Rolta Academy Engineering Design Services Chapter 1 Sensors and Primary Transducers

Rolta Academy : Engineering Design Services
CHAPTER 1
SENSORS AND PRIMAR TRANSD!CERS
1"# INTROD!CTION
A basic instrument system consists of three elements:
SENSOR or INPUT DEVICE
SINA! PROCESSOR
RECEIVER or OUTPUT DEVICE
This cha"ter is #e$ote# to in"ut #e$ices but you can ne$er se"arate it from
the rest of the system as in many cases they are all inte%ral &e'%' a mechanical
"ressure %au%e incor"orates all of these elements(' A bloc) #ia%ram of a basic
system is sho*n but they are usually more com"le+.
$ig 1"1: %ASIC INSTR!MENT SSTEM
,ost mo#ern analo%ue e-ui"ment *or)s on the follo*in% stan#ar# si%nal ran%es'
Electric . to /0 mA
Pneumatic 0'/ to 1'0 bar
Ol#er electrical e-ui"ment use 0 to 10 V' Increasin%ly the instruments are #i%ital
*ith a binary #i%ital enco#er built in to %i$e a binary #i%ital out"ut' Pneumatic si%nals
are commonly use# in "rocess in#ustries for safety es"ecially *hen there is a ris)
of fire or e+"losion'
The a#$anta%e of ha$in% a stan#ar# ran%e or usin% #i%ital si%nals is that all
e-ui"ment may be "urchase# rea#y calibrate#' 2or analo%ue systems the minimum
si%nal &Tem"erature3 s"ee#3 force3 "ressure an# so on( is re"resente# by . mA or
0'/ bar an# the ma+imum si%nal is re"resente# by /0 mA or 1'0 bar'
This cha"ter is an attem"t to familiari4e you *ith the many ty"es of in"ut sensors
on the mar)et to#ay' Usually such sensors are calle# PRI,AR5 TRANSDUCERS'
Thin%s that *e commonly measure are:
Tem&erat're
$lo( rate
Movement) *elocity and Acceleration
+evel or De&t,
Density
Instr'mentation Engineering 1
Acidity-Al.alinity
S&eed
$orce
Press're
Stress and Strain
Mass or /eig,t
Si0e or *ol'me
Sensors may o"erate sim"le on6off s*itches to #etect the follo*in%:
O12ects 3Pro4imity s(itc,5
Hot or cold 3t,ermostat5
Em&ty or 6'll 3level s(itc,5
Press're ,ig, or lo( 3&ress're s(itc,5
The bloc) #ia%ram of a sensor is sho*n belo*'
$ig 1"7: SENSOR %+OC8 DIA9RAM
1"1 TEMPERAT!RE TRANSD!CERS
1"1"1 THERMOCO!P+ES
7hen t*o *ires *ith #issimilar electrical "ro"erties are 8oine# at both en#s an# one
8unction is ma#e hot an# the other col#3 a small electric current is "ro#uce#
"ro"ortional to the #ifference in the tem"erature' See bec) #isco$ere# this effect' It
is true no matter ho* the en#s are 8oine# so the col# en# may be 8oine# at a sensiti$e
milli$olt meter' The hot 8unction forms the sensor en#'
$ig 1":: THERMOCO!P+E
The "icture sho*s a ty"ical in#ustrial "robe *ith a fle+ible e+tension an# stan#ar#
"lu%'
$ig 1";: IND!STRIA+ THERMOCO!P+E
Peltier sho*e# that heat is absorbe# at the hot en# an# re8ecte# at the col# en#'
Thom"son sho*e# that "art of the e'm'f' is #ue to the tem"erature %ra#ient in the
*ire as *ell as the tem"erature #ifference bet*een the 8unctions' ,ost
thermocou"le metals "ro#uce a relationshi" bet*een th e t*o tem"eratures an# the
e'm'f as follo*s:
E9
1
&
1
:
/
(;&
1
/
:
1
/
(
An# are constants for the ty"e of thermocou"le' The relationshi" is nearly
linear o$er the o"eratin% ran%e' The actual characteristic an# suitable o"eratin%
tem"eratures #e"en#s u"on the metals use# in the *ires' The $arious ty"es are
#esi%nate# in international an# national stan#ar#s' Ty"ical linear o"eratin% ran%es are
sho*n for stan#ar# ty"es'
It is im"ortant that thermocou"les are stan#ar# so that the same e'm'f *ill
al*ays re"resent the same tem"erature'
T5PE < 0 TO =00C
T5PE > 0 TO 1/00C
T5PE T :1?? TO /@0C
T5PE E 0 TO A00C
T5PE R6S 0 TO 1A00C
T5PE B @00 TO 1=00C
T5PE N 0 TO 1/00C
T5PE ! 0 TO =00C
Thermocou"les come in se$eral forms' They may be *ires insulate# from each
other *ith "lastic or %lass fiber materials' 2or hi%h tem"erature *or)3 the *ire "airs are
"ut insi#e a tube *ith mineral insulation' 2or in#ustrial uses the sensor comes in a
metal enclosure such as stainless steel'
1"1"7 RESISTANCE TPE SENSORS
$ig 1"<: RESISTANCE TPE SENSORS
These *or) on the "rinci"le that the electrical resistance of a con#uctor chan%es
*ith tem"erature' If a constant $olta%e is a""lie# to the con#uctor then the current
flo*in% throu%h it *ill chan%e *ith tem"erature' The resisti$ity of the con#uctor chan%es
*ith tem"erature' This usually means the resistance %ets bi%%er as the con#uctor
%ets hotter' The follo*in% la* relates the resistance an# tem"erature'
R 9 R
0
&1 ; (
is the tem"erature coefficient of resistance' R
o
is the resistance at 0
o
C'
Sometimes the e-uation is %i$en as
R 9 R
0
&1 ; ;
/
(
A basic tem"erature sensor is ma#e by *in#in% a thin resistance *ire into a small
sensor hea#' The resistance of the *ire then re"resents the tem"erature' This has an
a#$anta%e o$er a thermocou"le in that it is unaffecte# by the tem"erature of the %au%e
en#' The main ty"e of *ire use# is PLATINUM" The sensors are usually manufacture#
to ha$e a resistance of 100 7 at 0 C an# the $alue of a is 0'00C=@ to 0'00C?0' A
ty"ical o"eratin% ran%e is :/00 to .00C' A s"ecial ty"e of resistance sensor is
calle# a THERMISTOR" They are ma#e from a small "iece of semicon#uctor
material' The material is s"ecial because the resistance chan%es a lot for a small
chan%e in tem"erature an# so can be ma#e into a small sensor an# it costs less than
"latinum *ire' The tem"erature ran%e is limite#' They are only use# for a ty"ical
ran%e of : /0 to 1/0

C an# are commonly use# in small han# hel# thermometers for
e$ery #ay use' The relationshi" bet*een resistance an# tem"erature is of the form
R 9 Ae
B6
$ig 1"=: THERMISTOR
1"7 +I>!ID E?PANSION and *APO!R PRESS!RE SENSORS
These are thermometers fille# *ith either a li-ui# such as mercury or an e$a"oratin%
&1'1(
&1'/(
flui# such as use# in refri%erators' In both cases the insi#e of the sensor hea# an# the
connectin% tube are com"letely full' Any rise in tem"erature "ro#uces e+"ansion or
e$a"oration of the li-ui# so the sensor becomes "ressuri4e#' The "ressure is relate#
to the tem"erature an# it may be in#icate# on a sim"le "ressure %au%e'
7ays an# means e+ist to con$ert the "ressure into an electrical si%nal' The
mo$ement may also #irectly o"erate a thermostat' These instruments are robust an#
use# o$er a *i#e ran%e' They can be fitte# *ith electric s*itches to set off alarms'
$ig 1"@: *APOR PRESS!RE SENSOR
1": %IMETA++IC TPES
It is a *ell:)no*n "rinci"le that if t*o metals are ri%i#ly 8oine# to%ether as a t*o:
