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HUMAN-MUSCLE-PHYSIOLOGY IN
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PHYSIOLOGY-1 ON BIO-MEDICAL
ENGINEERING UNDERGRADUATE
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PROGRAM
MUSCLE-PHYSIOLOGY IN PHYSIOLOGY-1,my
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7/26/2014

MUHAMMAD-SIKANDER-KHAN-LODHI-> Ramandan-Mubarak + EidMubarak to all Muslims.

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Contents
MUSCLE-PHYSIOLOGY: .................................................................................................................................. 2
INTRODUCTION: ............................................................................................................................................ 2
TYPES-OF-MUSCLE-TISSUES: ......................................................................................................................... 3
1.

SKELETAL-MUSCLE-TISSUE: ............................................................................................................... 3

2.

CARDIAC-MUSCLE-TISSUE: ................................................................................................................ 3

3.

SMOOTH-MUSCLE-TISSUE: ............................................................................................................... 3

FUNCTIONS-OF-MUSCLE-TISSUE:.................................................................................................................. 3
Motion: ..................................................................................................................................................... 4
STABILIZING-BODY-POSITIONS-AND REGULATING-ORGAN-VOLUME:..................................................... 4
THERMOGENESIS (GENERATION-OF-HEAT):............................................................................................. 4
CHARACTERISTICS-OF-MUSCLE-TISSUE: ....................................................................................................... 4
1.

EXCITABILITY(IRRITABILITY):.............................................................................................................. 4

2.

CONTRACTILITY: ................................................................................................................................ 4

3.

EXTENSIBILITY: .................................................................................................................................. 4

4.

ELASTICITY: ........................................................................................................................................ 4

ANATOMY-AND-INNERVATION-OF-SKELETAL-MUSCLE-TISSUE: .................................................................. 5
NERVE-AND-BLOOD-SUPPLY: .................................................................................................................... 5
CONNECTIVE-TISSUE-COMPONENTS: ....................................................................................................... 5
FASCIA [fascia=bandage]:...................................................................................................................... 5
SUPERFICIAL-FASCIA (SUBCUTANEOUS-LAYER) : .......................................................................................... 5
DEEP-FASCIA: ................................................................................................................................................ 6
TENDON (tendere = to stretch out): ......................................................................................................... 6
TENDON(SYNOVIAL) SHEATHS: ................................................................................................................. 6
THE-MOTOR-UNIT: .................................................................................................................................... 6
THE-NEURO-MUSCULAR-JUNCTION: ............................................................................................................ 7
MICROSCOPIC-ANATOMY-OF-MUSCLE: ....................................................................................................... 8
MYO-FIBRILS: ........................................................................................................................................... 8
SARCOMERES: ........................................................................................................................................... 9

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Z-discs (lines): ............................................................................................................................................ 9


A-band: ...................................................................................................................................................... 9
I-band: ....................................................................................................................................................... 9
H-zone: ...................................................................................................................................................... 9
M-line: ....................................................................................................................................................... 9
MYOSIN: .................................................................................................................................................... 9
ACTIN: ..................................................................................................................................................... 10
ELASTIC-FILAMENT:................................................................................................................................. 10
SARCOPLASMIC-RETICULUM AND TRANSVERSE-TUBULES[or T-TUBULES]: ................................... 10
SARCOPLASMIC-RETICULUM: ................................................................................................................. 10
TRANSVERSE-TUBULES[or T-TUBULES]: ............................................................................................... 11
CONTRACTION-OF-MUSCLE: ....................................................................................................................... 12
SLIDING-FILAMENT-MECHANISM: .......................................................................................................... 12
ROLE-OF-CALCIUM-AND-REGULATOR-PROTEINS: ...................................................................................... 13
THE-POWER-STROKE-AND-THE-ROLE-OF-ATP:....................................................................................... 13
RELAXATION: ........................................................................................................................................... 14
MUSCLE-TONE:............................................................................................................................................ 15
MUSCLE-METABOLISM : ............................................................................................................................. 15
PHOSPHAGEN-SYSTEM: .............................................................................................................................. 16
LIST-OF-FIGURES: ........................................................................................................................................ 16

MUSCLE-PHYSIOLOGY:
INTRODUCTION:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

v.

