Dog

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the domestic dog. For related species known as "dogs", see
Canidae. For other uses, see Dog (disambiguation).
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Domestic dog
Temporal range: 0.0330Ma
Pre??OSDCPTJKPgN
?
Pleistocene Recent
YellowLabradorLooking new.jpg
Yellow Labrador Retriever, the most registered breed of 2009 with the AKC
Conservation status
Domesticated
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Canidae
Genus: Canis
Species: C. lupus
Subspecies: C. l. familiaris[1]
Trinomial name
Canis lupus familiaris[2]
Synonyms
Species synonymy[show]
The domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris,[2][3] previously Canis familiaris) is
a member of the Canidae family of the mammalian order Carnivora. The term "domes
tic dog" is generally used for both domesticated and feral varieties. The dog wa
s the first domesticated animal[4][5] and has been the most widely kept working,
hunting, and pet animal in human history.[citation needed] The word "dog" can a
lso refer to the male of a canine species,[6] as opposed to the word "bitch" whi
ch refers to the female of the species.
Recent studies of "well-preserved remains of a dog-like canid from the Razboinic
hya Cave" in the Altai Mountains of southern Siberia concluded that a particular
instance of early wolf domestication approximately 33,000 years ago did not res
ult in modern dog lineages, possibly because of climate disruption during the La
st Glacial Maximum.[4][7] The authors postulate that at least several such incip
ient events have occurred. A study of fossil dogs and wolves in Belgium, Ukraine
, and Russia tentatively dates domestication from 14,000 years ago to more than
31,700 years ago.[8] Another recent study has found support for claims of dog do
mestication between 14,000 and 16,000 years ago, with a range between 9,000 and
34,000 years ago, depending on mutation rate assumptions.[9] Dogs' value to earl
y human hunter-gatherers led to them quickly becoming ubiquitous across world cu
ltures. Dogs perform many roles for people, such as hunting, herding, pulling lo
ads, protection, assisting police and military, companionship, and, more recentl
y, aiding handicapped individuals. This impact on human society has given them t
he nickname "man's best friend" in the Western world. In some cultures, however,
dogs are also a source of meat.[10][11] In 2001, there were estimated to be 400
million dogs in the world.[12]
Most breeds of dog are at most a few hundred years old, having been artificially
selected for particular morphologies and behaviors by people for specific funct
ional roles. Through this selective breeding, the dog has developed into hundred
s of varied breeds, and shows more behavioral and morphological variation than a
ny other land mammal.[13] For example, height measured to the withers ranges fro
m 15.2 centimetres (6.0 in) in the Chihuahua to about 76 cm (30 in) in the Irish
Wolfhound; color varies from white through grays (usually called "blue") to bla
ck, and browns from light (tan) to dark ("red" or "chocolate") in a wide variati
on of patterns; coats can be short or long, coarse-haired to wool-like, straight
, curly, or smooth.[14] It is common for most breeds to shed this coat.
Contents [hide]
1 Etymology and related terminology
2 Taxonomy
3 History and evolution
3.1 DNA studies
4 Roles with humans
4.1 Early roles
4.2 As pets
4.3 Work
4.4 Sports and shows
4.5 As a food source
4.6 Health risks to humans
4.7 Health benefits for humans
4.8 Shelters
5 Biology
5.1 Senses
5.1.1 Vision
5.1.2 Hearing
5.1.3 Smell
5.2 Physical characteristics
5.2.1 Coat
5.2.2 Tail
5.3 Types and breeds
5.4 Health
5.4.1 Mortality
5.4.2 Predation
5.5 Diet
5.5.1 Foods toxic to dogs
5.6 Reproduction
5.6.1 Neutering
5.7 Communication
6 Intelligence and behavior
6.1 Intelligence
6.2 Behavior
6.3 Dog growl
7 Differences from wolves
7.1 Physical characteristics
7.2 Behavioral differences
7.3 Trainability
8 Cultural depictions
8.1 Mythology
8.2 Gallery of dogs in art
9 See also
10 References
11 Bibliography
12 External links
Etymology and related terminology
Dog is the common use term that refers to members of the subspecies Canis lupus
familiaris (canis, "dog"; lupus, "wolf"; familiaris, "of a household" or "domest
ic"). The term can also be used to refer to a wider range of related species, su
ch as the members of the genus Canis, or "true dogs", including the wolf, coyote
, and jackals, or it can refer to the members of the tribe Canini, which would a
lso include the African wild dog, or it can be used to refer to any member of th
e family Canidae, which would also include the foxes, bush dog, raccoon dog, and
others.[15] Some members of the family have dog in their common names, such as
the raccoon dog and the African wild dog. A few animals have dog in their common
names but are not canids, such as the prairie dog.
The English word dog comes from Middle English dogge, from Old English docga, a
"powerful dog breed".[16] The term may possibly derive from Proto-Germanic *dukk
on, represented in Old English finger-docce ("finger-muscle").[17] The word also
shows the familiar petname diminutive -ga also seen in frogga "frog", picga "pi
g", stagga "stag", wicga "beetle, worm", among others.[18] The term dog may ulti
mately derive from the earliest layer of Proto-Indo-European vocabulary, reflect
ing the role of the dog as the earliest domesticated animal.[19]
In 14th-century England, hound (from Old English: hund) was the general word for
all domestic canines, and dog referred to a subtype of hound, a group including
the mastiff. It is believed this "dog" type was so common, it eventually became
the prototype of the category "hound".[20] By the 16th century, dog had become
the general word, and hound had begun to refer only to types used for hunting.[2
1] Hound, cognate to German Hund, Dutch hond, common Scandinavian hund, and Icel
andic hundur, is ultimately derived from the Proto-Indo-European *kwon- "dog", f
ound in Sanskrit kukuur (???????),[22] Welsh ci (plural cwn), Latin canis, Greek
kon, and Lithuanian u.[23]
In breeding circles, a male canine is referred to as a dog, while a female is ca
lled a bitch (Middle English bicche, from Old English bicce, ultimately from Old
Norse bikkja). A group of offspring is a litter. The father of a litter is call
ed the sire, and the mother is called the dam. Offspring are, in general, called
pups or puppies, from French poupe, until they are about a year old. The process
of birth is whelping, from the Old English word hwelp (cf. German Welpe, Dutch
welp, Swedish valpa, Icelandic hvelpur).[24] The term "whelp" can also be used t
o refer to the young of any canid, or as a (somewhat archaic) alternative to "pu
ppy".
