POWER STAR

TM
: A NEW APPROACH TO SPACE SOLAR POWER
David C. Hyland
1
Space Solar Power refers to the concept of a space system that collects solar
power via photovoltaics and transmits it to ground collection stations using
visible or microwave radiation. Previous system designs developed over the past
several decades entail gigantic structures with many moving parts and require
on-orbit infrastructure and in-space construction. Here we combine very new
and very old technologies to form a design that has no moving parts, requires no
in-space construction and can be packaged in many existing launch vehicle
payload fairings.
INTRODUCTION
t has been remarked that the prosperity of a civili!ation is in proportion with its skill in
harnessing sources of useful energy. "hether or not the use of fossil fuels will be limited because
of environmental toxicity, the advance of civili!ation will require substantially more powerful
sources of energy than are presently available. #side from the $arth%s supply of radioisotopes, the
abundant supply of fusion-based energy produced by the sun remains to be efficiently harvested.
&he collection of solar radiation in space could potentially be an order-of-magnitude more
effective than ground-based technology because in space, solar insolation is continuous and un-
attenuated by the atmosphere. &hese potential advantages have motivated efforts to design space
solar power systems since the early '()*s. +eference , gives a timely and thorough review of
previously proposed designs.
# solar power system consists of a space segment that collects solar energy, converts the
energy into radiation -typically in a wavelength band to which the atmosphere is mostly
transparent., then transmits the radiation to a ground facility that converts the radiation into
electrical power. Since the ground-based power collection technology is well developed, we
concentrate here on the space segment, called the Solar Power Satellite(s) (SPS). /oreover, the
method of solar energy collection assumed here is photovoltaic, and the power transmission to the
ground is chosen to be microwave radiation with wavelengths near '*cm.
"ithin the above restrictions, there are a wide variety of SPS design concepts. #ll previous
approaches for SPS in this category involve very large, articulated structures, that must be
assembled -in most cases robotically. in space and require many launches of the component parts
into orbit -typically geostationary orbit.
',,
. &hese characteristics necessitate very large initial
investments and technology developments to field an operational system. #n example for
comparison that is fairly representative of previous concepts is the 0aval +esearch 1ab, 2/"
SSP design
'
. 3igure ' shows a summary of this concept. "e choose this for later comparison
because it resulted from a quantitatively complete engineering design as well as a financial
analysis. #s can be seen from the 3igure, this involves two '4,5** square meter solar arrays and a
'
Professor of #erospace $ngineering, #erospace $ngineering 6epartment, &exas #7/ 8niversity, &#/8 5'9',
:ollage Station &exas ;;495.
'
Pre-Print
nd
SPACE C!n"eren#e-$1% 11
one kilometer diameter microwave antenna. +otating relay mirrors direct energy into the solar
arrays, while the remainder of the structure is nadir pointing. &he study assumed an end-to-end
efficiency of ten percent, and sought a 3irst +evenue 8nit design that could transmit 2 /egawatts
of power. &ypically, this type of design cannot be launched by a single vehicle, but must be
assembled on-orbit by either human or robotic agents.
&i'(re 1. S())ary !" t*e #*ara#teri+ti#+ "! t*e NRL ,MW &ir+t Reven(e Unit de+i'n
# significant improvement over previous efforts is the SPS-#1PH# -Solar Power Satellite via
#rbitrarily 1arge Phased #rray.
,
. &he main structure of SPS-#1PH# does not have to be slewed
to follow the sun direction. &he system is highly modular and good use is made of retro-directive
phased array technology. # sandwich design combines the solar arrays with the microwave
transmitters such that high voltage, centrali!ed power distribution is avoided. <n the other hand,
there are perhaps thousands of rotating mirrors used to redirect reflected sunlight onto the solar
array, and the solar radiation redirection functions and photovoltaic radiation functions are
segregated into different, very large structures. &he very large structure cannot be launched
except through many launch vehicles, and the system must be assembled on-orbit via elaborate
infrastructure, including advanced robotic technology. &hus, although a significant step forward,
the concept interposes the obstacle of a huge initial investment to achieve a first revenue system.
&he design concept discussed here carries modularity and multiple functionality several steps
further. &he concept combines a technology that is so new it is often overlooked with a
technology that is so old it is almost forgotten. &he new technology is the printing -via