layer stri" an# heate#3 the #ifference in the e+"ansion rate causes the stri" to
ben#'
$ig 1"A: %IMETA++IC TPES
In the in#ustrial ty"e3 the stri" is t*iste# into a lon% thin coil insi#e a tube' One en# is
fi+e# at the bottom of the tube an# the other turns an# mo$es a "ointer on a #ial' The
out*ar# a""earance is $ery similar to the "ressure ty"e' They can be ma#e to
o"erate limit s*itches an# set off alarms or act as a thermostat' &E'%' on a boiler('
1"; 9+ASS THERMOMETER
The or#inary %lass thermometer is also a com"lete system' A%ain the bulb is the
sensor but the column of li-ui# an# the scale on the %lass is the "rocessor an#
in#icator' ,ercury is use# for hot tem"eratures an# colore# alcohol for col#
tem"eratures'
$ig 1"B: THERMOMETER
The "roblems *ith %lass thermometers are that they are
Brittle
,ercury soli#ifies at D.0

C'
Alcohol boils at aroun# 1/0 C'
Accurate manufacture is nee#e# an# this ma)es accurate ones e+"ensi$e'
It is easy for "eo"le to ma)e mista)es rea#in% them'
lass thermometers are not use# much no* in in#ustry but if they are3 they are
usually "rotecte# by a shiel# from acci#ental brea)a%e' In or#er to measure the
tem"erature of somethin% insi#e a "i"e they are "lace# in thermometer "oc)ets'
1"< PRESS!RE TRANSD!CERS
Pressure sensors either con$ert the "ressure into mechanical mo$ement or into
an electrical out"ut' Com"lete %au%es not only sense the "ressure but also
in#icate them on a #ial or scale'
,echanical mo$ement is "ro#uce# *ith the follo*in% elements'
Bour#on Tube'
S"rin% an# Piston'
Bello*s an# ca"sules'
Dia"hra%m
'
1"<"1 %O!RDON T!%E
$ig 1"1#: %O!RDON T!%E
The Bour#on tube is a hollo* tube *ith an elli"tical cross section' 7hen a "ressure
#ifference e+ists bet*een the insi#e an# outsi#e3 the tube ten#s to strai%hten out an#
the en# mo$es' The mo$ement is usually cou"le# to a nee#le on a #ial to ma)e a
com"lete %au%e' It can also be connecte# to a secon#ary #e$ice such as an air
no44le to control air "ressure or to a suitable trans#ucer to con$ert it into an electric
si%nal' This ty"e can be use# for measurin% "ressure #ifference'
1"<"7 PISTON TPE
$ig 1"11: PISTON TPE
The "ressure acts #irectly on the "iston an# com"resses the s"rin%' The "osition
of the "iston is #irectly relate# to the "ressure' A *in#o* in the outer case allo*s the
"ressure to be in#icate#' This ty"e is usually use# in hy#raulics *here the ability to
*ithstan# shoc)3 $ibration an# su##en "ressure chan%es is nee#e# &shoc) "roof
%au%e(' The "iston mo$ement may be connecte# to a secon#ary #e$ice to con$ert
mo$ement into an electrical si%nal'
1"<"7 CAPS!+ES AND %E++O/S
$ig 1"17: %E++O/S
A bello*s is ma#e of se$eral ca"sules' These are hollo* flattene# structures
ma#e from thin metal "late' 7hen "ressuri4e# the bello*s e+"an# an# "ro#uce
mechanical mo$ement' If the bello*s is enca"sulate# insi#e an outer container3 then
the mo$ement is "ro"ortional to the #ifference bet*een the "ressures on the insi#e
an# outsi#e' Bello*s an# sin%le ca"sules are use# in many instruments' They are $ery
useful for measurin% small "ressures'
1"<"; DIAPHRA9MS
These are similar in "rinci"le to the ca"sule but the #ia"hra%m is usually $ery thin
an# "erha"s ma#e of rubber' The #ia"hra%m e+"an#s *hen $ery small "ressures are
a""lie#' The mo$ement is transmitte# to a "ointer on a #ial throu%h a fine mechanical
lin)a%e'
$ig 1"1:: DIAPH9RAMS
1"<"< E+ECTRICA+ PRESS!RE TRANSD!CERS
There are $arious *ays of con$ertin% the mechanical mo$ement of the "rece#in%
ty"es into an electric si%nal' The follo*in% are ty"es that #irectly "ro#uce an electric
si%nal'
Strain au%e ty"es'
Pie4o electric ty"es'
Other electric effects'
1"<"= STRAIN 9A!9E TPES
$ig 1"1;: STRAIN 9!A9ES TPE
The "rinci"les of electric strain %au%es are co$ere# later' Strain %au%es are small
elements that are fi+e# to a surface that is straine#' The chan%e in len%th of the
element "ro#uces chan%es in the electrical resistance' This is "rocesse# an#
con$erte# into a $olta%e' A ty"ical "ressure trans#ucer *oul# contain a metal
#ia"hra%m3 *hich ben#s un#er "ressure'
1"<"@ PIECO E+ECTRIC TPES
The element use# here is a "iece of crystalline material that "ro#uces an electric
char%e on its surface *hen it is mechanically stresse#' The electric char%e may be
con$erte# into $olta%e' This "rinci"le is use# in the "ic) u" crystal of a recor# "layer3
in micro"hones an# e$en to %enerate a s"ar) in a %as i%nitor' 7hen "lace# insi#e a
"ressure trans#ucer3 the "ressure is con$erte# into an electric si%nal'
1"<"A OTHER E+ECTRIC E$$ECTS
Other electric effects commonly use# in trans#ucers are CAPACITIVE an#
INDUCTIVE' In these cases3 the "ressure "ro#uces a chan%e in the ca"acitance or
in#uctance of an electronic com"onent in the trans#ucer' Both these effects are
Commonly use# in an electronic oscillator an# one *ay they may be use# is to
chan%e the fre-uency of the oscillation' The fre-uency may be con$erte# into a
$olta%e re"resentin% the "ressure'
1"= SPEED TRANSD!CERS
S"ee# trans#ucers are *i#ely use# for measurin% the out"ut s"ee# of a rotatin%
ob8ect' There are many ty"es usin% #ifferent "rinci"les an# most of them "ro#uce
an electrical out"ut'
1"="1 OPTICA+ TPES
$ig 1"1< :OPTICA+ TPES
These use a li%ht beam an# a li%ht sensiti$e cell' The beam is either reflecte# or
interru"te# so that "ulses are "ro#uce# for each re$olution' The "ulses are then
counte# o$er a fi+e# time an# the s"ee# obtaine#' Electronic "rocessin% is re-uire# to
time the "ulses an# turn the result into an analo%ue or #i%ital si%nal'
1"="7 MA9NETIC PIC8 !PS
$ig 1"1= MA9NETIC PIC8 !PS
These use an in#ucti$e coil "lace# near to the rotatin% bo#y' A small ma%net on the
bo#y %enerates a "ulse e$ery time it "asses the coil' If the bo#y is ma#e of ferrous
material3 it *ill *or) *ithout a ma%net' A #iscontinuity in the surface such as a notch *ill
cause a chan%e in the ma%netic fiel# an# %enerate a "ulse' The "ulses must be
"rocesse# to "ro#uce an analo%ue or #i%ital out"ut'
1"=": TACHOMETERS
$ig 1"1@: TACHOMETERS
There are t*o ty"es3 A'C' an# D'C' The A'C' ty"e %enerates a sinusoi#al
out"ut' The fre-uency of the $olta%e re"resents the s"ee# of rotation' The
fre-uency must be counte# an# "rocesse#' The D'C' ty"e %enerates a $olta%e
#irectly "ro"ortional to the s"ee#' Both ty"es must be cou"le# to the rotatin% bo#y'
Very often the tachometer is built into electric motors to measure their s"ee#.