Taxonomy
See also: Subspecies of Canis lupus
In 1753, the father of modern biological taxonomy, Carl Linnaeus, listed among t
he types of quadrupeds familiar to him, the Latin word for dog, canis. Among the
species within this genus, Linnaeus listed the fox, as Canis vulpes, wolves (Ca
nis lupus), and the domestic dog, (Canis canis). In later editions, Linnaeus dro
pped Canis canis and greatly expanded his list of the Canis genus of quadrupeds,
and by 1758 included alongside the foxes, wolves, and jackals and many more ter
ms that are now listed as synonyms for domestic dog, including aegyptius (hairle
ss dog), aquaticus, (water dog), and mustelinus (literally "badger dog"). Among
these were two that later experts have been widely used for domestic dogs as a s
pecies: Canis domesticus and, most predominantly, Canis familiaris, the "common"
or "familiar" dog.[25]
The domestic dog was accepted as a species in its own right until overwhelming e
vidence from behavior, vocalizations, morphology, and molecular biology led to t
he contemporary scientific understanding that a single species, the gray wolf, i
s the common ancestor for all breeds of domestic dogs.[26][27][28] In recognitio
n of this fact, the domestic dog was reclassified in 1993 as Canis lupus familia
ris, a subspecies of the gray wolf Canis lupus, by the Smithsonian Institution a
nd the American Society of Mammalogists. C. l. familiaris is listed as the name
for the taxon that is broadly used in the scientific community and recommended b
y ITIS, although Canis familiaris is a recognised synonym.[29]
Since that time, C. domesticus and all taxa referring to domestic dogs or subspe
cies of dog listed by Linnaeus, Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1792, and Christian S
mith in 1839, lost their subspecies status and have been listed as taxonomic syn
onyms for Canis lupus familiaris.[30]
History and evolution
Domestic dogs are descended from gray wolves.
Main articles: Origin of the domestic dog and Gray wolf
Domestic dogs inherited complex behaviors from their wolf ancestors, which would
have been pack hunters with complex body language. These sophisticated forms of
social cognition and communication may account for their trainability, playfuln
ess, and ability to fit into human households and social situations, and these a
ttributes have given dogs a relationship with humans that has enabled them to be
come one of the most successful species on the planet today.[26]
Although experts largely disagree over the details of dog domestication, it is a
greed that human interaction played a significant role in shaping the subspecies
.[31] Domestication may have occurred initially in separate areas, particularly
Siberia and Europe. It is thought that the current lineage of dogs were domestic
ated between 15,000 years and 8,500 years ago. Shortly after the latest domestic
ation, dogs became ubiquitous in human populations, and spread throughout the wo
rld.
Emigrants from Siberia likely crossed the Bering Strait with dogs in their compa
ny, and some experts[32] suggest the use of sled dogs may have been critical to
the success of the waves that entered North America roughly 12,000 years ago,[32
] although the earliest archaeological evidence of dog-like canids in North Amer
ica dates from about 9,400 years ago.[33][34] Dogs were an important part of lif
e for the Athabascan population in North America, and were their only domesticat
ed animal. Dogs also carried much of the load in the migration of the Apache and
Navajo tribes 1,400 years ago. Use of dogs as pack animals in these cultures of
ten persisted after the introduction of the horse to North America.[35]
The current consensus among biologists and archaeologists is that the dating of
first domestication is indeterminate,[31][35] although more recent evidence show
s isolated domestication events as early as 33,000 years ago.[36][37] There is c
onclusive evidence the present lineage of dogs genetically diverged from their w
olf ancestors at least 15,000 years ago,[38][39][40][41][42] but some believe do
mestication to have occurred earlier.[31] Evidence is accruing that there were p
revious domestication events, but that those lineages died out.[43]
It is not known whether humans domesticated the wolf as such to initiate dog's d
ivergence from its ancestors, or whether dog's evolutionary path had already tak
en a different course prior to domestication. For example, it is hypothesized th
at some wolves gathered around the campsites of paleolithic camps to scavenge re
fuse, and associated evolutionary pressure developed that favored those who were
less frightened by, and keener in approaching, humans.[44]
The bulk of the scientific evidence for the evolution of the domestic dog stems
from morphological studies of archaeological findings and mitochondrial DNA stud
ies. The divergence date of roughly 15,000 years ago is based in part on archaeo
logical evidence that demonstrates the domestication of dogs occurred more than
15,000 years ago,[26][35] and some genetic evidence indicates the domestication
of dogs from their wolf ancestors began in the late Upper Paleolithic close to t
he Pleistocene/Holocene boundary, between 17,000 and 14,000 years ago.[45] But t
here is a wide range of other, contradictory findings that make this issue contr
oversial.[citation needed] There are findings beginning currently at 33,000 year
s ago distinctly placing them as domesticated dogs evidenced not only by shorten
ing of the muzzle but widening as well as crowding of teeth.
Tesem, an old Egyptian sighthound-like dog.
Archaeological evidence suggests that the latest point at which dogs could have
diverged from wolves was roughly 15,000 years ago, although it is possible they
diverged much earlier.[26] In 2008, a team of international scientists released
findings from an excavation at Goyet Cave in Belgium declaring a large, toothy c
anine existed 31,700 years ago and ate a diet of horse, musk ox and reindeer.[46
]
Prior to this Belgian discovery, the earliest dog bones found were two large sku
lls from Russia and a mandible from Germany dated from roughly 14,000 years ago.
[26][40] Remains of smaller dogs from Natufian cave deposits in the Middle East,
including the earliest burial of a human being with a domestic dog, have been d
ated to around 10,000 to 12,000 years ago.[40][47] There is a great deal of arch
aeological evidence for dogs throughout Europe and Asia around this period and t
hrough the next two thousand years (roughly 8,000 to 10,000 years ago), with spe
cimens uncovered in Germany, the French Alps, and Iraq, and cave paintings in Tu
rkey.[26] The oldest remains of a domesticated dog in the Americas were found in
Texas and have been dated to about 9,400 years ago.[48]
DNA studies
A basenji, one of the earliest domesticated breeds.
DNA studies have provided a wide range of possible divergence dates, from 15,000
to 40,000 years ago,[40] to as much as 100,000 to 140,000 years ago.[49] These
results depend on a number of assumptions.[26] Genetic studies are based on comp
arisons of genetic diversity between species, and depend on a calibration date.
Some estimates of divergence dates from DNA evidence use an estimated wolfcoyote
divergence date of roughly 700,000 years ago as a calibration.[50] If this estim
ate is incorrect, and the actual wolfcoyote divergence is closer to one or two mi
llion years ago, or more,[51] than the DNA evidence that supports specific dogwol
f divergence dates would be interpreted very differently.
