in the case of Decca. This greatly improved inherent accuracy allowed
Decca to use much longer wavelengths than Gee or LORAN while still offering the same level
of accuracy. The use of longer wavelengths gave better propagation than either Gee or LORAN,
although ranges were generally limited to around 500 miles for the basic system. However,
Decca also had the inherent disadvantage that the signal repeated over space, and could only
identify the location within what they referred to as "lanes". These were relatively small, so
additional information was needed to identify which lane the receiver was located in.
Decca solved this problem though the use of an odometer-like display known as "decometers".
Prior to leaving on a trip, the navigator would set the decometer's lane counter to their known
position. As the craft moved the dial's hand would rotate, and increment or decrement the
counter when it passed zero. The combination of this number and the current dial reading
allowed the navigator to directly read the current delay and look it up on a chart, a far easier
process than Gee or LORAN. It was so much easier to use that Decca later added an automatic
charting feature that formed a moving map display. Later additions to the signal chain allowed
the zone and lane to be calculated directly, eliminating the need for manual setting of the lane
counters and making the system even easier to use.
As each master and secondary signal was sent on a different frequency, any number of delays
could be measured at the same time; in practice a single master and three secondaries were used
to produce three outputs. As each signal was sent on a different frequency, all three, known as
"green", "red" and "purple", were simultaneously decoded and displayed on three decometers.
The secondaries were physically distributed at 120 degree angles from each other, allowing the
operator to pick the pair of signals on the display that were sent from stations as close to right
angles to the receiver as possible, further improving accuracy. Maximum accuracy was normally
quoted as 200 yards, although that was subject to operational errors.
In addition to greater accuracy and ease of use, Decca was also more suitable for use over land.
Delays due to refraction can have a significant effect on pulse timing, but much less so for phase
changes. Decca thus found itself in great demand for helicopter use, where runway approach aids
like ILS and VOR were not suitable for the small airfields and essentially random locations the
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aircraft were used. One serious disadvantage to Decca was that it was susceptible to noise,
especially from lightning. This was not a serious concern for ships, who could afford to wait out
storms, but made it unsuitable for long-range air navigation where time was of the essence.
Several versions of Decca were introduced for this role, notably DECTRA and DELRAC, but
these did not see widespread use.

LORAN-C. LORAN-A was designed to be quickly built on the basis of Gee, and selected its
operating frequency based on the combination of the need for long over-water range as well as
accuracy of the resulting fix. Using much lower frequencies, in the kHz instead of MHz, would
greatly extend the range of the system. However, the accuracy of the fix is a function of the
wavelength of the signal, which increases at lower frequencies - in other words, using a lower
frequency would necessarily lower the accuracy of the system. Hoping for the best, early
experiments with "LF Loran" instead proved that accuracy was far worse than predicted, and
efforts along these lines were dropped.
Several halting low-frequency efforts followed, including the Decca-like Cyclan and Navarho
concepts. A key development was the introduction of the low-cost phase-locked loop in the
1950s, which allowed a receiver to "lock on" to a signal and maintain the phase and frequency
very accurately. This allowed a carrier signal to be re-constructed in a local oscillator by
observing received pulses, a process that was accurate enough for phase comparisons against the
local oscillator. This allowed a single system to combine the features of pulse-based and phase-
based systems.
Re-using the Cyclan transmitters, the US Navy started experiments with such a system int the
mid-1950s, and turned the system on permanently in 1957. Numerous chains followed,
eventually providing around-the-world coverage near US allies and assets. Although less
accurate that Decca, it offered the combination of reasonable accuracy and long ranges, keeping
it in operation until GPS finally led to its shutdown on 8 February 2010.
In basic operation, LORAN-C is more similar to Decca than Gee or LORAN-A, as its main way
determining location was the comparison of phase differences between signals. However, at low
frequencies and long ranges it would be difficult to know whether you are looking at the current
phase of the signal, or the phase of the signal one cycle ago, or perhaps one reflected off the
ionosphere. Some form of secondary information is needed to reduce this ambiguity. LORAN-C
achieved this by sending unique details in the pulses so each station could be uniquely identified.
The signal was started off when the Master broadcast a sequence of nine pulses, with the precise
timing between each pulses being used to identify the station. Each of the Secondary stations
then sent out their own signals, consisting of eight pulses in patterns that revealed which station
they were. The receivers could use the signal timings to select chains, identify secondaries, and
reject signals bounced off the ionosphere.
LORAN-C chains were organized into the Master station, M, and up to five Secondary stations,
V, W, X, Y, Z. All were broadcast at 100 kHz, a much lower frequency than earlier systems. The
result was a signal that offered a daytime ground wave range of 2,250 miles, nighttime ground
wave of 1,650 miles and skywaves out to 3,000 miles. Timing accuracy was estimated at
0.15 microseconds, offering accuracies on the order of 50 to 100 meters.

Omega. One of the last hyperbolic navigation systems to enter operational use was one of the
earliest to be developed. Omega traces its history to work by John Alvin Pierce in the 1940s,
working on the same basic idea as the Decca phase-comparison system. He imagined a system
specifically for medium-accuracy global navigation, and thus selected the extremely low
frequency of 10 kHz as the basis for the signal. However, the problem with phase ambiguity, as
in the case of Decca, meant that the system was not practical at the time.
Where the phase-locked loop made LORAN-C a possibility, for Omega it was the introduction
of inertial navigation systems (INS) that offered a solution - the INS was accurate enough to
resolve any ambiguity about which lane the receiver was in. Experiments continued throughout
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the 1950s and 60s, in parallel with Decca's development of their almost identical DELRAC
system. It was not until the 1960s, when ice-breaking ballistic submarines became a main
deterrent force, that there was a pressing need for such a system. The US Navy authorized full
deployment in 1968, reaching a complete set of 8 stations in 1983. Omega would also prove to
be one of the shortest-lived systems, shutting down on 20 September 1997.
Omega stations broadcast a continuous-wave signal in a specific time-slot. In order to maintain
precise timing of the slots for stations distributed around the world, stations were equipped with
synchronized atomic clocks. These clocks also ensured that their signals were sent out with the
right frequency and phase; unlike previous systems, Omega did not need to have a
master/secondary arrangement as the clocks were accurate enough to trigger the signals without
an external reference. To start the sequence, the station in Norway would initially broadcast on
10.2 kHz for 0.9 seconds, then turned off for 0.2 seconds, then broadcast on 13.6 kHz for 1.0
seconds, and so on. Each station broadcast a series of four such signals lasting about a second
each, and then stood silent while other stations took their turn. At any given instant, three
stations would be broadcasting at the same time on different frequencies. Receivers would select
the set of stations that were most suitable for their given location, and then wait for the signals
for those stations to appear during the 10 second chain. Calculation of the fix then proceeded in
precisely the same fashion as Decca, although the much lower operating frequency led to much
less accuracy. Omega's charts quote accuracies of 2 to 4 nautical miles.

































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Chapter II

LORAN - C



2.1. Introduction and history


Introduction. Loran-C, the successor to Loran-A, was originally developed to provide
radionavigation service for U.S. coastal waters and was later expanded to include complete
coverage of the continental U.S. as well as most of Alaska. Twenty four U.S. Loran-C stations
work in partnership with Canadian and Russian stations to provide coverage in Canadian waters
and in the Bering Sea. Loran-C provides better than 0.25 nautical mile (460 meters) absolute
accuracy for suitably equipped users within the published areas.
Users can return to previously determined positions with an accuracy of 18 to 90 meters using
Loran-C in the time difference repeatable mode. Advances in technology have allowed greater
automation of Loran-C operations. New technology has allowed the United States Coast Guard
to establish centralized control of the continental U.S. Loran-C system at two locations. The
application of new receiver technology has improved the usability of the system. A majority of
the 1.3 million Loran sets in use worldwide are for mariners. Loran-C is greatly appreciated by
the US general aviation community with some 80,000 aircraft now equipped with the system.

History. The Pacific war showed the need for a Loran-like system that could be operated over
much greater distances in daylight than Loran-A could provide. There were few islands on which
transmitters could be located and they were great distances apart. The only potential solution was
to try Loran techniques at low frequencies so an experimental set of three Loran transmitters
operating at 180 kHz was set up on the US East Coast during 1945 using balloon supported
aerials. The main result of these tests was to show that pulse envelope matching, as used in
Loran-A, was too inaccurate with the long pulses necessary at these low frequencies, and that
phase comparison would he required.
The experiments were not followed up and the system, called LF Loran at that time, was
dismantled following the end of the war. The MIT Radiation Laboratory, which had sponsored
the work, was also closed and responsibility for further work given to the new US Air Force. The
transmitters that had been used for LF Loran were re-installed in Alaska for trials of LF
propagation in Arctic areas and the experimentation yielded much useful data. According to the
book "Sixty Years: the RCAF and CF Air Command 1924-84 edited by Larry Milberry, three
station sites were established. Kittigazuit, N.W.T was the master. Slaves were close to Barrow,
Alaska and Cambridge Bay, N.W.T. The chain was built in 1947, but was shut down in March of
1950. It operated at 180 kHz but "it became evident that attenuation of the ground wave over the
permafrost and certain sea ice conditions was much more severe than predicted. ... interaction
between the groundwave and the first hop skywave created severe pulse matching problems''.
The station at Kittigazuit, NWT was called "Yellow Beetle".
In 1946, the Sperry company proposed a navigation system called Cyclan which would use
phase comparison and operate at two frequencies of 180 and 200 kHz, the difference between
them being used to resolve ambiguities. It was tested by the USAF in 1948 using 160 and 180
kHz and later reduced to one frequency and renamed Cytac for possible use as a military tactical
navaid.
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After further tests in 1951, the U.S. Air Force decided to concentrate on inertial and Doppler
systems for tactical use and stopped development. Parallel development of a system known as
Navarho had also been proceeding, a system that had been derived from the British POPI system.
Navarho was a long range system providing both range and bearing, obtaining range by
measuring the change of phase between the transmitted signal and a local very high stability
reference oscillator - the first time this had been attempted. The state of the art for portable
oscillators left too much to be desired so the project was abandoned. Also scrubbed, was a
further development known as Navaglobe - a system intended to give wide area coverage.
The US Navy began to take an interest a few years later, and recommissioned the three original
Cytac transmitters at Forestport, NY (later used for experimental Omega transmissions),
Carolina Beach, NC, and Carabelle, Florida, for a trial abroad the USCG cutter Androscoggin in
April 1956. The transmissions were phase coherent 100 kHz pulses 100 microseconds long at
peak powers of 60 kW except from Forestport, which had a 1,280 foot tower and radiated an
estimated 200 kW. These pulses were less than half the duration later adopted for the Loran-C
system (240 microseconds) and rose to a maximum amplitude in only 25 microseconds as
compared with the later 60 microseconds. The results showed a daytime ground wave range of
2,250 miles, nighttime ground wave of 1,650 miles and skywaves out to 3,000 miles. Time
difference accuracy was estimated at 0.15 microseconds.
Thus encouraged, the US Navy established transmitters in the north-eastern Atlantic and the
Mediterranean during 1957, followed by many others in the Pacific and elsewhere, naming the
system Loran-C. Initial contracts for receivers were subcontracted to, amongst others, Decca
Navigator, who produced the AN/SPN, probably the most successful of the early Loran-C
receivers. It had 52 controls and weighed over 100 pounds. Although initiated as a marine
system, Loran-C came into use for aerial navigation quite widely and during trials in 1963, was
flown at over Mach 1 in a British Vulcan aircraft. A chain was installed in Vietnam in the 1960's
specifically for the use of USAF aircraft. Loran-C was installed in many long range civil aircraft
while inertial systems were being proven and is still used in long range military aircraft. The
Decca company sued the US Navy in 1969, alleging that Loran-C infringed patents it held
concerning a 100 kHz pulsed navigation system. As early as 1944, Decca had deliberately not
used the 7F (98 kHz) frequency of the Navigator system because of its possible use for this pulse
system. The claim was upheld at first but reversed on appeal, with the US Navy pleading
military necessity.

2.2. LORAN-C signal characteristics

Loran-C transmitters are organized into chains of 3, 4 or 5 stations. Within a chain, one station is
designated "Master" (M) while the other "Secondary" stations identified by the letters W, X, Y
and Z. Different secondary designations are used depending on the number of station in a chain.

CONFIGURATION DESIGNATORS EXAMPLE

Master with 5 secondaries M V, W, X, Y, Z South Central U.S. 9610
Master with 4 secondaries M W, X, Y, Z Southeast U.S. 7980
Master with 3 secondaries M X, Y, Z Canadian West Coast 5990
Master with 2 secondaries M W, X Calcutta 5943
Master with 2 secondaries M X, Y East China 8390


By 1989, there were 16 Loran-C chains comprising 67 stations and transmitting on 100 kHz. In
the year 2000 this had grown to 28 chains. Power levels can range from as low as 11 Kw
(Bombay 6042) to as high as 1.2 megawatts (China East Sea 8390). In Russia, a navigation
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system known as CHAYKA is compatible with Loran-C hence it forms part of the work wide
chain. Transmitting station signal availability is greater than 99.9 percent while typically
providing 99.7 percent triad availability.
The Loran-C navigation signal is a carefully structured sequence of brief radio frequency pulses
on a carrier wave centered at 100 kHz. All secondary stations radiate pulses in bursts of eight,
whereas the Master signal, for identification purposes, has an additional ninth pulse burst. The
sequence of signal transmissions consists of a pulse group from the Master (M) station followed
at precise time intervals by pulse groups from the secondary stations. The time interval between
the reoccurrence of the Master pulse is called the Group Repetition Interval (GRI).



Figure 2.1. Loran-C pulse format and sequencing


Since all Loran-C transmitters operate on the same frequency, the GRI is the key by which a
receiver can identify and isolate signal groups from a specific chain. In naming the chains, the
GRI is included. As an example the Great Lakes chain has a GRI of 8970. This means the time
interval is 89700 microseconds. The rightmost zero is always implied and the GRI is always in
multiples of 10 microseconds. In old Loran-C receivers, the operator had to actually set this
number to receive the chain. In cases where the Loran signals were observed on an oscilloscope,
pulses from the desired chain would be stationary while those from other chains would be
drifting down the time base at varying speeds. It was in fact, the only way of positively
identifying a chain, however in modern receivers, this is now done automatically.
GRI's are chosen on the basis of:
Baseline lengths between master and slaves. If the distance between the master and first
secondary is say 1000 km/s, the radio signal will take 33,000 microseconds to get to the slave so
the GRI cannot possibly be less than that.
Number of slaves that have to be accomodate - they all have to have delays so that there
is no possibility of them crossing over anywhere in coverage area.
Geography.
Other nearby chains with consideration given to interference.
Sky wave cross-rate interference.
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Duty cycle of the transmitters - a faster GRI means the average power of the transmitted signal is
higher so the final stage in the transmitter requires more cooling. With average baseline lengths
and three slaves, the minimum GRI cannot be much less than 50,000 microseconds.



Figure 2.2. Each Loran-C pulse has an approximate duration of 200 s. The interval between
pulses within a pulse group is 1000 s, except for the last two pulses at the Master which have a
2000 s interval. The graphic below illustrates one pulse



Figure 2.3. This graphic illustrates the points on the Loran-C pulse envelope that define the start
time, the time of maximum envelope power and the stop time of the pulse


Two other important characteristics are associated with Loran-C signals, namely emission and
coding delay. If the master station is taken as a reference, the emission delay refers to how long
it takes before the secondary transmits after the Master has done so. The coding delay is a very
small correction that removes the local (near-field) discrepancy between the envelope and
carrier. Both parameters are measured in microseconds and are uniquely associated with each
secondary station.

Baselines and coverage

An imaginary line drawn between the Master and each secondary station is called the baseline.
The continuation of the baseline in either direction is called a baseline extension. Typical
baselines are from 1200 to 1900 km (say 600 to 1000 nautical miles). Chain coverage is
determined by the power transmitted from each transmitter in the chain, the distance between
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them and how the different transmitters are oriented in relation to each other (the geometry of the
chain).

Sky wave rejection

A frequency of 100 kHz was chosen for the Loran-C carrier wave to take advantage of
propagation of the stable ground wave to long distances. However, the presence of delayed sky
waves, reflected from the ionosphere, cause distortions of the pulse shape and change the carrier
phase within the pulses of the received signal. Not only that, the skywaves take longer to arrive
at the receiver than the ground wave, so their presence complicates the computation. To avoid
sky wave contamination, the Loran-C receiver selects a zero crossing of a specified carrier cycle
at the front end of the pulses transmitted by master and secondary stations. Making the cycle
selection early in the ground wave pulse - usually the third cycle is employed - ensures that the
time interval measurement is made using the uncontaminated part of the pulse. But how is the
third peak selected when the start time of the pulse is not known? To solve the problem, the
receiver compares the envelope (the rough shape) of the received pulse with a stored envelope.
This process is called the "rough measurement". When the third peak is finally located, the phase
of the signal can be determined. The phase of the signal can be zero or pi radians. Precise control
over the pulse shape at the transmitter also ensures that the selected zero crossing can be
identified reliably by the receiver.


Figure 2.4. Zero Crossing: This diagram illustrates the third cycle in the Loran pulse


Phase coding

To reduce the effects of interference and noise on time difference measurements, and to assist in
distinguishing between master and secondary stations, the carrier phase of selected transmitted
pulses is reversed in a predetermined pattern. The pattern is shown in Fig. 5, where a minus sign
indicates an inverted pulse (180 phase shift), and a plus sign means no phase shift. This pattern
is repeated every two GRI's. Simply stated, phase coding determines whether the first peak in the
pulse is upwards or downwards.


Figure 2.5. Phase Coding
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Time difference measurements

The basic measurements made by Loran-C receivers are to determine the difference in the time-
of-arrival (TD) between the master signal and the signals from each of the secondary stations of
a chain. Each TD value is measured to a precision of about 0.1 microseconds (100 nanoseconds)
or better. As a rule of thumb, 100 nanoseconds correspond to about 30 metres.
The principle of time difference measurements in hyperbolic mode is illustrated in Fig. 2.6.



Figure 2.6. Time Difference Measurements


Automatic operation

Todays state-of-the-art, solid state Loran-C transmitters are adapted for automatic operation;
that is to say all vital transmitter functions are duplicated or designed for graceful degradation so
that the result of a defect is minimized. These vital functions are further monitored at the Control
Centre which has the capability of initiating corrective action using data communications. As a
consequence, the transmitters may be operated as unmanned stations except for caretakers.