1"@ $+O/ METERS
There are many hun#re#s of ty"es of flo* meters #e"en#in% on the ma)e an#
a""lication' They may be classifie# rou%hly as follo*s'
POSITI*E DISP+ACEMENT TPES
IN$ERENTIA+ TPES
*ARIA%+E AREA TPES
DI$$ERENTIA+ PRESS!RE TPES
1"@"1 POSITI*E DISP+ACEMENT TPES
These ty"es ha$e a mechanical element that ma)es the shaft of the meter rotate
once for an e+act )no*n -uantity of flui#' The -uantity of flui# hence #e"en#s on the
number of re$olutions of the meter shaft an# the flo* rate #e"en#s u"on the s"ee# of
rotation' Both the re$olutions an# s"ee# may be measure# *ith mechanical or
electronic #e$ices' Some of the most common liste# belo*'
1' Rotary "iston ty"e'
/' Vane ty"e'
C' !obe ty"e or meshin% rotor'
.' Reci"rocatin% "iston ty"e
@' 2lute# s"iral %ear'
A'
MESHIN9 ROTOR
$ig 1"1A: MESHIN9 ROTOR
The ,ESEIN ROTOR ty"e consists of t*o rotors *ith lobes' 7hen flui# is
force# in3 the rotors turn an# o"erate the in#icatin% system'
1"@"7 IN$ERENTIA+ TPE METERS
The flo* of the flui# is inferre# from some effect "ro#uce# by the flo*' Usually this
is a rotor3 *hich is ma#e to s"in3 an# the s"ee# of the rotor is sense# mechanically or
electronically'
The main ty"es are:
1' Turbine rotor ty"es
/' Rotary shunt ty"es
C' Rotatin% $ane ty"es
.' Eelical turbine ty"es
T!R%INE TPE
$ig 1"1B: T!R%INE TPE
The "ictures sho* t*o
in#ustrial flo* meters'
$ig 1"7# :IND!STRIA+ $+O/ METERS
The turbine ty"e sho*n has an a+ial rotor3 *hich is ma#e to s"in by the flui#3 an#
the s"ee# re"resents the flo* rate' This may be sense# electrically by cou"lin% the
shaft to a small electric tachometer' Often this consists of a ma%netic slu% on the rotor3
*hich %enerates a "ulse of electricity each time it "asses the sensor'
ROTATIN9 *ANE TPE
$ig 1"71: ROTATIN9 *ANE TPE
The 8et of flui# s"ins aroun# the rotatin% $ane an# the s"ee# of the rotor is
measure# mechanically or electronically'
1"@": *ARIA%+E AREA TPES
There are t*o main ty"es of this meter
1' 2loat ty"e &Rotameter(
/' Ta"ere# "lu% ty"e'
$
+OAT TPE
$ig 1"77: $+OAT TPE
The float is insi#e a ta"ere# tube' The flui# flo*s throu%h the annular %a" aroun#
the e#%e of the float' The restriction causes a "ressure #ro" o$er the float an# the
"ressure forces the float u"*ar#s' Because the tube is ta"ere#3 the restriction is
#ecrease# as the float mo$es u"' E$entually a le$el is reache# *here the restriction
is 8ust ri%ht to "ro#uce a "ressure force that counteracts the *ei%ht of the float' The
le$el of the float in#icates the flo* rate' If the flo* chan%es the float mo$es u" or #o*n
to fin# a ne* balance "osition'
7hen #an%erous flui#s are use#3 "rotection is nee#e# a%ainst the tube fracturin%'
The tube may be ma#e of a non:ma%netic metal' The float has a ma%net on it' As it
mo$es u" an# #o*n3 the ma%net mo$es a follo*er an# "ointer on the outsi#e' The
"osition of the float may be measure# electrically by buil#in% a mo$ement trans#ucer
into the float'
TAPERED P+!9 TPE
$ig
1"7:: TAPPERED P+!9 TPE
In this meter3 a ta"ere# "lu% is ali%ne# insi#e a hole or orifice' A s"rin% hol#s it in
"lace' The flo* is restricte# as it "asses throu%h the %a" an# a force is "ro#uce#
*hich mo$es the "lu%' Because it is ta"ere# the restriction chan%es an# the "lu%
ta)es u" a "osition *here the "ressure force 8ust balances the s"rin% force' The
mo$ement of the "lu% is transmitte# *ith a ma%net to an in#icator on the outsi#e'
1"@"; DI$$ERENTIA+ PRESS!RE $+O/ METERS
These are a ran%e of meters that con$ert flo* rate into a #ifferential "ressure' The
im"ortant ty"es are
1' ORI2ICE ,ETERS'
/' VENTURI ,ETERS
C' NOFF!E ,ETERS
.' PITOT TUBES'
The #ia%ram sho*s a cross section throu%h the four ty"es of D'P' ,eters

$ig 1"7;: DI$$ERENTIA+ PRESS!RE $+O/ METERS
The *or)in% "rinci"le for all these is that somethin% ma)es the $elocity of the flui#
chan%e an# this "ro#uces a chan%e in the "ressure so that a #ifference " 9 "
/
: "
1
is
create#' It can be sho*n for all these meters that the $olume flo* rate G is relate#
to " by the follo*in% formula'
> D 8 3&5
#"<
> is the meter constant' A full e+"lanation of these meters is co$ere# in the tutorials on
flui# mechanics' The "icture sho*s an in#ustrial D'P''meter' E+tra instrumentation
hea#s can be fitte# to "ro#uce an electrical out"ut &. D /0 mA( or a "neumatic
out"ut &0'/ D 1 bar('
1"A $ORCE SENSORS
The main ty"es of force sensors are
1' ,echanical ty"es'
/' Ey#raulic ty"es'
C' Electrical strain %au%e ty"es'
1"A"1 MECHANICA+ TPES
,echanical ty"es are usually com"lete measurin% systems in$ol$in% some form of
s"rin% such as in a sim"le s"rin% balance or bathroom scale' It is a basic mechanical
"rinci"le that the #eflection of a s"rin% is #irectly "ro"ortional to the a""lie# force so if
the mo$ement is sho*n on a scale3 the scale re"resents force'
$ig 1"7<: MECHANICA+ TPE
1"A"7 HDRA!+IC TPES
Ey#raulic ty"es are often referre# to as hy#raulic loa# cells' The cell is a ca"sule
fille# *ith li-ui#' 7hen the ca"sule is s-uee4e#3 the li-ui# becomes "ressuri4e#' The
"ressure re"resents the force an# may be in#icate# *ith a calibrate# "ressure
%au%e' The ca"sule is often a short cylin#er *ith a "iston an# the "ressure
"ro#uce# is %i$en by " 9 26A *here 2 is the force an# A the "iston area'
$ig 1"7=:HDRA!+IC TPE
1"A": STRAIN 9A!9E TPE
A ty"ical loa# cell consists of a metal cylin#er *ith strain %au%es fi+e# to it' 7hen the
cylin#er is stretche# or com"resse#3 the strain %au%es con$ert the force into a chan%e
in resistance an# hence $olta%e' Since the elements re-uire a su""ly $olta%e3 the cell
usually has . *ires3 t*o for the su""ly an# t*o for the out"ut'
$ig 1"7@:STRAIN 9!A9E TPE
1"B POSITION SENSORS
Position sensors are essential elements in the control of actuators' The "osition of
both linear an# rotary actuators is nee#e# in robotic ty"e mechanisms' There are
three "rinci"le ty"es'
1' RESISTIVE
/' OPTICA!
