Graphical Representation of Data

Most people show lack of interest or have no time to go through facts and figures given
in a daily newspaper or a magazine. But if these figures are graphically presented, they
become easier to grasp and catch the eye and have a more lasting effect on the reader's
mind.

The graphical representation of data makes the reading more interesting, less time-
consuming and easily understandable. The disadvantage of graphical presentation is that
it lacks details and is less accurate.

In our study, we have the following graphs:

1. Bar Graphs

2. Pie Charts

3. Frequency Polygon

4. Histogram

There are two major types of statistical distributions. The first type has a discrete random
variable. This means that every term has a precise, isolated numerical value. An example
of a distribution with a discrete random variable is the set of results for a test taken by a
class in school. The second major type of distribution has a continuous random variable.
In this situation, a term can acquire any value within an unbroken interval or span. Such a
distribution is called a probability density function. This is the sort of function that might,
for example, be used by a computer in an attempt to forecast the path of a weather
system.

mean

The most common expression for the mean of a statistical distribution with a discrete
random variable is the mathematical average of all the terms. To calculate it, add up the
values of all the terms and then divide by the number of terms. This expression is also
called the arithmetic mean. There are other expressions for the mean of a finite set of
terms but these forms are rarely used in statistics. The mean of a statistical distribution
with a continuous random variable, also called the expected value, is obtained by
integrating the product of the variable with its probability as defined by the distribution.
The expected value is denoted by the lowercase Greek letter mu (µ).
median

The median of a distribution with a discrete random variable depends on whether the
number of terms in the distribution is even or odd. If the number of terms is odd, then the
median is the value of the term in the middle. This is the value such that the number of
terms having values greater than or equal to it is the same as the number of terms having
values less than or equal to it. If the number of terms is even, then the median is the
average of the two terms in the middle, such that the number of terms having values
greater than or equal to it is the same as the number of terms having values less than or
equal to it. The median of a distribution with a continuous random variable is the value m
such that the probability is at least 1/2 (50%) that a randomly chosen point on the
function will be less than or equal to m, and the probability is at least 1/2 that a randomly
chosen point on the function will be greater than or equal to m.

mode

The mode of a distribution with a discrete random variable is the value of the term that
occurs the most often. It is not uncommon for a distribution with a discrete random
variable to have more than one mode, especially if there are not many terms. This
happens when two or more terms occur with equal frequency, and more often than any of
the others. A distribution with two modes is called bimodal. A distribution with three
modes is called trimodal. The mode of a distribution with a continuous random variable
is the maximum value of the function. As with discrete distributions, there may be more
than one mode.

range

The range of a distribution with a discrete random variable is the difference between the
maximum value and the minimum value. For a distribution with a continuous random
variable, the range is the difference between the two extreme points on the distribution
curve, where the value of the function falls to zero. For any value outside the range of a
distribution, the value of the function is equal to 0.

Correlation

The correlation is one of the most common and most useful statistics. A correlation is a
single number that describes the degree of relationship between two variables. Let's work
through an example to show you how this statistic is computed.
Correlation Example

Let's assume that we want to look at the relationship between two variables, height (in
inches) and self esteem. Perhaps we have a hypothesis that how tall you are effects your
self esteem (incidentally, I don't think we have to worry about the direction of causality
here -- it's not likely that self esteem causes your height!). Let's say we collect some
information on twenty individuals (all male -- we know that the average height differs for
males and females so, to keep this example simple we'll just use males). Height is
measured in inches. Self esteem is measured based on the average of 10 1-to-5 rating
items (where higher scores mean higher self esteem). Here's the data for the 20 cases
(don't take this too seriously -- I made this data up to illustrate what a correlation
is):Person Height Self Esteem
1 68 4.1
2 71 4.6
3 62 3.8
4 75 4.4
5 58 3.2
6 60 3.1
7 67 3.8
8 68 4.1
9 71 4.3
10 69 3.7
11 68 3.5
12 67 3.2
13 63 3.7
14 62 3.3
15 60 3.4
16 63 4.0
17 65 4.1
18 67 3.8
19 63 3.4
20 61 3.6

Probability

A probability provides a quantatative description of the likely occurrence of a particular

event. Probability is conventionally expressed on a scale from 0 to 1; a rare event has a
probability close to 0, a very common event has a probability close to 1.

The probability of an event has been defined as its long-run relative frequency. It has also
been thought of as a personal degree of belief that a particular event will occur
(subjective probability).
In some experiments, all outcomes are equally likely. For example if you were to choose
one winner in a raffle from a hat, all raffle ticket holders are equally likely to win, that is,
they have the same probability of their ticket being chosen. This is the equally-likely
outcomes model and is defined to be: P(E) = number of outcomes corresponding to event
E
total number of outcomes

Examples
The probability of drawing a spade from a pack of 52 well-shuffled playing cards is
13/52 = 1/4 = 0.25 since
event E = 'a spade is drawn';
the number of outcomes corresponding to E = 13 (spades);
the total number of outcomes = 52 (cards).

probability distribution

The distribution of possible outcomes to an event along with the probability of each
potential outcome. This statistical tool is used to measure the risk associated with events
such as shooting craps, playing cards, or investing in securities.

In statistics, the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient (sometimes referred to

as the MCV or PMCC, and typically denoted by r) is a common measure of the
correlation (linear dependence) between two variables X and Y. It is very widely used in
the sciences as a measure of the strength of linear dependence between two variables,
giving a value somewhere between +1 and -1 inclusive. It was first introduced by Francis
Galton in the 1880s, and named after Karl Pearson.[1]

In accordance with the usual convention, when calculated for an entire population, the
Pearson product-moment correlation is typically designated by the analogous Greek
letter, which in this case is ρ (rho). Hence its designation by the Latin letter r implies that
it has been computed for a sample (to provide an estimate for that of the underlying
population). For these reasons, it is sometimes called "Pearson's r."