Precision clocks

To achieve high positioning accuracy within the service area, Loran-C transmitter stations are
equipped with a suite of atomic clocks which provide the timing for the transmitted Loran-C
signal. On most stations these clocks are cesium frequency standards with a stability of typically
10-13, or an error of 1 second in 317,000 year. Precise navigation with Loran-C demands that the
error in the timing system must not exceed a few tens of nanoseconds. For NELS it is specified
that a station's clock shall not deviate by more than 30 nanoseconds from the clocks of the
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neighbouring stations. Achieving this precision in timing it is necessary to continuously measure
the time deviation between the clocks in the system.

SAM control

There are two basic methods in use for monitoring and adjusting the clocks in Loran-C systems.
The most commonly used method up to now is to measure the time difference between Loran-C
signals received from a master and a secondary at a fixed location in the coverage area. Timing
control includes making adjustments to the clock of the secondary station so that the measured
TD is kept at a predetermined value. The measurement equipment at the fixed location is called a
System Area Monitor (SAM), hence this method of timing control is referred to as "SAM
control".

TOE control

In the other method for timing control, used by the Northwest European Loran-C System
(NELS), there are no SAM's. Instead, arrival times of signals from adjacent transmitters are
measured relative to the local clock at each transmitter station. The measurements from all
stations in the system are sent by permanent data link to the control station where they are
combined so that the time deviation of each transmitter's clock can be calculated. Computed
adjustments are returned to the individual transmitter sites where they are used for clock
synchronization. This results in a common time reference for the Time Of Emission (TOE) of the
Loran-C pulses from all transmitters and is called "TOE control". The common NELS time
reference is itself related to UTC using the UTC (Brest) time standard which is co-located with
the NELS Control Centre at Brest, France. The NELS time reference synchronization to UTC
(Brest) is maintained to within 100 ns.

TOE and SAM control compared

Under TOE control, the time difference measurements over the coverage area will vary slightly
with seasonal changes in the speed of ground wave propagation. With SAM control, time
difference measurements made especially close to the area monitor will be very stable. TOE
control thus provides better overall performance monitoring throughout the coverage area. Other
advantages of TOE control over SAM control are:
Modeling and prediction of TD variations are made easier
Time derived from the signals is more accurate
Better accuracy for cross-chain and master independent use
Better accuracy for Rho Rho navigation (circular navigation method)
No monitor sites are needed.

Additional Secondary Factor (ASF)

A Loran-C receiver computes distances from Loran-C transmitting stations using the time of
arrival measurements and the propagation velocity of the radio ground wave to determine
position. Small variations in the velocity of propagation between that over sea water and over
different land masses are known as the Additional Secondary Factor, or ASF. Corrections may
be applied to compensate for this variation. Such corrections may improve the absolute accuracy
of the Loran-C service in positions where the received Loran-C signal passes over anything but
sea water on its way from transmitter to receiver. The values of ASF depend mainly on the
conductivity of the earth's surface along the signal paths. Sea water has high conductivity, and
the ASFs of sea water are, by definition, zero. Dry soil, mountains or ice generally have low
15
conductivity and radio signals travel over them more slowly, giving rise to substantial ASF
delays and hence degradation of absolute accuracy.
Fortunately, ASFs vary little with time, and it is possible to calibrate the Loran-C service by
measuring ASF values throughout the coverage area. A program for mapping of ASF in northern
Europe is the basis for the production of ASF corrections. These corrections will be distributed
as electronic databases.

Service integrity

Loran-C stations are constantly monitored to detect signal abnormalities which would render the
system unusable for navigation. "Blink" is the prime means by which the user is notified that the
transmitted Loran-C signal does not comply with the system specifications. Blink also indicates
that the Control Centre cannot ensure that the signal complies with these specifications, for
instance, as a result of discontinuation of data communications linking the Control Centre to the
stations. Blink is a distinctive change in the group of eight Loran-C pulses that can be recognized
automatically by a receiver so the user is notified instantly that the Loran-C chain blinking
should not be used for navigation. Blink starts at a maximum of 60 seconds after detection of an
abnormality. Automatic blink initiated within 10 seconds of a timing abnormality may be added
where Loran-C is extensively used for aviation purposes.


2.3. Accuracy of the signal


The Loran-C service will support an absolute accuracy varying from 185 meters to 463 meters
(0.1 to 0.25 nautical miles), depending on where the observer is within the coverage area.
Absolute accuracy defines a user's true geographic position (latitude and longitude). Repeatable
accuracy is a measure of an observer's ability - by using a navigation system such as Loran-C - to
return to a position visited previously using the same navigation system. Loran-C repeatable
accuracy is sometimes as good as 18 meters and is usually better than 100 meters within the
coverage area.
The inherent accuracy of the Loran-C system makes it suitable for many land radio location
applications. However, propagation anomalies may be encountered in urban areas caused by the
proximity of large man-made structures. Compensation for these anomalies is usually possible
either by prior measurement or by the application of the local ASF. Substantial improvement in
the accuracy of Loran-C service is technically possible by the measurement and broadcast of
local corrections in a technique known as differential Loran-C (DLoran-C). This is similar to
what is achieved with GPS using GPS differential corrections known as DGPS.
The Loran-C system is capable of being utilized as a time transfer standard.
The HF stations WWV and WWVH (and others like CHU) suffer from variations in propagation
time because of changes in the ionosphere. WWVB at 60 kHz is much better in that respect but
suffered from low output power until the late 1990's. Loran-C was the best source of radio time
signals for the last few decades. A number of companies built receivers that were specifically
designed to be time reference receivers. It's only been in the last few years that GPS based time
transfer had better performance than Loran-C. Apparently, there is a capability to send digital
data on the Loran-C signal for military use. Can anyone comment on this?
LORAN-C can be utilized in different modes of operation. Most common is the hyperbolic
mode. Circular mode, often referred to as Range-Range or RHO-RHO, has limited application
for special users. Unique and expensive user equipment is required for RHO-RHO operation
however, it only takes a fix from two stations to establish position.


16
2.4. Dual rated chains


Some transmitters in a Loran chain have only one function. That means they either serve as
dedicated master or dedicated secondary station in a particular chain. Many transmitters,
however are dual rated, meaning that these can serve one function in one chain and yet another
in a neighboring chain. For example, the Lorsta Searchlight (Nevada) facility has a transmitter
which serves as the secondary (Y) station in the 9440 chain and it also serves as the secondary
(W) station in the neighbouring chain 9610. Dual rating is desirable because, other things being
equal, land acquisition costs and siting difficulties are reduced.
In a dual rated environment, the operations/timing room has dual timing systems which are
common to one transmitter. Both timing systems operate from the same cesium frequency
standard, thus helping to reduce equipment cost. There is not one but two electronic timers for
each rate. For each rate, one timer is always on-line while the other serves as a standby unit.



Figure 2.7. These maps of chain 9610 (left) and 9940 (right) serve to illustrate their coverage
area. The dual rated station Lorsta Searchlight (Nevada) is used as the secondary (W) in chain
9610 and secondary (Y) in chain 9440



Figure 2.8. Coverage: This map illustrates the global coverage of Loran-C



17
2.5. LORAN C stations


LORAN-C stations working according to their status inside the system, grouped in Master and
Secondary stations, as follows:
The Master station transmits groups of 9 impulses, with a repetition frequency of
10-25 groups/second;
After the Master station have transmitted the first group of impulses, follow a
silence period, necessary to the direct line to travel the distance between the
Master station and the secondary station;
Next, the secondary station will transmits a group of 8 impulses, with a break
between them of 1,000 microseconds.
Function of splitting of repetition period, each station of a LORAN-C chain is encoded as
follows:
SL2 M

where: SL PRR pulse recurrence rate
2 PRI - pulse recurrence interval
M Master station
or:
SL2 Y

where: SL PRR pulse recurrence rate
2 PRI pulse recurrence interval)
Y Secondary station

The hyperbole is encoded in a similar way, adding the time difference value, which defines the
positioning hyperbole (in microseconds), like:

SL2-Y-19724
or:
7990 Y - 19724


LORAN C receivers

For a receiver to be able to display the ship position with system required accuracy must have the
following characteristics:
o LORAN-C signals receiving is automatic;
o An automatic identification of terrestrial pulses emitted by the Master and
secondary stations, and to realize a complete cycle of all 8 pulses for each pair of
Master-Secondary stations that are used;
o An automatic tracking of the signal when receiving was carried out;
o As a minimum requirement, displaying of two readings made in different
moments, with an accuracy of 0.1 microseconds, at least;
o To have filters for interferences, calibrated by the producer to minimize the
effects due to radio frequencies interferences in the operation area of the system.
At some of the alder receivers was necessary the operator to select the stations chain and stations
pair during the measurement process. Never, the receivers will automatically process, if the
operator has introduced the ship latitude and longitude, only will select the optimum stations
chain and stations pair in the area. The automatic selection process can be replaced with the user
manual selection of stations and chains.
18
Having selected the Master and secondary stations, the system has to receive signals with enough
accuracy to permit their positioning and tracking.
The necessary time period for processing of received information from the Master and secondary
stations and displaying of position, depends by receiver characteristics and the rate of received
signals.
The received signal should not be affected by interference caused by other signals that might
appears as received signal and thus reducing the rate of received LORAN signal and affecting
the ship position accuracy. The receiver signal filters can reduce the interferences influence.
These filters can be preset by producer or to be adjusted by the user.
The modern LORAN-C receivers give to the operator the possibility to monitoring ship
movement and to execute the necessary course alterations when is needed. The receiver provides
ship position (displayed as time difference or latitude and longitude) and using an accurate
measurement of time can offer very useful information for navigation, like ship course and
speed.
The receiver permits introduction of the waypoints details and creation of the route which have
to be followed, allowing to the operator to monitoring the ship movement on determined route,
giving in the same time information about the deviation from course and time to next waypoint.
It also can be store in the receiver memory data regarding the magnetic field variation in the
navigation area and the possibility to select the ship course as true course or magnetic. When is
used the magnetic course, the user will be warned about this value.
The LORAN-C receivers can be used also as independently navigation equipment or can be
integrated with other devices, like ECDIS or GPS. Modern receivers have the possibility to
transmit information to other devices which use the NMEA protocol (National Marine
Electronics Association). This type of receivers can be connected with the autopilot, ECDIS,
Radar, Gyro and ship loch, so calculating the ship drift due to the current in the transiting area.



Figure 2.9. LORAN-C receiver display


At receiver, determination of positioning hyperbole is made by measuring the time difference
between the pulses receiving moments and comparing the phase difference of the oscillation
pulses, which allows verification and cancellation of the interference caused by simultaneous
reception of signals on direct wave and the reflected wave.

19
2.6. Determinarea punctului navei cu ajutorul sistemului hiperbolic de
navigaie LORAN C


LORAN C charts


The LORAN chart is the representation in Mercator projection of the hyperbole families
generated by the station pair, the reception considering on direct wave.


Figure 2.10. LORAN-C chart

Each family of hyperbole is drawn to a particular color, and every hyperbole have a distinctive
code, corresponding to the stations pair that generated it and the calculated time difference.
Sometimes, on LORAN charts can be founded tables with correction values for the reflected
wave for each of the stations.
According to chart scale, the hyperbole can be drawn for time differences of 20, 100 or 200
microseconds.
The ship position is calculated by interpolation of the read hyperbolas, the optimum intersection
of two hyperbolas as close to 90 degrees, and for three hyperbolas of 60 120 degrees.


20

Figure 2.11. LORAN-Cchart: four hyperbole families from LORAN-C 7980 chain


Determination of ship position on LORAN-C chart through graphical interpolation of two
hyperbole families


On LORAN-C chart are choosing the first two hyperbole families, characterized by the encoding
according to the emitting station.
It is drawn the first family of hyperbolas.


Figure 2.12. LORAN-C chart: chosen of hyperbole families








21
It is determinate the first family of hyperbole.


Figure 2.13. LORAN-C chart: determination of the first family of hyperbolas, from secondary
station X


It is determine the second family of hyperbolas.


Figure 2.14. LORAN-C chart: determination of the second family of hyperbolas, from
secondary station Y

It is plotting the medial lines for both families of hyperbole.

22

Figure 2.15. LORAN-C chart: median lines for hyperbolas determined
by X and Y stations


At the two medial lines intersection is obtaining the ship position, calculated with LORAN-C
hyperbolic system.


Figure 2.16. LORAN-C chart: ship position determined by two families of hyperbole







23

Use of LORAN tables for the ship positioning

The LORAN tables for determination of ship position are made it for each stations pair and
contain the coordinates of the intersection points of position hyperbolas with parallels and
meridians, depending on the orientation of the line position.
Considered hyperbolas are determined for time differences (T) of 10 microseconds, reception
carried out on direct wave.
By using the graphical method of ship position determination, the hyperbolas spherical arches in
Mercator projection are replaced with corresponding rhumb segments, called LORAN lines.
For this approximation does not influence the position accuracy, the LORAN tables are
calculated as follows:
In the area of the hyperbolas family of the stations pair, where the curvature is not
large, LORAN tables give the coordinates of hyperbolas intersection points (from
10 to 10 microseconds) with parallels and meridians at 1 degree intervals;
Closer to transmitting stations, where the hyperbolas curvature is accentuated,
intersection points data are giving for latitude and longitude difference intervals
(, ) by 15 or 30 minutes.
The values listed in the time difference column (T), represents latitude or longitude variation
for a time difference of 1 microsecond.
The value is expressed in hundreds of minutes of arch and serves to interpolation of hyperbole
intersection point coordinates with the considered meridian or parallel, the interpolation is
carried out according to the difference of time value read at the receiver for a nominate
hyperbole (T
G
).

The coordinates difference or can be obtained also, with the relation:

(, ) = (T
G
T) x (3.1)




















Figure 2.17. LORAN tables



SL4-X
T 13430 13440 13450
LAT L L L LONG
33 54.3 N +15 33 55.8 N +15 25
0
E
33 49.4 N +16 33 51.0 N +16 26
0
E
SL4-Y
T 31870 31880 31890
LAT L L L LONG
34
0
N 25 10.4 E -18 25 08.6 E -18
33
0
N 25 33.5 E +20 25 31.5 E +20
24

Calculus model for ship position determination with LORAN tables

Date: yy/mm/dd Time: h/min LT

Estimate position: LAT 30
0
40 N
LONG 25
0
40 E

At LORAN-C receiver, connected to SL4 chain, are read the following:

pair M SL4 X (Matratin): T
G
= 13435 sec
pair M SL4 Y (Targaburun): T
G
= 31872 sec

LORAN table:



Determination of the intersection points:

- pair M SL4 X

T
G
= 13435
- T = 13430
(T
G
T) = + 5

for LONG 1 = 25
0
E; LAT = 33
0
54.
3
N
= + 15 +(0.15 x 5) = 0.
8


LAT 1 = 33
0
55.
1
N

for LONG 2 = 26
0
E; LAT = 33
0
49.
4
N
= + 16 +(0.16 x 5) = 0.
8


25
LAT 2 = 33
0
50.
2
N
LORAN table:



Determination of intersection points:

- pair M SL4 Y

T
G
= 31872
- T = 31870
(T
G
T) = + 2

for LAT 3 = 34
0
N; LONG = 25
0
10.
4
E
= + 15 -(0.18 x 2) = -0.
4


LONG 3 = 25
0
10 E

for LAT 4 = 33
0
N; LONG = 25
0
33.
5
E
= + 16 -(0.2 x 5) = -0.
4


LONG 4 = 25
0
33.
1
E


There are obtained two rhumb segments (LORAN lines) defined as follows:

M position line (LAT1, LONG1; LAT2, LONG2)
P position line (LAT3, LONG3; LAT4, LONG4)

The problem can be solved directly on LORAN navigation chart in Mercator projection for
considered area, or by the process of building scale charts.
The obtained LORAN-C point has the coordinates: LAT = 33
0
54 N
26
LONG = 25
0
12 E


Figure 2.18. Ship position calculated with LORAN tables



2.7. LORAN position accuracy


Suprafaa rombului erorilor determina de o eroare de msurare este minim dac liniile de
poziie hiperbolice se intersecteaz perpendicular.
Amplasarea staiilor LORAN este astfel calculat nct familiile de hiperbole pe care le
genereaz s se intersecteze sub unghiuri mai mari de 30 grade.
Precizia punctului LORAN C, n cazul recepionrii undei directe, are o toleran de msurare
de 0,5 microsecunde, deci o eroare total de 2,5 microsecunde.
n cazul unui unghi de intersecie favorabil pentru hiperbolele de poziie, precizia punctului este
de 0,1 mile marine pentru o distan de pn la 350 mile marine fa de staia principal i de
0,3 mile marine la o distan de 750 mile marine.


2.8. LORAN-C closure


The closure of the Loran- C system in the United States occured on February 8, 2010. This is the
official statement issued by the United States Coast Guard.
In accordance with the DHS Appropriations Act, the U.S. Coast Guard has terminated the
transmission of all U.S. LORAN-C signals effective on 08 Feb 2010. At this time, the U.S.
LORAN-C signal will be unusable and permanently discontinued.
This termination does not affect U.S. participation in the Russian American or Canadian
LORAN-C chains. U.S. participation in these chains will continue in accordance with
27
international agreements. The Canadian Coast Guard has also issued a statement, which is shown
on their website.
The Coast Guard strongly urges mariners currently using LORAN-C for navigation to shift to a
GPS navigation system and become familiar with its operation as soon as possible. The decision
to cease transmission of the LORAN-C signal reflects the president's pledge to eliminate
unnecessary federal programs.














































28


Chapter III

e-LORAN


3.1. Introduction


The modern system eLoran (Enhanced Loran eLoran) is a standardized international service
for 2D (two dimensions) positioning, navigation and time (Positioning, Navigation and Timing
PNT), working on frequency of 100 kHz, for different transport segments and other civilian
applications for positioning.
eLoran represents an improved version of the Hyperbolic Navigation System LORAN-C and
meets the necessary requirements of performance, accuracy, availability and integrity of
information for:
- Air navigation during approach to landing;
- Coastal navigation in areas with heavy traffic, during approch procedures
and port entrance maneuvres, in restricted visibility conditions;
- Terrestrial navigation;
- Terrestrial positioning;
- Telecommunication and other domains (Internet, etc.) through providing
of UTC time differential signals, with precission of 50 nanoseconds.
eLoran is an independent hyperbolic system, complementary to GNSS (Global Navigation
Sattelite Navigation System GNSS). The system is in the development phase until 2020. The
first eLoran station was built at Anthorn in Great Britain. This station transmit eLoran messages
from January 2008. The transmitted eLoran messages are EUROFIX messages and contain
differential LORAN information, differential GPS, integrity of data information and UTC
referentials.