C' INDUCTIVE
1"B"1 RESISTI*E TPES
$ig 1"7A: RESISTI*E TPE
A "otentiometer is a $ariable electrical resistance' A len%th of resistance material
has a $olta%e a""lie# o$er its en#s' A sli#er mo$es alon% it &either linear or rotary( an#
"ic)s off the $olta%e at its "osition or an%le' The trac)s may be ma#e from carbon3
resistance *ire or "ie4o resisti$e material' The latter is the best because it %i$es a
%oo# analo%ue out"ut' The *ire *oun# ty"e "ro#uces small ste" chan%es in the
out"ut #e"en#in% on ho* fine the *ire is an# ho* closely it is coile# on the trac)'
1"B"7 OPTICA+ TPES
$ig 1"7B :OPTICA+ TPE
O"tical ty"es are mainly use# for "ro#ucin% #i%ital out"uts' A common e+am"le is
foun# on machine tools *here they measure the "osition of the *or)table an# #is"lay it
in #i%its on the %au%e hea#' Di%ital micrometers an# $erniers also use this i#ea' The
basic "rinci"le is as follo*s' !i%ht is emitte# throu%h a trans"arent stri" or #isc onto a
"hotoelectric cell' Often reflecte# li%ht is use# as sho*n' The stri" or #isc has $ery fine
lines en%ra$e# on it3 *hich interru"t the beam' The numbers of interru"tions are
counte# electronically an# this re"resents the "osition or an%le' This is $ery much o$er
sim"lifie# an# you shoul# refer to more a#$ance# te+t to fin# out ho* $ery accurate
measurements are obtaine# an# also the #irection of mo$ement'
1"B": IND!CTI*E TPES
The most common of these is the !inear Variable Differential transformer or !VDT'
The transformer is ma#e *ith one "rimary coil an# t*o secon#ary coils3 one "lace#
abo$e an# the other belo* the "rimary' The coils are forme# into a lon% narro* hollo*
tube' A ma%netic core sli#es in the tube an# is attache# to the mechanism bein%
monitore# *ith a non:ma%netic stem &e'%' brass(' A constant alternatin% $olta%e is
a""lie# to the "rimary coil' This in#uces a $olta%e in both secon#ary coils' 7hen the
core is e+actly in the mi##le3 e-ual $olta%es are in#uce# an# *hen connecte# as
$ig 1":# Ind'ctive ty&es
sho*n3 they cancel each other out' 7hen the core mo$es3 the $olta%e in one
secon#ary coil %ro*s but re#uces in the other' The result is an out"ut $olta%e3 *hich
re"resents the "osition of the core3 an# hence the mechanism to *hich it is attache#'
The out"ut $olta%e is usually con$erte# into D'C' 7ith suitable electronic e-ui"ment for
"hase #etection3 it is "ossible to #etect *hich #irection the core mo$es an# to s*itch
the DC $olta%e from "lus to minus as the core "asses the center "osition' These can
be $ery accurate an# are *i#ely use# for %au%in% the #imensions of machine#
com"onents'
1"1# DEPTH 9A!9ES
De"th %au%es measure the #e"th of li-ui#s an# "o*#er in tan)s' They use a
$ariety of "rinci"les an# "ro#uce out"uts in electrical an# "neumatic forms' The ty"e
to use #e"en#s on the substance in the tan)' Eere are a fe*'
$ig 1":1: DEPTH 9!A9ES
The ultrasonic system reflects soun# *a$es from the surface an# #etermines the
#e"th from the time ta)en to recei$e the reflecte# soun#' The electronic $ersion uses a
$ariety of electrical affects inclu#in% con#uction of the flui# an# ca"acitance' The
"neumatic $ersion bubbles air throu%h the li-ui# an# the "ressure of the air is relate# to
the #e"th' A sim"le "ressure %au%e attache# to a tan) is also in#icates the #e"th
since #e"th is "ro"ortional to "ressure'
1"11 STRAIN 9A!9ES
Strain %au%es are use# in many instruments that "ro#uce mechanical strain
because of the affect bein% measure#' In their o*n ri%ht3 they are use# to measure the
strain in a structure bein% stretche# or com"resse#'
The strain %au%e element is a $ery thin *ire that is forme# into the sha"e sho*n' This
"ro#uces a lon% *ire all in one #irection but on a small surface area' The element is
often forme# by etchin% a thin foil on a "lastic bac)in%' The com"lete# element is then
%lue# to the surface of the material or com"onent that *ill be straine#' The a+is of the
strain %au%e is ali%ne# *ith the #irection of the strain' 7hen the com"onent is
stretche# or com"resse#3 the len%th of the resistance *ire is chan%e#' This "ro#uces a
corres"on#in% chan%e in the electrical resistance'
!et the len%th of the %au%e be ! an# the chan%e in len%th be !'
The mechanical strain 9 !6!
!et the resistance of the %au%e be R &ty"ically 1/0 ( an# the chan%e in resistance
be R'
The electrical strain 9 R6R'
The electrical an# mechanical strains are #irectly "ro"ortional an# the constant
relatin% them is calle# the %au%e factor &ty"ically /('
au%e 2actor 9 Electrical Strain6,echanical strain 9 69 ! R6R !
STRAIN 9A!9E ARRAN9EMENTS
A strain %au%e is of little use unless *e can con$ert the chan%e in resistance into a
$olta%e' This is best #one *ith a 7heat stone bri#%e'
$ig 1":7 Strain 9'age arrangement
If only one acti$e %au%e is use#3 this *oul# be R
1
or R
/
' R
1
an# R
/
must be
e-ual3 so must R
C
an# R
.
' In this case3 the $olta%e at "oints 1 an# / are e-ual to
V
s
6/ an# so the out"ut V
o
is 4ero' In or#er to ensure this3 the balancin% resistor R
B
is
a#8uste# to ma)e the out"ut 4ero *ith no strain a""lie# to the %au%e' Su""ose that
R
1
is the acti$e %au%e' If the bri#%e is balance# then the $olta%e at "oints 1 an# / is
half the
Su""ly $olta%e' V
1
9 V
/
9 V
s
6/
TE
M PE
RA T!
RE
E$$ECTS
One of the "roblems *ith strain %au%es is that the resistance also chan%es *ith
tem"erature an# so it is $ital that each "air of resistors is maintaine# at the same
tem"erature'
$ig 1"::: TEMPERAT!RE E$$ECTS
If one acti$e %au%e is use# say R
1
then the other resistor R
/
must be "lace#
near to it an# this is best #one by usin% a DU,,5 UAE fi+e# close to the
acti$e %au%e but in a "osition *here it is unstraine#' Better stillH ma)e R
/
another
acti$e %au%e an# so #ouble the out"ut from the bri#%e' 2or e+am"le if a beam is
use# to "ro#uce the strain3 one %au%e is "lace# on the to" an# the other on the
bottom as sho*n'
!et R
1
increase an# R
/
#ecrease by R the $olta%e at "oint 1 becomes:
The out"ut becomes: V
S
&R:R(6/R &usin% ratio of resistances(
V
O
9V
/
:V
1
9V
S
6/:V
S
&R:R(6/R
V
O
9V
S
R6I/&/R;R(J
V
O
9V
S
R6/R
V
O
9V
S
6/ *hich is almost #ouble the out"ut
If the loa# cell only "ro#uces tension or com"ression3 the acti$e %au%es are R
1
an# R
/
*ith R
C
an# R
.
bein% #ummy %au%es' All . %au%es are then at the same
tem"erature' This is sho*n in the #ia%ram'
$ig 1":; Strain g'ages
The $olta%e at "oint 1 becomes V
S
R/(2R+R)
An# at "oint / becomes V
S
(R+R)/ (2R+R)
The out"ut becomes V
O
=V
2
-V
1
=V
S
R/(2R+R)
Di$i#in% to" an# bottom *e %et V
O
=V
S
(R/R){2+R/R}
V
O
=V
S
G/(2+G)
This is #ouble the out"ut of a sin%le out"ut %au%e an# fully tem"erature stable'
$ig 1":< 9a'ges in Tension and Com&ression
If a beam is use# in the loa# cell all . %au%es may be ma#e acti$e as sho*n'
