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The basic idea is that the controller reads a sensor. Then it subtracts the
measurement from a desired "setpoint" to determine an "error".
H(s)= ,
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If the system must remain online, one tuning method is to first set the I and D
values to zero. Increase the P until the output of the loop oscillates. Then increase I
until oscillation stops. Finally, increase D until the loop is acceptably quick to reach
its setpoint. The best PID loop tuning usually overshoots slightly to reach the set-
point more quickly, however some systems cannot accept overshoot.
Ziegler-Nichols method
Control P Tr Td
P 0,5·Kc - -
PI 0,45·Kc Pc/1,2 -
PID 0,6·Kc Pc/2 Pc/8
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Problems
The PID controller algorithm itself has few problems. Most problems arise from
instrumentation connected to the controller.
One common problem is "integral windup." It might take too long for the output
value to ramp up to the necessary value when the loop first starts up. Sometimes
this can be fixed with a more aggressive differential term. Sometimes the loop has
to be "preloaded" with a starting output. Another option is to disable the integral
function until the measured variable has entered the proportional band.
Some PID loops control a valve or similar mechanical device. Wear of the valve or
device can be a major maintenance cost. In these cases, the PID loop may have a
"deadband." The calculated output must leave the deadband before the actual
output will change. Then, a new deadband will be established around the new
output value.
Another problem with the differential term is that small amounts of noise can cause
large amounts of change in the output. Sometimes it's helpful to filter the
measurements, with a running average, or a low-pass filter. However, low-pass
filtering and derivative control cancel each other out, so reducing noise by
instrumentation means is a much better choice. Alternatively, the differential band
can be turned off in most systems with little loss of control.
The proportional and differential terms can also produce undesirable results in
systems subjected to instantaneous "step" inputs (such as when a computer changes
the setpoint). To avoid this, some PID algorithms incorporate setpoint weighting
where the setpoint and the process output are treated separately. Setpoint weighting
introduces two parameters that are used to multiply the error entering the
proportional and derivative terms to change the response to setpoint changes. The
error in the integral term must be the true control error to avoid steady-state control
errors. It should be noted that these parameters do not affect the response to load
disturbances and measurement noise.
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Theory
Development of PID control originated from the observation that a proportional-
only control can only eliminate the error between setpoint and process variable at
one particular setpoint. At any other setting, there would be an offset between the
setpoint and the true process value. Metaphorically, an operator could reset the
controller setpoint by hand, until the actual process eventually stabilized at the
desired value. In older control literature this is referred to "reset" action as a result.
The derivative term reflects the ability to observe the rate of change of the process
variable and again adjust the setpoint in anticipation of the final value. Again, an
older term for this action is "rate".
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Nomenclature
• Proportional Band is sometimes
referred to as Gain
• Integral Band is sometimes referred to
as Reset
• Derivative Band is sometimes referred
to as Rate
Gain and proportional band are related but inverse quantities. A controller setting
of 100% proportional band means that a 100% change of the error signal (setpoint-
process variable) will result in 100% change of the output, which is a gain of 1.0. A
20% proportional band indicates that 20% change in error gives a 100% output
change, which is a gain of 5.
There are three different forms of the PID controller. They are the standard or "non-
interacting" form, the series or "interacting" form and the parallel form. The
standard form is the ideal form where the terms are noninteracting in the time
domain. The series or "interacting" algorithm applies the gain term to both integral
and derivative terms (think of a PD and PI controller in series); this is effectively
how older pneumatic and some analog controllers worked. It is the most restricted
form of the three. The parallel form is the most general, "mathematician's" form
and is the most flexible of the three. However, it is also the form where the
parameters have little physical interpretation. It is mostly used when tuning the PID
algorithm mathematically.
The series form is said to be the most intuitive to tune and is the classical form. The
standard form admits complex zeros, which is useful when controlling oscillatory
systems. Furthermore, the parallel form allows for pure proportional or integral
action.
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