photolithography, ink-=et processes, etc.. of solar cells interspersed with microwave patch
antennas on thin, flexible sheets -/ylar, >apton, paper, fabric, etc... &he printed sheets are
,
produced in mass quantities. &he old technology is that of the Echo satellites. 1arge, thin sheets
are assembled into a spherical balloon. 3or launch, the sphere is compactly packaged in a small
container that fits into the launch vehicle payload faring. <nce on orbit a volatile material is made
to sublimate to provide the gas pressure for initial inflation. /etallic layers within the printed
sheets are forced into yield to provide rigidification and the Power Star
&/
sphere is then
evacuated. $lectromagnetic propagation theory shows us that a completely decentrali!ed control
algorithm allows us to coordinate the numerous -printed. microwave antennas to transmit
multiple beams to any desired ground-based power collection locations. &he system is a single,
very simple structure and no slewing or mechanical motion is required. 3urther, the power
distribution technique involves power transmission within the skin only over distances of a few
centimeters. &hus power transference is locali!ed and requires neither complex and high voltage
power distribution and management systems nor large power-conducting wires.
&he following sections describe these features in some detail and we substantiate that the
system has no moving parts, requires no slewing or rotating elements, can be deployed from a
single launch vehicle, is extremely robust to component failures and is composed of material that
can be manufactured in great quantity.
THE NEW: SOLAR-MICROWA-E &A.RIC
TM
&he very new and rapidly advancing element of Power Star
&/
technology is illustrated in 3igure
,. 1arge scale production of inexpensive solar arrays is well underway. Printed microwave
antennas are also well known and are being advanced at a rapid rate for numerous communication
applications. Solar-/icrowave 3abric
&/
combines these two components on the surface of the
same flexible substrate. &he lower part of 3igure , illustrates a typical cross-section. &he solar
cells and patch antennas are interspersed -without overlapping. with a randomi!ed tessellation in
order to eliminate grating lobes. &his pattern is printed on what is to become the exterior surface
of the substrate sheet or skin. n the full system, there may also be an array composed solely of
microwave transceivers -dual transmitters and receivers. printed on the opposite surface -due to
become the interior surface of the sphere.. Patch antennas on the exterior surface draw power
from half of the immediately ad=acent solar cells -a few centimeters distance. or from the interior
transceivers, through the thickness of the skin. 6etails of power transfer are described in the
Intra-Satellite P!/er Di+tri0(ti!n sub-section below. ?esides the short power leads there is a
grid of conducting wires for electrical ground and for rigidi!ing the sphere prior to evacuation. n
this section we discuss printed solar cells, printed microwave antennas and choice of the substrate
material.
Printed S!lar Cell+
Presently, there is a range of solar cell printing technologies, where rapid manufacturability is
traded off against cell efficiency. # notable example is that reported in +eference 5. &he @ictorian
<rganic Solar :ell :onsortium has demonstrated the capability to produce printed solar arrays at
speeds of up to ten meters per minute, or one cell every two seconds. 8p to 5*cm wide, these
cells produce '*-'2 watts of power per square meter per square meter under maximum ground
insolation. Subtrates include paper-thin flexible plastic or steel. #s illustrated in 3igure 5, the
cells combine various organic materials to capture power from different parts of the solar
spectrum.
5
&i'(re . Ill(+trati!n !" t*e 0a+i# #!n#e1t !" t*e S!lar-Mi#r!/ave &a0ri#
TM
.
&i'(re 2. C!)1!+iti!n !" t*e -i#t!rian Or'ani# S!lar Cell C!n+!rti().
n comparison, /& solar cells
9
use an ink-=et process to print cells on paper. $fficiency for
most designs is presently 'A to ,A. However, 9A is a near-term goal and it is quite reasonable to
Substrate layer
&ransmitter
Solar cell Solar cell
:onductive coating
-ground.
Power
connectors
Printed Solar
Arrays
Printed Patch
Antennae
Solar-
Microwave
Fabric
The
New
9
anticipate 2 to '*A in the future. #s a baseline we can say that ,A efficiency with rapid
fabrication ability is the current capability.
Printed Mi#r!/ave Pat#* Antenna+
#ntennas can be ink=et printed onto many flexible materials, even including cotton-polyester
/ultiple printing layers can be used to increase efficiency. #s illustrated in 3igure 9, a
microwave patch antenna consists of a metal BpatchC mounted on a grounded, dielectric substrate.
&i'(re %. T*e 0a+i# #!n"i'(rati!n !" a )i#r!/ave 1at#* antenna.
&he dielectric provides a resonant cavity to amplify the transmitted signal. Since L is the
resonant dimension, we must haveD
, L -'.