Furthermore, it is believed the genetic diversity of wolves has been in decline
for the last 200 years, and that the genetic diversity of dogs has been reduced
by selective breeding. This could significantly bias DNA analyses to support an
earlier divergence date. The genetic evidence for the domestication event occurr
ing in East Asia is also subject to violations of assumptions. These conclusions
are based on the location of maximal genetic divergence, and assume hybridizati
on does not occur, and that breeds remain geographically localized. Although the
se assumptions hold for many species, there is good reason to believe that they
do not hold for canines.[26]
Genetic analyses indicate all dogs are likely descended from a handful of domest
ication events with a small number of founding females,[26][45] although there i
s evidence domesticated dogs interbred with local populations of wild wolves on
several occasions.[40] Data suggest dogs first diverged from wolves in East Asia
, and these domesticated dogs then quickly migrated throughout the world, reachi
ng the North American continent around 8000 BC.[40] The oldest groups of dogs, w
hich show the greatest genetic variability and are the most similar to their wol
f ancestors, are primarily Asian and African breeds, including the Basenji, Lhas
a Apso, and Siberian Husky.[52] Some breeds thought to be very old, such as the
Pharaoh Hound, Ibizan Hound, and Norwegian Elkhound, are now known to have been
created more recently.[52]
A great deal of controversy surrounds the evolutionary framework for the domesti
cation of dogs.[26] Although it is widely claimed that "man domesticated the wol
f,"[53] man might not have taken such a proactive role in the process.[26] The n
ature of the interaction between man and wolf that led to domestication is unkno
wn and controversial. At least three early species of the Homo genus began sprea
ding out of Africa roughly 400,000 years ago, and thus lived for a considerable
time in contact with canine species.[26]
Ancient Greek rhyton in the shape of a dog's head, made by Brygos, early 5th cen
tury BC. Jrme Carcopino Museum, Department of Archaeology, Aleria
Despite this, there is no evidence of any adaptation of canine species to the pr
esence of the close relatives of modern man. If dogs were domesticated, as belie
ved, roughly 15,000 years ago, the event (or events) would have coincided with a
large expansion in human territory and the development of agriculture. This has
led some biologists to suggest one of the forces that led to the domestication
of dogs was a shift in human lifestyle in the form of established human settleme
nts. Permanent settlements would have coincided with a greater amount of disposa
ble food and would have created a barrier between wild and anthropogenic canine
populations.[26]
In 2013 Thalmann, Krause and coworkers revised the view that dog ancestors came
from East Asia and showed using DNA analysis that "all dogs living today go back
to four genetic lineages, all of which originate in Europe." [54] Their data in
dicated that bonding between humans and dog occurred between 19,000 and 30,000 y
ears ago, likely in the context of hunting.[54] The Zarzian culture, an archaeol
ogical culture of late Paleolithic and Mesolithic (18,000-8,000 years BC) in Ira
q, Iran, Central Asia is associated with remains of the domesticated dog.[55]
Roles with humans
A Siberian Husky used as a pack animal
A German Shepherd with a football
Early roles
Wolves, and their dog descendants, would have derived significant benefits from
living in human campsmore safety, more reliable food, lesser caloric needs, and m
ore chance to breed.[56] They would have benefited from humans' upright gait tha
t gives them larger range over which to see potential predators and prey, as wel
l as color vision that, at least by day, gives humans better visual discriminati
on.[56] Camp dogs would also have benefitted from human tool use, as in bringing
down larger prey and controlling fire for a range of purposes.[56]
Humans would also have derived enormous benefit from the dogs associated with th
eir camps.[57] For instance, dogs would have improved sanitation by cleaning up
food scraps.[57] Dogs may have provided warmth, as referred to in the Australian
Aboriginal expression "three dog night" (an exceptionally cold night), and they
would have alerted the camp to the presence of predators or strangers, using th
eir acute hearing to provide an early warning.[57]
Anthropologists believe the most significant benefit would have been the use of
dogs' sensitive sense of smell to assist with the hunt.[57] The relationship bet
ween the presence of a dog and success in the hunt is often mentioned as a prima
ry reason for the domestication of the wolf, and a 2004 study of hunter groups w
ith and without a dog gives quantitative support to the hypothesis that the bene
fits of cooperative hunting was an important factor in wolf domestication.[58]
The cohabitation of dogs and humans would have greatly improved the chances of s
urvival for early human groups, and the domestication of dogs may have been one
of the key forces that led to human success.[59]
As pets
Couple sitting on the lawn with a pet British Bulldog
A British Bulldog shares a day at the park.
A young male border terrier with a raccoon toy.
"The most widespread form of interspecies bonding occurs between humans and dogs
"[57] and the keeping of dogs as companions, particularly by elites, has a long
history.[60] (As a possible example, at the Natufian culture site of Ain Mallaha
in Israel, dated to 12,000 BC, the remains of an elderly human and a four-to-fi
ve-month-old puppy were found buried together).[61] However, pet dog populations
grew significantly after World War II as suburbanization increased.[60] In the
1950s and 1960s, dogs were kept outside more often than they tend to be today[62
] (using the expression "in the doghouse" to describe exclusion from the group s
ignifies the distance between the doghouse and the home) and were still primaril
y functional, acting as a guard, children's playmate, or walking companion. From
the 1980s, there have been changes in the role of the pet dog, such as the incr
eased role of dogs in the emotional support of their human guardians.[63] People
and dogs have become increasingly integrated and implicated in each other's liv
es,[64] to the point where pet dogs actively shape the way a family and home are
experienced.[65]
There have been two major trends in the changing status of pet dogs. The first h
as been the 'commodification' of the dog, shaping it to conform to human expecta
tions of personality and behaviour.[65] The second has been the broadening of th
e concept of the family and the home to include dogs-as-dogs within everyday rou
tines and practices.[65]
There are a vast range of commodity forms available to transform a pet dog into
an ideal companion.[66] The list of goods, services and places available is enor
mous: from dog perfumes, couture, furniture and housing, to dog groomers, therap
ists, trainers and caretakers, dog cafes, spas, parks and beaches, and dog hotel
s, airlines and cemeteries.[66] While dog training as an organized activity can
be traced back to the 18th century, in the last decades of the 20th century it b
ecame a high profile issue as many normal dog behaviors such as barking, jumping
up, digging, rolling in dung, fighting, and urine marking[further explanation n
eeded] became increasingly incompatible with the new role of a pet dog.[67] Dog
training books, classes and television programs proliferated as the process of c
ommodifying the pet dog continued.[68]
An Australian Cattle Dog in reindeer antlers sits on Santa's lap
A pet dog taking part in Christmas traditions
The majority of contemporary people with dogs describe their pet as part of the
family,[65] although some ambivalence about the relationship is evident in the p
opular reconceptualization of the doghuman family as a pack.[65] A dominance mode
l of doghuman relationships has been promoted by some dog trainers, such as on th
e television program Dog Whisperer. However it has been disputed that "trying to
achieve status" is characteristic of doghuman interactions.[69] Pet dogs play an
active role in family life; for example, a study of conversations in doghuman fa
milies showed how family members use the dog as a resource, talking to the dog,
or talking through the dog, to mediate their interactions with each other.[70]
Another study of dogs' roles in families showed many dogs have set tasks or rout
ines undertaken as family members, the most common of which was helping with the
washing-up by licking the plates in the dishwasher, and bringing in the newspap
er from the lawn.[65] Increasingly, human family members are engaging in activit
ies centered on the perceived needs and interests of the dog, or in which the do
g is an integral partner, such as Dog Dancing and Doga.[66]
According to statistics published by the American Pet Products Manufacturers Ass
ociation in the National Pet Owner Survey in 20092010, it is estimated there are
77.5 million people with pet dogs in the United States.[71] The same survey show
s nearly 40% of American households own at least one dog, of which 67% own just
one dog, 25% two dogs and nearly 9% more than two dogs. There does not seem to b
e any gender preference among dogs as pets, as the statistical data reveal an eq
ual number of female and male dog pets. Yet, although several programs are under
going to promote pet adoption, less than a fifth of the owned dogs come from a s
helter.
The latest study using Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to humans and dogs toget
her proved that dogs have same response of voices and use the same parts of brai
n as humans and made dogs understand of emotional human voices, made the dogs as
friendly social pets to humans.[72]
Work
Dogs have lived and worked with humans in so many roles that they have earned th
e unique nickname, "man's best friend",[73] a phrase used in other languages as
well. They have been bred for herding livestock,[74] hunting (e.g. pointers and
hounds),[75] rodent control,[3] guarding, helping fishermen with nets, detection
dogs, and pulling loads, in addition to their roles as companions.[3] In 1957,
a husky-terrier mix named Laika became the first animal to orbit the Earth.[76][
77]
Book of the Hunt, Gaston III, Count of Foix, 138788.
