ABSTRACT

This project work aims at the design, development, fabrication and testing of working
model entitled Automatic Railway accidentsystem. t is basically related to Radio
communication and signalling system. An Automatic Railway accident system is uni!ue in
which the railway engine is closed and opened or operated by the Train itself by eliminating the
chances of human errors.
The largest public sector in ndia is the Railways. The network of ndian Railways
covering the length and breath of ndian Railways covering the length and breath of our country
is divided into nine Railway "ones for operational convenience. The railway tracks criss#cross
the state $ighways and of course village road along their own length
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Aim of this project is to control the train automatically using embedded platform. Today
often we see news papers very often about the railway accidents happening at un# attended
railway drivers. %resent project is designed to avoid such accidents if implemented in spirit. This
project is developed in order to help the &'A& RA()A*+ in making its present working
system a better one, by eliminating some of the loopholes e,isting in it. -ased on the responses
and reports obtained as a result of the significant development in the working system of &'A&
RA()A*+,
This project can be further e,tended to meet the demands according to situation. This can be
further implemented to have control room to regulate the working of the system. Thus becomes
the user friendliness.
Features:
There is no time lag to operate the device
Accuracy.
STEPPER MOTOR
.1 Introduction to stepper otor:
A stepper motor .or step motor/ is a brushless, synchronous electric motor that can divide
a full rotation into a large number of steps. The motor0s position can be controlled precisely,
without any feedback mechanism .see open loop control/. +tepper motors are similar to switched
reluctance motors .which are very large stepping motors with a reduced pole count, and
generally are closed#loop commutated/.
Fig no: 3.1.1 Basic stepper motor
Fundamentals of Operation:
+tepper motors operate differently from normal '1 motors, which rotate when voltage is applied
to their terminals. +tepper motors, on the other hand, effectively have multiple 2toothed2
electromagnets arranged around a central gear#shaped piece of iron. The electromagnets are
energi"ed by an e,ternal control circuit, such as a microcontroller. To make the motor shaft turn,
first one electromagnet is given power, which makes the gear0s teeth magnetically attracted to the
electromagnet0s teeth. )hen the gear0s teeth are thus aligned to the first electromagnet, they are
slightly offset from the ne,t electromagnet. +o when the ne,t electromagnet is turned on and the
first is turned off, the gear rotates slightly to align with the ne,t one, and from there the process
is repeated. 3ach of those slight rotations is called a 2step,2 with an integral number of steps
making a full rotation. n that way, the motor can be turned by a precise angle.
Stepper motor characteristics:
+tepper motors are constant power devices. As motor speed increases, tor!ue decreases.
The tor!ue curve may be e,tended by using current limiting drivers and increasing the driving
voltage. +teppers e,hibit more vibration than other motor types, as the discrete step tends to snap
the rotor from one position to another. This vibration can become very bad at some speeds and
can cause the motor to lose tor!ue. The effect can be mitigated by accelerating !uickly through
the problem speed range, physically damping the system, or using a micro#stepping driver.
4otors with a greater number of phases also e,hibit smoother operation than those with fewer
phases.
Open!"oop #ersus c"osed!"oop coutation
+teppers are generally commutated open loop, i.e. the driver has no feedback on where
the rotor actually is. +tepper motor systems must thus generally be over engineered, especially if
the load inertia is high, or there is widely varying load, so that there is no possibility that the
motor will lose steps. This has often caused the system designer to consider the trade#offs
between a closely si"ed but e,pensive servomechanism system and an oversi"ed but relatively
cheap stepper.
A new development in stepper control is to incorporate a rotor position feedback .eg. an
encoder or resolver/, so that the commutation can be made optimal for tor!ue generation
according to actual rotor position. This turns the stepper motor into a high pole count brushless
servo motor, with e,ceptional low speed tor!ue and position resolution. An advance on this
techni!ue is to normally run the motor in open loop mode, and only enter closed loop mode if the
rotor position error becomes too large ## this will allow the system to avoid hunting or
oscillating, a common servo problem.
.$ T%pes & App"ications:
There are three main types of stepper motors5
%ermanent 4agnet +tepper
$ybrid +ynchronous +tepper
6ariable Reluctance +tepper
Two-phase stepper motors:
There are two basic winding arrangements for the electromagnetic coils in a two phase
stepper motor5 bipolar and unipolar.
Unipo"ar otors:
A unipolar stepper motor has logically two windings per phase, one for each
direction of magnetic field. +ince in this arrangement a magnetic pole can be reversed without
switching the direction of current, the commutation circuit can be made very simple .e.g. a
single transistor/ for each winding. Typically, given a phase, one end of each winding is made
common5 giving three leads per phase and si, leads for a typical two phase motor. 7ften, these
two phase commons are internally joined, so the motor has only five leads.