"here is the operating wavelength. W is usually chosen as '.2L to get higher bandwidth, but
we shall assume , W L here. &he practical printing resolution is '2 microns and is quite
sufficient to satisfy $quation -'. to sufficient accuracy. &able ' shows a survey of performance
statistics for existing patch antennas
2
. $fficiencies of up to ;(A are presently attainable.
Ta0le 1. Per"!r)an#e #*ara#teri+ti#+ !" vari!(+ 1rinted 1at#* antenna+.
Substrate Height
in mm
BW = Banwith
Et#*ed 1at#* !n
&R%, +(0+trate
In34et Pat#*
5t/! layer+ !"
in36 'l(ed !n
&R%, +(0+trate
In34et Pat#*
5!ne layer !"
in36 !n "elt
In34et Pat#*
5t/! layer+ !"
in36 !n "elt
Pat#* +i7e5))6 5;.9 x ,4.' 5;.9 x ,4.' 9;.; x 5).( 9;.; x 5).(
S(0+trate *ei'*t '.) '.) '.( '.(
&re8(en#y
59H76
,.5;4 ,.94* ,.9*2 ,.2*2
SII 5d.6 -'5.5( -'9.4( -'*.*2 -(.(2
1$ d. .W
5MH76
,,.2 ,9.2 ';.2 0E#
Dire#tivity 5d.i6 ;.5( ;.22 4.54 4.;,
9ain 5d.i6 ).5; 2.*( 9.*, 2.(4
E""i#ien#y 5:6 ;( 2; 5; 25
2
S(0+trate Material
#lthough solar cells and patch antennas have been printed on a wide variety of materials, we
have focused on two materials that have the closest connection to $cho satellite technology. &he
foremost, and the one with the most heritage, is /ylar, a polyester film made from resin
Polyethylene &erephthalate -P$&.. &his material retains its full mechanical capabilities at
temperatures ranging from -;* : to '2*
*
:. ts melting point is ,29
*
:. ts volumetric density is
'5(* kgEm
5
. #n attractive alternative is >apton, an organic polymeric material that, effectively
does not melt or burn and functions well at temperatures ranging from -,)( : to 9**
*
:. #t '9,*
kgEm
5
, its volumetric density is slightly larger that that of /ylar. :ontinuing studies will explore
print-compatible materials with adequate tear resistance and minimum density.
THE OLD: ECHO SATELLITE TECHNOLO9;
Sheets of the multi-functional fabric described in the previous section are cut into gores
-sectors of a sphere. and the several gores are assembled to form a spherical balloon -once
inflated.. ?eyond this point, the Power Star
&/
system makes full use of $cho satellite technology.
Pro=ect $cho
)
was the first passive communications satellite experiment. $ach of the two
satellites were designed as a passive reflector of microwave signal, and each was a metali!ed P$&
film balloon satellite. Soon after the launch vehicle failure of $cho ' in '()*, the 5*.2m diameter
$cho '# was successfully placed in orbit by a &hor-6elta vehicle in the same year. t reentered
$arthFs atmosphere, burning up on /ay ,9, '()4. 3ollowing successful operation of $cho
'#, on Ganuary ,2, '()9, the 9'.'m diameter $cho , was successfully deployed on orbit. $cho ,
reentered $arthFs atmosphere and burned up on Gune ;, '()(.
&i'(re ,. -ari!(+ a+1e#t+ !" E#*! +atellite te#*n!l!'y: 5a6 E#*! 1A +t!/a'e #ani+ter< 506 Cani+ter
#l!+ed< 5#6 &!lded +(0-+#ale 1r!t!ty1e< 5d6 In"lated +(0-+#ale 1r!t!ty1e< 5e6 E#*! d(rin' in"lati!n
te+tin'.
-b.
-a.
-c. -d. -e.
)
3igure 2 shows various aspects of the $cho technology. &he satellites were made of ',.; m
thick biaxially oriented P$& -/ylar. film, coated with a vapor deposited *.,m layer of
aluminum -to provide +3 reflectivity.. Special folding techniques were devised to minimi!e the
stowed volume -see 3igure 2-c. and 2-d... &his is an important feature since finite material
strength sets a lower limit to radii of curvature in bending so that any fold of a thin sheet
introduces voids that reduce packing efficiency. &he folded balloons for both spacecraft could be
stowed for launch in small spherical canisters -See 3igure 2-a. and 2-b... n particular, the 5*.2m
diameter inflated sphere of $cho '# was stowed in a *.;'m seamed spherical canister.
<nce on-orbit, the small canisters were opened and the balloons were inflated to form two of
the largest and visible artificial satellites ever created -3igure 2-e... #t launch, the $cho '#
balloon mass was ;'.,', kg which included '2.', kg of sublimating powders of two types
;
D
anthraquinone, and ben!oic acid. &hese coated the interior surface of $cho '#, and sublimated
once the balloon was exposed to the sun. <n orbit, only several pounds of gas pressure were all
that was required to inflate the sphere and maintain its shape.
$cho , used a refined inflation system to improve the balloonFs smoothness and
sphericity. n this case, a number of BpillowsC containing sublimating powder were stored
flattened against the interior surface of the balloon. See 3igure ) for the pillow inflation
process. <nce exposed to the heat from the sun, the pillows inflate, and vent gas through
perforations in their surface, thereby inflating the rest of the satellite. &his deployment process
prevents the gas from getting trapped in pockets and producing deleterious stress concentrations.
n the Power Star
&/
a copper grid -for electrical ground. is embedded in the skin. &his is designed
to yield at the inflation pressure. 1ike the aluminum coating in the $cho , satellite, the yielded