Although bones and joints provide leverage and from the framework of the body.
They cannot move the body by themselves.
Motion results from alternating contraction(shortening) and relaxation of muscles, which
constitute 40 to 50% of total body weight .
Your muscular strength reflects the prime function of muscle changing chemical energy (in
the form of ATP) into mechanical energy to generate force, perform work, and produce
movement. ).
The scientific study of muscle is known as myology(myo=muscle;logos=study of).

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TYPES-OF-MUSCLE-TISSUES:
The three kinds of muscle tissue---skeletal, cardiac and smooth differ from one another in their microscopic anatomy, location, and control by the nervous and endocrine-systems.
1. SKELETAL-MUSCLE-TISSUE:
a. It is so-named because it is attached primarily to bones and it moves parts of the skeleton .
(some skeletal muscles are also attached to skin , other muscles, or deep fascia.).
b. Skeletal-muscle tissue is called striated muscle because alternating light and dark bands
(striations) are visible when the tissue is examined under a microscope(see Exhibit 4.3 on
page 120).
c. Its a voluntary muscle tissue because it can be made to contract and relax by conscious
control.
2. CARDIAC-MUSCLE-TISSUE:
a. It form most of the heart . its also striated muscle but is involuntary ; that is , its contraction is
usually not under conscious control.
b. Cardiac-muscle includes a peacemaker system that causes the heart to beat this built-in rhythm
is called autorhythmicity .
c. Adjustments in heart rate are possible because various hormones and neuro-transmitters
influence the peacemaker.
3. SMOOTH-MUSCLE-TISSUE:
a. Its located in the walls of hollow internal structures , such as blood vessels, the stomach , and
the intestines, as well as most other abdominal organs.
b. Its also found in the skin attached to hair follicles .
c. Under the microscope , this tissue look non-striated or smooth.its usually involuntary muscle
tissue, often has autorhythmicity , and is also influenced by certain hormones and
neurotransmitters. (Regulation of cardiac and smooth muscle by hormones and
neurotransmitters is discussed in chapter 17).
Thus all muscle tissues are classified in the following way:
1. Skeletal , striated, voluntary muscle tissue ;
2. Cardiac, striated, in-voluntary muscle tissue; or
3. Smooth , non-striated, in-voluntary muscle tissue(see Exhibit 10.3).

FUNCTIONS-OF-MUSCLE-TISSUE:
Through sustained contraction or alternating contraction and relaxation, muscle tissue has three key
functions: 1. Producing motion, 2. Providing stabilization on joints, and generating heat.

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Motion:
1. Motion is obvious in movements such as walking and running and in localized movements , such
as grasping a pencil or nodding the head.
2. These movements rely on the integrated functioning of bones, joints , and skeletal muscles. Less
noticeable kinds of motion are produced by cardiac and smooth muscles , examples are the
beating of the heart to move blood throughout the body , churning of food in the stomach, and
contraction of the urinary bladder to expel urine.

STABILIZING-BODY-POSITIONS-AND REGULATING-ORGAN-VOLUME:
1. besides producing movements , skeletal muscle contractions maintain the body in stable
positions, such as standing or sitting .
2. postural muscles display sustained contractions when a person is awake : for-example, partially
contracted neck muscle hold the head upright .
3. in a similar manner , sustained contractions of smooth muscles may prevent outflow of the
contents of a hollow organ. Temporary storage of food in the stomach or urine in the urinary
bladder is possible because smooth muscles close off the exit route.

THERMOGENESIS (GENERATION-OF-HEAT):
1.
2.
3.
4.

as skeletal muscle contracts to perform work , a by-product is heat.


Much of the heat released by muscle is used to maintain normal body temperature.
Muscle contractions are thought to generate as much as 85% of all body heat.
This is why active cheering helps warm you up during a cold weather.