Fi' (.$ Unipo"ar stepper otor coi"s
n the construction of unipolar stepper motor there are four coils. 7ne end of each coil is
tide together and it gives common terminal which is always
connected with positive terminal of supply. The other ends
of each coil are given for interface. +pecific color code may also be given. (ike in my motor
orange is first coil .(8/, brown is second .(9/, yellow is third .(:/, black is fourth .(;/ and red
for common terminal.
-y means of controlling a stepper motor operation we can
8. ncrease or decrease the R%4 .speed/ of it
9. ncrease or decrease number of revolutions of it
:. 1hange its direction means rotate it clockwise or anticlockwise
To vary the R%4 of motor we have to vary the %R< .%ulse Repetition <re!uency/. &umber of
applied pulses will vary number of rotations and last to change direction we have to change pulse
se!uence.
+o all these three things just depends on applied pulses. &ow there are three different modes
to rotate this motor
8. +ingle coil e,citation
9. 'ouble coil e,citation
:. half coil e,citation
=nipolar stepper motors with si, or eight wires may be driven using bipolar drivers by
leaving the phase commons disconnected, and driving the two windings of each phase together
>diagram needed?. t is also possible to use a bipolar driver to drive only one winding of each
phase, leaving half of the windings unused >diagram needed?.
Bipo"ar otor:
-ipolar motors have logically a single winding per phase. The current in a winding needs
to be reversed in order to reverse a magnetic pole, so the driving circuit must be more
complicated, typically with an $#bridge arrangement. There are two leads per phase, none are
common.
+tatic friction effects using an $#bridge have been observed with certain drive topologies
-ecause windings are better utili"ed, they are more powerful than a unipolar motor of the same
weight.
App"ications:
1omputer#controlled stepper motors are one of the most versatile forms of positioning
systems. They are typically digitally controlled as part of an open loop system, and are
simpler and more rugged than closed loop servo systems.
n the field of linear actuators, linear stages, rotation stages, goniometers, and mirror
mounts. 7ther uses are in packaging machinery, and positioning of valve pilot stages for
fluid control systems.
n floppy disk drives, flatbed scanners, computer printers, plotters and many more
devices.

)I*+T DEPENDENT RESISTOR
1 Description:
This practical is about using a "i',t dependent resistor .)DR/ as a sensor. The ('R
must be part of a voltage divider circuit in order to give an output voltage, 6out , which changes
with illumination.
A "i',t dependent resistor is a resistor whose resistance decreases with increasing
incident light intensity. t can also be referenced as a photo conductor. An ('R is made of a high
resistance semiconductor. f light falling on the device is of high enough fre!uency, photons
absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction
band. The resulting free electron .and its hole partner/ conduct electricity, thereby lowering
resistance.
An ('R device can be either intrinsic or e,trinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor has its own charge
carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, e.g. silicon. n intrinsic devices the only available
electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon must have enough energy to e,cite the
electron across the entire band gap. 3,trinsic devices have impurities, also called do pants, and
added whose ground state energy is closer to the conduction band@ since the electrons do not
have as far to jump, lower energy photons .i.e., longer wavelengths and lower fre!uencies/ are
sufficient to trigger the device. f a sample of silicon has some of its atoms replaced by
phosphorus atoms .impurities/, there will be e,tra electrons available for conduction.
Fi' -.1.1 )i',t dependent resistor
9A
&ote that an ('R responds in an e,tremely non#linear way to the light intensity. The resistance
of a ('R changes from a few meg#ohms in dim light to a few kilo ohms in bright light .maybe
even a few ohms depending upon the light intensity and ('R used./. +o would suggest that u
first connect the ('R as
611 ###### ('R####### (4 :9; ######## 4icrocontroller.
and plot the voltage across the 8B resistor with respect to different light intensities on the
('R.Then connect this voltage output to a A'1 via a simple non#inverting op#amp amplifier
and connect the A'1 to the 4icrocontroller.
App"ications:
1amera light meters, street lights, clock radios, alarms, and outdoor clocks.
They are also used in so dynamic compressors together with a small incandescent lamp or
light emitting diode to control gain reduction.
(ead sulfide and diam sulfide ('Rs are used for the mid infrared spectral region.Ce5 1u
photoconductors are among the best far#infrared detectors available, and are used for
infrared astronomy and infrared spectroscopy.
RE*U)ATED PO.ER SUPP)/:
A variable regulated power supply,also called a variable bench power supply,is one which
you can continuously adjust the output voltage to your re!uirements. 6arying the output of the power
supply is recommended way to test a project after having double checked parts placement against
circuit drawings and the parts placement
This type of regulation is ideal for having a simple variable bench power supply.
Actually this is !uite important because one of the first projects a hobbyist should
undertake is the construction of a variable regulated power supply. )hile a dedicated supply
is !uite handy e.g D6 or 896,itEs much handier to have a variable supply on hand, especially for
testing.

:;
Fi': 0.1.$ Pin representation o1 )M 2034
The (4FGHD is simple to use. *ou simply connect the positive lead of your unregulated
'1 power supply.anything from I6'1 to 9;6'1/ to the nput pin, connect the negative lead to
the 1ommon pin and then when you turn on the power, you get a D volt supply from the 7utput
pin.
Circuit 1eatures:
Brie1 description o1 operation5 Cives out well regulated JD6 output, output
current capability of 8HHmA.
Circuit protection5 -uilt#in overheating protection shuts down output when
regulator 1 gets too hot.
Circuit cop"e5it%5 6ery simple and easy to build.
Circuit per1orance5 6ery stable JD6 output voltage, reliable operation
A#ai"a6i"it% o1 coponents: 3asy to get, uses only very common basic
components.
Desi'n testin': -ased on datasheet e,ample circuit, have used this circuit
successfully as part of many electronic projects.
App"ications: %art of electronics devices, small laboratory power supply

CONC)USION:
<rom the above discussion and information of this system we, upto now surely
comes to know that it is highly reliable effective and economical at dense traffic area,
sub urban area and the route where fre!uency of trains is more.
As it saves some au,iliary structure as well as the e,penditure on
attendant it is more economical at above mentioned places than traditional railway
system. )e know that though it is very beneficial but it is also impossible to install
such system at each and every places, but it gives certainly a considerable benefit to us,
thereby to our nation.