grid provides rigidification of the structure, eliminating the need to sustain gas pressure. <ne of
the pillows is designed to rupture the outer surface of the balloon after deployment, allowing the
Power Star
&/
to release excess gas once the copper grid has =ust begun to yield. <nce fully
deployed the balloon is an evacuated shell. See +eference 4 for on-orbit video of $cho ,
inflation.
&i'(re =. E#*! in"lati!n +y+te) >1ill!/+?. T!1: +t!/ed #!n"i'(rati!n< .!tt!): Pill!/ !(t-
'a++in' "r!) it+ 1er"!rati!n+.
;
S;STEM COORDINATION AND OPERATION
n this section we describe how the old and new elements of the Power Star
&/
system are
combined and coordinated to work together once the system is launched and deployed. 3igure ;
sketches the overall composition and method of operation.
&i'(re @. Overall P!/er Star
TM
!1erati!n !n#e de1l!yed
&he exterior surface of the sphere is printed with solar cells and microwave transmitters
-3igure ;, lower right., where the placement of transmitters is somewhat randomi!ed to prevent
grating lobes -see below.. &here are power connectors between each transmitter and a subset of
the immediately ad=oining solar cells -3igure ;, top, center, red lines in the cross-section..
?eneath the exterior coating is the substrate layer -gray band in the 3igure. with an embedded
copper grid -orange lines in the 3igure. for electrical ground and rigidification. &he interior
surface of the substrate is coated solely with transceivers -transmitterEreceivers, blue layer on the
bottom of the cross-section.. &here are power connections through the thickness of the skin from
the internal transceivers and the immediately proximate external transmitters. Power connections
in the skin are very short -a few centimeters. and the power collection and transmission devices
are on a microscopic scale, such that we anticipate an eventual halving of the $cho skin thickness
to H) m.
Power is received at several locations on the ground by arrays of rectifying antennas
-rectennas.. #t the location of each rectenna, a low-power microwave beacon is placed. #t each
patch antenna a local microprocessor records the beacon radiation that the patch receivesI records
the radiation wave formI amplifies the waveform and emits it back in re!erse time -or,
equivalently with con=ugate phase.. #s will be elaborated below, this completely decentrali!ed
transmitter control scheme produces transmitted radiation that, given the si!e and shape of the
Power Star, optimally matches desired power distribution on the ground. 0ote that the system can
absorb power from the sun and transmit power in any other direction without the need for slewing
or mechanical motions. &he system works with electrons and photons and has no mo!ing parts"
4
n the next two subheadings, we discuss further details of the power transmission control, and
the specific processes for transferring collected solar power within and across the sphere.
P!/er .ea) C!ntr!l
t is a rigorous result in electromagnetic propagation that the beacon-based control that
coordinates the numerous transmitters as described above optimally approximates, in a mean-
square sense, the desired power distribution on the ground. &his power delivery scheme is a
generali!ation of retro-directive beam technology and has been applied to many areas. 3or
example +eference ( discussed its application to acoustics for medical technology.
ndeed, the ground distribution actually produced is the spatial convolution of the desired
distribution -as set by some pattern of beacons. with the Power Star aperture point#sprea
$unction -PS3., which is essentially the tightest, most concentrated beam that the total
configuration of transmitters can produce. &his PS3 function depends on the si!e, shape and
distribution of the transmitters on the external surface of the power star. &hus, if the beacons can
be approximated by point sources, then the ground distribution consists of several PS3 BspotsC,
each centered at one of the beacon locations.
+ecording the beacon signals, then amplifying them and playing them back in reverse time
occur concurrently. &o simplify the explanation, we illustrate these steps separately. 3irst,
consider the beacon propagation, illustrated in 3igure 4 by means of a simple two-dimensional
wave propagation simulator. Here there are three approximately point sources -that is, a single
pixel in extent. unevenly distributed along the vertical line to the left, representing the ground
plane. &he circular region to the right represents the Power Star sphere. n part -a., radiation
commences with a widening interference pattern. &hen -part -b.., each pixel on the circumference
of the circle records the time signal of the field amplitude measured at its location. 3igure (
shows what happens when each pixel -representing a single patch transmitter. transmits the signal
it recorded in reverse time. n part -a., note the converging wave fronts of the initial field