CHARACTERISTICS-OF-MUSCLE-TISSUE:
Muscle tissue has four principle characteristics that enable it to carry out its functions and thus
contributes to homeostasis.
1. EXCITABILITY(IRRITABILITY):
i.
A property of both muscle and nerve cell(neurons), is the ability to respond to certain
stimuli by producing electrical signals called action-potentials (impulses).
ii.
For muscle, the stimuli that trigger action potentials are chemicals--- neuro-transmitters,
released by neurons . (or hormones distributed by the blood. ).
2. CONTRACTILITY:
i.
It is the ability of muscle tissue to shorten and thicken (contract), thus generating force to
do work.
ii.
Muscle contracts in response to one or more muscle action potentials.
3. EXTENSIBILITY:
i.
It means that muscle can be extended (stretched) without damaging the tissue.
ii.
Most skeletal-muscles are arranged in opposing pairs. While one is contracting , the other
not only is relaxed but usually is being stretched .
4. ELASTICITY:

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i.

Its means that muscle tissue tends to return to its original shape after contraction or
extension.

Skeletal muscle is the focus of much of this chapter . cardiac muscle and smooth muscle are described
briefly here, but in more detail later (with discussions of the heart in chapter 20, the various organs
containing smooth muscle, and the autonomic nervous-system in chapter-17). The developmental
anatomy of skeletal muscle is considered at the end of the chapter.

ANATOMY-AND-INNERVATION-OF-SKELETAL-MUSCLE-TISSUE:
To understand how skeletal muscle contraction produces movement, one needs some knowledge of its
nerve and blood supply, connective-tissue-components, and microscopic anatomy.

NERVE-AND-BLOOD-SUPPLY:
i.
ii.
iii.

iv.

Skeletal muscles are well supplied with nerves and blood vessels (see fig 11.21) . those
neurons that stimulate muscle to contract are called motor-neurons .
When muscle contracts , it uses a good deal of ATP and therefore needs large amounts of
nutrients and oxygen for ATP production.
Moreover, the waste products of the reactions that produce ATP must be eliminated . thus
prolonged muscle action depends on a rich blood supply to deliver nutrients and oxygen and
remove waste and heat.
Microscopic blood vessels called capillaries are plentiful in muscle tissue ; each muscle
fiber(cell) is in close contact with one or more capillaries.

CONNECTIVE-TISSUE-COMPONENTS:
Connective tissue surrounds and protects muscle tissue .
FASCIA [fascia=bandage]:
the term fascia refers to a sheet or broad band of fibrous connective tissue beneath the skin or around
muscles and other organs of the body.

SUPERFICIAL-FASCIA (SUBCUTANEOUS-LAYER) :
Its immediately deep to the skin (see fig 11.21) . its composed of adipose tissue and areolar connective
tissue and has four important functions:
(1) its stores water and fat. Much of the fat of an over-weight person is in the superficial fascia.
(2) It forms a layer of insulation that protects the body from heat loss.
(3) it provides mechanical protection against traumatic blows .
(4) It provides a pathway for nerves and blood vessels to enter and exit muscles.

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DEEP-FASCIA:
i.
ii.

its dense, irregular connective tissue that lines the body wall and extremities and holds
muscles together , separating them into functional groups.
Deep-fascia allows free movement of muscles , carries nerves and blood and lymphatic
vessels, and fills spaces between muscles.

---------Three layers of dense, irregular connective tissue extend from the deep fascia to further protect and
strengthen skeletal muscle (fig 10.1).
EPI-MYSIUM(epi=upon): the outermost layer, encircling the whole muscle, is the epi-mysium.
PERI-MYSIUM(peri=around) : Peri-mysium then surrounds bundles (fasciculi or fascicles) of 10 to 100 or
more individual muscle fibers.
ENDO-MYSIUM[ endo=within]: Penetrating the interior of each fascicle and separating muscle fibers
from one another is called as Endo-mysium.
Note: epi-mysium, peri-mysium , and endo-mysium are all continuous with and contribute collagen
fibers to the connective tissue that attaches the muscle to other structures, such as bone or other
muscle.

TENDON (tendere = to stretch out):


1. All three [epi-mysium, peri-mysium , and endo-mysium ] may extend beyond the muscle fibers
as a tendon --- [define Tendon:=> a cord of dense connective tissue that attaches a muscle to
the periosteum of a bone ].
2. When the connective tissue elements extend as a broad , flat-layer, the tendon is called an
aponeurosis[apo=from;neuron= a tendon]. {:. Tendon = aponeurosis };
3. This structure also attaches to the coverings of a bone , another muscle , or the skin.
4. An example of an aponeurosis is the Galea-aponeurotica on top of the skull (see fig 11.4)

TENDON(SYNOVIAL) SHEATHS:
i.

ii.

