Final Exam Review

Monday, May 5
th
at 1pm

Part I: Geology of the Terrestrial Planets
Planetary Geology
! Four processes that shape
planetary surfaces:
! Impact Cratering:
bombardment of surface by
asteroids and comets.
! Volcanism: eruption of
molten rock from planets
interior onto surface.
! Tectonics: disruption of
planets surface by internal
stresses.
! Erosion: wearing down of
surface features by water,
wind, or ice.


Volcanism
! Volcanism can:
! Repave planetary surfaces
with molten lava flows.
! Release gases trapped in
rocks and produce the first
planetary atmospheres.


Impact Cratering
! Craters can be used to determine age of planetary surfaces
! Lots of craters = Older surface, few craters = young surface


Lunar Mare
Impacts & Lava on the Moon
! Lunar Mare: smooth, dark and less cratered regions.
! Maria were made by floods of running lava after
large impacts cracked the Moons crust.


Lunar Mare
Processes that Heat the Earths Interior
! Geologic activity of a planet
largely driven by the amount of
internal heat it has.
! Earth became molten soon
after formation due to three
processes:
! Impacts during Heavy
Bombardment period.
! Differentiation: energy
released as heavier
material sinks to center.
! Radioactive decay


Accretion
Differentiation
Radioactivity
Processes that Heat the Earths Interior
! Impacts and sinking material
produce most heat early on
and cause interior to liquefy.
! Over course of Earths history
Radioactive Decay produces
as much heat as Accretion +
Differentiation.


Accretion
Differentiation
Radioactivity
Internal Heat and Geologic Activity
! Large planets still have much of their internal heat.
Results in a molten (liquefied) interior.
! Geologic activity of a planet almost entirely based
on how much internal heat remains.


Warm interior causes
Mantle convection
This leads to tectonic
and volcanic activity.
Outgassing produces
an atmosphere and
strong gravity holds it,
so that erosion possible
Molten core results
in a magnetic field
if rotation fast enough.
Interior cools rapidly
Tectonic and
volcanic activity
stops after only
a billion years
No volcanoes
means little
outgassing, low
gravity allows gas
to escape. No atm
means no erosion.
Differentiation - Earths Interior
! Earth differentiates while it is
Molten: heavy metals sink to the
center of the planet. Leads to
different layers of the Earths
interior.
! Crust Low density, solid rock.
Floats above semi-molten layer.
! Mantle Semi-rigid silicate rocks
! Liquid Outer Core Molten part
of core made of liquid metal
(Iron + Nickel)
! Solid Inner Core Rigid core
made of metals (Iron + Nickel)


Molten Interior = Earths Magnetic Field
! Molten Iron+Nickel outer core +
rapid rotation generates the
Earths Magnetic Field.
! Necessary properties for a
planetary magnetic field:
! Electrically conductive fluid:
Molten Iron, Liquid
Hydrogen, Ionized gases.
! Energy to drive convection:
motion of charged fluid.
! Planetary Rotation:
Results in differential rotation
with molten interior.


Molten Interior = Plate Tectonics
! Earths solid crust floats above molten rock layers below.
Crust fractured into a dozen plates.
! Plate tectonics responsible for a variety of visible features
on the Earths surface mountains, volcanoes, faults, etc.


Plate Tectonics & Seafloor Recycling
! Plate Tectonics responsible for recycling Earths crust.
! Seafloor crust created at mid-ocean rift valleys.
! Seafloor crust destroyed through Subduction: plate folding
under neighboring plate, melts and gets added to Mantle.


Seafloor Creation Seafloor Recycling
Internal Heat and Planetary Size
! Geologic activity of a planet almost entirely based
on how much internal heat remains.
! Cooling time dependent on planet mass,
smaller planets cool quicker.
! Small bodies like Moon and Mercury have no
internal heat left and are geologically dead.


Internal Heat of the Terrestrial Planets
! Mars: cooled rapidly, solid Lithosphere extends deep into
planet. No ongoing volcanism or plate tectonics
! Venus: Similar size to Earth means lots of internal heat, yet no
plate tectonics observed. Not clear why.
! Earth: Only planet with ongoing plate tectonics


Geologic Activity of Venus
! Venus almost certainly
remains geologically active
today due to its remaining
internal heat.
! However no ongoing plate
tectonics observed.
! No planetary magnetic field,
likely due to slow rotation
rate.



Geologic Activity of Venus
! Surface of Venus shows evidence of extensive
volcanism in the past.