The out"ut at 1 becomes
V
1
=V
S
(R-R)/2R
An# at "oint / becomes
V
2
=V
S
(R+R)/2R
The out"ut becomes V
O
=V
2
-V
1
=V
S
R/R V
O
=V
S
G
This is . times the out"ut of a sin%le acti$e %ua%e an# fully tem"erature stable
CHAPTER 7
SI9NA+ PROCESSORS AND RECEI*ERS
7"1" INTROD!CTION
A basic instrument system consists of a sensor a "rocessor an# a recei$er' This
tutorial is about the "rocessor an# the recei$er' The technolo%y use# in si%nal
"rocessin% is also im"ortant for automatic control systems'
$ig 7"1: %+OC8 DIA9RAM
7"7 SI9NA+ PROCESSIN9 AND CONDITIONIN9
5ou shoul# no* be familiar *ith trans#ucers an# sensors' These *ere PRI,AR5
TRANSDUCERS' 7e must no* e+amine ho* to "rocess the out"ut of the
trans#ucers into the form re-uire# by the rest of the instrument system' These may
also be trans#ucers but in this case3 SECONDAR5 TRANSDUCERS' ,ost mo#ern
e-ui"ment *or)s on the follo*in% stan#ar# si%nal ran%es'
Electric . to /0 mA
Pneumatic 0'/ to 1'0 bars
Di%ital stan#ar#s
Ol#er electrical e-ui"ment uses 0 to 10 V'
The a#$anta%e of ha$in% a stan#ar# ran%e is that all e-ui"ment is sol# rea#y
calibrate#' This means that the minimum si%nal &Tem"erature3 s"ee#3 force3 "ressure
an# so on( is re"resente# by . mA or 0'/ bar an# the ma+imum si%nal is re"resente#
by /0 mA or 1'0 bar' The "rimary trans#ucer *ill not "ro#uce these stan#ar# ran%es
so the "ur"ose of "rocessin% an# con#itionin% is usually to con$ert the out"ut into the
stan#ar# ran%e'
The $ast array of instrumentation an# control e-ui"ment a$ailable uses many forms of
si%nals' Eere is a summary'
E!ECTRICA! : Volta%e3 current3 #i%ital'
,ECEANICA! : 2orce an# mo$ement'
PNEU,ATIC AND E5DRAU!IC D Pressure an# flo*'
OPTICA! D Ei%h:s"ee# #i%ital si%nal transmission'
RADIO D Analo%ue an# #i%ital transmission'
U!TRA VIO!ET D Similar a""lication to ra#io o$er short ran%es'
Processin% may #o the follo*in% thin%s'
Chan%e the le$el or $alue of the si%nal &e'%' $olta%e le$el(
Chan%e the si%nal from one form to another' &e'%' current to "neumatic(
Chan%e the o"eratin% characteristic *ith res"ect to time'
Con$ert analo%ue an# #i%ital si%nals from one to the other'
2irst letKs e+amine those "rocessors *hich chan%e the le$el or $alue of the si%nal'
7"7"1 AMP+I$IERS
$ig 7"7 Am&li6iers Sym1ol
Am"lifiers may am"lify VO!TAE3 CURRENT or BOTE in *hich case it is a PO7ER
A,P!I2IER'
Am"lifier %ain may be e+"resse# as a ratio or in #ecibels' The letter 7 in#icates it refers
to "o*er %ain' The %ain in #b7 is %i$en by
In "ractice3 an am"lifier %enerates some noise an# the in"ut an# out"ut terminals
ha$e a resistance that %o$erns the ratio of current to $olta%e' A mo#el is sho*n in *hich
a noise %enerator is in#icate# an# in"ut an# out"ut resistors'
$ig 7": Am&li6ier model
Since electric "o*er into a resisti$e loa# is %i$en as
7"7"7 DI$$ERENTIA+ AMP+I$IERS
These ha$e t*o in"uts an# the #ifference bet*een them is am"lifie#' The electronic
symbol is sho*n'
$ig 7"; Di66erential Am&li6iers
7"7": ATTEN!ATORS
Sometimes a si%nal is too bi% an# must be re#uce# by attenuatin% it' Electrical
si%nals are attenuate# *ith resistors3 *hich #issi"ate the electric "o*er as heat' Ste"
#o*n transformers an# %earbo+es for e+am"le3 are not strictly attenuators because
they re#uce the le$el3 not the "o*er' The %ain of an attenuator in #b is ne%ati$e as the
ne+t e+am"le sho*s'
/OR8ED E?AMP+E
Calculate $olta%e the %ain of an attenuator *ith an in"ut $olta%e of 1/ V an# out"ut
$olta%e of / V'
SO+!TION
9 /0 lo%
10
&/61/( 9 :1@'@A #bV
The term am"lification is often use# *hen the le$el of a si%nal is increase# but not
the "o*er' Strictly s"ea)in%3 such #e$ices shoul# be calle# TRANS2OR,ERS' 2or
e+am"le an A'C' electric transformer may increase the $olta%e but not the "o*er' 7e
ha$e $olta%e am"lifiers an# current am"lifiers3 *hich #o not necessarily chan%e the
"o*er le$el'
7"7"; TRANS$ORMERS
E+ECTRICA+
,any #e$ices only chan%e the le$el of a si%nal *ithout chan%in% the "o*er' A
$olta%e am"lifier is one e+am"le' An electrical transformer for alternatin% $olta%es
basically consists of t*o *in#in%s3 a "rimary an# a secon#ary' The coils are *oun#
on a ma%netic core'
$ig 7"< Trans6ormer
The "rimary coil has the in"ut a'c' $olta%e a""lie# an# a'c' current flo*s
Accor#in% to the reactance' The flu+ "ro#uce# is concentrate# in the core an#
"asses aroun# the core' It follo*s that the same flu+ cuts the turns on the secon#ary
coil an# so an e'm'f *ill be %enerate# in the secon#ary coil' The flu+ #e"en#s u"on
the number of turns T
1
an# the same flu+ cuts the secon#ary' The e'm'f in the
secon#ary *ill #e"en# on the number of turns T
/
' It follo*s that
V
1
/V
2
=T
1
/T
2
'
In an i#eal transformer there is no ener%y loss an# so the "o*er in an# "o*er out
are e-ual' V
1
i
1
9 V
/
i
/
' It follo*s that if the $olta%e is ste""e# #o*n3 the current is
ste""e# u" an# $ice $ersa'
MECHANICA+
,echanical transformers are le$ers an# %earbo+es3 *hich chan%e mo$ement3
force3 s"ee# an# tor-ue but not the "o*er' There are use# in many instruments &e'%'
a mechanical "ressure %au%e an# the no44le fla""er system #escribe# later('
$ig 7"= Mec,anical trans6ormers
The %ear ratio is in #irect "ro"ortion to the "itch circle #iameters &mean
#iameters( or number of teeth on each *heel'
The le$er mo$ements at the en#s are in #irect "ro"ortion to the len%th each si#e of the
fulcrum'
HDRA!+IC
$ig 7"@ Hydra'lic Press're Am&li6ier
The hy#raulic "ressure am"lifier sho*n increases the "ressure in #irect "ro"ortion
to the areas of the "istons' It is also calle# an intensifier'
No* letKs e+amine "rocessors *hich chan%e the form of the si%nal'
7": SI9NA+ CON*ERTERS
Si%nal con$erters chan%e the si%nal from one form to another' 7here$er "ossible3
these are the stan#ar# in"uts an# out"ut ran%es'
$ig: 7"A Signal Converters
Normally *e sho* them on a bloc) #ia%ram as a bo+ *ith an in"ut an# out"ut
*ith a label to say *hat it #oes' Eere are some e+am"les'
All these e+am"les ha$e o""osite $ersions i'e' I6P3 P6, an# so on'
,ost si%nal con$erters ha$e t*o a#8ustments D 4ero an# ran%e
7":"1 NOCC+E E $+APPER and DI$$ERENTIA+ PRESS!RE CE++S
The no44le D fla""er system is *i#ely use# in D'P' cells' The form sho*n belo*
con$erts #ifferential "ressure &e'%' from a #ifferential "ressure flo* meter( into a
stan#ar# "neumatic si%nal' This is *i#ely use# in the control of air o"erate# "i"eline
$al$es'
$ig 7"B $la&&er No00le System
The bello*s res"on# to the #ifferential "ressure an# mo$es the le$er' This mo$es
the fla""er to*ar#s or a*ay from the no44le' The air su""ly "asses throu%h a restrictor
an# lea)s out of the no44le' The out"ut "ressure hence #e"en#s on ho* close the