Certain tendons , especially those of the wrist and ankle , are enclosed by tubes of fibrous
connective tissue called tendon(synovial) sheaths(see Fig 11.17) . they are similar in
structure to bursae and contain a film of synovial fluid.
Tendon sheaths permit tendons to slide back and forth more easily.

THE-MOTOR-UNIT:
i.
ii.

A motor-neuron delivers the stimulus that ultimately causes a muscle fiber to contract.
A motor neuron plus all the muscle-fibers it stimulates is called a motor-unit(fig 10.2).

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iii.
iv.

v.

vi.
vii.

A single motor-neuron makes contact with an average of 150 muscle fibers. This means that
activation of one neuron cause the simultaneous contraction of about 150 muscle fibers.
All the muscle-fibers of a motor unit contract and relax together . muscles that control
precise movements . such as voice production by the larynx. Have as few as two to tree
muscle fibers per motor unit.
Muscles of the body that are responsible for powerful gross movements . such as the biceps
brachii in the arm and gastrocnemius in the leg.may have as many as 2000 muscle fibers
per motor unit.
Stimulation of a motor neuron produces a contraction in all the muscle fibers of a particular
motor unit.
Accordingly, the total strength of a contraction is varied in part by adjusting the number of
motor units that are activated.

THE-NEURO-MUSCULAR-JUNCTION:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.

x.

Excitable cells ( neurons and muscle fibers) make contact and communicate at specialized
regions called synapses.
At most synapses a small gap, called the synaptic-cleft, separates the two excitable cells.
Since the cells dont physically touch, the action-potential from one cell cannot jump-thegap to excite the next cell.
Rather, the first cell communicates with the second by releasing a chemical called a
neurotransmitter . the particular type of synapse formed between a motor-neuron and a
skeletal muscle fiber is called the neuro-muscular-junction(NMJ) [or myo-neural-junction
].
Close to its target skeletal muscle fibers, the axon of a motor neuron branches into clusters
of bulb-shaped axon terminals (fig 10.3a,b).
The region of the muscle-fiber membrane that is adjacent to the axon-terminals has special
features and is called the motor-end-plate .
The term neuro-muscular-junction includes both the axon terminals of the motor-neuron
and the motor-end-plate of the muscle-fiber.
The distal end of an axon-terminal contains many membrane-enclosed sacs called synapticvesicles [fig 10.3c] .
Inside each synaptic-vesicle are thousands of neuro-transmitter molecules. Although many
different neuro-transmitters exist , the one present in motor neuron synaptic vesicles and
released at the NMJ is acetyl-choline , {abbreviated as [ACh]}.
When a nerve impulse [action-potential] reaches the axon-terminal , it triggers exo-cytosis
of synaptic vesicles. In this process, the synaptic vesicles fuse with the plasma-membrane
and liberate ACh, which diffuses into the synaptic cleft between the motor-neuron and the
motor-end-plate.

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xi.

xii.

xiii.
xiv.

On the muscle side of the synaptic cleft, the motor-end-plate contains acetylcholinereceptors [fig 10.3d] . these are integral membrane proteins that recognize and bind
specifically to ACh.
At a typical NMJ there are 30 to 40 million A Ch receptors . the binding of A Ch to its
receptor opens a channel that passes [small cation] , most importantly Na+ ion. The
resulting change in the resting membrane potential (see page 356) triggers a muscle action
potential that travels along the muscle cell membrane (sarcolemma) and initiates the events
leading to muscle contraction. [chapter 12 presents details of how action-potentials are
generated.].
In most skeletal muscle fibers here is only one neuro-muscular junction for each muscle
fiber, located near the muscle-fiber mid-point.
The muscle action-potential spreads from the center of the fiber toward both ends. This
arrangement permits nearly simultaneous contraction of all parts of the fiber .

MICROSCOPIC-ANATOMY-OF-MUSCLE:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.