No Magnetic Field on Venus
! Despite having a molten interior, Venus does not
have a planetary magnetic field like the Earth does.
Atmosphere is continually stripped by Solar Wind.


Geologic Activity of Mars
! Small size of Mars means it
lost most of its internal heat.
! Plenty of evidence for past
volcanism and plate
tectonics, but currently
geologically dead.
! Lack of molten interior
means Mars lost its
magnetic field.


The Geology of Mars
! Surface of Mars shows evidence of extensive
volcanism in the past.


Past Water on Mars
! Evidence for Water on Mars:
! Signs of water erosion
! Vast flood plains
! Channels possibly carved
by running water
! Presence of Hematite
Spherules


Part II: Atmospheres of the Terrestrial Planets
Volcanism & Earths Early Atmosphere
! Molten interior results in
Volcanism, which outgasses
primarily CO
2
gas.
! Early atmosphere dominated
by CO
2
, contained no Oxygen.
Very different than current
atmosphere.
! Build-up of CO
2
results in a
greenhouse being established.
! CO
2
Cycle eventually scrubs
CO
2
from Earths atmosphere
and plants produce Oxygen.


! Current composition of Earths
atmosphere:
! Nitrogen (N
2
): 78%
! Oxygen (O
2
): 21%
! Carbon Dioxide (CO
2
): 0.1%
! 2/3 of atmosphere contained
within 6 miles (10km) of surface.
! Air thickest at Earths surface
and thins with altitude.
! Pressure and density decrease
with altitude because the
weight of overlying layers is less.


Earths Atmosphere
! X-rays can ionize atoms
and dissociate (destroy)
molecules.
! Ultraviolet Light can
dissociate (destroy)
molecules.
! Infrared light can be
absorbed by molecules,
causing vibrations.
! Visible Light is scattered by
molecules (red light more
than blue light).

Lights Effects on Earths Atmosphere
Troposphere: lowest layer of Earth's
atmosphere. Heated by Infrared
light from surface
Layers of Earths Atmosphere
Stratosphere: Warmed by
absorption of Ultraviolet sunlight.
Temp rises and then drops with
altitude.

Thermosphere: layer at about 100
kilometers altitude. X-rays and
Ultraviolet light from the Sun heat
and ionize gases. Temp increases
with altitude.


Exosphere: highest layer in which
atmosphere gradually fades into
space. Warmed by X-ray and
Ultraviolet light


! Atmosphere creates pressure
that determines whether liquid
water can exist on surface.
! Atmospheric gases absorb
and scatter sun light.
! Results in blue sky on Earth.
! Protects life on Earths
surface.
! Atmosphere creates wind,
weather, and climate, which is
important for long-term
habitability.
! They can make planetary
surfaces warmer through the
Greenhouse Effect.


Effects of Planetary Atmospheres
The Greenhouse Effect
! Earth would be frozen without
the Greenhouse effect.
! Visible light passes through most
atmospheric gases reaches
ground and heats planet.
! Re-radiated Infrared light
absorbed by Greenhouse
gases such as CO
2
, H
2
O, CH
4
.
! Greenhouse Effect heats planet
above temp it would have
based solely on distance from
Sun.
Temp Regulation via the CO
2
Cycle
! The CO
2
Cycle helps regulate the
temperature of the planet.
! The CO
2
Cycle:
! CO
2
gas dissolves in rain water.
! Rain erodes calcium-rich rocks
on Earths surface.
! Calcium + CO
2
combine in
ocean to form carbonate
rocks, sink as sediment.
! (Life in ocean can use CO
2
to
make shells. When shellfish die,
carbon falls to bottom)
! Plate Tectonics take carbonate
rocks into subduction zones.
! Rocks melt, volcanoes outgas.
Temp Regulation via the CO
2
Cycle
! The CO
2
Cycle is a feedback process that regulates the
Earths temperature.
! Too hot, more rain, less CO
2
in atmosphere = colder temps
! Too cold, less rain, more CO
2
buildup = hotter temps.
The Habitability of the Earth
! Volcanism + Greenhouse
raised temps and water
rained out as liquid.
! Liquid water removes CO
2

from atmosphere.
! Magnetic field prevents
atmospheric stripping.
! Plate Tectonics help return
CO
2
to atmosphere,
facilitates the CO
2
cycle.
! The CO
2
cycle regulates the
Earths temperature and
long-term habitability.