amplitude. n part -b. <f the 3igure, we see three concentrated spots of intensity, centered at the
beacon locations. &hese spots represent the PS3 distributions and are broader than the beacons.
&he broader width of the ground plane spots is mainly proportional to the overall si!e of the
Power Star. &he results also illustrate that, despite the usual assumption that phased arrays are
planar, the accuracy with which a desired ground distribution is duplicated is mostly dependent
on si!e, not on shape. &his spherical phased arrays work well.
Intra-Satellite P!/er Di+tri0(ti!n
Since the directions of the sun and the beacons are not coincident, a mechanism for
distributing power within the satellite is needed. 3igure '* shows the geometry of irradiation
from the sun and the beacons, where we assume that the angular separation of beacons is small so
that a single, representative beacon direction may be considered. &he quantity is the angle
between the sun direction and the beacon direction. +ecall that the interior surface of the sphere
is coated with transceivers operating at a higher frequency -to reduce diffraction effects.. &hese
transceivers are to be oriented so that the resonant axes of each diametrically opposite pair are
parallel.
#s illustrated in 3igure '*, the surface of the sphere is divided into four sectorsD &he sector
exposed to both sunlight and beacon radiation -denoted by , S B.I that receiving beacon radiation
but no sunlight - , S B
%
.I that exposed to sunlight but not beacon - , S B
%
., and the region where
neither sun nor beacon are visible - , S B
%%
.. :learly, sectors - , S B
%
., and - , S B
%
. are mirror images,
such that each point on - , S B
%
. has a diametrically opposite point on - , S B
%
., and !ice#!ersa. &he
(
same remark pertains to - , S B., and - , S B
%%
.. &he sector that a particular transmitter and its
ad=acent solar cells are located is indicated by their output signals. Jiven this information, the
power supply
-a.
-b.
'*
&i'(re A. Initial Pr!1a'ati!n !" 0ea#!n radiati!n. 5a6 Radiati!n #!))en#e+B 506 Cir#(lar 1*a+ed
array re#!rd+ 0ea#!n in"!r)ati!n.
-a.
''
-b.
&i'(re C. P*a+ed array 1r!1a'ate+ a)1li"ied 0ea#!n in rever+e ti)e. 5a6 Tran+)i++i!n
#!))en#e+B 506 T*ree #!n#entrated +1!t+B #entered at t*e 0ea#!n+ a11ear !n t*e 'r!(nd 1lane.
&i'(re 1$. 9e!)etry !" t*e 1!/er di+tri0(ti!n +y+te). An'le den!te+ t*e an'le 0et/een t*e
dire#ti!n+ t! t*e +(n and a 0ea#!n.
algorithm is indicated in &able ,. 0ote that no processing is needed for this algorithm. n
essence, the transmitters that need to be active because they receive a beacon signal are
powered by either the proximate solar cells or by the proximate internal transceivers,
whichever is actually producing power. 0o beacon signal means the transmitter is blocked.
$ach transmitting antenna draws power from the solar cells in its immediate vicinity -within a
few centimeters., or through the thickness of the skin. $ach transmitter receives =ust a few
"atts, so there are no high voltages or large wires. &his locali!ed architecture means
robustness against partial damage.
Ta0le. P!/er tran+"er al'!rit*)
Se#t!r P!/er Tran+"er
( ) , S B $xternal surface transmitter draws power from the ad=acent solar cells
( )
, S B
%
Solar cells transfer power through the skin to their immediately proximate
internal surface transceivers. &he internal transceivers emit power beams
through the center of the sphere to fall on the internal transceivers in sector
( )
, S B
%
.
',
( )
, S B
% nternal transceivers transfer received power through the skin to their
immediately proximate external surface transmitters
( )
, S B
%% 0o action taken.
PER&ORMANCE CHARACTERIDATION
Having described the basic design of the satellite, we next consider the analysis of its
performance characteristics, vi!. power transmitted to the ground, beam width, etc., under
separate subheadings.
P!/er Tran+)itted
&o begin, a geometrically regular arrangement of the patch antennas on the exterior surface
would produce an aperture PS3 having, besides a main concentrated spot - the central lobe.,
several regularly spaced offset spots -the grating lobes.. &his tends to have a disastrous effect on
the accuracy with which a desired power distribution may be approximated, since the actually
produced distribution is the convolution of the desired distribution and the PS3. However, a slight
randomi!ation of the transmitter antenna placements -that retains the same average number of
antennas per unit area. suffices to disburse the grating lobes so that the central lobe alone remains
the only power concentration in the emitted radiation. n this case, the main lobe is proportional
to the characteristic function -the 3ourier transform. of the probability density function of patch
antenna locations. 3or example, if the locations of all patch antennas are statistically independent
Jaussian distributions, then the angular distribution of radiated power, ( )
P
v
produced by the
entire phased array isD
( )
,
,
,
,
' ,
exp
, ,
% %
& & s
P
s