Microscopic examination of a typical skeletal muscle reveals hundreds or thousands of very


long, cylindrical cells called muscle-fibers (fig 10.4b).
The muscle fibers lie parallel to one another and range from 10 to 100m in diameter . while
a typical length is 100m, some are up to 30 cm (12 inch) long.
The sarcolemma (sarco = flesh ; lemma = sheath ) is a muscle-fibers plasma membrane, and
it surrounds the muscle fibers cytoplasm or sarcoplasm (fig 10.4c)
Because skeletal muscle-fibers arise from the fusion of many smaller cells during
embryonic development , each fibers has many nuclei to direct synthesis of new proteins .
The nuclei are at the periphery of the cell, next to the sarcolemma, conveniently out of the
way of the contractile elements (described shortly) .
the mitochondria lie in rows throughout the muscle-fiber, strategically close to the muscle
proteins that use ATP to carry on contraction-processes.
At high magnification the sarcoplasm appears stuffed with little threads. These small
structures are the myofibrils (fig 10.4d).
Although myo-fibrils extend lengthwise within the muscle-fiber, their prominent
alternating light and dark bands make the whole muscle cell look striped or striated. [the
bands are called cross-striations].

MYO-FIBRILS:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Myofibrils are the contractile elements of skeletal muscle . they are 1 to 2 m in diameter
and contain three types of even smaller structures called filaments(myofilaments).
The diameter of the thin-filaments[actin] is about 8 nm, while that of the thickfilaments[myosin] is about 16 nm(fig 10.4e).
The thick and thin filaments overlap one another , to a greater or lesser extent.
Depending on whether the muscle is contracting or relaxing .

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v.
vi.

The pattern of their overlap causes the cross-striations seen both in single myofibrils and in
whole muscle-fibers.
A third type of filament , the elastic-filament, will be described shortly.

SARCOMERES:
vii.

The filaments inside a myofibril dont extend the entire length of a muscle fiber, they are
arranged in compartments called sarcomeres [see fig 10.5 and 10.6a).

Z-discs (lines):
viii.

Narrow plate-shaped regions of dense material called Z-discs (lines) separate one
sarcomere from the next.

A-band:
ix.

Within a sarcomere the darker area , called the A (an-iso-tropic)-band, extends from one
end to the other of the thick-filaments and includes portions of the thin-filaments where
they overlap the thick-filaments.

I-band:
x.

A lighter, less dense area called the I(iso-tropic)-band contains the rest of the thinfilaments but no thick-filaments.

---xi.

The Z-disc passes through the center of each I-band. The alternating dark A-bands and
light I-bands give the muscle fiber its striated appearance.

H-zone:
xii.

A narrow H-zone in the center of each A-band contains thick but not thin filaments.

M-line:
xiii.

Dividing the H-zone is the M-line. M-line is formed by protein molecules that connect
adjacent thick filaments.

MYOSIN:
xiv.
xv.
xvi.

The two contractile proteins in muscle are myosin and actin. About 200-molecules of
the protein myosin form a single thick filament (fig 10.6b).
Each myosin-molecule is shaped like two golf clubs twisted together. The tails (golf club
handles) point toward the M-line in the center of the sarcomere.
The projecting myosin heads called cross-bridges . extend out toward the thin filaments .
tails of neighboring myosin-molecules lie parallel to one another , forming the shaft of the
thick filament. The heads project from all around the shaft in a spiraling fashion.

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ACTIN:
xvii.

xviii.

xix.

Thin-filaments extend from anchoring points within the Z-discs. Their main component is
actin . also present in the thin filament are smaller amounts of two regulatory proteins,
tropomyosin and troponin (fig 10.6c ).
Individual actin-molecules appear to be shaped like kidney beans. They join to form an actinfilament that is twisted into a helix.(for many years it was thought that two helical strands
inter-twined to form an actin-filament. Recent evidence suggests there is just a single chain
of bean-shaped actin-molecules .).
On each actin-molecule is a myosin-binding site , a site where a cross-bridge can attach. In
relaxed muscle, tropomyosin covers the myosin-binding sites on actin and thus block
attachment of myosin cross-bridges to actin.

ELASTIC-FILAMENT:
xx.

xxi.

xxii.

A more recently recognized component of the sarcomere is the elastic-filament (fig 10.6a).
it is composed of the protein titin(connectin) , titin is the third most plentiful protein in
skeletal-muscle (after actin and myosin ).
Titin anchors thick-filaments to the Z-discs and thereby helps stabilize the position of the
thick-filaments. It may also play a role in recovery of the resting sarcomere length when a
muscle is stretched[contracting] or during relaxation.
The protein was named titin because it has a huge (titanic) molecular weight (or connectin
because of its connecting function).