Service dogs such as guide dogs, utility dogs, assistance dogs, hearing dogs, an
d psychological therapy dogs provide assistance to individuals with physical or
mental disabilities.[78][79] Some dogs owned by epileptics have been shown to al
ert their handler when the handler shows signs of an impending seizure, sometime
s well in advance of onset, allowing the guardian to seek safety, medication, or
medical care.[80]
Dogs included in human activities in terms of helping out humans are usually cal
led working dogs. Dogs of several breeds are considered working dogs. Some worki
ng dog breeds include Akita, Alaskan Malamute, Anatolian Shepherd Dog, Bernese M
ountain Dog, Black Russian Terrier, Boxer, Bullmastiff, Doberman Pinscher, Dogue
de Bordeaux, German Pinscher, German Shepherd,[81] Giant Schnauzer, Great Dane,
Great Pyrenees, Great Swiss Mountain Dog, Komondor, Kuvasz, Mastiff, Neapolitan
Mastiff, Newfoundland, Portuguese Water Dog, Rottweiler, Saint Bernard, Samoyed
, Siberian Husky, Standard Schnauzer, and Tibetan Mastiff.
Sports and shows
See also: Conformation show
People often enter their dogs in competitions[82] such as breed-conformation sho
ws or sports, including racing, sledding and agility competitions.
In conformation shows, also referred to as breed shows, a judge familiar with th
e specific dog breed evaluates individual purebred dogs for conformity with thei
r established breed type as described in the breed standard. As the breed standa
rd only deals with the externally observable qualities of the dog (such as appea
rance, movement, and temperament), separately tested qualities (such as ability
or health) are not part of the judging in conformation shows.
As a food source
Main article: Dog meat
Gaegogi (dog meat) stew being served in a Korean restaurant
Dog meat is consumed in some East Asian countries, including Korea, China, and V
ietnam, a practice that dates back to antiquity.[83] It is estimated that 1316 mi
llion dogs are killed and consumed in Asia every year.[84] The BBC claims that,
in 1999, more than 6,000 restaurants served soups made from dog meat in South Ko
rea.[85] In Korea, the primary dog breed raised for meat, the nureongi (???), di
ffers from those breeds raised for pets that Koreans may keep in their homes.[86
]
The most popular Korean dog dish is gaejang-guk (also called bosintang), a spicy
stew meant to balance the body's heat during the summer months; followers of th
e custom claim this is done to ensure good health by balancing one's gi, or vita
l energy of the body. A 19th century version of gaejang-guk explains that the di
sh is prepared by boiling dog meat with scallions and chili powder. Variations o
f the dish contain chicken and bamboo shoots. While the dishes are still popular
in Korea with a segment of the population, dog is not as widely consumed as bee
f, chicken, and pork.[87]
A CNN report in China dated March 2010 includes an interview with a dog meat ven
dor who stated that most of the dogs that are available for selling to restauran
ts are raised in special farms but that there is always a chance that a sold dog
is someone's lost pet, although dog pet breeds are not considered edible.[88]
Other cultures, such as Polynesia and pre-Columbian Mexico, also consumed dog me
at in their history. However, Western, South Asian, African, and Middle Eastern
cultures, in general, regard consumption of dog meat as taboo. In some places, h
owever, such as in rural areas of Poland, dog fat is believed to have medicinal
propertiesbeing good for the lungs for instance.[89] Dog meat is also consumed in
some parts of Switzerland.[90]
Health risks to humans
Main article: Dog attack
Pet waste station at a government building.
It is estimated that 4.7 million people are bitten by dogs each year.[91] In the
1980s and 1990s the US averaged 17 fatalities per year, while in the 2000s this
has increased to 26.[92] 77% of dog bites are from the pet of family or friends
, and 50% of attacks occur on the property of the dog's legal owner.[92]
A Colorado study found bites in children were less severe than bites in adults.[
93] The incidence of dog bites in the US is 12.9 per 10,000 inhabitants, but for
boys aged 5 to 9, the incidence rate is 60.7 per 10,000. Moreover, children hav
e a much higher chance to be bitten in the face or neck.[94] Sharp claws with po
werful muscles behind them can lacerate flesh in a scratch that can lead to seri
ous infections.[95]
In the UK between 2003 and 2004, there were 5,868 dog attacks on humans, resulti
ng in 5,770 working days lost in sick leave.[96]
In the United States, cats and dogs are a factor in more than 86,000 falls each
year.[97] It has been estimated around 2% of dog-related injuries treated in UK
hospitals are domestic accidents. The same study found that while dog involvemen
t in road traffic accidents was difficult to quantify, dog-associated road accid
ents involving injury more commonly involved two-wheeled vehicles.[98]
Toxocara canis (dog roundworm) eggs in dog feces can cause toxocariasis. In the
United States, about 10,000 cases of Toxocara infection are reported in humans e
ach year, and almost 14% of the U.S. population is infected.[99] In Great Britai
n, 24% of soil samples taken from public parks contained T. canis eggs.[100] Unt
reated toxocariasis can cause retinal damage and decreased vision.[100] Dog fece
s can also contain hookworms that cause cutaneous larva migrans in humans.[101][
102][103][104]
Health benefits for humans
Small dog laying between the hands
A human cuddles a Doberman puppy.
The scientific evidence is mixed as to whether companionship of a dog can enhanc
e human physical health and psychological wellbeing.[105] Studies suggesting tha
t there are benefits to physical health and psychological wellbeing[106] have be
en criticised for being poorly controlled,[107] and finding that "[t]he health o
f elderly people is related to their health habits and social supports but not t
o their ownership of, or attachment to, a companion animal." Earlier studies hav
e shown that people who keep pet dogs or cats exhibit better mental and physical
health than those who do not, making fewer visits to the doctor and being less
likely to be on medication than non-guardians.[108]
A 2005 paper states "recent research has failed to support earlier findings that
pet ownership is associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, a re
duced use of general practitioner services, or any psychological or physical ben
efits on health for community dwelling older people. Research has, however, poin
ted to significantly less absenteeism from school through sickness among childre
n who live with pets."[105] In one study, new guardians reported a highly signif
icant reduction in minor health problems during the first month following pet ac
quisition, and this effect was sustained in those with dogs through to the end o
f the study.[109]
In addition, people with pet dogs took considerably more physical exercise than
those with cats and those without pets. The group without pets exhibited no stat
istically significant changes in health or behaviour. The results provide eviden
ce that keeping pets may have positive effects on human health and behaviour, an
d that for guardians of dogs these effects are relatively long-term.[109] Pet gu
ardianship has also been associated with increased coronary artery disease survi
val, with human guardians being significantly less likely to die within one year
of an acute myocardial infarction than those who did not own dogs.[110]
Gunnar Kaasen and Balto, the lead dog on the last relay team of the 1925 serum r
un to Nome.