_
_
_



,
,
,
v v
-,.
where
v
is the unit vector from the phased array to a point of observation, and whereD

operating wavelength
balloon diameter
average distance between the centers
of neighboring patch antennas
,
%
&
s
L W

-5.a-d.
&he last equation repeats the assumption made in the remarks under 3igure 9 that the patch
antennas are roughly squares that are half a wavelength on a side. 0ote that the maximum value
of ,s has to be unityI in which case, patch antennas cover the entire exterior surface of
the balloon, leaving no room for the solar arrays. &hus the phased array must be sparse,
and of necessity
, s >
.
$quation -,. is a reasonable approximation for many different antenna position probability
distributions. &hen accordingly, the total power transmitted to the ground from the central lobe isD
'5
( )
,
,

,
&otal power input from the solar arrays
and internal transceivers
t sa
sa
P P P
s
P

_


,

v
-9.a,b.
0ote that the factor appropriately reflects the sparse aperture theorem.
3or a given s' the fraction of the frontal area occupied by the solar arrays is ( )
,
' ,s ,
thereforeD
,
,
,
'
, 9
aggregate efficiency of solar arrays
and patch antennas
Solar insolation '5);"
sa % e$$ s
e$$
S
P & (
s
( m

_
_



,
,

-2.a-c.
&he aggregate efficiency, e$$

is a function of both the solar array and transmitter

efficiencies and the beacon-sun angle, . #ssuming roughly the same efficiencies for the
exterior and interior transmitters, we haveD
( )
[ )
, ,
'
,
' ' cos
*,
Solar array efficiency
&ransmitter efficiency
e$$ ) S ) )
S
)

1
+ +
]

-).a-d.
:ombining $quations -9.--)., we have in summaryD
( )
, ,
,
, , '
,
'
, , 9
' ' cos
t % e$$ s
e$$ ) S ) )
P & (
s s

_
_ _



, ,
,
1
+ +
]
-;.a,b.
3rom this relation, it is clear that the optimal average spacing of the transmitters is
,
optimal
s
. &his means that the surface area of the balloon is equally divided between
the solar cells and transmitters. #lso, the total power to the ground becomesD
{ }
( )
,
max
, , '
,
'
9 9
' ' cos
t % e$$ s
e$$ ) S ) )
P & (

_ 1

1
, ]
1
+ +
]
-4.a,b.
0ote that the factor
'
9
arises from the sparseness of the array.
3rom $quation -4., we see that if the satellite is at geostationary altitude with the ground
station beneath, the power transmitted rises to a maximum at midnight -
*
'4* . and declines
'9
to a minimum at noon -
*
.. &his conforms to the daily electrical power usage profile
for street lighting of typical municipalities.
&o see what $quation -4. predicts for power transmitted to the ground given current device
capabilities, we let ,A
S
and, consulting &able ', set ;(A
)
. 3igure '' shows the
ranges of transmitted power -over all sun-beacon angles. for
S

equal to ,A -current
&i'(re 11. P!/er tran+)itted a+ a "(n#ti!n !" 0all!!n dia)eter "!r vari!(+ val(e+ !" t*e +!lar #ell
e""i#ien#y.
capability., and for 2A, '*A, and ,2A , representing different stages of development, all
as functions of the balloon diameter. "e see that even with the presently lowly
capabilities of printed solar cells, a one kilometer balloon can deliver from 5 to 9
/egawatts K comparable to the design of 3igure '. /oreover, efficiency of H9A is
expected soon, in which case, a ' km system gives H) to '* /". Printed cell technology
is still in an early stage of development wherein cheap manufacturability is paramount
over cell efficiency. ?ut one can expect a progression toward the efficiency levels of
presently Bone-offC laboratory devices, where ,2A is typical. n this case the 'km balloon
might be capable of 5* to 2*/". :ompare this with the system of +eference '.
Mini)() .ea) Widt* 5Re#tenna Si7e6
'2
:ommon to all SPS concepts is the minimum beam width on the ground expressed, by
use of +ayleigh%s angular resolution formula, as a function of wavelength, distance and
transmitting aperture diameter. n the present case this is modified slightly because the
aperture is sparse, not filled. n accordance with the sparse aperture theorem -see also
$quation -,.., the width of the central beam in the system PS3 is diminished by the factor
of , . &herefore the minimum width of the power concentration BspotC that can be put
on the ground, * , is given byD
( ) '.' ,
transmit distance
-52, ;4) km for J$<.
%
+
*
&
+