----------xxiii.

Exhibit 10.1 reviews the types of filaments in skeletal muscle fibers.

SARCOPLASMIC-RETICULUM AND TRANSVERSE-TUBULES[or TTUBULES]:


SARCOPLASMIC-RETICULUM:
i.
ii.
iii.

iv.

A fluid-filled system of cisterns called the sarcoplasmic-reticulum (SR) encircles each


myofibril (see fig 10.4d).
This elaborate tubular system is similar to smooth endo-plasmic reticulum in non-muscle
cells.
In a relaxed muscle fiber, the sarcoplasmic-reticulum stores Ca2+. Release of ca2+ from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum into the sarcoplasm around the thick and thin filaments triggers
muscle contraction .
The calcium ions pass out through special pores in the sarcoplasmic-reticulum called Ca2+release-channels.

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---

TRANSVERSE-TUBULES[or T-TUBULES]:
i.

ii.
iii.

The TRANSVERSE-TUBULES[or T-TUBULES] are tunnel-like infoldings of the


sarcolemma. They penetrate the muscle fiber at right angles to the sarcoplasmic reticulum
and the myofilaments .
T-tubules are open to the outside of the fiber and are filled with extracellular-fluid.
On both sides of a transverse-tubule are dilated end sac of the sarcoplasmic-reticulum called
terminal-cisterns. The term triad refers to a transverse-tubule [T-tubule] and the
terminal-cisterns on either side of it.
Exhibit 10.1
TYPES-OF-FILAMENTS-IN-SKELETAL-MUSCLEFIBERS:
Filament Diameter

ProteinFunctions
composition
(percent-oftotalprotein)

1.

Thickfilament

16nm

Myosin
(44%)

Myosinheads
(crossbridges)
move thin
filaments
toward
center of
sarcomere
during
contraction.

2.

Thinfilament

8nm

Actin (22%),
troponin
(5%), tropomyosin (5%)

Contains
crossbridge
binding
sites; slides
along thick
filament
during

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contraction.
3.

Elasticfilament

Less
than 1
nm

Titin
(connectin)
(9%)

Anchors
thick
filaments to
Z-discs
and
stabilizes
them
during
contraction
and
relaxation.

-----------------

CONTRACTION-OF-MUSCLE:
i. In the mid-1950s jean Hanson and Hugn Huxley had a revolutionary insight into the mechanism of
muscle-contraction.
2. Previously , scientists had imagined that muscle contraction must be a folding process, somewhat like
closing an accordion.
3. Hanson and Huxley proposed, however, that skeletal muscle shortens during contraction because the
thick and thin filaments slide past one another . their model is known as the sliding-filamentmechanism of muscle contraction.

SLIDING-FILAMENT-MECHANISM:
i. During muscle-contraction, myosin cross-bridges pull on the thin filaments, causing them to slide
inward toward the H-zone (fig 10.7).
2. As the cross-bridges pull on (apply force to ) the thin filaments, the thin-filaments meet at the center
of the sarcomere.
3. The myosin cross-bridges may even pull the thin filaments of each sarcomere so far inward that their
ends overlap (fig 10.7c) .

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4. As the thin-filaments slide inward, the Z-discs come toward each other , and the sarcomere
shortens, but the lengths of the thick and thin filaments do not change.
5. The sliding of the filaments and shortening of the sarcomeres cause shortening of the whole musclefiber and ultimately the entire muscle.
-----

ROLE-OF-CALCIUM-AND-REGULATOR-PROTEINS:
a. You may be wondering what starts and stops filament-sliding . An increasing in Ca2+
concentration in the sarcoplasm starts filament sliding , while a decrease turns-off the slidingprocess.
b. When a muscle fiber is relaxed (not contracting ), the concentration of Ca2+ in the sarcoplasm is
low (fig 10.8a).
c. This is because the sarcoplasmic-reticulum(SR) membrane contains Ca2+ active transport
pumps that remove Ca2+ ions from the sarcoplasm . Ca2+ is stored or sequestered inside the SR.
d. As a muscle action-potential travels along the sarcolemma and into the transverse-tubule
system, however, Ca2+ release channels open in the SR membrane (fig 10.8b).
e. The result is a flood of Ca2+ from within the sarcoplasmic-reticulum into the sarcoplasm around
the thick and thin filaments .
f. The calcium ions released from the sarcoplasmic-reticulum combine with troponin , causing it to
change shape . this shape change slides the troponin tropomyosin complex away from the
myosin-binding sites on actin(fig 10.8b).