The health benefits of dogs can result from contact with dogs in general, and no
t solely from having dogs as pets. For example, when in the presence of a pet do
g, people show reductions in cardiovascular, behavioral, and psychological indic
ators of anxiety.[111] Other health benefits are gained from exposure to immune-
stimulating microorganisms, which, according to the hygiene hypothesis, can prot
ect against allergies and autoimmune diseases. The benefits of contact with a do
g also include social support, as dogs are able to not only provide companionshi
p and social support themselves, but also to act as facilitators of social inter
actions between humans.[112] One study indicated that wheelchair users experienc
e more positive social interactions with strangers when they are accompanied by
a dog than when they are not.[113]
The practice of using dogs and other animals as a part of therapy dates back to
the late 18th century, when animals were introduced into mental institutions to
help socialize patients with mental disorders.[114] Animal-assisted intervention
research has shown that animal-assisted therapy with a dog can increase social
behaviors, such as smiling and laughing, among people with Alzheimer's disease.[
115] One study demonstrated that children with ADHD and conduct disorders who pa
rticipated in an education program with dogs and other animals showed increased
attendance, increased knowledge and skill objectives, and decreased antisocial a
nd violent behavior compared to those who were not in an animal-assisted program
.[116]
Shelters
Main article: Animal shelter
Every year, between 6 and 8 million dogs and cats enter US animal shelters.[117]
The Humane Society of the United States (HSUS) estimates that approximately 3 t
o 4 million of those dogs and cats are euthanized yearly in the United States.[1
18] However, the percentage of dogs in US animal shelters that are eventually ad
opted and removed from the shelters by their new legal owners has increased sinc
e the mid-1990s from around 25% to a 2012 average of 40% among reporting shelter
s[119] (and many shelters reporting 6075%).[120]
Biology
Main article: Dog anatomy
Lateral view of a dog's bone structure.
Domestic dogs have been selectively bred for millennia for various behaviors, se
nsory capabilities, and physical attributes.[3] Modern dog breeds show more vari
ation in size, appearance, and behavior than any other domestic animal. Neverthe
less, their morphology is based on that of their wild ancestors, gray wolves.[3]
Dogs are predators and scavengers, and like many other predatory mammals, the d
og has powerful muscles, fused wrist bones, a cardiovascular system that support
s both sprinting and endurance, and teeth for catching and tearing.
Dogs are highly variable in height and weight. The smallest known adult dog was
a Yorkshire Terrier, that stood only 6.3 cm (2.5 in) at the shoulder, 9.5 cm (3.
7 in) in length along the head-and-body, and weighed only 113 grams (4.0 oz). Th
e largest known dog was an English Mastiff which weighed 155.6 kg (343 lb) and w
as 250 cm (98 in) from the snout to the tail.[121] The tallest dog is a Great Da
ne that stands 106.7 cm (42.0 in) at the shoulder.[122]
Senses
Vision
Dog's visual colour perception compared with humans.
Like most mammals, dogs are dichromats and have color vision equivalent to redgre
en color blindness in humans (deuteranopia).[123][124][125][126] So, dogs can se
e blue and yellow, but have difficulty differentiating red and green because the
y only have two spectral types of cone photoreceptor, while normal humans have t
hree. And dogs use color instead of brightness to differentiate light or dark bl
ue/yellow.[127][128][129][130] Dogs are less sensitive to differences in grey sh
ades than humans and also can detect brightness at about half the accuracy of hu
mans.[131]
The dog's visual system has evolved to aid proficient hunting.[123] While a dog'
s visual acuity is poor (that of a poodle's has been estimated to translate to a
Snellen rating of 20/75[123]), their visual discrimination for moving objects i
s very high; dogs have been shown to be able to discriminate between humans (e.g
., identifying their human guardian) at a range of between 800 and 900 m, howeve
r this range decreases to 500600 m if the object is stationary.[123]
Dogs have a temporal resolution of between 60 and 70 Hz, which explains why many
dogs struggle to watch television, as most such modern screens are optimized fo
r humans at 5060 Hz.[131] Dogs can detect a change in movement that exists in a s
ingle diopter of space within their eye. Humans, by comparison, require a change
of between 10 and 20 diopters to detect movement.[132][133]
As crepuscular hunters, dogs often rely on their vision in low light situations:
They have very large pupils, a high density of rods in the fovea, an increased
flicker rate, and a tapetum lucidum.[123] The tapetum is a reflective surface be
hind the retina that reflects light to give the photoreceptors a second chance t
o catch the photons. There is also a relationship between body size and overall
diameter of the eye. A range of 9.5 and 11.6 mm can be found between various bre
eds of dogs. This 20% variance can be substantial and is associated as an adapta
tion toward superior night vision.[134]
The eyes of different breeds of dogs have different shapes, dimensions, and reti
na configurations.[135] Many long-nosed breeds have a "visual streak"a wide fovea
l region that runs across the width of the retina and gives them a very wide fie
ld of excellent vision. Some long-muzzled breeds, in particular, the sighthounds
, have a field of vision up to 270 (compared to 180 for humans). Short-nosed breed
s, on the other hand, have an "area centralis": a central patch with up to three
times the density of nerve endings as the visual streak, giving them detailed s
ight much more like a human's. Some broad-headed breeds with short noses have a
field of vision similar to that of humans.[124][125]
Most breeds have good vision, but some show a genetic predisposition for myopia
such as Rottweilers, with which one out of every two has been found to be myopic
.[123] Dogs also have a greater divergence of the eye axis than humans, enabling
them to rotate their pupils farther in any direction. The divergence of the eye
axis of dogs ranges from 1225 depending on the breed.[132]
Experimentation has proven that dogs can distinguish between complex visual imag
es such as that of a cube or a prism. Dogs also show attraction to static visual
images such as the silhouette of a dog on a screen, their own reflections, or v
ideos of dogs; however, their interest declines sharply once they are unable to
make social contact with the image.[136]
Hearing
The physiology of a dog ear.
Transformation of the ears of a huskamute puppy in 6 days
The frequency range of dog hearing is approximately 40 Hz to 60,000 Hz,[137] whi
ch means that dogs can detect sounds far beyond the upper limit of the human aud
itory spectrum.[125][137][138] In addition, dogs have ear mobility, which allows
them to rapidly pinpoint the exact location of a sound.[139] Eighteen or more m
uscles can tilt, rotate, raise, or lower a dog's ear. A dog can identify a sound
's location much faster than a human can, as well as hear sounds at four times t
he distance.[139]
Smell
The wet, textured nose of a dog
While the human brain is dominated by a large visual cortex, the dog brain is do
minated by an olfactory cortex.[123] The olfactory bulb in dogs is roughly forty
times bigger than the olfactory bulb in humans, relative to total brain size, w
ith 125 to 220 million smell-sensitive receptors.[123] The bloodhound exceeds th
is standard with nearly 300 million receptors.[123]
Consequently, it has been estimated that dogs, in general, have an olfactory sen
se ranging from one hundred thousand to one million times more sensitive than a
human's. In some dog breeds, such as bloodhounds, the olfactory sense may be up
to 100 million times greater than a human's.[140] The wet nose, or rhinarium, is
essential for determining the direction of the air current containing the smell
. Cold receptors in the skin are sensitive to the cooling of the skin by evapora
tion of the moisture by air currents.[141]
Physical characteristics
Main article: Dog anatomy
Coat
Main article: Coat (dog)
A heavy winter coat with countershading in a mixed-breed dog
The coats of domestic dogs are of two varieties: "double" being common with dogs
(as well as wolves) originating from colder climates, made up of a coarse guard
hair and a soft down hair, or "single", with the topcoat only.