-(.a,b.
&his sets the si!e of the rectenna. #ssuming a geostationary orbit, 3igure -',. shows
the rectenna diameter as a function of balloon diameter for various values of the
operating wavelength. t is seen that we have inordinately large -H2.2km for a 'km
balloon. rectenna si!es for the nominal wavelength of '*cm. )his is not a problem
peculiar to the power star" ndeed, the PowerStar beam width is smaller than an, $ille
aperture concept" &here are three principal avenues. &he first is to decrease the operating
wavelength to, maybe, 'cm K thereby reducing the rectenna si!e to hundreds of meters
instead of kilometers. &he second is to increase the aperture si!e to several kilometers.
&he third is to reduce the transmit distance. &his would entail a constellation of power
collector Power Stars in sun-synchronous, lower orbits -H,***km. complemented by
several relay satellites in lower inclination, /$< orbits that take turns beaming power
continuously to the rectennas. &hese tradeoffs must be examined for an, design concept
and this effort is underway for the Power Star.
')
&i'(re 1. Re#tenna dia)eter 5)ini)() +1!t +i7e6 a+ a "(n#ti!n !" 0all!!n dia)eter "!r vari!(+
val(e+ !" t*e !1eratin' /avelen't*.
Pa#3a'in' "!r La(n#*
&he Power Star is to be folded compactly into a canister that can be accommodated in existing
launch vehicle payload fairings. "e assume here that the stowed configuration is a sphere of
diameter
S
& . f w denotes the thickness of the skin, the total volume occupied by =ust the skin of
the deployed balloon is
,
%
& w . &he smallest stowed diameter is obtained when this volume is
equal to
5
)
S
& . However as remarked above, a thin membrane folded many times has an
external volume much in excess of =ust the volume of the material of which it is composed. &hus
we characteri!e the folding system by the packing e$$icienc,'
'
e$$
p
, so that
5 ,
)
S % e$$
& & wp
,
orD
( )
( )
' 5
,
)
Skin thickness
Packing efficiency '
S e$$ %
e$$
& p w&
w
p

-'*.a-c.
&he packing efficiency is difficult to calculate and depends upon the precise geometry of the
folds, the skin thickness, and the material properties. However, we shall take the $cho satellite
';
characteristics as our guide. &able , lists the $cho dimensions and the values of packing
efficiency. &hese are quite close, so in the following we use simply
5.*
e$$
p
.
Ta0le . Di)en+i!n+ and 1a#3in' e""i#ien#ie+ "!r t*e E#*! +atellite+.
Satellite
( ) , m
A
D ( ) , m
S
D ( ) , m /
e$$
1
$cho ' 5*.2 *.;' ,*.5L 5.')
$cho , 9'.' '.*9 5).*LL 5.*4
Lncludes /ylar, metallic coating and sublimating power coating.
LLncludes /ylar, metallic coating and average thickness due to pillows
?ased on this value, 3igure '5, shows the launch canister diameter as a function of the inflated
balloon diameter. $vidently, a one kilometer Power Star, the same si!e as the 3+S design
microwave antenna of 3igure ', can be accommodated in several existing heavy-lift launch
vehicles. n particularD the 6elta Heavy -2.' m diameter fairing., the #riane 2 -2.9m. and the
/inataur @ -2.;' m..
Aer!dyna)i# Dra' and Or0it Li"eti)e
#s is the case with the $cho satellites, Power Star would have a very low ballistic coefficient
so that aerodynamic effects can set limits on orbit altitude such that orbit lifetime is more than a
few decades. &o analy!e this situation, we assume an initially circular orbit. 3or lifetimes greater
than '* years, the lifetime as a function of the initial orbit radius of a circular orbit is nearly
independent of the launch time relative to the solar maxima or minima -see +eference '*.. &hus
the orbit lifetime can be estimated using the average atmospheric density as a function of altitude,
as given by the 8.S. Standard #tmosphere. 3urther we may assume small drag forces such that
the decaying orbit takes the form of a tight spiral with a slowly varying BinstantaneousC orbit
radius.
'4
&i'(re 12. St!/ed dia)eter a+ a "(n#ti!n !" t*e in"lated 0all!!n dia)eter.
&hen we have approximately that the orbit life time,

$
t
, isD
( )
( )

nitial orbit radius
+adius of the $arth
Jravitational constant -J/. of the earth
#tmospheric density at orbit radius
'
E
$
i
E
%tm
%tm
i
a
-
t
a
a
-
a a
a
a

-''.a-e.
where is the ballistic coefficientD
,
,
9
Power star mass
3rontal area
@olumetric density of the skin
&
% skin
%
skin
.
/ %
. & w
% &