fla""er is to the en# of the no44le' The ran%e of the instrument is a#8uste# by mo$in%
the "i$ot an# the 4ero "osition is a#8uste# by mo$in% the relati$e "osition of the fla""er
an# no44le'
This system is use# in a $ariety of forms' Instea# of bello*s3 a bour#on tube
mi%ht be use# an# this is o"erate# by an e+"ansion ty"e tem"erature sensor to
"ro#uce a tem"erature : "neumatic si%nal con$erter'
7":"7 E+ECTRICA+ D"P" CE++S
These "ro$i#e the same functions as the "neumatic $ersions but %i$en an out"ut
of . D /0 mA usin% electrical "ressure trans#ucers' They are ty"ically use# *ith
D'P' flo* meters'
$ig 7"1# D-P Cell
7":": C!RRENT-PRESS!RE CON*ERSION
The "ictures belo* sho* ty"ical units for con$ertin% . D /0 mA into 0'/ D 1 bar an#
$ice $ersa' They contain a#8ustments for ran%e an# 4ero' They are *i#ely use# for
con$ertin% the stan#ar# "neumatic an# electric si%nals bac) an# forth' They can also
be a#8uste# to *or) *ith non:stan#ar# in"uts to con$ert them into a stan#ar# form'
$ig 7"11 I-P Converter
7":"; ANA+O9!E E DI9ITA+ CON*ERSION
So many mo#ern systems no* use #i%ital si%nals that it is im"ortant to a""reciate
ho* analo%ue si%nals are "rocesse# into #i%ital form an# $ice $ersa' Analo%ue to
#i%ital con$ersion is a "rocess of turnin% an analo%ue $olta%e or current into a #i%ital
"attern *hich can be rea# by a com"uter an# "rocesse#'
Di%ital to analo%ue con$ersion is a "rocess of turnin% a #i%ital "attern from a com"uter
into an analo%ue $olta%e or current'
%INAR N!M%ERS
A number may be re"resente# in #i%ital form by sim"ly settin% a "attern of $olta%es on
a line hi%h or lo*' It is normal to use .3=3 1A or C/ lines' An = bit binary "attern is
sho*n belo*'
The total "attern is calle# a *or# an# the one sho*n is an =:bit *or#' The "attern
may be store# in an =:bit re%ister' A re%ister is a tem"orary store *here the *or#
may be mani"ulate#'
Bit 4ero is calle# the least si%nificant bit &!SB( an# the bit *ith hi%hest $alue is calle#
the most si%nificant bit &,SB('
Each bit has a $alue of 4ero *hen off &lo*( or the $alue sho*n *hen on &hi%h(' The
ma+imum $alue for an = bit *or# is hence /@@'
PRINCIP+ES O$ A-D CON*ERSION
DI9ITA+ TO ANA+O9!E CON*ERTERS
These are #e$ices for con$ertin% a binary number into an analo%ue $olta%e' The
chan%e in the binary $alue from 4ero to a ma+imum corres"on#s *ith a chan%e in the
analo%ue $alue from 0 to a ma+imum'
RESO+!TION
7hen a #i%ital number is con$erte# into a $olta%e3 each increment of the binary
$alue corres"on#s *ith an increment in the $olta%e out"ut' The $alue of this
increment is the resolution'
ADDER TPE CON*ERTER
One *ay to con$ert a #i%ital "attern into an analo%ue $olta%e is *ith the a##er
ty"e sho*n belo*' The #ia%ram sho*s a @:bit "attern'
$ig 7"17 Adder Ty&e Converter
The out"ut $olta%e is controlle# by the state of the I6O s*itches &these mi%ht be
a re%ister(' The out"ut of the summin% am"lifier is
V 9 &V
ref
6/(L161A ; 16= ; 16. ; 16/ ; 1M
161A is the least si%nificant bit an# 1 is the most si%nificant bit'
The ma+imum number re"resente# by the #i%ital number is C1 for the @:bit
system sho*n' An increase of one "ro#uces a $olta%e increment of 16C/V' The
ma+imum $olta%e out"ut is C1V6C/'
One "roblem *ith this system is that the theoretical resistance $alues can become
ri#iculously lar%e'
+ADDER TPE
Another *ay to con$ert a #i%ital si%nal into an analo%ue si%nal is *ith the la##er ty"e
illustrate# belo*'
$ig 7"1: +adder Ty&e

The out"ut $olta%e is %i$en by
V 9 &V
ref
6/(L161A ; 16= ; 16. ; 16/ ;1 M
ANA+O9!E TO DI9ITA+ CON*ERSION
One *ay to con$ert analo%ue into #i%ital is to utilise a counter as sho*n belo*'
COUNTER T5PE
$ig 7"1; Co'nter Ty&e
The out"ut of the counter is a #i%ital "attern an# this is con$erte# bac) into an
analo%ue si%nal by the D6A con$erter an# com"are# *ith the in"ut' The in"ut is
com"are# *ith the fee# bac) si%nal an# so lon% as it is smaller3 the counter *ill %o on
runnin%' 7hen the t*o become e-ual3 the counter sto"s an# the #i%ital $alue of the
counter is the #i%ital $alue of the analo%ue si%nal'
Another ty"e uses an inte%rator as sho*n
INTE9RATIN9 TPE
$ig 7"1< Integrating ty&e
This time no fee#bac) is use#' The reference $olta%e is inte%rate# so the out"ut of
the inte%rator is a ram" *hich %ro*s *ith time' The time ta)en for the ram" to reach
the same $alue as the in"ut is con$erte# into a #i%ital form by a counter'
7"; SI9NA+ CONDITIONERS"
No* letKs loo) at "rocessors *hich chan%e the characteristic of the si%nal'
These are often referre# to as SINA! CONDITIONERS' One e+am"le is the
s-uare root e+tractor' 2or e+am"le DP flo* meters "ro#uce an out"ut3 *hich is
#irectly "ro"ortional to the s-uare of the flo*' A "rocessor mi%ht be use# alon% *ith
the DP cell to e+tract the s-uare root so that the resultin% si%nal is #irectly "ro"ortional
to flo*'
2i% /'1A Bloc) Dia%ram of D6P flo* meter
Other con#itioners brin% in the time element' 2or e+am"le the flo* meter "ro#uces
a si%nal re"resentin% the flo* rate' If the si%nal is inte%rate# *ith time3 the out"ut is
-uantity' Such a unit is calle# an INTERATOR an# there are mechanical3
"neumatic an# electric metho#s'
Some meters "ro#uce a -uantity' 2or e+am"le a mo$ement trans#ucer "ro#uces
#istance' If the si%nal is #ifferentiate# *ith res"ect to time3 *e %et the rate or
$elocity' Such units are calle# DI22ERENTIATORS.
$ig 7"1@ Integrators And Di66erentiators
$I+TERS
Another form of si%nal con#itionin% is the SINA! 2I!TER' This is use# *ith
electric si%nals to remo$e un*ante# "arts of the si%nal' 2or e+am"le a si%nal may
contain AC an# DC si%nals' A sim"le ca"acitor *oul# filter out the DC si%nal' The
si%nal may contain AC si%nals of #ifferent fre-uencies' A more so"histicate# filter
*oul# remo$e un*ante# fre-uencies'
M!+TIP+E? SSTEMS"
A mo#ern in#ustrial information transmission system re-uires that many channels
be sent from one "lace to another usin% either a sin%le fre-uency of transmission or a
sin%le "air of *ires such as a tele"hone line' A system that #oes this is calle#
multi"le+in%'
,o#ems are units that recei$e an# transmit the information to each other' They
re-uire a mar)er si%nal to let each other )no* *hen to recei$e or transmit' The
mo#em ac)no*le#%es a re-uest to recei$e an# this is calle# han#sha)in%' 7hen
ac)no*le#%ement is recei$e# by the transmittin% mo#em3 it sen#s the #ata to the
recei$in% mo#em'
The channels are sam"le# $ery ra"i#ly one after another for a fi+e# "erio# of
time' This is calle# Time Di$ision ,ulti"le+in% &TD,(' Each sam"le is tac)e# in a
-ueue &a buffer( an# sent one after another' The "rocess is continually re"eate#' The
recei$in% en# re$erses the o"eration' The incomin% #ata is "lace# in a buffer3 e+tracte#
in se-uence an# #i$erte# to the correct out"ut.