Domestic dogs often display the remnants of countershading, a common natural cam
ouflage pattern. A countershaded animal will have dark coloring on its upper sur
faces and light coloring below,[142] which reduces its general visibility. Thus,
many breeds will have an occasional "blaze", stripe, or "star" of white fur on
their chest or underside.[143]
Tail
See also: Docking
There are many different shapes for dog tails: straight, straight up, sickle, cu
rled, or cork-screw. As with many canids, one of the primary functions of a dog'
s tail is to communicate their emotional state, which can be important in gettin
g along with others. In some hunting dogs, however, the tail is traditionally do
cked to avoid injuries.[144] In some breeds, such as the Braque du Bourbonnais,
puppies can be born with a short tail or no tail at all.[145]
Types and breeds
Main article: Dog breed
Further information: Dog type
Cavalier King Charles Spaniels demonstrate within-breed variation.
While all dogs are genetically very similar,[40] natural selection and selective
breeding have reinforced certain characteristics in certain populations of dogs
, giving rise to dog types and dog breeds. Dog types are broad categories based
on function, genetics, or characteristics.[146] Dog breeds are groups of animals
that possess a set of inherited characteristics that distinguishes them from ot
her animals within the same species. Modern dog breeds are non-scientific classi
fications of dogs kept by modern kennel clubs.
Purebred dogs of one breed are genetically distinguishable from purebred dogs of
other breeds,[52] but the means by which kennel clubs classify dogs is unsystem
atic. Systematic analyses of the dog genome has revealed only four major types o
f dogs that can be said to be statistically distinct.[52] These include the "old
world dogs" (e.g., Malamute and Shar Pei), "Mastiff"-type (e.g., English Mastif
f), "herding"-type (e.g., Border Collie), and "all others" (also called "modern"
- or "hunting"-type).[52][147]
Health
Main articles: Dog health and CVBD
Dogs are susceptible to various diseases, ailments, and poisons, some of which c
an affect humans. To defend against many common diseases, dogs are often vaccina
ted.
There are many household plants that are poisonous to dogs, begonia and aloe ver
a.[148] Poinsettia is often claimed to be toxic but this is untrue. The LD50 for
rats was determined to be greater than 25g/kg.[149] This would mean that a 50 p
ound dog would have to eat 500-600 leaves to have a 50% chance of death.
Some breeds of dogs are prone to certain genetic ailments such as elbow or hip d
ysplasia, blindness, deafness, pulmonic stenosis, cleft palate, and trick knees.
Two serious medical conditions particularly affecting dogs are pyometra, affect
ing unspayed females of all types and ages, and bloat, which affects the larger
breeds or deep-chested dogs. Both of these are acute conditions, and can kill ra
pidly. Dogs are also susceptible to parasites such as fleas, ticks, and mites, a
s well as hookworm, tapeworm, roundworm, and heartworm.
Dogs are highly susceptible to theobromine poisoning, typically from ingestion o
f chocolate. Theobromine is toxic to dogs because, although the dog's metabolism
is capable of breaking down the chemical, the process is so slow that even smal
l amounts of chocolate can be fatal, especially dark chocolate.
Dogs are also vulnerable to some of the same health conditions as humans, includ
ing diabetes, dental and heart disease, epilepsy, cancer, hypothyroidism, and ar
thritis.[150]
Mortality
A mixed-breed terrier. Mixed-breed dogs are generally healthier than pure-breds.
Main article: Aging in dogs
The typical lifespan of dogs varies widely among breeds, but for most the median
longevity, the age at which half the dogs in a population have died and half ar
e still alive, ranges from 10 to 13 years.[151][152][153][154] Individual dogs m
ay live well beyond the median of their breed.
The breed with the shortest lifespan (among breeds for which there is a question
naire survey with a reasonable sample size) is the Dogue de Bordeaux, with a med
ian longevity of about 5.2 years, but several breeds, including Miniature Bull T
erriers, Bloodhounds, and Irish Wolfhounds are nearly as short-lived, with media
n longevities of 6 to 7 years.[154]
The longest-lived breeds, including Toy Poodles, Japanese Spitz, Border Terriers
, and Tibetan Spaniels, have median longevities of 14 to 15 years.[154] The medi
an longevity of mixed-breed dogs, taken as an average of all sizes, is one or mo
re years longer than that of purebred dogs when all breeds are averaged.[152][15
3][154][155] The dog widely reported to be the longest-lived is "Bluey", who die
d in 1939 and was claimed to be 29.5 years old at the time of his death; however
, the Bluey record is anecdotal and unverified.[156] On 5 December 2011, Pusuke,
the world's oldest living dog recognized by Guinness Book of World Records, die
d aged 26 years and 9 months.[157]
Predation
Although wild dogs, like wolves, are apex predators, they can be killed in terri
tory disputes with wild animals.[158] Furthermore, in areas where both dogs and
other large predators live, dogs can be a major food source for big cats or cani
nes. Reports from Croatia indicate wolves kill dogs more frequently than they ki
ll sheep. Wolves in Russia apparently limit feral dog populations. In Wisconsin,
more compensation has been paid for dog losses than livestock.[158] Some wolf p
airs have been reported to prey on dogs by having one wolf lure the dog out into
heavy brush where the second animal waits in ambush.[159] In some instances, wo
lves have displayed an uncharacteristic fearlessness of humans and buildings whe
n attacking dogs, to the extent that they[which?] have to be beaten off or kille
d.[160]
Coyotes and big cats have also been known to attack dogs. Leopards in particular
are known to have a predilection for dogs, and have been recorded to kill and c
onsume them regardless of the dog's size or ferocity.[161] Tigers in Manchuria,
Indochina, Indonesia, and Malaysia are reputed to kill dogs with the same vigor
as leopards.[162] Striped Hyenas are major predators of village dogs in Turkmeni
stan, India, and the Caucasus.[163] Reptiles such as alligators and pythons have
been known to kill and eat dogs.
Diet
See also: Dog food
Golden Retriever gnawing a pig's foot
Despite their descent from wolves and classification as Carnivora, dogs are vari
ously described in scholarly and other writings as carnivores[164][165] or omniv
ores.[3][166][167][168] Unlike obligate carnivores, such as the cat family with
its shorter small intestine, dogs can adapt to a wide-ranging diet, and are not
dependent on meat-specific protein nor a very high level of protein in order to
fulfill their basic dietary requirements. Dogs will healthily digest a variety o
f foods, including vegetables and grains, and can consume a large proportion of
these in their diet.[3] Compared to their wolf ancestors, dogs have adaptations
in genes involved in starch digestion that contribute to an increased ability to
thrive on a starch-rich diet.[169]
Foods toxic to dogs
This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article
in the Catalan Wikipedia. (September 2013)
Click [show] on the right to read important instructions before translating.[sho
w]
A number of common human foods and household ingestibles are toxic to dogs, incl
uding chocolate solids (theobromine poisoning), onion and garlic (thiosulphate,
sulfoxide or disulfide poisoning),[170] grapes and raisins, macadamia nuts, xyli
tol,[171] as well as various plants and other potentially ingested materials.[17
2][173] The nicotine in tobacco can also be dangerous. Dogs can get it by scaven
ging in garbage or ashtrays; eating cigars and cigarettes. Signs can be vomiting
of large amounts (e.g., from eating cigar butts) or diarrhea. Some other signs
are abdominal pain, loss of coordination, collapse, or death. To solve, soothe t
he stomach irritation by giving charcoal tablets. For severe signs, get immediat
e veterinary attention.[174]
Reproduction
Main article: Canine reproduction
In domestic dogs, sexual maturity begins to happen around age six to twelve mont
hs for both males and females,[3][175] although this can be delayed until up to
two years old for some large breeds. This is the time at which female dogs will
have their first estrous cycle. They will experience subsequent estrous cycles b
iannually, during which the body prepares for pregnancy. At the peak of the cycl
e, females will come into estrus, being mentally and physically receptive to cop
ulation.[3] Because the ova survive and are capable of being fertilized for a we
ek after ovulation, it is possible for a female to mate with more than one male.