Early History of Venus
! Volcanism + Greenhouse
temp increases and water
remains vaporized.
! No liquid water to help
remove CO
2
from
atmosphere.
! Water photodissociated in
upper atmosphere.
Hydrogen lost to space.
! Continued Volcanism
increases temp further.
! Runaway Greenhouse


Current Atmosphere of Venus
! Result is thick atmosphere
and hot surface temps.
! Atmosphere: 95% CO
2

Pressure: 90 ATM
Temperature: 900 F
! Only 2% of sunlight reaches
the surface, yet it is hot
enough to melt Lead.
! Atmosphere contains
170,000x CO
2
than Earth.
Equal to all rocks on Earth.


Early History of Mars
! Volcanism + Greenhouse
temp increases and water
may have rained out.
! Interior cools rapidly due
to small relative size
! Magnetic field weakens
as planets molten core
cools & solidifies.
! Atmosphere stripped by
the Solar Wind, CO
2
lost,
Greenhouse declines.
! Water freezes out as temp
& pressure decline.


Current Atmosphere of Venus
! Result is thin atmosphere
and cold surface temps.
! Atmosphere: 95% CO
2

Pressure: 0.01 ATM
Temperature: -190 - 80 F
! Viking landers imaged frost
on surface.
! Most water that remains is
frozen below the surface
or trapped in the polar
ice caps.


The Habitability of the Terrestrial Planets
! Volcanism
! Greenhouse
! Magnetic field
! Liquid water
! Plate Tectonics
! Tidal Heating
! Result = Moderate
temps that are self
regulating.


! Volcanism
! Greenhouse, temp
increases
! Water remains a
vapor, destroyed
in upper atm.
! Runaway Greenhouse
continues unchecked
! Result = Thick CO
2

atmosphere with
surface temp of
T = 872 F


! Volcanism
! Greenhouse
! Cools rapidly
! No Magnetic field
! CO
2
stripped, temp
cannot increase.
! Water freezes out,
runaway glaciation
! Result = Thin atm, cold
temps, frozen water



Part III: The Gas Giants & Their Moons
Growth of Gas Giants
! Beyond Snow Line, larger ice +
rock planetesimals can form.
! When Jupiter core reaches
15 M
Earth
it rapidly accretes
surrounding Hydrogen and
Helium via gravitation pull
runaway accretion.
! Saturn less massive because
gas density lower further out in
disk.


Terrestrial vs Gas Giants
! Lack of ice within 5AU largely responsible for
differences in Terrestrial vs Gas Giant planets.


Snow Line
Terrestrial vs Gas Giants
! Terrestrial Planets
! Composed of rocky silicates
! Composition differs from Solar
abundances
! Small: R = 0.38 1.0 R
earth

! Less Massive: M = 0.055 1.0 M
earth

! High Density: ! = 3933-5515 kg m
-3

! Gas Giants
! Composed of Hydrogen, Helium +
small amount of heavy elements
! Matches Solar abundance
! Large: 3.88 11.2 R
earth

! More Massive: M = 14.5 318 M
earth

! Low Density: ! = 687-1638 kg m
-3



The Interior of Jupiter
! Jupiter composed mostly
of Hydrogen plus some
Helium & rocky material.
! High interior pressure
causes phase of
Hydrogen to change
with depth.
! Hydrogen acts like a
metal at greats
pressures / depths as
electrons move freely.
! Core is made of rock +
metals. Roughly 10 times
the Earths mass.


Jupiters Atmosphere
! Jupiters clouds and bands
are composed of different
Hydrogen compounds.
! Different cloud layers
correspond to freezing
points of different
hydrogen compounds.
! H
2
O = Water,
NH
3
= Ammonia,
NH
4
SH = Ammonium sulfide
Jupiters Atmosphere
Ammonium Hydrosulfide:
Reddish clouds
Ammonia clouds + snow:
White cloud bands
Red Bands: Lower
Altitude, Hotter Temps
White Bands: Higher
Altitude, Colder Temps
Jupiters Moons
! Io: most volcanic body in the Solar System
! Europa: possible subsurface ocean
! Ganymede: largest moon in solar system
! Callisto: a large, cratered "ice ball"


Io
Europa Ganymede Callisto
Composition of Jupiters Moons
! Jupiter + Galilean moons
formed beyond the Snow Line.
! Unlike terrestrial planets,
composed of Rocks + Ice.
! On average, less dess than
terrestrial planets because they
contain substantial amounts of
ice in addition to rocks.