$ig 7"1A TDM System
If the information is #i%ital3 it sen#s the information for each channel as a "ac)a%e of
#i%its one channel at a time'
%!$$ERS and STORES
Very often a si%nal $alue nee#s to be store#' This is usually #one by con$ertin%
them into a #i%ital number an# storin% them in a memory chi"' If a system is recei$in%
or sen#in% serial #ata but the incomin% #ata is arri$in% -uic)er than it can be
"rocesse#3 then the incomin% si%nals are "ut into a tem"orary store calle# a buffer
*here they *ait to be "rocesse#'
7"< SI9NA+ RECEI*ERS
The in"ut of an instrument system is sense# *ith a "rimary trans#ucer an# then
"rocesse# or con#itione# before bein% sent on to the last item in the chain3 *hich is the
si%nal recei$er' The si%nal recei$er may be
An in#icator
A chart recor#er
A "lotter
A "rinter
An alarm
A com"uter
Each of these is a com"lete system in its o*n ri%ht an# may itself contain further
con#itionin%' They are usually #esi%ne# to o"erate from stan#ar# si%nals' In control
systems3 the si%nal recei$er mi%ht be an actuator' This is co$ere# in later tutorials on
control'
INDICATORS
In#icators may be analo%ue or #i%ital' Analo%ue in#icators ha$e a scale an# a
"ointer mo$es alon% the scale to in#icate the $alue' Di%ital in#icators may be a #is"lay of
numerals *hich chan%e in fi+e# ste"s' Sometimes a #i%ital in#icator is ma#e to simulate
an analo%ue scale &e'%' a #i%ital *atch *ith han#s(' The "ointer ho*e$er mo$es in
fi+e# ste"s' Di%ital in#icators ha$e a minimum resolution an# usually this is smaller than
the resolution a human eye can ma)e on an analo%ue scale so #i%ital in#icators are
often more accurate to rea#'
It is easier to ma)e a mista)e rea#in% an analo%ue scale than a #i%ital in#icator'
Eo*e$er *hen the $alue in#icate# is chan%in% ra"i#ly3 an analo%ue in#ication is best
because you can see the *ay the "ointer is mo$in%' It *oul# be #ifficult to rea# a
ra"i#ly chan%in% set of numerals' 2or e+am"le3 s"ee#ometer an# altimeters are best
#is"laye# on an analo%ue scale'
$ig 7"1B Indicators
CHART RECORDERS
Chart recor#ers )ee" a recor# of the measurements o$er a "erio# of time' There
are electrical an# "neumatic $ersions' The recor#er may use "a"er stri"s or "olar
charts' The "a"er mo$es one *ay an# the mar)er "en mo$es at ri%ht an%les to this'
Often they use more than one "en to recor# se$eral channels' The recor#er is often
"art of a controlle# system an# contains other e-ui"ment to #o *ith the control'
Pa"er recor#ers are bein% re"lace# by com"uter systems *hich store the
information on a ma%netic me#ium an# #is"lays either the in#icate# rea#in% or the
chart recor# or both on a $isual #is"lay unit &com"uter screen or VDU('
$ig 7"7# C,art Recorders
P+OTTERS AND PRINTERS
Plotters #ra* %ra"hs or charts' The "en recor#ers #escribe# abo$e are ty"es of
"lotters s"ecifically for recor#in% a si%nal o$er a lon% time "erio#' The term "lotter
usually refers to a system *here the "a"er is stationary an# the "en is able to mo$e in
the + an# y #irections' Often the + #irection is time an# so the "lotter become a
recor#er' Plotters are more often use# to "lot one si%nal a%ainst another' They are $ery
commonly use# for "ro#ucin% en%ineerin% #ra*in%s create# on a com"uter'
Printers refer to a system *here the "a"er is mar)e# by a "rintin% hea#' There are
many ty"es such as #ot matri+3 in) 8ets3 laser an# other electrostatic #e$ices' Printers
*ill "rint te+t or they may be use# to "rint "ictures an# #ra*in%s re"ro#ucin% on
"a"er *hat can be seen on a VDU'
A+ARMS
The "ur"ose of an instrument may be to set off an alarm such as a bell3 siren3
flashin% li%ht an# so on' They are s*itche# on by the si%nal "rocessor' An e+am"le
is a smo)e #etector'
COMP!TERS
Com"uter technolo%y is ta)in% o$er many rolls "erforme# by tra#itional e-ui"ment'
The si%nal is "rocesse# into #i%ital form3 in other *or#s into numbers' The com"uter
"rocesses the numbers an# stores the #ata3 sen#s it on to a VDU or to other control
e-ui"ment'
CHAPTER :
INSTR!MENT SSTEMS MODE+ F CA+I%RATION
:"1 MODE+S O$ INSTR!MENT SSTEMS
A mathematical mo#el relates the in"ut an# out"ut of a system or sub:system'
In other *or#s it is a formula relatin% the in"ut an# out"ut' The instrument is
usually #ra*n as a bloc) *ith the in"ut an# out"ut sho*n' The mathematical
mo#el is *ritten insi#e the bloc)' The %eneral symbol for si%nals is - but s"ecific
symbols may be use#' The suffi+ i #enotes the in"ut an# o the out"ut'
7hen the in"ut an# out"ut is a sim"le ratio3 the mo#el is 8ust a number
re"resentin% the ratio of out"ut to in"ut' It is often #enote# by 3 es"ecially if it is
a %ain' In such case 9
o
6
i
' If the in"ut an# out"ut ha$e #ifferent units3 then
has units also'
Some sensors ha$e non linear e-uations an# *e cannot re"resent the
relationshi" *ith a sim"le ratio so must use the full e-uation' 2or e+am"le a
#ifferential "ressure flo* meter has an e-uation
2lo* rate 9 C &P(
16/
7here C is a constant an# P is the #ifferential "ressure'
:"7 MODE+S $OR COMP+ETE SSTEMS
A com"lete instrument system is ma#e u" from se$eral sub:systems
connecte# in series' The best *ay to #e#uce the in"ut or out"ut of a com"lete
system is a ste":by:ste" analysis of the information "assin% throu%h' Consi#er
the case of a D'P' flo* meter' The meter con$erts flo* rate into #ifferential
"ressure' The D'P' is then con$erte# into current an# the current is in#icate# on a
meter'
$ig :"1 Model 6or Com&lete System
In many cases each bloc) may ha$e a mo#el that can be *ritten as a ratio of
out"ut to in"ut 9
o
6
i
' &This is not al*ays true(' In such cases *e can easily
*or) out the mo#el for the com"lete system as follo*s' Consi#er three systems
*ith mo#el e-uations 13 / an# C connecte# in series'
$ig :"7 Overall System
By #efinition
1
9
1
6
I

/
9
/
6
1

C
9
0
6
/
No* consi#er that if the three ma)e u" a sin%le system the o$erall transfer function
is
o$erall
9 o6
I
If *e multi"ly 1 + / + C
7e ha$e &
1
6
I
(&
/
6
1
(&
o
6
/
( 9
o
6
i
9
o$erall
2rom this *e conclu#e that the mo#el for systems in series is obtaine# by
multi"lyin% the in#i$i#ual e-uations &ratios( to%ether' Before #oin% this3 ma)e
sure that the units are com"atible'
:": INSTR!MENT ERRORS
Any %i$en instrument is "rone to errors either #ue to a%in% or #ue to
manufacturin% tolerances' Eere are some of the common terms use# *hen
#escribin% the "erformance of an instrument'
:":"1 RAN9E
The ran%e of an instrument is usually re%ar#e# as the #ifference bet*een the
ma+imum an# minimum rea#in%' 2or e+am"le a thermometer that has a scale
from /0 to 100
o
C has a ran%e of =0
o
C' This is also calle# the 2U!! SCA!E
DE2!ECTION &f's'#'('
:":"7 ACC!RAC
The accuracy of an instrument is often state# as a N of the ran%e or full scale
#eflection' 2or e+am"le a "ressure %au%e *ith a ran%e 0 to @00 )Pa an# an
accuracy of "lus or minus /N f's'#' coul# ha$e an error of "lus or minus 10 )Pa'
7hen the %au%e is in#icatin% 10 )Pa the correct rea#in% coul# be any*here
bet*een 0 an# /0 )Pa an# the actual error in the rea#in% coul# be 100N' 7hen
the %au%e in#icates @00 )Pa the error coul# be /N of the in#icate# rea#in%'
:":": REPEATA%I+IT
If an accurate si%nal is a""lie# an# remo$e# re"eate#ly to the system an# it is
foun# that the in#icate# rea#in% is #ifferent each time3 the instrument has "oor
re"eatability' This is often cause# by friction or some other erratic fault in the
system'
:":"; STA%I+IT
Instability is most li)ely to occur in instruments in$ol$in% electronic "rocessin%
*ith a hi%h #e%ree of am"lification' A common cause of this is a#$erse
en$ironment factors such as tem"erature an# $ibration' 2or e+am"le3 a rise in
tem"erature may cause a transistor to increase the flo* of current *hich in turn
ma)es it hotter an# so the effect %ro*s an# the #is"laye# rea#in% DRI2TS' In
e+treme cases the #is"laye# $alue may 8um" about' This3 for e+am"le3 may be
cause# by a "oor electrical connection affecte# by $ibration
:":"< TIME +A9 ERROR
In any instrument system3 it must ta)e time for a chan%e in the in"ut to sho*