THE-POWER-STROKE-AND-THE-ROLE-OF-ATP:
a. As we have seen muscle contraction requires Ca2+ , its also requires energy, in the form of ATP .
ATP attaches to ATP-binding sites on the myosin cross-bridges(heads) .
b. A portion of each myosin head acts as an ATPase, [ATPase = an enzyme that splits the ATP into
ADP+Pi through a hydrolysis reaction.].
c. This reaction transfers energy from ATP to the myosin head, even before contraction begins .
STEP-1:
d. The myosin cross-bridges are thus in an activated (energized) state. Such activated myosin
heads spontaneously bind to the myosin-binding sites on actin when the Ca2+ level rises and
tropomyosin slides away from its blocking position (fig 10.9, step 1).
STEP-2:
e. The shape change that occurs when myosin binds to actin produces the power-stroke of
contraction (step-2). During the power-stroke, the myosin-cross bridges swivel toward the
center of the sarcomere , like the oars of a boat. This action draws the thin-filaments past the
thick-filaments toward the H-zone. As the myosin heads swivel , they release ADP.

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STEP-3:
f.

Once the power-stroke is complete, ATP again combines with the ATP-binding sites on the
myosin cross bridges (step-3).

STEP-4:
g. STEP-4:=> As ATP-binds, the myosin head detaches from actin . again , ATP is split , imparting its
energy to the myosin head, which returns to its original upright position (step-4).
---h. It is then ready to combine with another myosin-binding site further along the thin filament .
the cycle repeats over and over . the myosin cross-bridges keep moving back and forth like the
cogs of a ratchet with each power-stroke , moving the thin-filaments toward the H-zone.
i. At any one instant, about half of the myosin cross-bridges are bound to actin and are swiveling .
the other half are detached and preparing to swivel again . contraction is analogous to running
on a non-motorized treadmill. One foot (myosin head) strikes the belt (thin-filament) and
pushes it backward (toward the H-zone). Then the other foot comes down and imparts a second
push . the belt soon moves smoothly while the runner (thick filament) remains stationary. And
like the legs of a runner, the myosin-heads need a constant supply of energy to keep going !
j. The power-stroke repeats as long as ATP is available and the Ca2+ level near the thin-filament is
high . this continual-movement applies the force that draws the Z-discs toward each other , and
the sarcomere shortens .
k. The myofibrils thus contract , and the whole muscle fiber shortens. During a maximal muscle
contraction . the distance between Z-discs can decrease to half the resting length . but the
power-stroke does not always result in shortening of the muscle-fibers and the whole muscle.
ISO-METRIC-CONTRACTION[jerk-in lifting heavy weight objects]:
l.

Contraction without shortening is called an iso-metric-contraction . An example is trying to lift


a very heavy object . the cross-bridges generate force , but the filaments do not slide past one
another .

---finished----

RELAXATION:
1. Two changes permit a muscle-fiber to relax after it has contracted .
2. First, acetylcholine is rapidly broken down by an enzyme called acetylcholinesterase
(AChE) . AChE is present in the synaptic-cleft. When action potentials cease in the motor

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3.
4.
5.

6.

7.

neuron , there is no new release of ACh, and AChE rapidly breaks down the ACh already
present in the synaptic-cleft.
This stops the generation of muscle action potentials , and the Ca2+ release channels in the
sarcoplasmic-reticulum close.
Second, Ca2+ active-transport pumps rapidly remove Ca2+ from the sarcoplasm into the
sarcoplasmic reticulum.
These pumps work so vigorously that they can keep the concentration of Ca2+ 10,000 times
lower in the sarcoplasm of a relaxed muscle-fiber than inside the SR . also , molecules of a
calcium-binding protein appropriately called calsequestrin, bind to calcium ions inside the
SR.
This reaction taken Ca2+ out of solution and allows even more Ca2+ to be sequestered
within the SR . as Ca2+ level drops in the sarcoplasm, the tropomyosintroponi complex
slides back over the myosin-binding sites on actin .
This prevents further cross bridge binding to actin , and the thin filaments slip back to their
relaxed positions . (fig 10.10) summarizes the events associated with contraction and
relaxation of a muscle-fiber.