3.2. Avantages of the eLoran system


The main advantages of the eLoran system are:
- Civilian control;
- The eLoran signal is not intentionally degraded;
- UTC syncronized transmission by a method independent of satellite
systems;
- If eLoran emission source is synchronized with the same UTC time
source like satellite systems, the eLoran signal can be used in
combination with satellite navigation signal;
- The eLoran signal can be received in areas where there is not satellite
coverage;
- Transmission in real time (under 10 seconds) of a message about
possible malfunctions or loss of signal integrity;
- Repeatable positioning accuracy is good;
29
- In addition to the LORAN-C syste, eLoran signal has constituted a data
channel that provides corrections, warnings about system status and
information integrity;
- Implementation and maintenance costs are lower than for satellite
systems;
- Can be used for providing of differential corrections to satellite systems.
The eLoran system ensures safe and low-cost services for governmental and private institutions
and users from aviation, maritime, etc., by:
- Ensuring flights in all its phases (takeoff, flight, approach and landing);
- Providing information for eNavigation, including the use of permanent
and temporary means for ensuring of maritime navigation (Aids to
Navigation AtoNs), for marking of dangerous water areas;
- Identification of terrestrial transport units;
- Maintainance and synchroniziation of telecommunications wired and
wireless.


3.3. The eLoran components


The eLoran system is compound of:
- Control Centres;
- Transmitting stations;
- Monitoring points;
- eLoran receivers.
The eLoran services are provided by a main centre through specialized applications. The main
distributor ensures original and accurate eLoran information in accordance with operational
specifications for LORAN-C signal. The specialized applications for aviation, maritime, etc.,
provide information for specified domain by eLoran data channel.


eLoran transmitting stations

The eLoran signal is transmitted automatically. The eLoran transmitters using modern SSX
(Solid State Transmitter) equipped with neinterruptibile energy sources, and with time control
and emission frequency control systems. Signal phase corrections are made continuously. The
eLoran time is provided by high performance watches with cesium or other technology with the
same level of accuracy.
At anomalies detection in operation of an eLoran transmission station, this is indicated in a very
short time, like for LORAN-C system, cautioning the user to not use the eLoran information
until the problem is fixed.


The eLoran Control Centres

The eLoran Control Centre provides quick solutions for malfunctions and maintaining
availability and continuity of the public announced signal performance level.
System maintenance is so planned and conducted to minimalize the impact on transmitting
stations activity. Also, from control centres are transmitted information to users about signal
interruption through official known channels.


30



Monitoring points. eLoran reference stations

The monitoring points have the role to provide signal integrity for all users of the eLoran system.
Receivers installed in these points monitoring continuous the signal quality in responsibility area.
Some of these stations are used as reference stations to generate eLoran messages. Also,
monitoring stations will provide real time differential corrections for ship receivers and warnings
for aviation.


3.4. eLoran receivers


The eLoran receiver provides acquisition and tracking of received messages from several
stations to offer a most accurate positioning and a more accurate time service. Also, the eLoran
receivers can ensure the correctness of each eLoran signal.
The eLoran receiver receives and decoding eLoran messages using specific applications.
An eLoran receiver determines its position (latitude and longitude) and UTC time by measuring
receiving times of pulses from last three eLoran stations within visible range.
Propagation of eLoran signals over different forms of relief produces deviations of receiving
times, called secondary additionl factors (Aditional Secondary Factors ASF), versus
theorethical receiving times and, as result, the reduction of position accuracy. Anyway, using
eLoran differential information, the position accuracy increasing and become very good, about
10 meters.
An ASF error of 1 s means an error of 300 meters distance of eLoran position.
An eLoran chart contains the nominal ASF values of ASF factors for a particular area and
transmitter.
The ASF value in s, depending on relief forms is as follows:
0.0 sea surface
1.65 clay soil
2.36 swamp and flotting ice
4.94 trees land
5.61 snow and ice
6.12 land
6.62 sand (desert)


3.5. The content of the eLoran signal


The eLoran signal is complex and containing the following information:
- Identification details of transmitting eLoran station;
- The eLoran transmitters and monitoring points almanah;
- Refferenced UTC time scale;
- Time difference between eLoran time and UTC time;
- eLoran signal;
- Warnings about abnormal radio propagation due to meteorological
conditions;
- identification message by eLoran users;
- differential-satellite corrections.
31
The eLoran signal for marine users have a design, evaluation, checking and updating circuit,
starting from Main eLoran System and finishing at ship eLoran receivers through eLoran Marine
System. At eLoran receiver arrived both eLoran signal with eLoran data integrity signal and
eLoran differential corrections.
3.6. eLoran applications


The eLoran system applications are based on minimum operational performance
standards. For aviation, eLoran provides information for horizontally guidance, less altitude
information, for all flight stages. For ocean navigation, the eLoran system will provide high
accuracy positioning and time information, according to IMO Resolution A.953/23/2003, on
global radionavigation system. These performance standards are applying for approaching and
port entry, coastal navigation in congested waters and high-risk areas.
Applying the eLoran differential corrections in real time, ensure achievement of the
required performance standards. For time information the eLoran system respects ITU Standard
G.811/1997.
In addition, if an eLoran receiver has a suitable antenna can be used as eLoran compass,
for measuring eLoran bearings to transmitting stations and, also, is possible to determine ship
course with less than 1 degree accuracy, irrespective of ship position and movement.
It also envisages to couples the eLoran receivers with ECDIS and AIS devices.
An eLoran system will provide for maritime navigation the following:
a. increased safety can be used, with high accuracy level, comparing with other
methods and navigation procedires, like back-up system for a satellite positioning
system, if needed;
b. security provides functionally of collision warning systems, during operation
interruption of satellite systems or VTS systems;
c. better use of resources:
- potentially reduction of collision and grounding events, and, as result,
reduction of oil pollution cases;
- assist in monitoring of marine oil pollution;
- potentially reduction of costs with navigational systems;
- potentially increasing of voyage monitoring efficiency and port entry
maneuvres.













32


Chapter IV

Global Positioning System (GPS)




4.1. Introduction. System structure

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based global navigation satellite system that
provides reliable location and time information in all weather and at all times and anywhere on
or near the Earth when and where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS
satellites. It is maintained by the United States government and is freely accessible by anyone
with a GPS receiver. In addition to GPS other systems are in use or under development. The
Russian GLObal NAvigation Satellite System (GLONASS) is for use by the Russian military.
There are also the planned Chinese Compass navigation system and Galileo positioning system
of the European Union (EU). GPS was created and realized by the U.S. Department of Defense
(DOD) and was originally run with 24 satellites. It was established in 1973 to overcome the
limitations of previous navigation systems.
GPS consists of three parts: the space segment, the control segment, and the user segment. The
U.S. Air Force develops, maintains, and operates the space and control segments. GPS satellites
broadcast signals from space, which each GPS receiver uses to calculate its three-dimensional
location (latitude, longitude, and altitude) plus the current time.
[2]

The space segment is composed of 24 to 32 satellites in medium Earth orbit and also includes the
boosters required to launch them into orbit. The control segment is composed of a master control
station, an alternate master control station, and a host of dedicated and shared ground antennas
and monitor stations. The user segment is composed of hundreds of thousands of U.S. and allied
military users of the secure GPS Precise Positioning Service, and tens of millions of civil,
commercial, and scientific users of the Standard Positioning Service (see GPS navigation
devices).


4.2. Applications


While originally a military project, GPS is considered a dual-use technology, meaning it has
significant military and civilian applications.
GPS has become a widely used and a useful tool for commerce, scientific uses, tracking and
surveillance. GPS's accurate timing facilitates everyday activities such as banking, mobile phone
operations, and even the control of power grids. Farmers, surveyors, geologists and countless
others perform their work more efficiently, safely, economically, and accurately
Many civilian applications use one or more of GPS's three basic components: absolute location,
relative movement, and time transfer.
Surveying: Surveyors use absolute locations to make maps and determine property
boundaries
Map-making: Both civilian and military cartographers use GPS extensively.
33
Navigation: Navigators value digitally precise velocity and orientation measurements.
Cellular telephony: Clock synchronization enables time transfer, which is critical for
synchronizing its spreading codes with other base stations to facilitate inter-cell handoff and
support hybrid GPS/cellular position detection for mobile emergency calls and other
applications. The first handsets with integrated GPS launched in the late 1990s.
Tectonics: GPS enables direct fault motion measurement in earthquakes.
Disaster relief/emergency services: Depend upon GPS for location and timing
capabilities
GPS tours: Location determines which content to display; for instance, information about
an approaching point of interest is displayed.
Geofencing: Vehicle tracking systems, person tracking systems, and pet tracking systems
use GPS to locate a vehicle, person, or pet. These devices attach to the vehicle, person, or the pet
collar. The application provides 24/7 tracking and mobile or Internet updates should the trackee
leave a designated area.
Recreation: For example, geocaching, geodashing, GPS drawing and waymarking
GPS Aircraft Tracking
Geotagging: Applying location coordinates to digital objects such as photographs and
other documents for purposes such as creating map overlays.
The U.S. Government controls the export of some civilian receivers. All GPS receivers capable
of functioning above 18 kilometers altitude and 515 metres per second (1,001 kn) are classified
as munitions (weapons) for which U.S. State Department export licenses are required. These
limits attempt to prevent use of a receiver in a ballistic missile. They would not prevent use in a
cruise missile since their altitudes and speeds are similar to those of ordinary aircraft.
This rule applies even to otherwise purely civilian units that only receive the L1 frequency and
the C/A code and cannot correct for SA, etc.
Disabling operation above these limits exempts the receiver from classification as a munition.
Vendor interpretations differ. The rule targets operation given the combination of altitude and
speed, while some receivers stop operating even when stationary. This has caused problems with
some amateur radio balloon launches, which regularly reach 30 kilometers (19 mi).
As of 2009, military applications of GPS include:
Navigation: GPS allows soldiers to find objectives, even in the dark or in unfamiliar
territory, and to coordinate troop and supply movement. In the US armed forces, commanders
use the Commanders Digital Assistant and lower ranks use the Soldier Digital Assistant.
Target tracking: Various military weapons systems use GPS to track potential ground and
air targets before flagging them as hostile.
Missile and projectile guidance: GPS allows accurate targeting of various military
weapons
Search and Rescue: Downed pilots can be located faster if their position is known.
Reconnaissance: Patrol movement can be managed more closely.


4.3. History


The design of GPS is based partly on similar ground-based radio navigation systems, such as
LORAN and the Decca Navigator developed in the early 1940s, and used during World War II.
In 1956 Friedwardt Winterberg
[12]
proposed a test of general relativity using accurate atomic
clocks placed in orbit in artificial satellites. To achieve accuracy requirements, GPS uses
principles of general relativity to correct the satellites' atomic clocks. Additional inspiration for
GPS came when the Soviet Union launched the first man-made satellite, Sputnik in 1957. A team
of U.S. scientists led by Dr. Richard B. Kershner were monitoring Sputnik's radio transmissions.
They discovered that, because of the Doppler effect, the frequency of the signal being
34
transmitted by Sputnik was higher as the satellite approached, and lower as it continued away
from them. They realized that since they knew their exact location on the globe, they could
pinpoint where the satellite was along its orbit by measuring the Doppler distortion
The first satellite navigation system, Transit, used by the United States Navy, was first
successfully tested in 1960. It used a constellation of five satellites and could provide a
navigational fix approximately once per hour. In 1967, the U.S. Navy developed the Timation
satellite that proved the ability to place accurate clocks in space, a technology that GPS relies
upon. In the 1970s, the ground-based Omega Navigation System, based on phase comparison of
signal transmission from pairs of stations, became the first worldwide radio navigation system.
However, limitations of these systems drove the need for a more universal navigation solution
with greater accuracy.
While there were wide needs for accurate navigation in military and civilian sectors, almost none
of those were seen as justification for the billions of dollars it would cost in research,
development, deployment, and operation for a complex constellation of navigation satellites.
However during the Cold War arms race, the nuclear threat to the very existence of the United
States was the one need that did justify this cost in the view of the US Congress. This deterrent
effect is why GPS was funded. The nuclear triad consisted of the US Navy's submarine-launched
ballistic missiles (SLBMs) along with the US Air Force's strategic bombers and intercontinental
ballistic missiles (ICBMs). Considered vital to the nuclear deterrence posture, accurate
determination of the SLBM launch position was a force multiplier.
Precise navigation would enable US submarines to get an accurate fix of their positions prior to
launching their SLBMs. The US Air Force with two-thirds of the nuclear triad also had
requirements for a more accurate and reliable navigation system. The Navy and Air Force were
developing their own technologies in parallel to solve what was essentially the same problem. To
increase the survivability of ICBMs, there was a proposal to use mobile launch platforms so the
need to fix the launch position had similarity to the SLBM situation.
In 1960, the Air Force proposed a radio-navigation system called MOSAIC (Mobile System for
Accurate ICBM Control) that was essentially a 3-D LORAN. A follow-on study called
Project 57 was worked in 1963 and it was "in this study that the GPS concept was born." That
same year the concept was pursued as Project 621B, which had "many of the attributes that you
now see in GPS" and promised increased accuracy for Air Force bombers as well as ICBMs.
Updates from the Navy Transit system were too slow for the high speeds that the Air Force
operated at. The Navy Research Laboratory continued advancements with their Timation (Time
Navigation) satellites, first launched in 1967, and with the third one in 1974 carrying the first
atomic clock put into orbit.
With these parallel developments out of the 1960s, it was realized that a superior system could
be developed by synthesizing the best technologies from 621B, Transit, Timation and SECOR in
a multi-service program. Over the Labor Day weekend in 1973, a meeting of about 12 military
officers at the Pentagon discussed the creation of a Defense Navigation Satellite System (DNSS).
It was at this meeting that "the real synthesis that became GPS was created." Later that year, the
DNSS program was named Navstar. With the individual satellites being associated with the
name Navstar (as with the predecessors Transit and Timation), a more fully encompassing name
was used to identify the constellation of Navstar satellites. This more complete name was
Navstar-GPS, which was later shortened simply to GPS.







35



4.4. Timeline and modernization


Summary of satellites
Block
Launch
Period
Satellite launches
Currently in orbit
and healthy
Success Failure
In
preparation
Planned
I 19781985 10 1 0 0 0
II 19891990 9 0 0 0 0
IIA 19901997 19 0 0 0 10 of 19 launched
IIR 19972004 12 1 0 0 12 of 13 launched
IIR-M 20052009 8 0 0 0 7 of 8 launched
IIF 20102011 1 0 11 0 1 of 1 launched
IIIA 2014? 0 0 0 12 0
IIIB 0 0 0 8 0
IIIC 0 0 0 16 0
Total 59 2 11 36 30




4.5. Basic concept of GPS


A GPS receiver calculates its position by precisely timing the signals sent by GPS satellites high
above the Earth. Each satellite continually transmits messages that include
the time the message was transmitted
precise orbital information (the ephemeris)
the general system health and rough orbits of all GPS satellites (the almanac).
The receiver utilizes the messages it receives to determine the transit time of each message and
computes the distances to each satellite. These distances along with the satellites' locations are
used with the possible aid of trilateration, depending on which algorithm is used, to compute the
position of the receiver. This position is then displayed, perhaps with a moving map display or
latitude and longitude; elevation information may be included. Many GPS units show derived
information such as direction and speed, calculated from position changes.
Three satellites might seem enough to solve for position, since space has three dimensions and a
position near the Earth's surface can be assumed. However, even a very small clock error
multiplied by the very large speed of light the speed at which satellite signals propagate
results in a large positional error. Therefore receivers use four or more satellites to solve for the
receiver's location and time. The very accurately computed time is effectively hidden by most
GPS applications, which use only the location. A few specialized GPS applications do however
36
use the time; these include time transfer, traffic signal timing, and synchronization of cell phone
base stations.
Although four satellites are required for normal operation, fewer apply in special cases. If one
variable is already known, a receiver can determine its position using only three satellites. (For
example, a ship or plane may have known elevation.) Some GPS receivers may use additional
clues or assumptions (such as reusing the last known altitude, dead reckoning, inertial
navigation, or including information from the vehicle computer) to give a less accurate
(degraded) position when fewer than four satellites are visible.


4.6. Position calculation


To provide an introductory description of how a GPS receiver works, errors will be ignored in
this section. Using messages received from a minimum of four visible satellites, a GPS receiver
is able to determine the times sent and then the satellite positions corresponding to these times
sent. The x, y, and z components of position, and the time sent, are designated as
where the subscript i is the satellite number and has the value 1, 2, 3, or 4. Knowing the indicated
time the message was received , the GPS receiver can compute the transit time of the message
as . Assuming the message traveled at the speed of light, c, the distance traveled or
pseudorange, can be computed as .
A satellite's position and pseudorange define a sphere, centered on the satellite with radius equal
to the pseudorange. The position of the receiver is somewhere on the surface of this sphere. Thus
with four satellites, the indicated position of the GPS receiver is at or near the intersection of the
surfaces of four spheres. In the ideal case of no errors, the GPS receiver would be at a precise
intersection of the four surfaces.
The intersection of a third spherical surface with the first two will be its intersection with that
circle; in most cases of practical interest, this means they intersect at two points. Another figure,
Surface of Sphere Intersecting a Circle (not a solid disk) at Two Points, illustrates the
intersection. The two intersections are marked with dots. Again the article trilateration clearly
shows this mathematically.
For automobiles and other near-earth-vehicles, the correct position of the GPS receiver is the
intersection closest to the Earth's surface. For space vehicles, the intersection farthest from Earth
may be the correct one.
The correct position for the GPS receiver is also the intersection closest to the surface of the
sphere corresponding to the fourth satellite.


4.7. Correcting a GPS receiver's clock


The method of calculating position for the case of no errors has been explained. One of the most
significant error sources is the GPS receiver's clock. Because of the very large value of the speed
of light, c, the estimated distances from the GPS receiver to the satellites, the pseudoranges, are
very sensitive to errors in the GPS receiver clock. This suggests that an extremely accurate and
expensive clock is required for the GPS receiver to work. On the other hand, manufacturers
prefer to build inexpensive GPS receivers for mass markets. The solution for this dilemma is
based on the way sphere surfaces intersect in the GPS problem.
It is likely that the surfaces of the three spheres intersect, since the circle of intersection of the
first two spheres is normally quite large, and thus the third sphere surface is likely to intersect
this large circle. It is very unlikely that the surface of the sphere corresponding to the fourth
satellite will intersect either of the two points of intersection of the first three, since any clock
37
error could cause it to miss intersecting a point. However, the distance from the valid estimate of
GPS receiver position to the surface of the sphere corresponding to the fourth satellite can be
used to compute a clock correction. Let denote the distance from the valid estimate of GPS
receiver position to the fourth satellite and let denote the pseudorange of the fourth satellite.
Let . is the distance from the computed GPS receiver position to the surface of the
sphere corresponding to the fourth satellite. Thus the quotient, , provides an estimate of
(correct time) (time indicated by the receiver's on-board clock),
and the GPS receiver clock can be advanced if is positive or delayed if is negative. However, it
should be kept in mind that a less simple function of may be needed to estimate the time error
in an iterative algorithm as discussed in the Navigation section.