Properties of IO
! Io most volcanic body in the
Solar System 400 active
volcanoes observed.
! Internal heat the result of tidal
stress from orbiting Jupiter.
! Few craters - youngest surface
in the Solar System.
! Interior:
! Iron-rich Core
! Molten Silicate Mantle
! Silicate (Rock) Crust


Evidence for Oceans on Europa
! Magnetic Field despite lack of
molten interior. Possibly induced
by salt water ocean.
! Tidal Heating should be
sufficient to melt subsurface ice.
! Very few craters visible: surface
is being replaced by water
from below or ice is slushy.
! Cracks and Ridges: appear to
be filled in from below.
! Chaotic Terrain: Looks like
icebergs ice floating atop a
liquid medium.


The Nature of Europas Ocean
! Ice Crust: 20-25 km thick.
! Water ocean would be
100 km deep 10x deeper
than deepest ocean in Earth
! Europa may have more
liquid water than the Earth!
! Europa may be the best
place in the Solar System
to search for ongoing life
beyond Earth.


Part IV: The Sun
What Powers the Sun?
! Chemical Burning:
! 1kg TNT = 4.2x10
6
J
! Would require 9x10
19
kg
of TNT per second
! Gravitational Collapse:
! E
grav
= 1.1x10
41
J
! t = E
grav
/ L
sun
= 10
7
years
! Timescale far too short
! Nuclear Energy:
! E
nuc
= 1.3x10
44
J
! t = E
nuc
/ L
sun
= 10
10
years
! Timescale ok even
assuming only 1% of mass
used for energy.


L
sun
= 3.8x10
26
J/s
M
sun
= 1.989x10
30
kg
Interior Structure of the Sun
Core

0.2 R
!

0.7 R
!

1.0 R
!

Radiative
Zone

Convective
Zone

Photosphere

Chromosphere

Corona

! Corona: Hot, high energy
plasma out to millions of km.
! Chromosphere: Layer of hot
ionized gas only 2000 km thick.
Where emission lines made.
! Photosphere: Effective surface.
Where absorption lines made.
! Convective Zone: Lower temp,
high opacity leads to bubbling.
! Radiative Zone: Higher temp, low
opacity, photons stream out.
! Core: Where fusion happens
all Suns energy generated here.


Solar Activity
! Solar Activity driven by intense
magnetic fields
! Sunspots: area of cooler gas
appear dark on sun.
! Filaments & Prominences:
Sheets of ionized gas following
ma fields and extending into
Corona.
! Solar Flares: Eruptive events
that send charges particles to
Earth.
! Solar Wind: Continuous stream
of charges particles ejected
by the Sun.


Impact of Solar Activity on Planets
! Can strip atmosphere via
drag observed on Venus.
! Can ionize upper
atmosphere, removing
Ozone layer observed
on Mars.

! Can irradiate the surface
killing off life could have
happened to Apollo
astronauts.
! Being in the habitable
zone may not be enough.
Planet must have some
way to protect against
solar activity.


Part V: Extra-Solar Planets
Planet Hunting Techniques Summary
! Direct Detections:
! Image Planets by masking the
central star. Difficult, but possible.
! Indirect Detections:
! Astrometric Techniques (spatial
wobble) detect motion of star due
to gravitational wobble.
! Doppler Technique (doppler
wobble) infers motion of star from
spectral features.
! Planetary Transits and Eclipses: infer
presence of planet by dip in stars
light as planet passes in front and
behind a star.


Wobble
Path of Star
Gravitational Wobble
! Gravitational tug of planets causes a
star to orbit the center of mass in the
system.
! Result is a wobble small movement
of star that can be detected.


Doppler Technique
! Doppler Technique: Most successful
planet hunting technique. Infer
wobble of star by looking for
velocity dependent shifts in its
spectral lines.
! Doppler Shift:
! Light shifts to bluer wavelength as
star moves toward Earth.
! Light shifts to redder wavelengths
as star movies away from Earth.


Stationary Star
Receding Star
Approaching Star
Hot Jupiters
! Surprising result: massive gas giant
planets that orbit very close to their
parent star. So-called Hot Jupiters.
! Selection Effect: found preferentially
as they are easiest to detect.
! Short orbital period
! Large velocity offsets


Exoplanet Statistics
! Detections thus far: 1050 planets in 797 systems
! Implications:
! 100-400 billion exoplanets in Milky Way
! 1 in 5 Sun-like stars have Earth-like planets
in their Habitable Zones.
! 11 billion Earth-like planets orbiting Sun-like
stars in the Milky Way.
! 40 billion Earth-like planets if red dwarf
(K and M type) stars are included.
! 12 light years: likely distance to nearest
Earth-like planet could be