[3]
25 days post conception fertilization occurs, 1416 days embryo attaches to uterus
2223 days heart beat is detectable.[176][177]
Dogs bear their litters roughly 58 to 68 days after fertilization,[3][178] with
an average of 63 days, although the length of gestation can vary. An average lit
ter consists of about six puppies,[179] though this number may vary widely based
on the breed of dog. In general, toy dogs produce from one to four puppies in e
ach litter, while much larger breeds may average as many as twelve.
Some dog breeds have acquired traits through selective breeding that interfere w
ith reproduction. Male French Bulldogs, for instance, are incapable of mounting
the female. For many dogs of this breed, the female must be artificially insemin
ated in order to reproduce.[180]
Neutering
Globe icon.
The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United Stat
es and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this art
icle and discuss the issue on the talk page. (March 2012)
A feral dog from Sri Lanka nursing her four puppies
Neutering refers to the sterilization of animals, usually by removal of the male
's testicles or the female's ovaries and uterus, in order to eliminate the abili
ty to procreate and reduce sex drive. Because of the overpopulation of dogs in s
ome countries, many animal control agencies, such as the American Society for th
e Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), advise that dogs not intended for fu
rther breeding should be neutered, so that they do not have undesired puppies th
at may have to later be euthanized.[181]
According to the Humane Society of the United States, 34 million dogs and cats ar
e put down each year in the United States and many more are confined to cages in
shelters because there are many more animals than there are homes. Spaying or c
astrating dogs helps keep overpopulation down.[182] Local humane societies, SPCA
s, and other animal protection organizations urge people to neuter their pets an
d to adopt animals from shelters instead of purchasing them.
Neutering reduces problems caused by hypersexuality, especially in male dogs.[18
3] Spayed female dogs are less likely to develop some forms of cancer, affecting
mammary glands, ovaries, and other reproductive organs.[184] However, neutering
increases the risk of urinary incontinence in female dogs,[185] and prostate ca
ncer in males,[186] as well as osteosarcoma, hemangiosarcoma, cruciate ligament
rupture, obesity, and diabetes mellitus in either sex.[187]
Communication
By the age of four weeks, the dog has developed the majority of its vocalization
s.[188] The dog is the most vocal canid and is unique in its tendency to bark in
a myriad of situations.[188]
Barking appears to have little more communication functions than excitement, fig
hting, the presence of a human, or simply because other dogs are barking.[188] S
ubtler signs such as discreet bodily and facial movements, body odors, whines, y
elps, and growls are the main sources of actual communication.[188] The majority
of these subtle communication techniques are employed at a close proximity to a
nother, but for long-range communication only barking and howling are employed.[
188]
Intelligence and behavior
Intelligence
Main article: Dog intelligence
The Border Collie is considered to be one of the most intelligent breeds.[189]
The domestic dog has a predisposition to exhibit a social intelligence that is u
ncommon in the animal world.[123] Dogs are capable of learning in a number of wa
ys, such as through simple reinforcement (e.g., classical or operant conditionin
g) and by observation.[123]
Dogs go through a series of stages of cognitive development. As with humans, the
understanding that objects not being actively perceived still remain in existen
ce (called object permanence) is not present at birth. It develops as the young
dog learns to interact intentionally with objects around it, at roughly 8 weeks
of age.[123]
Puppies learn behaviors quickly by following examples set by experienced dogs.[1
23] This form of intelligence is not peculiar to those tasks dogs have been bred
to perform, but can be generalized to myriad abstract problems. For example, Da
chshund puppies that watched an experienced dog pull a cart by tugging on an att
ached piece of ribbon in order to get a reward from inside the cart learned the
task fifteen times faster than those left to solve the problem on their own.[123
][190]
Dogs can also learn by mimicking human behaviors. In one study, puppies were pre
sented with a box, and shown that, when a handler pressed a lever, a ball would
roll out of the box. The handler then allowed the puppy to play with the ball, m
aking it an intrinsic reward. The pups were then allowed to interact with the bo
x. Roughly three quarters of the puppies subsequently touched the lever, and ove
r half successfully released the ball, compared to only 6% in a control group th
at did not watch the human manipulate the lever.[191] Another study found that h
anding an object between experimenters who then used the object's name in a sent
ence successfully taught an observing dog each object's name, allowing the dog t
o subsequently retrieve the item.[192]
Sergeant Stubby wearing his uniform and medals. Stubby participated in four offe
nsives and 17 battles.
Dogs also demonstrate sophisticated social cognition by associating behavioral c
ues with abstract meanings.[123] One such class of social cognition involves the
understanding that others are conscious agents. Research has shown that dogs ar
e capable of interpreting subtle social cues, and appear to recognize when a hum
an or dog's attention is focused on them. To test this, researchers devised a ta
sk in which a reward was hidden underneath one of two buckets. The experimenter
then attempted to communicate with the dog to indicate the location of the rewar
d by using a wide range of signals: tapping the bucket, pointing to the bucket,
nodding to the bucket, or simply looking at the bucket.[193] The results showed
that domestic dogs were better than chimpanzees, wolves, and human infants at th
is task, and even young puppies with limited exposure to humans performed well.[
123]
Psychology research has shown that humans' gaze instinctively moves to the left
in order to watch the right side of a person's face, which is related to use of
right hemisphere brain for facial recognition, including human facial emotions.
Research at the University of Lincoln (2008) shows that dogs share this instinct
when meeting a human being, and only when meeting a human being (i.e., not othe
r animals or other dogs). As such they are the only non-primate species known to
do so.[194][195]
Stanley Coren, an expert on dog psychology, states that these results demonstrat
ed the social cognition of dogs can exceed that of even our closest genetic rela
tives, and that this capacity is a recent genetic acquisition that distinguishes
the dog from its ancestor, the wolf.[123] Studies have also investigated whethe
r dogs engaged in partnered play change their behavior depending on the attentio
n-state of their partner.[196] Those studies showed that play signals were only
sent when the dog was holding the attention of its partner. If the partner was d
istracted, the dog instead engaged in attention-getting behavior before sending
a play signal.[196]
Coren has also argued that dogs demonstrate a sophisticated theory of mind by en
gaging in deception, which he supports with a number of anecdotes, including one
example wherein a dog hid a stolen treat by sitting on it until the rightful ow
ner of the treat left the room.[123] Although this could have been accidental, C
oren suggests that the thief understood that the treat's owner would be unable t
o find the treat if it were out of view. Together, the empirical data and anecdo
tal evidence points to dogs possessing at least a limited form of theory of mind
.[123][196] Similar research has been performed by Brian Hare of Duke University
, who has shown that dogs outperform both great apes as well as wolves raised by
humans in reading human communicative signals.[197][198]
A study found a third of dogs suffered from anxiety when separated from others.[
199]
A border collie named Chaser has learned the names for 1,022 toys after three ye
ars of training, so many that her trainers have had to mark the names of the obj
ects lest they forget themselves. This is higher than Rico, another border colli
e who could remember at least 200 objects.[200]
Behavior
Main article: Dog behavior
Although dogs have been the subject of a great deal of behaviorist psychology (e
.g. Pavlov's dog), they do not enter the world with a psychological "blank slate
".[123] Rather, dog behavior is affected by genetic factors as well as environme
ntal factors.[123] Domestic dogs exhibit a number of behaviors and predispositio
ns that were inherited from wolves.[123]
The Gray Wolf is a social animal that has evolved a sophisticated means of commu
nication and social structure. The domestic dog has inherited some of these pred
ispositions, but many of the salient characteristics in dog behavior have been l
argely shaped by selective breeding by humans. Thus some of these characteristic
s, such as the dog's highly developed social cognition, are found only in primit
ive forms in grey wolves.[193]
Properly socialized dogs can interact with unfamiliar dogs of any size and shape
and understand how to communicate.