4.8. System segmentation


The current GPS consists of three major segments. These are the space segment (SS), a control
segment (CS), and a user segment (US).


The Space segment



Figure 4.1. Space Segment


A visual example of the GPS constellation in motion with the Earth rotating. Notice how the
number of satellites in view from a given point on the Earth's surface, in this example at 45N,
changes with time.
The space segment (SS) is composed of the orbiting GPS satellites, or Space Vehicles (SV) in
GPS parlance. The GPS design originally called for 24 SVs, eight each in three circular orbital
planes, but this was modified to six planes with four satellites each. The orbital planes are
centered on the Earth, not rotating with respect to the distant stars. The six planes have
approximately 55 inclination (tilt relative to Earth's equator) and are separated by 60 right
ascension of the ascending node (angle along the equator from a reference point to the orbit's
intersection). The orbits are arranged so that at least six satellites are always within line of sight
from almost everywhere on Earth's surface.
Orbiting at an altitude of approximately 20,200 kilometers (about 12,550 miles or 10,900
nautical miles; orbital radius of approximately 26,600 km (about 16,500 mi or 14,400 NM)),
38
each SV makes two complete orbits each sidereal day, repeating the same ground track each day.
This was very helpful during development, since even with just four satellites, correct alignment
means all four are visible from one spot for a few hours each day. For military operations, the
ground track repeat can be used to ensure good coverage in combat zones.
As of March 2008, there are 31 actively broadcasting satellites in the GPS constellation, and two
older, retired from active service satellites kept in the constellation as orbital spares. The
additional satellites improve the precision of GPS receiver calculations by providing redundant
measurements. With the increased number of satellites, the constellation was changed to a
nonuniform arrangement. Such an arrangement was shown to improve reliability and availability
of the system, relative to a uniform system, when multiple satellites fail. About eight satellites
are visible from any point on the ground at any one time (see animation at right).

The Control segment

The control segment is composed of
1. a master control station (MCS),
2. an alternate master control station,
3. four dedicated ground antennas and
4. six dedicated monitor stations.
The MCS can also access U.S. Air Force Satellite Control Network (AFSCN) ground antennas
(for additional command and control capability) and NGA (National Geospatial-Intelligence
Agency) monitor stations. The flight paths of the satellites are tracked by dedicated U.S. Air
Force monitoring stations in Hawaii, Kwajalein, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, Colorado
Springs, Colorado and Cape Canaveral, along with shared NGA monitor stations operated in
England, Argentina, Ecuador, Bahrain, Australia and Washington DC. The tracking information
is sent to the Air Force Space Command's MCS at Schriever Air Force Base 25 km (16 miles)
ESE of Colorado Springs, which is operated by the 2nd Space Operations Squadron (2 SOPS) of
the United States Air Force (USAF). Then 2 SOPS contacts each GPS satellite regularly with a
navigational update using dedicated or shared (AFSCN) ground antennas (GPS dedicated ground
antennas are located at Kwajalein, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, and Cape Canaveral). These
updates synchronize the atomic clocks on board the satellites to within a few nanoseconds of
each other, and adjust the ephemeris of each satellite's internal orbital model. The updates are
created by a Kalman filter, which uses inputs from the ground monitoring stations, space weather
information, and various other inputs.
Satellite maneuvers are not precise by GPS standards. So to change the orbit of a satellite, the
satellite must be marked unhealthy, so receivers will not use it in their calculation. Then the
maneuver can be carried out, and the resulting orbit tracked from the ground. Then the new
ephemeris is uploaded and the satellite marked healthy again.

The User segment

The user segment is composed of hundreds of thousands of U.S. and allied military users of the
secure GPS Precise Positioning Service, and tens of millions of civil, commercial and scientific
users of the Standard Positioning Service. In general, GPS receivers are composed of an antenna,
tuned to the frequencies transmitted by the satellites, receiver-processors, and a highly stable
clock (often a crystal oscillator). They may also include a display for providing location and
speed information to the user. A receiver is often described by its number of channels: this
signifies how many satellites it can monitor simultaneously. Originally limited to four or five,
this has progressively increased over the years so that, as of 2007, receivers typically have
between 12 and 20 channels.
GPS receivers may include an input for differential corrections, using the RTCM SC-104 format.
This is typically in the form of an RS-232 port at 4,800 bit/s speed. Data is actually sent at a
39
much lower rate, which limits the accuracy of the signal sent using RTCM. Receivers with
internal DGPS receivers can outperform those using external RTCM data. As of 2006, even low-
cost units commonly include Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) receivers.
Many GPS receivers can relay position data to a PC or other device using the NMEA 0183
protocol, or the newer and less widely used NMEA 2000. Although these protocols are officially
defined by the National Marine Electronics Association (NMEA), references to these protocols
have been compiled from public records, allowing open source tools like gpsd to read the
protocol without violating intellectual property laws. Other proprietary protocols exist as well,
such as the SiRF and MTK protocols. Receivers can interface with other devices using methods
including a serial connection, USB, or Bluetooth.


4.9. Communication


The navigational signals transmitted by GPS satellites encode a variety of information including
satellite positions, the state of the internal clocks, and the health of the network. These signals
are transmitted on two separate carrier frequencies that are common to all satellites in the
network.
Each GPS satellite continuously broadcasts a navigation message at a rate of 50 bits per second
(see bitrate). Each complete message is composed of 30-second frames, distinct groupings of
1,500 bits of information. Each frame is further subdivided into 5 subframes of length 6 seconds
and with 300 bits each. Each subframe contains 10 words of 30 bits with length 0.6 seconds
each. Each 30 second frame begins precisely on the minute or half minute as indicated by the
atomic clock on each satellite.
The first part of the message encodes the week number and the time within the week, as well as
the data about the health of the satellite. The second part of the message, the ephemeris, provides
the precise orbit for the satellite. The last part of the message, the almanac, contains coarse orbit
and status information for all satellites in the network as well as data related to error correction.
All satellites broadcast at the same frequencies. Signals are encoded using code division multiple
access (CDMA) allowing messages from individual satellites to be distinguished from each other
based on unique encodings for each satellite (which the receiver must be aware of). Two distinct
types of CDMA encodings are used: the coarse/acquisition (C/A) code, which is accessible by
the general public, and the precise (P) code, that is encrypted so that only the U.S. military can
access it.
The ephemeris is updated every 2 hours and is generally valid for 4 hours, with provisions for
updates every 6 hours or longer in non-nominal conditions. The almanac is updated typically
every 24 hours. Additionally data for a few weeks following is uploaded in case of transmission
updates that delay data upload.
All satellites broadcast at the same two frequencies, 1.57542 GHz (L1 signal) and 1.2276 GHz
(L2 signal). The satellite network uses a CDMA spread-spectrum technique where the low-
bitrate message data is encoded with a high-rate pseudo-random (PRN) sequence that is different
for each satellite. The receiver must be aware of the PRN codes for each satellite to reconstruct
the actual message data. The C/A code, for civilian use, transmits data at 1.023 million chips per
second, whereas the P code, for U.S. military use, transmits at 10.23 million chips per second.
The L1 carrier is modulated by both the C/A and P codes, while the L2 carrier is only modulated
by the P code.




40

4.10. Error sources and analysis


Geometric Error Diagram Showing Typical Relation of Indicated Receiver Position, Intersection
of Sphere Surfaces, and True Receiver Position in Terms of Pseudorange Errors, PDOP, and
Numerical Errors
The term user equivalent range error (UERE) refers to the error of a component in the distance
from receiver to a satellite. User equivalent range errors (UERE) are shown in the table. There is
also a numerical error with an estimated value of about 1 meter. The standard deviations for the
coarse/acquisition and precise codes are also shown in the table. These standard deviations are
computed by taking the square root of the sum of the squares of the individual components (i.e.,
RSS for root sum squares). To get the standard deviation of receiver position estimate, these
range errors must be multiplied by the appropriate dilution of precision terms and then RSS'ed
with the numerical error. Electronics errors are one of several accuracy-degrading effects
outlined in the table above. When taken together, autonomous civilian GPS horizontal position
fixes are typically accurate to about 15 meters (49 ft). These effects also reduce the more precise
P(Y) code's accuracy. However, the advancement of technology means that today, civilian
GPS fixes under a clear view of the sky are on average accurate to about 5 meters (16 ft)
horizontally.
These UERE errors are given as errors thereby implying that they are unbiased or zero mean
errors. These UERE errors are therefore used in computing standard deviations. The standard
deviation of the error in receiver position is computed by multiplying PDOP (Position Dilution
Of Precision) by the standard deviation of the user equivalent range errors is computed by taking
the square root of the sum of the squares of the individual component standard deviations.
PDOP is computed as a function of receiver and satellite positions. A detailed description of how
to calculate PDOP is given in the section, geometric dilution of precision computation (GDOP).

Atmospheric effects

Atmospheric inconsistencies affect the speed of the GPS signals as they pass through the Earth's
atmosphere, especially the ionosphere. Correcting these errors is a significant challenge to
improving position accuracy. These effects are smallest for overhead satellites and greatest for
satellites at the horizon since the path through the atmosphere is longer (see airmass). Once the
receiver's approximate location is known, a mathematical model can estimate and compensate
for these errors.
Ionospheric microwave signal delay depends on its frequency. This phenomenon is known as
dispersion and can be calculated from measurements of delays for two or more frequency bands,
allowing delays at other frequencies to be estimated.
[68]
Some military and survey-grade civilian
receivers calculate atmospheric dispersion from the different delays in the L1 and
L2 frequencies, and apply a more precise correction. This can be done in civilian receivers
without decrypting the P(Y) signal carried on L2, by tracking the carrier wave instead of the
modulated code. To facilitate this on lower cost receivers, a new civilian code signal on L2,
called L2C, was added to the Block IIR-M satellites, first launched in 2005. It allows a direct
comparison of the L1 and L2 signals using the coded signal instead of the carrier wave.
Ionospheric effects generally change slowly, and can be averaged over time. Those for any
particular geographical area can be easily calculated by comparing the measured position to a
known surveyed location. This correction is also valid for other receivers in the same general
location. Several systems send this information over radio or other links to allow L1-only
receivers to make ionospheric corrections. The ionospheric data are transmitted via satellite in
Satellite Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS) such as WAAS (available in North America and
Hawaii), EGNOS (Europe and Asia) or MSAS (Japan), which transmits it on the GPS frequency
41
using a special pseudo-random noise sequence (PRN), so only one receiver and antenna are
required.
Humidity also causes a variable delay, resulting in errors similar to ionospheric delay, but
occurring in the troposphere. This effect is both more localized and changes more quickly than
ionospheric effects, and is not frequency dependent. These traits make precise measurement and
compensation of humidity errors more difficult than ionospheric effects.
Changes in receiver altitude also change the delay, due to the signal passing through less of the
atmosphere at higher elevations. Since the receiver computes its approximate altitude, this error
is relatively simple to correct, either by applying a function regression or correlating margin of
atmospheric error to ambient pressure using a barometric altimeter.

Multipath effects

GPS signals can be affected by multipath issues, where the radio signals reflect off surrounding
terrain; buildings, canyon walls, hard ground, etc. These delayed signals can cause inaccuracy. A
variety of techniques, most notably narrow correlator spacing, mitigate multipath errors. For long
delay multipath, the receiver itself can recognize the wayward signal and discard it. To address
shorter delay multipath from the signal reflecting off the ground, specialized antennae (e.g., a
choke ring antenna) may be used to reduce the signal power as received by the antenna. Short
delay reflections are harder to filter out because they interfere with the true signal, causing
effects almost indistinguishable from routine fluctuations in atmospheric delay.
Multipath effects are much less severe in moving vehicles. When the antenna is moving, false
solutions using reflected signals quickly fail to converge and only the direct signals result in
stable solutions.

Ephemeris and clock errors

While ephemeris data is transmitted every 30 seconds, it may be up to two hours old. If a fast
time to first fix (TTFF) is needed, it is possible to upload a valid ephemeris to a receiver, and in
addition to setting the time, obtain a position fix in under ten seconds. It is feasible to put such
ephemeris data on the web for use in mobile GPS devices.
The satellite's atomic clocks experience noise and clock drift errors. The navigation message
contains corrections for these errors and estimates of the accuracy of the atomic clock. However,
they are based on observations and may not indicate the clock's current state.
These problems tend to be very small, but may add up to a few meters (tens of feet) of
inaccuracy.
For very precise positioning (e.g., in geodesy), these effects can be eliminated by differential
GPS: the simultaneous use of two or more receivers at several survey points. In the 1990s when
receivers were quite expensive, some methods of quasi-differential GPS were developed, using
only one receiver with reoccupation of measuring points. At the TU Vienna the method was
named qGPS and adequate post processing software was developed.

Geometric dilution of precision computation (GDOP)

When visible GPS satellites are adjacent in the sky (i.e., small angular separation), the DOP
values are high; when far apart, the DOP values are low. Low DOP values represent a better GPS
positional accuracy due to the wider angular separation. HDOP, VDOP, PDOP and TDOP are
respectively Horizontal, Vertical, Position (3-D) and Time Dilution of Precision.
The horizontal dilution of precision, and the vertical dilution of precision, are both dependent on
the coordinate system used. To correspond to the local horizon plane and the local vertical, x, y,
and z should denote positions in either a North, East, Down coordinate system or a South, East,
Up coordinate system.
42
Selective availability

GPS includes a (currently disabled) feature called Selective Availability (SA) that adds
intentional, time varying errors of up to 100 meters (328 ft) to the publicly available navigation
signals. This was intended to deny an enemy the use of civilian GPS receivers for precision
weapon guidance.
SA errors are actually pseudorandom, generated by a cryptographic algorithm from a classified
seed key available only to authorized users (the U.S. military, its allies and a few other users,
mostly government) with a special military GPS receiver. Mere possession of the receiver is
insufficient; it still needs the tightly controlled daily key.
Because SA affects every GPS receiver in a given area almost equally, a fixed station with an
accurately known position can measure the SA error values and transmit them to the local GPS
receivers so they may correct their position fixes. This is called Differential GPS or DGPS.
DGPS also corrects for several other important sources of GPS errors, particularly ionospheric
delay, so it continues to be widely used even though SA has been turned off. Typical SA errors
were about 50 meters (164 ft) horizontally and about 100 m vertically. Widespread availability
of DGPS nullified SA, leading to its demise on May 1, 2000.
DGPS services are widely available from both commercial and government sources. The latter
include WAAS and the U.S. Coast Guard's network of LF marine navigation beacons. The
accuracy of the corrections depends on the distance between the user and the DGPS receiver. As
distance increases, the errors at the two sites will not correlate as well, resulting in less precise
differential corrections.
Per the directive, the induced error of SA was changed to add no error to the public signals (C/A
code). Clinton's executive order required SA to be set to zero by 2006; it happened in 2000 once
the U.S. military developed a new way to deny GPS (and other navigation services) to hostile
forces in a specific area without affecting the rest of the world or its own military systems.
One interesting side effect of the Selective Availability hardware is the capability to add
corrections to the outgoing signal of the GPS cesium and rubidium atomic clocks to an accuracy
of approximately 2 10
13
. This represented a significant improvement over the clocks' raw
accuracy.

Antispoofing

Another restriction on GPS, antispoofing, remains on. This encrypts the P-code so that it cannot
be mimicked by a transmitter sending false information. Few civilian receivers have ever used
the P-code, and the accuracy attainable with the public C/A code is so much better than
originally expected (especially with DGPS) that the antispoof policy has relatively little effect on
most civilian users. Turning off antispoof would primarily benefit surveyors and some scientists
who need extremely precise positions for experiments such as tracking tectonic plate motion.

Natural sources of interference

Since terrestrial GPS signals tend to be relatively weak, natural radio signals or scattering can
desensitize the receiver, making acquiring and tracking satellite signals difficult or impossible.
Space weather degrades GPS operation in two ways, direct interference by solar radio burst noise
in the same frequency band or by scattering of the GPS radio signal in ionospheric irregularities
referred to as scintillation. Both forms of degradation follow the 11 year solar cycle and peak at
sunspot maximum although they can occur anytime. Solar radio bursts are associated with solar
flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and their impact can affect reception over the half of
the Earth facing the sun. Scintillation occurs most frequently at tropical latitudes at night. It
occurs less frequently at high latitudes or mid-latitudes where magnetic storms can lead to
43
scintillation. In addition to scintillation, magnetic storms can produce strong ionospheric
gradients that degrade SBAS accuracy.

Artificial sources of interference

In automotive GPS receivers, metallic features in windshields, such as defrosters or car window
tinting films, can act as a Faraday cage, degrading reception inside the car.
Man-made electromagnetic interference (EMI) can also disrupt or jam GPS signals. In one well-
documented case it was impossible to receive GPS signals in the entire harbor of Moss Landing,
California due to unintentional jamming caused by malfunctioning TV antenna preamplifiers.
Intentional jamming is also possible. Generally, stronger signals can interfere with GPS receivers
when they are within radio range or line of sight.
Some countries allow GPS repeaters, to facilitate the reception of GPS signals indoors and in
obscured locations; however, under European Union and U.K. laws, these are prohibited because
the signals can interfere with other GPS receivers that receive data from both satellites and the
repeater.
Various techniques can address interference. One is to not rely on GPS as a sole source.
According to John Ruley, "IFR pilots should have a fallback plan in case of a GPS malfunction".
Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) is included in some receivers, to warn if
jamming or another problem is detected. The U.S. military has also deployed since 2004 their
Selective Availability / Anti-Spoofing Module (SAASM) in the Defense Advanced GPS
Receiver (DAGR). DAGR detects jamming and maintains its lock on encrypted GPS signals
during interference.