-----finished----

MUSCLE-TONE:
1. Define=> Sustained , small contractions gives a firmness to a relaxed skeletal muscle that is
known as muscle-tone.
2. At any instant , a few muscle fibers are contracted while most are relaxed . this small amount of
contraction firms up a muscle without producing movement and is essential for maintaining
posture.
3. Asynchronous firing of motor units allows muscle tone to be sustained continuously . when the
muscles in the back of the neck are in tonic contraction, for example , they keep the head
upright and prevent it from slumping forward onto the chest , but they dont apply enough force
to pull the head back into hyperextension .

MUSCLE-METABOLISM :
1. Contraction of muscle requires energy , but surprisingly little ATP is present inside muscle-fibers
; there is just enough to power contraction for a few seconds.
2. Unlike most cells of the body skeletal muscle fibers often function in a stop and go manner;
they switch between virtual inaction and great activity .
3. If strenuous exercise is to continue for more than a few seconds , additional ATP must be
produced . on demand , the muscle-fibers metabolic machinery goes into high gear to step up
ATP production.

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PHOSPHAGEN-SYSTEM:
1. Muscle-fibers have a unique molecule called creatine-phosphate (phosphor-creatine) that can
transfer its high-energy phosphate group to ADP, thus forming ATP and creatine (fig 10.11a) .
2. Creatine phosphate is about three to five times more plentiful than ATP .
3. Together , creatine phosphate and ATP constitute the phosphagen-system and provide enough
energy for muscles to contract maximally for about 15 seconds .
4. This energy system is used for maximal short burst of energy . for example , to run a 100-meter
dash.

-----

LIST-OF-FIGURES:
Pictures of the muscle-physiology :
10.1 Relationship of connective tissue to skeletal-muscle showing the relative positions of the
epimysium,perimysium, and endomysium.

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Fig 10.2 : motor unit , shown are two motor neurons, one in red and one in green , each supplying the
muscle-fibers of its motor-unit.

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10.3 Neuro-Muscular junction (NMJ):

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a) Scanning electron micrograph [1650x]

10.4 : Organization of a skeletal muscle from gross to molecular levels .

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Fig 10.5 : transmission electron micrograph of mammalian skeletal muscle . the Z-disc separate one
sarcomere from another . note how the overlap of thick and thin filaments produces an alternating
pattern of light and dark bands.

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Electron micrograph of two sarcomeres (20,000x)

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AChR

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Fig-10.6 : detail structure of muscle filaments . (a) The relation of thick (myosin) , thin (actin) , and elastic
(titin) filaments in a sarcomere. Note that actin filaments are anchored directly at Z discs while myosin
filaments are connected to the Z-discs by titin (also known as connectin). (b) about 200 myosin
molecules comprise a thick filament. The myosin tails all point toward the center of the sarcomere. (c)
thin filaments contain actin , troponin, and tropomyosin.
b) Thick-filament and myosin molecule

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(b) thick filament and myosin molecule

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Fig-10.7 : Sliding filament mechanism of muscle contraction.:

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Figure-10.8 : Regulation of contraction by troponin and tropomyosin when Ca2+ level changes. (a) the
level of calcium in the sarcoplasm is low during relaxation because its pumped into the sarcoplasmic
reticulum [SR] by Ca2+ active transport pumps. (b) A muscle action potential traveling along a
transverse-tubule [T-tubule] opens calcium release channels in the SR and Ca2+ flows into the
sarcoplasm. Note: contraction is occurring since the thin filaments are closer in the center of the
sarcomere.+ Figure-10.10 : summary-of-events of contraction and relaxation.

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Fig-10.9 : Role of ATP and the power stroke of muscle contraction, sarcomeres shorten through
repeated cycles in which the myosin heads attach to actin , swivel [rotate]{ swivel = turn around a
point or axis } toward the center of the sarcomere and detach .

------------Muscle-Physiology Finished here ON Bio-Medical engineering course on physiology-1---------

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