The existence and nature of personality traits in dogs have been studied (15329
dogs of 164 different breeds) and five consistent and stable "narrow traits" ide
ntified, described as playfulness, curiosity/fearlessness, chase-proneness, soci
ability and aggressiveness. A further higher order axis for shynessboldness was a
lso identified.[201][202]
The average sleep time of a dog is said to be 10.1 hours per day.[203] Like huma
ns, dogs have two main types of sleep: Slow-wave sleep, then Rapid eye movement
sleep, the state in which dreams occur.[204]
Dogs prefer, when they are off the leash and Earth's magnetic field is calm, to
urinate and defecate with their bodies aligned on a north-south axis.[205]
Dog growl
A new study in Budapest, Hungary, has found that dogs are able to tell how big a
nother dog is just by listening to its growl. A specific growl is used by dogs t
o protect their food. The research also shows that dogs do not lie about their s
ize, and this is the first time research has shown animals can determine another
's size by the sound it makes. The test, using images of many kinds of dogs, sho
wed a small and big dog and played a growl. The result showed that 20 of the 24
test dogs looked at the image of the appropriately sized dog first and looked at
it longest.[206]
Differences from wolves
Some dogs, like this Tamaskan Dog, look very much like wolves.
Physical characteristics
Further information: Wolf
Compared to equally sized wolves, dogs tend to have 20% smaller skulls, 30% smal
ler brains,[207] as well as proportionately smaller teeth than other canid speci
es.[208] Dogs require fewer calories to function than wolves. It is thought by c
ertain experts that the dog's limp ears are a result of atrophy of the jaw muscl
es.[208] The skin of domestic dogs tends to be thicker than that of wolves, with
some Inuit tribes favoring the former for use as clothing due to its greater re
sistance to wear and tear in harsh weather.[208]
Behavioral differences
Dogs tend to be poorer than wolves at observational learning, being more respons
ive to instrumental conditioning.[208] Feral dogs show little of the complex soc
ial structure or dominance hierarchy present in wolf packs. For example, unlike
wolves, the dominant alpha pairs of a feral dog pack do not force the other memb
ers to wait for their turn on a meal when scavenging off a dead ungulate as the
whole family is free to join in. For dogs, other members of their kind are of no
help in locating food items, and are more like competitors.[208]
Feral dogs are primarily scavengers, with studies showing that unlike their wild
cousins, they are poor ungulate hunters, having little impact on wildlife popul
ations where they are sympatric. However, feral dogs have been reported to be ef
fective hunters of reptiles in the Galpagos Islands,[209] and free ranging pet do
gs are more prone to predatory behavior toward wild animals.
Domestic dogs can be monogamous.[210] Breeding in feral packs can be, but does n
ot have to be restricted to a dominant alpha pair (such things also occur in wol
f packs).[211] Male dogs are unusual among canids by the fact that they mostly s
eem to play no role in raising their puppies, and do not kill the young of other
females to increase their own reproductive success.[209] Some sources say that
dogs differ from wolves and most other large canid species by the fact that they
do not regurgitate food for their young, nor the young of other dogs in the sam
e territory.[208]
However, this difference was not observed in all domestic dogs. Regurgitating of
food by the females for the young as well as care for the young by the males ha
s been observed in domestic dogs, dingos as well as in other feral or semi-feral
dogs. Regurgitating of food by the females and direct choosing of only one mate
has been observed even in those semi-feral dogs of direct domestic dog ancestry
. Also regurgitating of food by males has been observed in free-ranging domestic
dogs.[210][212]
Trainability
Dogs display much greater tractability than tame wolves, and are, in general, mu
ch more responsive to coercive techniques involving fear, aversive stimuli, and
force than wolves, which are most responsive toward positive conditioning and re
wards.[213] Unlike tame wolves, dogs tend to respond more to voice than hand sig
nals.[214]
Cultural depictions
Main article: Cultural depictions of dogs
Mythology
See also category: Mythological dogs
In mythology, dogs often serve as pets or as watchdogs.[215]
In Greek mythology, Cerberus is a three-headed watchdog who guards the gates of
Hades.[215] In Norse mythology, a bloody, four-eyed dog called Garmr guards Helh
eim.[215] In Persian mythology, two four-eyed dogs guard the Chinvat Bridge.[215
] In Philippine mythology, Kimat who is the pet of Tadaklan, god of thunder, is
responsible for lightning. In Welsh mythology, Annwn is guarded by Cwn Annwn.[21
5]
In Hindu mythology, Yama, the god of death owns two watch dogs who have four eye
s. They are said to watch over the gates of Naraka.[216] Hunter god Muthappan fr
om North Malabar region of Kerala has hunting Dog as his mount. Dogs are found i
n and out of the Muthappan Temple and offerings at the shrine take the form of b
ronze dog figurines.[217]
In Judaism and Islam, dogs are viewed as unclean scavengers.[215] In Christianit
y, dogs represent faithfulness.[215] In Asian countries such as China, Korea, an
d Japan, dogs are viewed as kind protectors.[215] The role of the dog in Chinese
mythology includes a position as one of the twelve animals which cyclically rep
resent years (the zodiacal dog).
Gallery of dogs in art
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dogs in art.
Ancient Greek black-figure pottery depicting the return of a hunter and his dog.
Made in Athens between 550530 BC, found in Rhodes.
Riders and dogs. Ancient Greek Attic black-figure hydria, ca. 510500 BC, from Vul
ci. Louvre Museum, Paris.
William McElcheran's Cross Section-dogs Dundas (TTC) Toronto
Detail of The Imperial Prince and his dog Nero by Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux 1865 Ma
rble. Photographed at the Muse d'Orsay.
A woodcut illustration from The history of four-footed beasts and serpents by Ed
ward Topsell, 1658
See also
Portal icon Dogs portal
Portal icon Mammals portal
Book icon
Book: Dog
Animal track
Argos (dog)
Dog in Chinese mythology
Dogs in art
Dog odor
Dognapping
Ethnocynology
Hachikoa notable example of dog loyalty
Lost pet services
Wolfdog
Lists:
List of dog breeds
List of fictional dogs
List of individual dogs
List of most popular dog breeds
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