4.11. Timekeeping


While most clocks are synchronized to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), the atomic clocks on
the satellites are set to GPS time. The difference is that GPS time is not corrected to match the
rotation of the Earth, so it does not contain leap seconds or other corrections that are periodically
added to UTC. GPS time was set to match Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) in 1980, but has
since diverged. The lack of corrections means that GPS time remains at a constant offset with
International Atomic Time (TAI) (TAI - GPS = 19 seconds). Periodic corrections are performed
on the on-board clocks to correct relativistic effects and keep them synchronized with ground
clocks.
The GPS navigation message includes the difference between GPS time and UTC, which as of
2009 is 15 seconds due to the leap second added to UTC December 31, 2008. Receivers subtract
this offset from GPS time to calculate UTC and specific timezone values. New GPS units may
not show the correct UTC time until after receiving the UTC offset message. The GPS-UTC
offset field can accommodate 255 leap seconds (eight bits) which, given the current rate of
change of the Earth's rotation (with one leap second introduced approximately every 18 months),
should be sufficient to last until approximately the year 2300.
As opposed to the year, month, and day format of the Gregorian calendar, the GPS date is
expressed as a week number and a seconds-into-week number. The week number is transmitted
as a ten-bit field in the C/A and P(Y) navigation messages, and so it becomes zero again every
1,024 weeks (19.6 years). GPS week zero started at 00:00:00 UTC (00:00:19 TAI) on January 6,
1980, and the week number became zero again for the first time at 23:59:47 UTC on August 21,
1999 (00:00:19 TAI on August 22, 1999). To determine the current Gregorian date, a GPS
receiver must be provided with the approximate date (to within 3,584 days) to correctly translate
the GPS date signal. To address this concern the modernized GPS navigation message uses a 13-
44
bit field, which only repeats every 8,192 weeks (157 years), thus lasting until the year 2137
(157 years after GPS week zero).


4.12. GPS receivers


Basically, from the beginning of this century, the GPS receivers can be met onboard of all types
of ships and crafts, becoming a common navigation device. Obviously, every model and type
equipment has its own characteristics, data displaying mode and user algorithm.
In principle, however, all GPS receivers designed for maritime navigation provides a minimum
of common facilities, primarly to provide accurate positioning information to the seafarer in
order to be able to conduct the ship on desired route.
Next will be presented main types of information provide by every GPS receiver, the graphical
and alphanumerical formats for information displaying.
Essential is that used terminology for labelling of presented data is the same for all equipments,
and basic idea for presenting information is the use of windows.
Therefore, using a minimum keyboard (generally 10 numeric keys and other 4-8 function keys,
including arrows keys to older receivers and 5-8 keys to newer receivers) can be selected and
enabled all functions available to the user.

Taking into account that all GPS receivers perform the same tasks, the differences between
models consists in information display and keys configuration, every deck officer must read the
user manual of the equipment to learn how to operate the GPS receiver that working at a
moment..


Figure 4.2. Different types of GPS receivers






45
4.13. G.P.S. terminology


The terminology used (in English) and the means of abbreviations used for data identification are
partly presented below.

BRG Bearing
CMG Course Made Good
COG Course Over Ground
CTE Course Track Error
CTS Course to steer
DTK Desired Track
ETA Estimated Time of Arrival
ETE Estimated Time Enroute
HDG Heading
OCE Off Course Error
SOG Ground Speed
ROUTE Route
SPD Speed
TRK Track (COG/CMG)
VMG Velocity Made Good
WP Way Point
XTE Cross Track Error

The data regarding directions can be grouped in two sections, as follows:
The real course of the ship (CMG, TRK), respectively the course over ground;
Directions derived from the fact that the GPS receiver has stored a particular route
(ROUTE, DTK), defined by the waypoints (WP).
In this way, the actual ship position is compared with the route and function of this is established
the lateral deviation (CTE, XTE), and, related to the next waypoint is indicated the ship course to
be taken (BRG, HDG) to reach that waypoint.


4.14. Data windows


The GPS receiver provides the following interest windows for seafarer:
Satellites;
Ship position;
Navigation (ship conduct);
Ship route;
Route control;
Man Over Board;
Electronic navigation chart.






46
The satellites window


Figure 4.3. The satellite information section


The vertical bars represent the received satellites, the height of which is equivalent with the
signal strength.
The satellites arrangement on sky is schematized by two concentrical circles (the horizon and 45
degree height circle). Missed sattelites are underlined.



Figure 4.4. The satellite information section


Depending on the number of receive satellites and consider in determination of ship position,
there are displayed data regarding the position accuracy. The standard situations are:
2 D precision ship position is calculated by three satelittes;
2 D D precision ship position is calculated by three satellites in DGPS system
3 D precision ship position is calculated by five satellites minimum
3 D-D precision ship position is calculated by five satellites minimum inDGPS system



47
Ship position window

The data provided in this window represent the essential information for any navigation
hyperbolic equipment and practically, the primarly element of interest for the operator
The purpose of this type of display is to concentrate all information about ship position
(geographical coordinates), and ship real movement (course over ground and speed over
ground), even if the same data appears together or independently in other sections (windows).
Note that the graphic representation of the ship course (graphic compass) is not a gyro repeater,
but the displayed value corresponding to the actual hip heading, shall indicate the value of the
course over ground.
The format used for time display can be chosen by user, as 12/24 hours format, or as local time
(LT), GMT respectively.



Figure 4.5. Ship position section


In the User Area can be displayed different data, on operator request, data considered as digital
loch, like:
TRIP represent the distance travelled by ship from the last reset of distance counter;
ELPSD represent total time elapsed from the last reset of the timer;
TTIME represent the time when the speed over ground has not changed;
AVSPD represent the average speed from the last reset of the loch;
MXSPD represent the maximum speed reached since the last reset of the loch.



Figure 4.6. Displaying of ship position on GPS screen
48
Navigation window

Navigation window is the section where are displayed information on ship piloting, namely data
comparing the current ship position with the ships route, information that are often more
important than data from ship position window.
From a practical point of view, depending on the characteristic of navigation area, the GPS will
be set to display one of the mentioned windows, in the situation when the GPS receiver have not
the facility to display electronic navigation charts in Vectorial format.
During open sea navigation is preferred the displaying of position window permanently, so that
the navigator to have all the time access to the necessary data for ship plotting.
During near coast navigation, or in the areas with heavy traffic or navigation dangers, to follow
exactly the ship planned route is essential. As a result, the seafarer will want to have permanently
displayed GPS data regarding the ship deviation from the planned route.
For the navigation page to work is necessary the GPS receiver to have stored the route to be
followed by ship, or, at least, a single waypoint defined as immediately destination.
In the navigation window we have the possibility to see which is the own ship position in
relation with the route wants to be follow and what we have to do for our ship to keep as closer
to the planned route.
At less sophisticated GPS equipments, the navigation window presentation form is limited to the
segment between the ship current position and the first waypoint on route.
The graphical presentation of this route segment, that follows to be travelled by our ship, seems
like a road, has made this displaying option to be named Highway.
Usually, on the middle of the Highway is drawn a line connecting the ship position with the
next waypoint and at the same time representing the bearing (BRG) at that waypoint (WP).
From the seafarer point of view, the interpretation of the image is very eloquent.














Figure 4.7. Information display in navigation section of the GPS receiver


If the bearing line to waypoint WP (BRG) appears vertical, then the ship is on planned route, or,
we can say, that the ship have not deviation from active segment of the route (LEG) stored in the
GPS memory.
If this line is oblique, the ship is diverted laterally from the desired track (DTK).
The graphical representation symbolizes the direction where the ship must to alter the course to
return on the desired track. The same indication is given by the arrow direction (pointer) placed
under the Highway.
The value of this course alteration to bring the ship back on the planned route can be determined
in several ways, as follows:
49
The value of the course over ground to the next waypoint, from the current position, is
given by the bearing value to waypoint (BRG);
The difference between the bearing (BRG) and the course over ground (COG), track
(TRK), indicates the number of degrees for changing of the actual course (to stabord
side if BRG > COG or, to port side if BRG < COG) to reach the next waypoint; this
value can be displayed in the User Area, if the seafarer request the TRN (turn) value
display;
If we want to get back faster to the planned route, will made an ample course changing
than the value of the difference between the bearing and the course over ground (BRG
COG).



Figure 4.8. Displaying of the Highway and data regarding ship movement


GPS specifically data window


Have to note that all GPS indications regarding to the ship course value are expressed as real
courses (course over ground), which will be corrected for drift to determine the value of the
course to be followed. This calculus is not necessary, if, after the course changing, will be
followed the GPS indications. In this way, will be ordered to the helmsman a course changing to
the desired direction and the course followed will be corrected than the value indicated by the
GPS for course over ground (COG) to be the same with the bearing value (BRG).













50












Figure 4.9. Ship piloting section


If we want to return faster to the planned route, we will execute an ample change in direction of
pointer and will keep the new course until the bearing line will become vertical (XTE = 0). Then
we will take a course direction equal with the bearing line (BRG), or, in case of drifting, a course
to lead to a course over ground (COG) with the same value as indicated for the bearing (BRG).
At seafarer request, in the User Area, can be displayed additional data, such as:
Estimated time enroute (ETE);
Time to next waypoint or estimated time of arrival at the waypoint (ETA), this
calculation is performed based on the actual ship speed (SPD, VMG);
Course alteration value and direction to return on route in the designated waypoint
The graphical scale, shown by some GPS equipments in the bottom of the Highway, is
espressed in nautical miles and serves to indicate to the seafarer the approximate track error
value from desired route. Some of the GPS receivers express this track error (CTE, XTE) under
alphanumeric format also, as distance, or distance and direction.
Performing GPS receivers have the possibility to present a large part of the route and will display
a Highway configuration containing several waypoints to be achieved.
In addition to the graphic image of the Highway, the next waypoint can be displayed with a
number or with the nomination give it by the User.
Also, at some devices, each waypoint can be assigned with a specific symbol (chosen from a
library for graphic symbols), so that waypoint can be identified more easily.


Ship route window


At presentation of the piloting window have stated that information displayed in this window is
not available if there is not defined any waypoint, as next destination. Generally, the classical
method for waypoints nomination is in direct connection with the paper chart. On this, the
navigation officer drew the routes to be performed from the departure to the arrival ports.
Current practice is the waypoints to be the same like that ones from the paper chart. In most of
the cases, the route defining only by these waypoints is enough.
The navigation officer will fill a table where will note the data determined from the paper chart,
a model table is presented below.








51
WPs list for route: Madison - Bahia
No. WP name Call sign Chart no. Latitude Longitude Course
1 York Head YKHD 1599 50 20.4 N 070 22.8 E 050
2 BD racon RACON 1728 50 23.5 N 077 17.3 E 080
3 Kimley Lt. H. KIMLEY 1906 50 25.3 N 085 36.1 E 120
4 Bella Bank BELBK 1906 50 02.7 N 086 44.7 E 100
Table 4.1. Model of table for a route WPs registering
(data as example only)


To records the waypoints in the GPS memory are enough only data regarding the geographical
coordinates of the waypoint and a number.
GPS receivers can stored between 100 and 3000 waypoints, so the counting is impossible to start
every time from 1, only when deleting from the GPS memory the waypoints already registered
on that positions.
Waypoints nomination is not compulsory, but when the GPS receiver have this facility is better
to be used, for a more easily identification during reading of the waypoints list.
Generally, all GPS receivers provide this facility to nominate the waypoints. But, in many cases,
the number of the characters possible to be used is limited (5 to 10 characters), when is necessary
the officer to find a solution.
At the end of the operation of filling the table with waypoints details can go further to the
introduction of these values in the GPS memory, typing the coordinates.


Figure 4.10. Creation of a new WP based on geographical coordinates and its nominatios as
DAY 2

Some of the GPS receivers have a library of symbols, that can be used for attaching an icon to a
waypoint.
After all waypoints were introduced, the operator can proceed to the next step, to define the ship
route.
Like for the waypoints, the number of the routes that can be stored in the GPS receiver memory
is limited by the hardware capacity of the device. Generally can be stored simultaneously
between 2 to 10 routes, including the route will become active for that voyage.
A route construction is a simple action, to select from the waypoints list those that are necessary
for the ship voyage.



52

Figure 4.11. List of stored routes in the GPS memory


Be aware! The used waypoints for a route definition have to be selected according to their reach
by the ship. Punctele de schimbare de drum utilizate trebuie selectate n ordinea parcurgerii lor
de ctre nav. The created route has named and should be saved in the GPS receiver memory.
To modify an already created route is possible to be made through one of the following
procedures:
Deleting of one or more waypoints from the route list;
Introduction of new waypoints, already stored in the GPS memory, but inside of other
routes;
Defining of new waypoints,storing of them in the GPS receiver memory, and their
selection for introduction in the waypoint list of the new edited route.



Figure 4.12. Editing of WPs from route list


The GPS receivers provide also the facility of reversibility of the route. This means that the ship
have to travel from Constanta to Istanbul and back to Constanta, will be not necessary to create a
new route in the GPS memory, but will be called a reverse route of the initial one, the GPS
receiver processor will reverse the order of the waypoints, that are already defined in the list of
the initial route.
When a route is reversed, the original route is not modified, the reverse route is saved and stored
as a new route.




53



Figure 4.13. The process of reverting of the original route

To simplifying the work of the navigation officer regarding the ship routes creation and also, to
be able to use this work later, it is recommended that for longer routes (longer than 48 to 72
hours) to be defined route sections.
For example, taking account the particularities of a route between Constanta and a
Mediterranean Sea port, the route sections can be defined as follows:
Constanta Bosforus North bound
Bosforus South bound East Dardanelles
West Dardanelless Rhodos (routes to East Mediterranean)
West Dardanelless Kavo Maleas (roputes to West Mediterranean)



The GPS receiver Course Recorder


Since the GPS receiver displays continuously the ship position in geographical coordinates, will
be no problem for the receiver to memorize these positions.
Basically, it all depends on the memory capacity that is allocated for this function. As result, the
GPS receivers can store the last 100 to 1000 waypoints planned for the ship voyage. The
interval between two points that are stored can be set by the user, at order of minutes.
During sailing in coastal waters, probably, an optimum interval for storage could be set at 2
minutes. During a strait transit, or navigation in heavy waters, areas with a limited length, is
better to reduce the interval to 0.5 minutes. During an ocean passage, the interval can be
increased from 5 to 10 minutes.
In the GPS receiver memery allocated to this kind of activity, the storage process is continuosly,
when the storage capacity is reached, automatically will be deleted the first memorized positions
to increase the necessary space for the next positions storage.
Based on this points stored in the receiver memory, at seafarer request, can be displayed the ship
travelled route in a graphical form, the real route performed by the ship in time.
The usefulness of this function will often evident only in unfortunate situations when the ship is
involved in an accident. In such cases, the accident avoidance maneuvers are possible to be
tested based on data provided by the receiver recorder.




54
Chapter V

DGPS


5.1. Introduction


The GPS position accuracy can be greatly improved using differential techniques. Some of the
experimental differential systems have been used as part of terrestrial navigation hyperbolic
system. The Dfifferential Global Possitioning System (DGPS) is, relatively, an improved version
of system used in terrestrial hyperbolic navigation.
Generally, ship positioning data from satellite are recived by a mobile unit and a fix unit,
position known. A system installed on the fix receiver calculates the distance to the satellite and
compare it to a standard known distance for determining the geographic position accuracy. If, an
error resulting from the calculation, this information is transmitted to the mobile receiver is used
to correct the information received from satellite directly.
The use of differential system does not eliminate the errors due to poor reception or
interferences.



Figure 5.1. Working principle of the DGPS system


For maritime use, were established a number of monitoring stations of the DGPS system
alongside the coasts of 28 states. For example, the United States Coast Guard supervising
stations on both coasts of the United States, Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean.
Corrected data are transmitted using beacons with frequencies from low frequency band and
therefore the reception is limited to a range between 100 and 250 kilometers. But, this system is
very useful in areas where ship maneuvering is restricted, areas usually near the coast.



55

Figure 5.2. DGPS coverage on USA coasts


With ITU support was supplemented the data transmitted using radio beacons working on
frequencies of 283.5 310 kHz, in some areas of the World on frequencies between 285 325
kHz, leading to an increased transmission speed with a rate of 100 to 200 bits per second.


5.2. The DGPS system


The DGPS system was developed in order to achieve a highly accuracy of ship position in
special areas (harbours, coastal areas), accuracy difficult to be achieved by using the GPS
system, especially in standard transmission code.
The components of the DGPS system are:
- GPS satellites;
- Command and control centre;
- Differential reference stations and DGPS data transmission;
- System monitoring stations.


The DGPS system operation principles


The operating principle of the DGPS system is to compare the GPS position of a fix point to a
reference terrestrial station. The observed differences (in two or three dimensions) are considered
as differential position or like a serial of pseudodistances corrections measured to the satellite
(differential pseudodistances), so the amounts of pseudodistances to satellites have a higher
degree of accuracy, hence the increased accuracy in ship position.
According to ITU-RM 823 Recommendation, the DGPS reference stations transmitting
differential signals with a frequency of about 300 kHz. The transmission of differential
corrections for each satellite take a period of 6 to 9 seconds, the processing and display of data

56
take less time. The DGPS correction message is transmitted in a special format, called RTCM
SC 104 format (RTCM Radio Technical Commision for Maritime Services).
A DGPS receiver can receive GPS differential data from 10 DGPS stations at least, which allows
choosing of the best transmitted signal. Signal quality depends by the distance from the
reference station, the atmospheric conditions, the antenna installation conditions and ship
structure elements which can cause abnormal reflection of the received signal.
Currently there are geostationary satellite systems emiting DGPS signals, in this case, the
corrections of measured pseudodistances to satellites are carried out through a reference coastal
stations network.


Automatic reception of the DGPS signal


For receiving of GPS corrections is necessary to have a receiver capable to incorporate DGPS
correction in RTCM SC 104 format. When these corrections are encrypted is necessary to have a
special receiver or a component capable for decoding them. At reception of DGPS signal in
automatic mode, the receiver automatically chooses the best differential signal. For this, the
DGPS receiver provides alerts on:
- Exceeding 10 seconds to receive a signal;
- Reference station malfunction or, if, the signal is not valid.


Manual reception of the DGPS signal


At DGPS signal receiving in manual mode, the operator select a particular station or a frequency,
check the signal integrity and take account of the received parameters value in selection of other
DGPS stations. For this, the DGPS receiver has an alert for selection of incorrect station or the
signal is not valid.
For selected station the following are displayed:
- Reference station name and identification number;
- Operating frequency;
- The distance calculated to reference station;
- Technical condition of the reference station;
- Signal quality.
Depending on the distance calculated to the reference station, the DGPS accuracy can be
appreciated as very good (less than five meters), at tens of miles distances and good (over five
meters) for distances of 100-200 nautical miles. The DGPS signal quality is assessed by
percentage value called WER (Word Error Rate). A value of 0% WER indicates a perfect
reception of the DGPS signal.
Stations/transmitters/radiobeacons that transmit DGPS corrections are presented in international
nautical publications by the following:
- Station name;
- Geographical position;
- DGPS corrections (frequency, speed in bits/sec);
- Identification number of the reference station;
- Identification number of the transmitting station;
- Transmission distance;
- Monitoring of data integrity;
- Messages type.
57
In the 2
nd
Volume of ALRS 282 are presented the types of DGPS messages, numbered from 1 to
63. For example, the message type 3 represents the GPS reference station parameters, message
type 7 is the Almanah of DGPS radiobeacons, message type 9 is GPS partial corrections,
message type 16 is the GPS special message, type 17 is the GPS Ephemeris.