-',.a-c.
&hus, for the Power Star and assuming free molecular flow - ,
&
/ ., we getD
,
skin
w
-'5.
'(
&i'(re 1%. Or0it li"eti)e a+ a "(n#ti!n !" initial !r0it altit(de.
which is =ust twice the areal density of the BskinC and independent of diameter. &o get a
conservative estimate of orbit life, we assume the smallest practicable thickness, *.**) w mm .
&hen we haveD
( ) ( ) , , '5(* *.**) *.*'))4
skin
w mm -'9.
"ith the above assumptions, $quations -''. give a conservative estimate of the orbit lifetime
as a function of initial altitude as shown in 3igure '9. &he results indicate that a long lifetime is
ensured by placing the Power Star at roughly ,***km or above. &hus a /$< orbit or above is
suitable for a long-term system. 0ote that the de-orbit time function is independent of the
diameter of the system and directly proportional to , which is approximately twice the areal
density of the skin. Hence results for larger skin thicknesses can be obtained from the 3igure by
multiplying the ordinate by the ratio of new to old thicknesses.
CONCLUSION
n this paper we have proposed a novel design concept for a Space Solar Power Satellite K the
Power Star
&/
. "ith heritage dating back to Pro=ect $cho, this system is an inflatable balloon
made of a thin, flexible skin whereupon solar cells, and microwave patch antennas are printed via
the most modern mass production technology. Power Star
&/
operates with no moving parts and
with no slewing or other mechanical motion. #t least up to 'km diameter, it requires no on-orbit
manufacturing or construction. #dvanced adaptive phased array technique and insights from
time-reversed acoustics, combined with low-amplitude beacons yield a beam forming control
algorithm that is entirely local to each patch antenna. &he operation of the phased array is
decentrali!ed and adaptive so that even if severely damaged, the system can retain some level of
useful performance. Power is regulated within the balloon such that transmission through the skin
,*
occurs within a few centimeters at most, obviating the need for a centrali!ed, high voltage power
distribution system. &he power system permits solar power to be gathered from any angle and
power to be beamed in any direction -s. without slewing or structural deformation.
Preliminary performance calculations show that even with the low efficiencies of presently
available printed solar cells, a ' km Power Star can produce enough power for a 3irst +evenue
System. 8sing $cho technology, a ' km Power Star can be packed for launch in several existing
heavy-lift vehicles. 3inally, despite its low ballistic coefficient, the orbit lifetime is of the order of
a century if the initial -circular orbit. altitude is greater than approximately ,***km.
NOTATION
% 3rontal area of the Power Star
i
a nitial orbit radius
&
/ #erodynamic drag coefficient
%
& ?alloon diameter
S
& 6iameter of launch canister
L' W +esonant length, and width, respectively of the microwave patch antennas
. /ass of the Power Star
e$$
p Packing efficiency
sa
P &otal power input from the solar arrays and internal transceivers
t
P &otal power transmitted from the central lobe
S
( Solar insolation at ' #8
E
- +adius of the earth
s #verage distance between the centers of neighboring patch antennas

$
t <rbit lifetime
w Skin thickness
+ &ransmit distance
?allistic coefficient
* /inimum beam widthI also approximate diameter of the rectenna
e$$
#ggregate efficiency of solar arrays and patch antennas
, S )
$fficiencies of the solar cells and microwave patch antennas, respectively
<perating wavelength

Jravitational constant of the $arth

m micron
( )
%tm
a
#tmospheric density at orbit radius a
,'
skin
@olumetric density of the skin
#ngle between the sun and beacon directions
RE&ERENCES
'
#.:. :harania, G.+. <lds, and d. 6epasquale, B<perational 6emonstration of Space Solar Power -SSP.I
$conomic #nalysis of a 3irst +evenue Satellite -3+S.C.
httpDEEwww.nss.orgD4*4*EsettlementEsspElibraryE$conomicM#nalysisMofMaM3irstM+evenueMSatelliteMforMSS
PM-,*''..pdf.
,
G.:. /ankins, )he /ase $or Space SolarPower. @irginia $dition Publishing 11:, Houston &exas,
6ecember ,*'5.
5
httpDEEnewsroom.melbourne.eduEnewsEctrlp-printing-australiaA$,A4*A((s-largest solarcellsN
MgaO'.)9'*9';*.95)(,((*'.'5()52(,'4
9
6. 1.:handler, 6avid 1. -,*',.. P"hile you%re up, print me a solar cell - /& 0ews <fficeP. web"mit"eu.
+etrieved ,* 3ebruary ,*',.
2
httpDEEieeexplore.ieee.orgEstampEstamp.=spNtpO7arnumberO))(5;59
)
P$cho ', '#, , QuicklookP. .ission an Spacecra$t Librar,. 0#S#. +etrieved 3ebruary ), ,*'*.
;
H. /. GonesI . . ShapiroI P. $. Radunaisky -'()'.. PSolar +adiation Pressure $ffects, Jas 1eakage +ates,
and #ir 6ensities nferred 3rom the <rbit <f $cho P. n H. :. @an 6e Hulst, :. 6e Gager and #. 3. /oore.
Space -esearch 00' Proceeings o$ the Secon 0nternational Space Science S,mposium' 1lorence' %pril 23#
24' 2562 -0orth-Holland Publishing :ompany-#msterdam..
4
B$cho Satelloon nflation, '()9. httpsDEEwww.youtube.comEwatchNvOq!5-b;s?(:#7noredirectO'
(
/athias 3ink, B&ime-+eversed #cousticsC Scienti$ic %merican' 0ovember '(((.
'*
1arson, and "ert!, Space .ission %nal,sis an &esign, 5
rd
$dition, 3igure 4.9.
,,