5.3. The DGPS receivers


Generally, the DGPS receivers are performance dual GPS/DGPS devices, with monocrom or
color screen of 4.5 inches, providing an accuracy of 10 meters for GPS information and three
meters for DGPS data.
The DGPS receiver consists of:
- Antenna;
- Command, reception and signal processing unit;
- Command unit interface;
- Data displaying interface.
The operational requirements for a DGPS receiver, according to IMO MSC 114(73)/2000, are:
- Operating frequencies 283,5 315 kHz for Region 1 and 285 325 kHz
for Regions 2 and 3, according to ITU-RM 823 Standard;
- Automatic and manual selection of station transmitting differential GPS
signal;
- Displaying of information at maximum 100 miliseconds from their
reception;
- Acquisition of a signal in less than 45 seconds in the case of atmospheric
electric disturbance;
- Omnidirectional horizontally antenna;
- Optimum operation in common conditions of interferences;
- Protection to malfunctions up to five minutes.
The main technical features are:
- Data displaying in several languages;
- Storing of all DGPS stations;
- Images: plot with 11 plotting scales, from 0.2 to 320 nautical miles; ship
positioning information (including LORAN C); ship conduct
information; open sea navigation on scales from 0.2 to 16 nautical miles;
loch information in analog or digital format;
- Multiple alarms: arrival at destination, waypoint, anchor watch, low/high
speed, time (clock);
- Memorizing of the last 1,000 ship positions, 999 waypoints, 50 routes
with maximum 30 waypoints;
- Possible connection to a PC or shiphandling simulator.
Differential satellite systems are advanced systems that provide improved satellite signals for
errors reduction in a particular area. Comparing of values between the signals transmitted by the
DGNSS reference stations and those from satellites provide the necessary information for a high
accuracy satellite diferrential positions than those determined with GPS observations, especially
during coastal navigation, approach, harbor areas and in those areas with dangers for navigation
or heavy traffic.




58
Chapter VI

Glonass. Galileo



6.1. Glonass


The Russian satellite system GLONASS is similar to the US NAVSTAR-GPS system, in
operation from January 1996. The GLONASS system consist of 24 satellites and provide
position with 20 meters accuracy for civilian users and 10 meters accuracy for military users,
with a probability of 95%.
The first version used triaxial stabilized satellites Block II, upgraded to versions Block IIa, Block
IIb and Block IIv. Six of the Block IIa satellites were launched between 1985 and 1986, and
Block IIv type from 1988 to 2005 (25 satellites).
The second version of the system, named GLONASS-M develops from 1990. Until 2007 were
launched 14 satelittes of second generation, upgraded, operating for a period of seven years.
The third version, namec GLONASS-K, is a modern version using satellites with a life period of
10 years, lightweight (compared with the older versions). GLONASS-K transmits a signal for
civilian users providing differential signals for search and rescue SAR. Using CDMA (Code
Division Multiple Access) signals, GLONASS-K system becomes interoperable with the US
NAVSTAR-GPS system. First GLONASS-K satellite was launched in 2011. With constellation
of 18 satellites have covering the entire Russian Federation territory and with 24 satellites the
entire World.
The GLONASS system (Globalnaya Navigationnaya Sputnikova Sistema) provides a global
coverage, continuously and in all weather conditions, ensuring accurate position information,
speed and time. The IMO Resolution MSC.113(73)/2000 establish the performance standards for
GLONASS receivers.


GLONASS structure


GLONASS system consists of:
a. Space segment;
b. Control segment;
c. User segment.
Space segment. Today, the space system is represented by the GLONASS satellites
constellation, arranged in three orbital planes of 31 satellites, 24 GLONASS-M types, 6
GLONASS-M under maintenance and one GLONASS-K satellite. Whereas the orbits inclination
is higher than the orbits of NAVSTAR-GPS system, greatly increase the possibilities of system
using at high latitudes.
Control segment. The control system, similar to the US system ensures the functionality of the
satellite system and is managed by the Information and Scientific Coordination Centre of the
Russian Air Force (CICS). The headquarter is in Moscow and secondary stations are in Sankt
Petersburg, Ternopol, Eniseisk and Konsomolsk na Amur.
User segment. The User segment consists of all GLONASS receivers for satellite signal
processing, and the accuracy of position for civilian users is higher than achieved using the
NAVSTAR-GPS system.There is several producers of satellite receivers using GLONASS
59
information for positioning. Actually, are used receivers able to operate with information from
GPS and GLONASS and to benefit from joint work of the two satellite systems.
During 1998 - 2005 the system was improved to reduce the frequency band and to eliminate the
interferences from system. In 2008 the system consisted of 16 satellites, 12 operational in the
same time. Since 2011 the entire system is complete and consists of 24 satellites. Since 2013 is
intended to start an updating program and the launch of new satellites GLONASS-K2 and
GLONASS-KM type.


GLONASS system functions


The particularities of the GLONASS system are:
- Height of the orbit: 19100 km;
- Period : 11h15min;
- Orbital inclination: 64
0
.8;
- Program: continuous;
- Satellites: 24
- Spacing of at least four satellites in orbit and dilution of precision PDOP
of maximum six;
- Working frequency in L band;
- Reference ellipsoid: PZ 90.
The used reference ellipsoid PZ90 (Parameters Zemlia 90) is different by the international
reference ellipsoid WGS84, so the difference between two ellipsoids datuums was on 17.09.2007
up to 40 cm, onmidirectional.
Each GLONASS satellite works on two L-band frequencies, different for each satellite. L1-band
length from 1602.5625 MHz to 1615.5 MHz, with 0.5625 MHz periods, and L2-band from
1246.4375 MHz to 1256.5 MHz, with periods of 4.4375 MHz, being generates 24 channels
necessary for work. Each satellite transmit continuously own accurate position and system
information, using ECEF (Earth Centred Earth Fixed) coordinates.
The information are modulated in accurate P code and ordinary acquisition code C/A. Position
informatioided by the GLONASS system are more accurate than those provided by the
NAVSTAR-GPS system, but the system is less stable in operation than the US one.


GLONASS receivers


A standard GLONASS receiver consists of:
- antenna;
- Reception and calculation unit;
- Comand and interface unit;
- Displaying screen.

The performance standards according to IMO Resolution MSC.113(73)/2000 are:
- Ability to receive and process GLONASS positioning signals in
geographic coordinates, latitude and longitude, in degrees, minutes and
thousandths of minutes referential PZ-90 and UTC; the PZ-90 calculated
position must be converted into WGS-84 values;
- Operation in Standard Positioning Service SPS code (L1-band
frequency);
60
- The ability to send to other equipments reference positioning information
PZ-90 or WGS-84;
- Static accuracy of 45 meters (95%) with a horizontally dilution of
precision HDOP=4, PDOP=6;
- Dynamic accuracy of 45 meters (95%) with a horizontally dilution of
precision HDOP=4, PDOP=6;
- Automatic selection of the best signal for ship positioning with desired
accuracy;
- GLONASS signal acquisition with carrier frequency of 130 dBm to -120
dBm; once the signal acquired, the receiver have to work satisfactory for
a carrier frequency of less than 133dBm;
- Acquisition of positioning information at required precision in 30
minutes for invalid data of the satellite Almanac;
- Acquisition of positioning information at a required level of precision in
five minutes for valid data of the satellite Almanac;
- Reloading of positioning information at a required level of precision, in
five minutes, for a system malfunction less than 24 hours, without lost of
power supply;
- Reloading of positioning information at a required precision level, in two
minutes, for an interruption of power supply for 60 seconds;
- Displaying of a new position at every second;
- A resolution of 0.001 minutes for geographical coordinates displaying;
- Displaying of course over ground value; speed over groud value and
UTC time, at performance standards;
- Reception of GLONASS differential information; for this, static and
dynamic positioning precision is 10 meters (95%);
- The ability to operate satisfactory in typically interference conditions;
- Warnings for status and failure.


6.2. Galileo


GALILEO is the joint project of the European Commission and the European Space Agency to
deploy a new infrastructure based on a 30-satellite constellation, to provide positioning and
timing services. On 26 March 2002, the European Union released 450 million to fund the
development of the GALILEO satellite radio navigation system, which will enable people to
pinpoint their exact position or the location of any moving or stationary object to within 1m. The
European Space Agency had already committed a similar amount. The estimated cost of
GALILEO is 3.4 billion and it is expected to be operational in 2008.
Although the impact of satellite global positioning on society and industrial development is not
yet clear, Europe cannot afford to rely on technologies and systems developed outside it, as GPS
is certain to be one of the largest industries of the 21
st
Century.
In the field of telecommunications, allied with other new technologies such as GSM or UMTS,
GALILEO will increase the potential to provide positioning information as well as to provide
combined services of a very high level.






61
Existing radio navigation satellites


Currently there are two radio navigation satellites in the world: American (GPS) and Russian
(Glonass). Both were designed as military systems, but the GALILEO system appears to offer
the only real alternative to the American system.
Advantages of GAILILEO over GPS include:
GALILEO has been designed and developed as a non-military application, while
nonetheless incorporating all the necessary protective security features. Unlike GPS, which was
essentially designed for military use, GALILEO provides, for some of the services offered, a
very high level of continuity required by modern business, in particular with regard to
contractual responsibility
It is based on the same technology as GPS and provides a similar - and possibly higher -
degree of precision, thanks to the structure of the constellation of satellites and the ground-based
control and management systems planned
GALILEO is more reliable as it includes a signal "integrity message" informing the user
immediately of any errors. In addition, unlike GPS, it will be possible to receive GALILEO in
towns and regions located in extreme latitudes
It represents a real public service and, as such, guarantees continuity of service provision
for specific applications. GPS signals, on the other hand, in recent years have on several
occasions become unavailable on a planned or unplanned basis, sometimes without prior
warning
GALILIEO also complements GPS:
Using both infrastructures in a coordinated fashion (double sourcing) offers real
advantages in terms of precision and in terms of security, should one of the two systems become
unavailable
The existence of two independent systems is of benefit to all users since they will be able
to use the same receiver to receive both GPS and GALILEO signals


Galileo services


The various service requirements and the associated commercial and security aspects can be
rationalised into five distinct service groups:
Open Services (OS)
Commercial Services (CS)
Safety-Of-Life Services (SAS)
Public Regulated Services (PRS)
Search-And-Rescue Services (SAR)
In addition, Navigation Related Communication Service (NRS) will be implemented under the
Commercial Service frame. Furthermore, Combined Services will be implemented, such as:
GALILEO combined with GPS and augmented by EGNOS, so called GALILEO-GPS-
EGNOS Services
GALILEO services combined with services provided by Local Components
Combined GALILEO and GMS, UMTS services






62
System architecture


The GALILEO system architecture will be designed in such a way as to permit:
Adaptation of the response to the needs of users and to market trends
Minimisation of development and operating costs
Minimisation of the risks, other than financial risks, inherent in a project so unusual by
virtue of its scope, complexity and the challenges it poses
Interoperability with existing systems, notably GPS, while at the same time maintaining
autonomy and competitiveness
Architecture is made up of four components:
Global Component - the central component will be the global constellation of 30 satellites,
distributed over three planes in Medium Earth Orbit (MEO). Within each plane, one satellite is
an active spare, able to be moved to any of the other satellite positions within its plane, for
replacement of a failed satellite. This will be complemented by regional and local components.
Regional Components - the service provided by GALILEO is global and this includes the
delivery of integrity worldwide. However, the design of the system is such as to permit the
introduction of rdata from regional service providers using authorised integrity up-link channels
provided by GALILEO, thereby making it possible to "personalise" integrity under partnership
agreements with the relevant countries. The cost of this component will be borne by the region in
question.
Local Components - the GALILEO system will provide a high level of performance to users
worldwide, even in places where there is no ground infrastructure. However, in the case of
specific applications in given areas, even more demanding levels of positioning performance will
be necessary or, alternatively, integration with other functions, e.g. local communications, will
confer added value on the basic service.
User Receivers and Terminals - receivers will be the crucial link in the GALILEO chain and
will need to satisfy market requirements:
Competitive performance and costs compared with the existing systems
Adequate tailoring to the needs of users (general public and the professional market)
Potential for change and integration of the services (e.g. communications)
Possibility of multi-modal use













63
Chapter VII

Electronic Charts



7.1. Introduction

There are two classes of electronic chart display systems. The first is an ECDIS (Electronic
Chart Display and Information System), which can meet IMO/SOLAS chart carriage re-
quirements. The second is an ECS (Electronic Chart System), which can be used to assist
navigation, but does not meet IMO/SOLAS chart carriage requirements.
ECDIS equipment is specified in the IMO ECDIS Performance Standards as follows:
Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS) means a navigation information
system which, with adequate back up arrangements, can be accepted as complying with the up-
to-date chart required by regulation V/19 & V/27 of the 1974 SOLAS Convention.
Where the term ECDIS is used in this document, this is to be understood as those navigational
electronic chart systems, which have been tested, approved and certified as compliant with the
IMO ECDIS Performance Standards and other relevant IMO Performance Standards and thus is
compliant with SOLAS ECDIS requirements.
ECS is specified in ISO 19379 as follows:
ECS is a navigation information system that electronically displays vessel position and relevant
nautical chart data and information from an ECS Database on a display screen, but does not
meet all the IMO requirements for ECDIS and is not intended to satisfy the SOLAS Chapter V
requirements to carry a navigational chart.
ECS equipment ranges from simple hand held GPS enabled devices to sophisticated stand-alone
computer equipment interfaced to ship systems.
The 1974 International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS 1974), subsequently
amended in 2000 and 2002, specifies the requirements for the navigational equipment to be used
onboard ships entitled to fly the flag of a party to the convention. This Convention was adopted
by the International Maritime Organisation (IMO), the United Nations Organisation that is
concerned with maritime transportation.
IMO member states are obliged to adopt IMO rules and regulations into their national legislation.
However, only when the convention text has been incorporated into national legislation does it
take effect for the individual ships registered in that country. This process of incorporation into
national legislation may vary from a few months to several years.
The country in which a ship is registered and hence which flag it is flying is known as the Flag
State. It is the national maritime administration representing the Flag State, which controls the
adherence to the SOLAS carriage requirements (Flag State control).
The national maritime administration is also responsible for Port State control. Ships arriving at a
port may be subject to Port State control by local officials (Port State Control Officers - PSCOs)
based on Flag State regulations and international agreements.








64
7.2. Geospatial Information and Services (GI&S) Concept


The geospatial information obtained using satellites consists in a two or three dimensional
measurements of any point of Earths surface. Cartographers will convert these data in a formal
mode, equate them with directions, distances, sizes and relative values.
The tridimensional objects, with time and position variation, can be represented as points, lines
or surfaces. Based on this encryption can be drawn after the Raster and Vectorial charts.
This kind of information can be printed or displayed on screen as text, plane imagine or 3D
models, resulting a representation of an Earth section, which, for a currently use of information,
will be stored in electronic format, allowing to be viewed on a computer.
This new approaching type of editing and displaying mode of an Earth surface was named GI&S
(Geospatial Information & Services).
The primary tridimensional information, can be stored in different data bases, such as:
o Raster format data bases;
o Vectorial format data bases;
o 3D data bases for land elevation;
o 3D data bases for sea depths (bathymetry).
All these data types will required a special program to be displayed or printed.
The activity of obtaining and storing of tridimensional measurements made with satellites is
relative new (last 5 to 10 years). The advantage of using this model for creation of the electronic
charts is indisputably superior to the classical carthographic methods, based on surveying,
because:
o Measurements are more accurate;
o Charts can be generated faster if we have necessary hardware and software
resources;
o Measurements can be uodated and changing of data in the final chart is very
easy


7.3. Nautical charts

Nautical charts are special purpose maps specifically designed to meet the requirements of
marine navigation, showing amongst other things depths, nature of bottom, elevations,
configuration and characteristics of coast, dangers and aids to navigation.
Nautical charts offer a graphical representation of relevant information to mariners for executing
safe navigation.
Nautical charts can be distributed in analogue form, as paper charts or digitally, and are available
from a variety of sources, both governmental and private. For information on paper charts see the
separate document Facts about paper charts
The requirements for carriage of nautical charts are laid down in SOLAS Chapter V.
The relevant regulations are:
- Regulation 2, defines the nautical chart
- Regulation 19, specifies the equipment to be carried on different types of ships and
- Regulation 27, specifies the requirement to keep charts and publications up to date.





65
IMO SOLAS V/2

2.2 Nautical chart or nautical publication is a special-purpose map or book, or a specially com-
piled database from which such a map or book is derived, that is issued officially by or on the
authority of a Government, authorized Hydrographic Office or other relevant government
institution and is designed to meet the requirements of marine navigation.

The nautical charts and nautical publications referred to in regulation V/2 are commonly referred
to as official charts and publications


IMO SOLAS V/19

2.1 All ships irrespective of size shall have:
2.1.4 nautical charts and nautical publications to plan and display the ships route for the
intended voyage and to plot and monitor positions throughout the voyage; an Electronic Chart
Display and Information System (ECDIS) may be accepted as meeting the chart carriage
requirements of this subparagraph;
2.1.5 back-up arrangements to meet the functional requirements of subparagraph 2.1.4, if this
function is partly or fully fulfilled by electronic means;


IMO SOLAS V/27

Nautical charts and nautical publications, such as sailing directions, lists of lights, notices to
mariners, tide tables and all other nautical publications necessary for the intended voyage, shall
be adequate and up to date


7.4. Types of electronic charts

There are two types of electronic chart raster and vector. A raster chart is a scanned and
passive image of a paper chart, whereas a vector chart corresponds to a digital analysis by object
(points, lines, areas etc.).
Charts issued by or on the authority of a Government, authorized Hydrographic Office or other
relevant government institutions are official and may be used to fulfil carriage requirements
(provided they are kept up to date).
All other nautical charts are by definition not official and are often referred to as private charts.
These charts are not accepted as the basis for navigation under the SOLAS convention.
There are two kinds of official digital charts commonly available; Electronic Navigational Charts
(ENC) and Raster Navigational Charts (RNC).
ENC stands for Electronic Navigational Chart. The term was originally introduced for digital
chart data complying with the IHO chart data transfer standard S-57. By IMO definition ENCs
can only be produced by or on the authority of a government, authorised Hydrographic Office or
other relevant government institution. Any other vector data is unofficial and does not meet
carriage requirements.
ENCs have the following attributes:
- ENC content is based on source data or official charts of the responsible Hydrographic Office;
- ENCs are compiled and coded according to international standards;
- ENCs are referred to World Geodetic System 1984 Datum (WGS84);
- ENC content is the responsibility and liability of the issuing Hydrographic Office;
66
- ENCs are issued only by the responsible Hydrographic Office; and
- ENCs are regularly updated with official update information distributed digitally.
Only authorized distributors sell ENCs in ENC services which include the delivery of update
information. The distributors are authorized either directly by the originating Hydrographic
Office or by a cooperation of Hydrographic Offices.
ECDIS distinguishes an ENC from unofficial data. When unofficial data is used, ECDIS informs
mariners that they must navigate by means of an official, up to date, paper chart by a continuous
warning on the screen.
If unofficial data is shown on the ECDIS display, its boundary is to be identified by a special line
style. This boundary is visualized as a one-sided RED line with the diagonal stroke on the
unofficial side of the line.
Further the mariner can use an ECDIS function to interrogate the chart display to obtain the chart
details like information on originator, edition number and status of updating.
The International Hydrographic Organisation (IHO) provides an interactive web catalogue
displaying the status of worldwide ENC production. This system has pointers for guiding users
to ENC suppliers and distributors. A three-colour scheme is used to distinguish between degrees
of accessibility.
This catalogue shows that many common shipping routes are already covered by ENCs.
The illustration below shows the front page of the catalogue, which can be found at the IHO
web-site at www.iho.int, look under ENC.
Some HOs (eg Canada and Australia) make their RNCs and ENCs available to users via their
own distributor networks; these distributors often offer additional folio services to shipping
companies.
A majority of all ENCs are only made available to the end-users in a protected form compliant
with the IHO S-63 Data Protection scheme. The standard maintains the integrity in all
transactions between the service provider and the end-user. The protection scheme enables the
end user systems to check the authenticity of the supplied information.
The S-63 protection scheme defines a mechanism for encrypting ENC information and applying
a digital signature to enable authentication of the chart data by the end-user. The end-user will
require a decryption key to access and view the ENC data protected by the scheme. Each ENC
chart is encrypted with a different key, and the decryption keys are issued to specific end-user
systems and can consequently not be exchanged or shared by different systems. The required
decryption keys are distributed to the end-users as Cell Permits by the service provider.
The operation of a protection scheme should not add any operational overhead for the end-users
since all aspects of ENC decryption and authentication are handled automatically by the chart
system. The end-user will occasionally receive new Cell Permits from their service provider
when their ENC subscription is renewed or there are changes to the ENC chart outfit. The
updated Cell Permits must be imported into the chart system to enable it to automatically process
new ENC deliveries and updates.
A majority of all ECDIS and ECS suppliers have developed support for IHO S-63 and can read
protected ENCs.
A few nations distribute their ENCs without using encryption; all ECDIS systems are able to
access and display these ENCs.
The International Hydrographic Organisation has approved the distribution of ENCs in the
internal format used by the individual ECDIS manufacturer. The generic name of this format is
SENC System-ENC. Depending on the make of ECDIS this can increase the speed of loading
of ENC-data. The IHO requires service providers using this method of SENC-distribution to gain
the agreement of the Hydrographic Offices supplying the ENCs and to use type approved
software to ensure that the integrity of the SENC data is maintained.



67
7.5. Raster Charts


RNC means Raster Navigational Chart. RNCs are digital raster copies of official paper charts
conforming to IHO Product Specifications RNC (S-61). By definition RNCs can only be issued
by, or on the authority of, a national Hydrographic Office.
RNCs have the following attributes:
- RNCs are a facsimile of official paper charts;
- RNCs are produced according to international standards;
- RNC content is the responsibility of the issuing Hydrographic Office; and
- RNCs are regularly updated with official update information distributed digitally.
The IMO performance standards for ECDIS states that where ENCs are not available, RNCs may
be used in ECDIS to meet carriage requirements. However, when the ECDIS is using RNCs it
should be used together with an appropriate folio of up to date paper charts.
Information in the Raster format are obtained by scanning a paper chart. This process produces
an image which is the exact copy of the paper chart and which contain a number of lines consist
of many colored points or pixels. This technique not recognized the objects individually, limiting
the ability to comply with the international requirements. Anyway, allows use of vectors
overlaying, which allows user to input specific data like waypoints, radar overlaying and other
operations that reduce this deficiency.
The Raster charts advantages are:
o Use familiar because it uses the same symbols and colores like for the paper
charts;
o Are exact copies of the paper charts with the same relevance and integrity;
o The user cannot neglect navigation information on display;
o Production costs lower than those for the vectorial charts;
o Possibility to use official charts catalogues for the charts with global coverage;
o Using the vectorial overlaying technique, together with a specialized computer
program, the Raster charts type can be used for all navigation activities, but
doubled by the paper chart.
The Raster charts disadvantages:
o User cannot particularize the displaying mode;
o When vectorial overlaying is used shadows may appear on the image;
o Cant be used without an additional data base with a common reference system;
o Cant provide warnings and indication directly to user;
o Even if the stored information quantity is the same like for any vectorial chart
type, required a greater storage capacity.


7.6. Vector Charts


Comparing with the ENC Electronic Navigation Chart, which are made using data in raw and
direct format, vector information can be obtained by scanning a paper chart also. The obtained
image after scanning is vectorized using digital encryption on every cartographied object and its
attributes (structure encryption) and stores this information, together with object geographical
position into the data base. Resulted charts can be grouped and stored in thematic folders for
each group. For example, the coastal area can be a folder and deep sea area another one. The user
can optimize the display mode, receiving only interest data and avoiding the displaying of
unwanted data that can make the activity difficult. Vectorial charts can provide information that
allows the detection of a danger.
68
The production process for Vector charts is longer and more expansive than for production of a
Raster chart.
Advantages of the Vector charts are:
o Laying of information in folders allows selection of displayed data;
o The display mode can be customize by the user;
o Possibility to change the scale without image distorsion;
o Can provide warnings and indications in dangerous situations, like exceeding of
the safety contour;
o The objects can be presented using different symbols like those used for Raster
or paper charts;
o The chart information can be correlated with other equipments information such
as ARPA radar;
o Compared with Raster charts requires a less storage capacity for the same
information volume.
Disadvantages of the Vector charts:
o Technically are more complex;
o Increased costs and time of production;
o The coverage is not global yet;
o Difficult to provide quality and integrity of displayed Vector information;
o Training for their use is more complex than Raster charts.
The delivery mode of the electronic charts is the ECDIS (Electronic Chart Display and
Information System) system, a navigation information system using Vector charts provided by a
recognized authority. Such equipment shall be in accordance with the international standards
adopted by the International Maritime Organization on requirements for a safe passage specified
in SOLAS Convention. The ECDIS hardware system can be represented by a common computer
with a good graphical resolution or by a display incorporated in the integrated bridge system.
The equipment can receive information from other electronic sources, like ship position
information from GPS or LORAN, heading information from gyro, ship speed information from
loch or other ships from ARPA Radar.
The information is transmitted to the ECDIS system using NMEA (National Marine Electronics
Association) protocol. Radar information can be used by overlaying of data resulted from a radar
screen scanning or electronically, using information provided by an ARPA Radar device
(Automatic Radar Plotting Aid). ECDIS system software must contain required elements for
electronic charts display and to allow displaying of their data and those received from other
electronic equipments.
The charts contained by ECDIS are Electronic Navigation Charts type, which have to comply
with S-57 standard of the International Hydrographic Organization on the transfer of data and
information.


Non-official Vector charts


Generally are made scanning paper charts provided by national hydrographic authorities. The
resulted image is than digitalized by copying the main lines and putting in electronic format.
This vectorization process stored the future charts in layers that can be automatically translated
to an appropriate chart scale. Information categories, like depths or navigation aids can be added
or deleted on request. In some systems these elements can be used to obtain more information.
The Vector view mode is designed such the information are electronically displayed in another
way than were copied from the paper chart. The most of the automatic systems decides what
information should be displayed, depending on resolution scale, so to avoid image blurs.

69
This new operational regime has been designed to take account of the implications arising from:
o Adding/deleting of information;
o Changing of exposure scale and displaying only of data for the working scale;
o Displaying of chart at a larger scale than that used for the paper chart.


Official Raster charts


There are two official Raster chart formats:
BSB Raster charts, containing all data from the paper charts published by
NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration), including weekly
corrections. These corrections are accessible via internet and are made
according to the Notices provided by US Coast Guard, Canadian Coast Guard
and National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA). The NOAA data dase
contains a number of 1000 charts available from 1995 in Raster format.
Increasing the use of electronic navigation systems with GPS positioning or
other positioning systems, led to increased sales of Raster chart format. The
Raster charts are provided on electronic support (CD-ROM), each of this
containing a number of 55 charts with all facilities for navigation.
UKHO ARCS (United Kingdom Hydrographic Office Admirality Raster
Chart Service) and AHO (Australian Hydrographic Office) publishing Raster
charts according to British Admirality standards for paper charts. The British
Raster charts are weekly corrected using electronic support (CD-ROM),
containing the same information as the weekly editions of Notice to Mariners
used for charts correction onboard. The Australian charts (called Seafarers)
are montly corrected on the same principle. The British Admirality provide a
number of about 2,700 Raster charts, available on electronic format.

The British and Australian Raster charts are produced by the same process like the paper charts,
consisting in printing and scanning of a chart or direct designing of a Raster chart. These charts
reproduce exactly the original charts, with each pixel in relation to latitude and longitude. In use,
the horizontal datums changes are included in each chart and all information must comply with
the WGS-84 geodetic system. Not all charts have the information in accordance with WGS-84
geodetic system and should be used with caution when using position data provided by GPS.
The production system of the British Raster charts involve the use of a main base and an online
copy system, called ABRAHAM, used for correction and update of the Raster charts, and for the
control and drawing of the basic charts.


70

Figure 7.1. The UK Admirality ABRAHAM system for Raster charts development


The ABRAHAM represents all the processes necessary for designing and maintaining of a high
resolution monochrome Raster base (25/1016 dpi) for each chart.
The electronic format for charts correction is issued in accordance with the Notice to Mariners
and can have weekly, periodically or monthly frequency, depending on corrections complexity.


71

Figure 7.2. The coverage of British Admirality Raster charts


7.7. Electronic Navigation Charts (ENCs)


These are charts designed for use by ECDIS devices and are produced in a single universal
format. Use Vector information based on IHO standards, as S-57 regarding to digital
hydrographic information standards.
Some of the major elements of identifying the unique properties of these charts are:
o Are edited only by governmental hydrographic authorities or under their
supervision;
o Chart elements must be encrypted and able to provide information;
o Information is provided in the form of cells which can offer only necessary data
and can be modified on user requirements;
o All chart information is reported to the geodetic system WGS-84, used by GPS.
The information is accessible at any chart scale and displaying only the information required for
user in given area. If required addition or deletion of data, these can be grouped in folders and
used on request. The changing of chart scale allows the image to be zoomed out and easily used.
Zooming out of a Raster chart can led to changing of navigation aids dimensions and to create an
uncertainly chart for navigation. Zooming out of an Electronic Navigation Chart fix this
72
problem, the navigation aids keep their characteristics related to the chart scale and in case of
any change the user is adviced immediately.
The individual countour lines can be defined as safety lines or anti-grounding, warning being
given when ship is in proximity. Alarms will be generated automatically if the ECDIS equipment
detects a conflict between the ship planned route and hydrographical characteristics contained by
the electronic chart, with a potential risk to the ship.
ECDIS can provide information from chart presenting the entire content of the ENC, by
presenting a standard display or a minimum display of the content, called basic display. The first
two displaying modes allow addition or deletion of information, while the basic display does not
allow deletion of the information, which are considered the minimum needs for the safety of
navigation.
Validity of Electronic Navigation Chart depends by a number of factors related to editing
hydrographic authority and include the following:
o The experience in production of electronic charts; the validity grows with
accumulated experience;
o Information quality; software used to ensure quality of a digital data base must
comply with S-57 standard requirements;
o Uniform data; is necessary that all hydrographic authorities to ensure standard
electronic charts editing process, the use of regional coordination centres is an
optimum solution;
o Geographical coverage; focusing on geographical areas intensive used by the
shipping companies can ensure providing of required electronic charts.


Private publisher Vector
charts
Official Raster charts Electronic Navigation Charts
(ENC)
Are produced by private
companies
Are produced by or under license
of a national hydrographic
authority
Are produced by or under license
of a national hydrographic
authority
Unofficial Official Official
Not accepted for general
purpose
Accepted for use with condition
that data to be complete and the
same with those in paper chart
Accepted for use with condition
that data to be complete and
recognized
Less probable to become the
official replacer of the paper
charts
Less probable to become the
official replacer of the paper
charts
Are the legal equivalent of the
paper charts
Possible changes of chart
original data
Chart information is safe Chart information is safe
Zoom out possibility Scale zooming out is limited at a
levet that does not change the
original image and information is
not blurred
Charts can be zoom out without
restrictions, the displayed details
are according to used scale
Quality control depends by
producer
Quality control according to
governmental standards
Quality control according to
governmental standards
Table 7.1. Integrity of different types of electronic charts









73

Private publisher Vector
charts
Official Raster charts Electronic Navigation Charts
(ENC)
Generally, copies of the paper
charts
Exact copy of the original paper
charts
All data are separated in cells
O diferen de imagine fa de
original este prezen la toate
nivelele de mrire utilizate
All the time is presented the
same image as the original.
Charts more equivalent with the
paper charts than Vector type,
including ENC
No similarity with the paper
chart
Symbols and colors depending
on the producer
Symbols and colors identically
with the original chart
IHO S-52 standard defining the
new colors and symbols used by
the ENC
Accuracy, conformity and
complexity depends on the
producer
Accuracy, conformity and
complexity like for the original
chart
Can be more accurate than paper
charts
A new operation regime is
required
Same working mode as for the
paper charts, possible changes
may occur due to displaying
screen sizes
A new operation regime is
required
Table 7.2. Equivalence of various types of electronic charts with paper charts


Private publisher Vector
charts
Official Raster charts Electronic Navigation Charts
(ENC)
Updates depends by the
producer
Have updated corrections when
sold
Have updated corrections when
sold
Is difficult to define the
producer policy for corrections
publishing
Information are corrected
according to standards
Chart information are maintained
according to strict standards
Depends by producer Can be provided new editions at
user request
Not applying
Depends by producer On-line corrections for
commercial users
On-line corrections available
Depends by producer Automatic integration of
corrections
Automatic integration of
corrections
Table 7.3. Correction of different types of electronic charts


Private publisher Vector
charts
Official Raster charts Electronic Navigation Charts
(ENC)
Chart Datum may differ by
WGS-84
Comply with WGS-84 All data comply with WGS-84
Chart information can be
removed from display,
information important for
navigation can be changed
Chart information can not be
deleted, the user cannot deleted
important information by mistake
Chart information can be
removed from display, possible
to modify important information
for navigation
Table 7.4. The safety use of different types of electronic charts







74
7.8. Electronic Navigation Charts (ENC) characteristics


Electronic Navigation Chart standards


Since 1980 a number of factors caused radical changes in the navigation safety ensurance:
o Considerable increasing of maritime traffic, especially in narrow areas of
navigation;
o Generally use and accuracy of electronic positioning systems (positioning
systems using satellites);
o Dangerous increasing of marine pollution;
o New large ships with speeds exceed 20 knots;
o Reduction of bridge team members and limited time they have available for
studying, analyzing and filling of the nautical documentation (printed form).
These were the main reasons regarding strictly to the maritime domain that led to the idea to
introduce a displaying system for ship position in real time.
The way this was done in practice was strictly related to the development of microprocessors and
communication systems.
In 1985 the International Maritime Organization has officially recognized the possibility of using
ENC and the ECDIS systems.
With the most advanced technology in the collection and presentation of the geographical data in
electronic format, ECDIS equipments have been considered an efficient device for:
o Increasing of safety of navigation;
o Updating of navigation information and chart correction;
o Reduction of watch officer activity regarding chart working.
Uniformity in the presentation of geographical information in electronic format, and the devices
for visualization of this kind of information was elaborated by four international organisations,
namely:
International Hydrographic Organization (I.H.O), provide to producers the
main sets of data used for generation of ENCs;
International Maritime Organization (I.M.O), establish the norms that must be
observed by the ENCs, that the product to be useful to the navigator, both in
terms how information is presented and the information type;
International Electronics Commission (I.E.C), control the products in terms of
electronic and information reliability standards;
International Radio Maritime Commission (I.R.M.C), verifies standards for
data transmission via radio.
In developing these standards were considered two basic options:
o Offsetting decrease in resolution of the ENC image, related to a paper chart,
ensuring of an interface with which the OOW to access the alphanumeric data
base, so have been opted for Vector charts instead of the Raster charts;
o The imposed standards for ECDIS equipments are limited only to those
regarding the user working interface (to make it as accessible possible to any
operator using the system), allowing instead a scientific evolution of creation
and display of the ENCs.
The ECDIS equipments, to be approved as navigation device, have to comply with the following
four types of rules:
o ECDIS equipments must comply with the rules for electronic navigation devices
according to SOLAS Convention, specified ECDIS standard being developed by
International Maritime Organization by Resolution A/817(19) from 15
th
of
December 1995, including the 1999 amendments;
75
o The electronic chart which shown the geographic characteristics must comply
with IHO S-52 and S-57 standards;
o ECDIS hardware and software must comply with IEC 61174 (1999) rules.
o Considering that this equipment is installed onboard ship, the equipment type
have to be approved by the national ship registry.


7.9. Electronic Chart Display and Information System


ECDIS equipment is specified in the IMO ECDIS Performance Standards (IMO Resolution
A.817 (19)) as follows:

Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS) means a navigation information
system which, with adequate back up arrangements, can be accepted as complying with the up-
to-date chart required by regulation V/19 & V/27 of the 1974 SOLAS Convention, by displaying
selected information from a system electronic navigational chart (SENC) with positional
information from navigation sensors to assist the mariner in route planning and route
monitoring, and by displaying additional navigation-related information if required.

ECDIS is a ship borne navigational device and as such it is the responsibility of IMO. It must
support the whole range of navigational functions that make use of the characteristics of the chart
data and their specific presentation. Moreover, to be an ECDIS the equipment must be shown to
meet all the requirements of the IMO Performance Standards (IMO Resolution A.817(19)) and
offer, besides the graphic presentation of chart data, additional information about the
characteristics of the displayed features.
Within the ECDIS, the ENC database stores the chart information in the form of geographic
objects represented by point, line and area shapes, carrying individual attributes, which make any
of these objects unique. Appropriate mechanisms are built into the system to query the data, and
then to use the obtained information to perform certain navigational functions (e.g. the anti-
grounding surveillance).
The presentation of the current position, range/bearing functions and route planning capabilities
are other examples of the minimum ECDIS requirements laid down in the IMO Performance
Standards for ECDIS.
The presentation of ENCs on the screen is specified in another IHO standard, the Colours and
Symbols Specifications for ECDIS IHO S-52, i.e. in its Appendix 2, calledECDIS Presentation
Library. This style of presentation is mandatory.
The use of ENCs in a tested, approved and certified ECDIS and with appropriate back up
arrangements, is the only paperless chart option for vessel navigation.


7.10. ECDIS approvement

To ensure that ECDIS equipment intended for onboard use is seaworthy, it must pass type
approval and test procedures developed by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
based on the ECDIS Performance Standards of IMO and applying the IHO requirements, S-52
and S-57 in particular.
Type approval is a method to show conformance with IMO requirements on a legal basis it is
initiated and required by all Flag States which are Member States of the European Union and by
many others outside including United States, Japan and Australia. ECDIS type approval is the
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certifications process that ECDIS equipment must undergo before it will be considered to
comply with the IMO Performance Standards for ECDIS by the international shipping
community.
Type approval is normally conducted by recognized organisations or by marine classification
societies nominated by Flag States. Some maritime nations also have type approval programs
within their maritime safety administration or Department of Marine Transportation. European
Governments have agreed about mutual recognition of their ECDIS type approval certificates
indicated by the so-called Wheel Mark sign showing conformity with the Maritime Equipment
Directive of the European Union.


7.11. Meeting Carriage Requirements with ECDIS


Only a type approved ECDIS operating with up to date ENCs and with appropriate back up may
be used to replace all paper charts on a vessel. Where ENCs are not yet available, IMO
regulations allow Flag States to authorise the use of RNCs (together with an appropriate folio of
paper charts) - see below. Note that in all other cases the vessel must carry all paper charts
necessary for its intended voyage.
From the regulatory perspective, the most important statement about the legal status of ECDIS is
contained in the amended Chapter V of the SOLAS Convention set into force on 1 July 2002. As
stated earlier in this section, ECDIS is specifically referred to in Regulation 19 Carriage
requirements for ship borne navigational systems and equipment.
However, in order to replace paper charts, such systems must fulfil considerable technical
requirements laid down in ECDIS Performance Standards:
- The chart data in use must be official - ENCs where these are available;
- The graphic display on the screen must meet the equipment-independent specification; and
- The equipment must support the full range of navigational functions that can be performed on
the traditional paper charts.


7.12. Back up requirements


No electronic system is completely failsafe. IMO Performance Standards therefore require that
the overall system include both a primary ECDIS and an adequate independent back up
arrangement that provides:
- Independent facilities enabling a safe take over of the ECDIS functions in order to ensure that a
system failure does not result in a critical situation; and
- A means to provide for safe navigation for the remaining part of the voyage in case of ECDIS
failure.
However, these rather basic statements allow considerable leeway and there are various
interpretations as to what are the minimum functional requirements, or what constitute
adequate back up arrangements.
There are two commonly accepted options:
- A second ECDIS, connected to an independent power supply and a separate GPS position
input;
- An appropriate up to date folio of official paper charts for the intended voyage
Some Flag States may permit other options (e.g. radar-based systems such as Chart-Radar).
Ship owners should consult their national maritime administration for specific advice.
At the request of IMO the IHO is currently seeking information from their member states on
which paper charts covering their territorial waters would be appropriate to serve as a back up to
77
ECDIS. IHO will compile this information and present it on its web site in the form of a
catalogue.
In 1998 the IMO recognised that it would take some years to complete the worlds coverage of
ENCs. As a consequence IMO ECDIS Performance Standards were amended adding a new
optional mode of operation of ECDIS, the Raster Chart Display System (RCDS) mode. In this
mode RNCs can be used in ECDIS to meet SOLAS carriage requirements for nautical charts.
However, this is only allowed if approved by the Flag State. The intention of those changes was
to allow the ECDIS to operate as far as possible on official chart data; ENCs where they were
available and RNCs to fill in the gaps.
IMO took note of the limitations of RNCs as compared to ENCs (see IMO SN Circular 207 at
Annex), and the revised ECDIS Performance Standards require that the ECDIS must be used
together with an appropriate folio of up to date paper charts for the areas where RCDS mode is
employed. The intention was to allow the number of paper charts carried by a vessel to be
reduced where RCDS mode was employed, but only to a level compatible with safe navigation.
No definition of an appropriate folio was provided by IMO and consequently different Flag
States developed individual interpretations.
As there is no common interpretation of the term appropriate ship owners should consult their
Flag State as to whether RCDS mode is allowed and under what conditions.
A web-based catalogue showing world coverage of all ENCs, RNCs and paper charts available is
currently under preparation by the IHO.
In areas where ENCs or RNCs are not available vessels must carry all paper charts necessary for
the intended voyage.


7.13. Use of ECDIS


There has been much confusion with regard to the names used to describe electronic chart
distribution formats; the diagram below is designed to clarify the situation. From the diagram it
can be seen that the same distribution format can be used for the delivery of both private and
official chart data. For instance BSB is the term used for the distribution format of US and
Canadian RNCs; the same term is used for the distribution of private raster chart data in other
areas (for example in European waters). There can also be confusion with ENCs; private vector
chart data delivered in S-57 format does not meet IMO requirements and should never be named
as ENC. Similarly private vector data delivered in SENC format can be mistaken for ENCs
delivered in the same SENC format.
Therefore the most important factor to consider is the source of the electronic chart data; this
determines its status and the purpose for which it may be used. However, only the combination
between the status of the chart data and the functionality of the particular device finally decides
if its practical operation can be stated as ECDIS-mode or as ECS-mode.
Unlike the paper chart, ECDIS is a highly sophisticated system which, besides the navigational
functions, includes components of a complex, computer-based information system. In total, the
system includes hardware, operating system, ECDIS software (kernel and user interface), sensor
input interfacing, electronic chart data, rules for presentation and display, status and parameters
of alarms and indications, etc. All these items are accessed through an appropriate human-
machine interface. As such, care must be taken when navigating with ECDIS to avoid
- False operation
- Misinterpretation
- Malfunction or, even worse,
- Over-reliance on this highly-automated navigation system
78
As with any type of shipboard navigation equipment, it can only be as good as those who use it
and what it is being used for. In the case of ECDIS and electronic charts, if the mariner is well
trained then the system provides the information flow that the mariner needs to make good
decisions and therefore contributes significantly to safe and efficient navigation. Stated another
way, an electronic chart system is another tool to enable mariners to perform their job better.
However, just having some knowledge about functions and operational controls is
insufficient to maximise the benefits of ECDIS; proper training is absolutely necessary.
ECDIS and other electronic charting systems have become increasingly important to ship
navigation and are already widely used either as a primary navigation tool or as an aid to
navigation. The systems are increasingly complex, and require adequate and appropriate training
in order to be operated correctly and safely. Without proper training, these systems will not be
used to their full potential and could under some circumstances increase the hazard to navigation.
The STCW (Standards of Training, Certification and Watch-keeping) and ISM (International
Safety Management) codes put the responsibility firmly on the shipowner to ensure that mariners
on their vessels are competent to carry out the duties they are expected to perform. If a ship is
fitted with ECDIS, the shipowner has a duty to ensure that users of such a system are properly
trained in the operation and use of electronic charts and are familiar with the shipboard
equipment before using it operationally at sea.
There is no specific regulation or reference to ECDIS systems in the STCW Convention.
However, since ECDIS systems are related to electronic charts, references about them are
considered to be included in the material covered by the word chart:
- To encourage effective ECDIS education, the IMO approved a standardised model course for
ECDIS training on the operational use of ECDIS in 1999 (IMO course 1.27). This course is
offered by approved training institutions and maritime academies. Maritime administrations can
provide information on approved institutions. Some Flag States have developed their own
training courses in ECDIS in order to be able to recognise the training certificates.
- Type specific ECDIS training is provided by equipment manufacturers.
Navigating with ECDIS is fundamentally different from navigating with paper charts. Important
bridge work-processes are significantly affected, in particular, voyage planning and voyage
execution task. These require careful analysis and consideration:

Voyage Planning

ECDIS provides a number of additional planning functions and features such as safety contours,
alarms, click-and-drop facilities for waypoints and markers, etc. Whilst in many ways ECDIS
makes voyage planning easier it is still possible to make errors, however these are likely to be of
a different type to those encountered when using paper charts.
Even though ENC coverage is increasing rapidly, many vessels will, to some degree, have to
operate a dual or even triple system with ENCs paper and raster charts. Planning and
validation of the route has therefore to consider issues such as which chart types are available for
the various segments of the voyage. The format of the voyage plan is likely to differ from the
traditional alphanumeric lists of waypoints used with paper charts and should include
information on the usability of connected electronic navigational devices such as GPS and AIS
and their actual alarm settings.
It is essential to make use of the in-built automatic check functions provided by ECDIS when
validating and approving the voyage plan. Thought also needs to be given to ensuring that a
backup to the voyage plan on the ECDIS is available in case of equipment failure of the ECDIS
itself or the connected sensors.
It is important that there is good communication of the voyage plan to all bridge officers so that
they are prepared for the intended voyage. This should include information on equipment status
and backup procedures.

79
Voyage execution

At the beginning of the voyage, as well as at any change of watch, the officers should review the
voyage plan and agree the selected pre-settings of functions, alarms and indicators to be used on
the ECDIS.
Where vessels carry paper charts as well as an ECDIS the role of the ECDIS and the charts
should be considered. If the ECDIS is used for real time navigation, the statutory requirements
regarding monitoring of the progress of the voyage and marking of positions will need to be
considered:
are positions marked in paper charts solely for record keeping purposes?
what steps are taken to ensure that intended tracks marked on the paper charts correspond with
the ECDIS information?
have the bridge procedures set in place by the shipping company been adapted for the use of
ECDIS and are all persons concerned with the navigation familiar with these adaptations

Over reliance on ECDIS

There is a tendency to put too much trust in computer based systems and believe whatever is on
the display. It is essential that officers remember to cross check the information displayed by all
other means available; especially by looking out the window and watching the radar! Bridge-
procedures must be adapted appropriately and ENC training must be carried out to alleviate these
concerns.


7.14. ECDIS operational functions


The many models of ECDIS devices used onboard ships forced the international organizations
with duties in the field of electronic charts to establish a code (called GREEN-YELLOW-RED
Code) for approval of the existing equipments.
Thus, each code color which labelling an equipment represents the classification according to
standards set by IMO and IHO.
Green Code label a product 100% compatible with IMO and IHO standards, that means the
use of ENCs according to S-57 standard, possibility to update the charts, allows the use of
DGPS devices in coastal areas and has all functions corresponding to Performance Standard.
Yellow Code label a product partially compatible with the IMO and IHO standards.
Red Code label is applying to equipments incompatible with the IMO and IHO standards.
An ECDIS program used on a PC or a specialized console have to respect some technical
specifications and to fulfil different functions, such as:
Electronic navigation chart format supported:
o S-57 I.H.O standard
o CHS NTX vector data
o CMAP vector data
o NOAA (USA) BSB raster data
o British Admiralty ARCS raster data
Chart functions:
o Display of Vector or Raster charts
o Display of Mercator latitude/longitude grid
o Three information levels for Vector charts
o Ship course prediction and anti-collision alarm (on Vector charts)
o Charts update
o Real motion
80
o Manual repositioning
o Ship movement simulation
Displays overlaying on Electronic Navigation Charts
o Watch zones
Distance circles
Latitude/longitude grid
Ship contour
Heading
Course over ground
North direction arrow
Ship course storage for the last 24 hours
o Ship route functions
Unlimited number of stored routes
Unlimited number pf displayed routes
Unlimited library for waypoints
Waypoints editing function
Reversing route
Safety depth and track error configuration
import/export of routes
The Course Recorder
o According to IMO standard
o Ability torun recording
o Interface with other equipments
o Input for two positioning devices (GPS, LORAN)
o loch, ultrasound, anemometer, Radar, ARPA Radar
Navigation elements
o NAVLINE
o Bearing
o Distances
o Alarm zones defining
o Introduction of the User notes
The Radar module
o Radar overlaying on ENC
o Independent Radar image
o Radar image adjustment


The User functions


The voyage planning, route selection. This route is defined by the created waypoints (WP). The
waypoints definition can be done directly on the navigation chart or using a table, both methods
being interconnected, so a waypoint defined on the ENC will be found also in the table with
waypoints characteristic data, or, a waypoint defined in the table by geographical coordinates
(latitude and longitude), will be found on the electronic chart.
On the electronic chart is marked also the areas known as dangerous for navigation. Therefore,
when planning the route, if one of these areas is crossing, a warning alarm will be activated.
Before to start plotting of the waypoints will be introduced the own ship data, which will activate
the anti-grounding system, the ship draft and safety depth under the keel and eventually the
average speed.
81
For seafarer is easier to plan the route directly on the electronic chart, having display the tabular
data for route waypoints. Thus have the opportunity to nominate some of the waypoints, names
that will facilitate their recognision later.
When a waypoint is defined, in the table will be stated the values for the course between two
waypoints, distance and time to travel (if there was introduced an average speed).
Rout monitoring. Is continuously and in real time, the ship position can be displayed
simultaneously on the electronic chart based on information received from two independent
positioning devices (GPS/DGPS LORAN or GPS/DGPS AIS).
On the electronic chart can be overlayed the Radar or ARPA Radar image, both for fixed and
mobile targets, including their movement vectors when were ARPA plotted.
Own ship movement vector will be displayed and updated continuously.
Meantime, in digital form, in the side windows will be displayed data about ship course, ship
speed, course over ground, speed over ground, ship position in geographical coordinates, drift
details, direction, distance and ETA to the next waypoint, XTE value.
Given that ECDIS equipment should provide all facilities for chart working, the software allows
direct plotting of electronic bearings and distances to different references, also to determine the
ship position by independents methods, without using of the electronic positioning devices.
When is considered that these measurements are more accurate than the electroning positioning
information, very possible when is not working with differential positioning systems, then the
shop position can be manually corrected, using the coastal positioning as reference.
For the safety of navigation, alarms included in the program are very important. These alarms
will indicates:
o Near the bathimetric line under the safety depth value;
o Proximity of a navigation danger;
o Proximity of a special navigation area;
o Aprroaching of a mobile target with CPA/TCPA values under the selected ones;
o Track error over the planned values;
o Approaching to a waypoint;
o Time to start turning for a course change;
o Malfunction of one of the electronic positioning devices.















82
Chapter VIII

Automatic Identification System (A.I.S)




The Automatic Identification System is based on a transponder on board ship that transmit
continuously information about the own ship using the maritime frequency of the VHF band.
The transmitted information contain:
Ship identification data: ship name, call sign, LOA, beam, draft, etc.;
Cargo onboard and if is dangerous or not;
Information about the ship course ans maneuvering capacities;
Ship position according to GPS.
These information must be received by other AIS equipments from other ships, also by the
Vessel Traffic Service stations in its range. The information received by a ship or VTS station
must allow plotting of the ship position on electronic chart, according to the position provided
by the GPS or DGPS, together with a vector to indicate ship speed and course made good.
Accessing the target must be possible to display other information, like target identification data.



Figure 8.1. Automatic Identification System components


The Automatic Identification System (AIS) require several adiacent components in order to
achieve tasks, like: GPS or DGPS device, a VHP transponder, two VHF TDMA (time division
multiple access) receivers, a VHF DSC receiver and an electronic communication system
according to maritime standards connected to the ECDIS system. Information about ship position
is provided by the global positioning system. Information about ship course and speed are

83
provided by the AIS device using data received from other electronic navigation equipments, but
data about ship destination and ETA can be provided only by the previous setting.


8.1. Recommendation on AIS performance according to IMO Resolution
MSC 74(69), Annex 3


At the third meeting of the Navigation Sub-Committee of IMO, in July 1997, waere elaborated
the initial form of the performance standards for onboard AIS devices. These standards describe
the operational requirements for device, but does not define the communication protocol to be
used.
The MSC Report include the following elements regarding to AIS equipments:
1. All ships with a gross register tonnage more than 300 tonnes (engaged in international
voyages), cargo vessels with a gross register tonnage of 500 tonnes or more (not engaged in
internmational voyages), and all passenger ships, must be equipped with AIS, as follows:
1.1. ships built on or after 1st of July 2002;
1.2. ships engaged in international voyages and built before of 1st of July 2002;
1.2.1. for the passenger ships, regardless of size, and for all tanker ships, no later than
1st of July 2003;
1.2.2. for ships other than passengers and tankers, with gross register tonnage of
50,000 tonnes or more, no later than 1st of July 2004;
1.2.3. for ships other than passengers and tankers, with a gross register tonnage of
10,000 tonnes or more, but less than 50,000 tonnes, no later than 1st of July
2005;
1.2.4. for ships other than passengers and tankers with a gross register tonnage of
3,000 tonnes or more, but less than 10,000 tonnes, no later than 1st of July 2006;
1.2.5. for ships other than passengers and tankers, with a gross register tonnage of 300
tonnes or more, but less than 3,000 tonnes, no later than 1st of July 2007; and
1.3. ships not engaged in international voyages built before 1st of July 2002, but no
later than 1st of July 2008.
2. Administration may except from the requirements of the previous paragraph those ships
that will be permanently out of service within two years from the implementation data
indicated in paragraph 1.
3. AIS equipments should:
3.1. to provide automatically information to a coast station, other ship or special
equipped aircraft, including ship identity, ship type, position, course, speed, ship
state and other safety information;
3.2. automatically receiving of such information from ships adecquate equipped;
3.3. ships tracking and monitoring; and
3.4. data exchange with coast facilities, the present paragraph requirements shall not
be applied where there are international regulations, rules or standards issued
for protection of the navigation data. The AIS system should be used taking into
account the recommendations adopted by the Organization.








84
8.2. Operational functions of AIS


Target monitoring:
o Displaying of unlimited number of targets on screen;
o Target selectionby TCPA and RCPA values;
o Targets possible to be individually centred on screen;
o Possibility to activate only one target;
o The messages can be send in binary form or ASCII form on specific channel;
o Automatically (scheduled) or manually transmission of data;
o Binary transmissions contain: Man Over Board, ARPA, elements and points of
interest (WPs, routes or areas);
o Displaying of AIS working channels;
o Displaying of CPA value on screen;
o Alarms and warnings based on configured CPA.
AIS Long Range monitoring:
o Electronic mail configuration using Microsoft MAPI (Mail Application
Programming Interface);
o Monitoring using Inmarsat;
o Sender information filtering;
o Possibility to transmit to several e-mail addrresses;
o Formats configuration.
AIS module configuration:
o Posibiliti to delete target properties;
o Transmitting of data regarding name, call sign, ship type, IMO number, MMSI,
ship draft, voyage, destination and ETA at destination;
o Information about the own ship transponder;
o Distinctive features of the transponder;
o The GPS equipment used for positioning on electronic chart;
o Global positioning system transponder state;






















85
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