u" on the in#icate# out"ut' This time may be $ery small or $ery lar%e #e"en#in%
u"on the system' This is )no*n as the res"onse time of the system' If the
in#icate# out"ut is incorrect because it has not yet res"on#e# to the chan%e3
then *e ha$e time la% error'
A %oo# e+am"le of time la% error is an or#inary %lass thermometer' If you "lun%e it
into hot *ater3 it *ill ta)e some time before the mercury reaches the correct le$el'
If you rea# the thermometer before it settle# #o*n3 then you *oul# ha$e time la%
error' A thermocou"le can res"on# much more -uic)ly than a %lass thermometer
but e$en this may be too slo* for some a""lications'
7hen a si%nal chan%es a lot an# -uite -uic)ly3 &s"ee#ometer for e+am"le(3 the
"erson rea#in% the #ial *oul# ha$e %reat #ifficulty #eterminin% the correct $alue
as the #ial may be still %oin% u" *hen in reality the si%nal is %oin% #o*n a%ain'
:":"= RE+IA%I+IT
,ost forms of e-ui"ment ha$e a "re#icte# life s"an' The more reliable it is3 the
less chance it has of %oin% *ron% #urin% its e+"ecte# life s"an' The reliability is
hence a "robability ran%in% from 4ero &it *ill #efinitely fail( to 1'0 &it *ill #efinitely
not fail('
:":"@ DRI$T
This occurs *hen the in"ut to the system is constant but the out"ut ten#s to
chan%e slo*ly' 2or e+am"le *hen s*itche# on3 the system may #rift #ue to the
tem"erature chan%e as it *arms u"'
:"; INSTR!MENT CA+I%RATION
,ost instruments contain a facility for ma)in% t*o a#8ustments' These are
The RANE a#8ustment'
The FERO a#8ustment'
In or#er to calibrate th e instrument an accurate %au%e is re-uire#' This is
li)ely to be a SECONDAR5 STANDARD' Instruments calibrate# as a secon#ary
stan#ar# ha$e themsel$es been calibrate# a%ainst a PRI,AR5 STANDARD'
:";"1 PROCED!RE
An in"ut re"resentin% the minimum %au%e settin% shoul# be a""lie#' The
out"ut shoul# be a#8uste# to be correct' Ne+t the ma+imum si%nal is a""lie#' The
ran%e is then a#8uste# to %i$e the re-uire# out"ut' This shoul# be re"eate# until
the %au%e is correct at the minimum an# ma+imum $alues'
:";"7 CA+I%RATION ERRORS
RANE AND FERO ERRO
After obtainin% correct 4ero an# ran%e for the instrument3 a calibration
%ra"h shoul# be "ro#uce#' This in$ol$es "lottin% the in#icate# rea#in%
a%ainst the correct rea#in% from the stan#ar# %au%e' This shoul# be #one
in about ten ste"s *ith increasin% si%nals an# then *ith re#ucin% si%nals'
Se$eral forms of error coul# sho* u"' If the 4ero or ran%e is still incorrect
the error *ill a""ear as sho*n'
$ig :": Range And Cero error
E5STERESIS an# NON:!INEAR ERRORS
Eysteresis is "ro#uce# *hen the #is"laye# $alues are too small for
increasin% si%nals an# too lar%e for #ecreasin% si%nals' This is commonly
cause# in mechanical instruments by loose %ears an# lin)a%es an#
friction' It occurs *i#ely *ith thin%s in$ol$in% ma%neti4ation an#
#ema%neti4ation'
The calibration may be correct at the ma+imum an# minimum $alues of the
ran%e but the %ra"h 8oinin% them may not be a strai%ht line &*hen it ou%ht to be('
This is a non linear error' The instrument may ha$e some a#8ustments for this an#
it may be "ossible to ma)e it correct at mi# ran%e as sho*n'
$ig :"; Hysterisis and nonGlinear error
CHAPTER ;
%ASIC INSTR!MENT MEAS!RIN9 DE*ICES
O%HECTI*ES
This mo#ule co$ers the follo*in% areas "ertainin% to instrumentation an# control'
O Pressure
O 2lo*
O !e$el
O Tem"erature
;"# INSTR!MENTATION E>!IPMENT
INTROD!CTION
Instrumentation is the art of measurin% the $alue of some "lant "arameter3
"ressure3 flo*3 le$el or tem"erature to name a fe* an# su""lyin% a si%nal that is
"ro"ortional to the measure# "arameter' The out"ut si%nals are stan#ar# si%nal
an# can then be "rocesse# by other e-ui"ment to "ro$i#e in#ication3 alarms or
automatic control' There are a number of stan#ar# si%nalsH ho*e$er3 those most
common in a CANDU "lant are the .:/0 mA electronic si%nal an# the /0:100 )Pa
"neumatic si%nal'
This section of the course is %oin% to #eal *ith the instrumentation e-ui"ment
normal use# to measure an# "ro$i#e si%nals' 7e *ill loo) at the measurement of
fi$e "arameters: "ressure3 flo*3 le$el3 tem"erature3 an# force'
;"1 PRESS!RE MEAS!REMENT
This mo#ule *ill e+amine the theory an# o"eration of "ressure #etectors
&bour#on tubes3 #ia"hra%ms3 bello*s3 force# balance an# $ariable ca"acitance('
It also co$ers the $ariables of an o"eratin% en$ironment &"ressure3 tem"erature(
an# the "ossible mo#es of failure'
;"1"1 9eneral T,eory
Pressure is "robably one of the most commonly measure# $ariables in the "o*er
"lant' It inclu#es the measurement of steam "ressureH fee# *ater "ressure3
con#enser "ressure3 lubricatin% oil "ressure an# many more' Pressure is actually
the measurement of force actin% on area of surface'
7e coul# re"resent this as:

The units of measurement are either in "oun#s "er s-uare inch &PSI( in British
units or Pascals &Pa( in metric' As one PSI is a""ro+imately P000 Pa3 *e often
use )Pa an# ,Pa as units of "ressure'
;"1"7 Press're Scales
Before *e %o into ho* "ressure is sense# an# measure#3 *e ha$e to
establish a set of %roun# rules' Pressure $aries #e"en#in% on altitu#e abo$e sea
le$el3 *eather "ressure fronts an# other con#itions'
The measure of "ressure is3 therefore3 relati$e an# "ressure measurements
are state# as either %au%e or absolute'
au%e "ressure is the unit *e encounter in e$ery#ay *or) &e'%'3 tyre ratin%s
are in %au%e "ressure('
A %au%e "ressure #e$ice *ill in#icate 4ero "ressure *hen ble# #o*n to
atmos"heric "ressure &i'e'3 %au%e "ressure is reference# to atmos"heric
"ressure(' au%e "ressure is #enote# by a &%( at the en# of the "ressure unit
Le'%'3 )Pa &%(M'
Absolute "ressure inclu#es the effect of atmos"heric "ressure *ith the %au%e
"ressure' It is #enote# by an &a( at the en# of the "ressure unit Le'%'3 )Pa &a(M' An
absolute "ressure in#icator *oul# in#icate atmos"heric "ressure *hen
com"letely $ente# #o*n to atmos"here : it *oul# not in#icate scale 4ero'
Absolute Pressure 9 au%e Pressure ; Atmos"heric Pressure
2i%ure 1 illustrates the relationshi" bet*een absolute an# %au%e' Note that
the base "oint for %au%e scale is L0 )Pa &%(M or stan#ar# atmos"heric "ressure
101'C )Pa &a('
The ma8ority of "ressure measurements in a "lant are %au%e' Absolute
measurements ten# to be use# *here "ressures are belo* atmos"here' Ty"ically
this is aroun# the con#enser an# $acuum buil#in%'
$ig ;"1 Relations,i& %et(een A1sol'te and 9'age Press'res
;"1": Press're Meas'rement
The ob8ect of "ressure sensin% is to "ro#uce a #ial in#ication3 control
o"eration or a stan#ar# &. : /0 mA( electronic si%nal that re"resents the "ressure
in a "rocess'
To accom"lish this3 most "ressure sensors translate "ressure into "hysical
motion that is in "ro"ortion to the a""lie# "ressure' The most common "ressure
sensors or "rimary "ressure elements are #escribe# belo*'
They inclu#e #ia"hra%ms3 "ressure bello*s3 bour#on tubes an# "ressure
ca"sules' 7ith these "ressure sensors3 "hysical motion is "ro"ortional to the
a""lie# "ressure *ithin the o"eratin% ran%e'
5ou *ill notice that the term #ifferential "ressure is often use#' This term refers to
the #ifference in "ressure bet*een t*o -uantities3 systems or #e$ices
;"1"; Common Press're Detectors
%o'rdon T'1es
Bour#on tubes are circular:sha"e# tubes *ith o$al cross sections &refer to 2i%ure
/(' The "ressure of the me#ium acts on the insi#e of the tube' The out*ar#
"ressure on the o$al cross section forces it to become roun#e#' Because of the
cur$ature of the tube rin%3 the bour#on tube then ben#s as in#icate# in the
#irection of the arro*'

Pressure
$ig ;"7 %o'rdon T'1e
Due to their robust construction3 bour#on are often use# in harsh en$ironments
an# hi%h "ressures3 but can also be use# for $ery lo* "ressuresH the res"onse
time ho*e$er3 is slo*er than the bello*s or #ia"hra%m'
%ello(
Bello*s ty"e elements are constructe# of tubular membranes that are con$olute#
aroun# the circumference &see 2i%ure C(' The membrane is attache# at one en#
to the source an# at the other en# to an in#icatin% #e$ice or instrument' The
bello*s element can "ro$i#e a lon% ran%e of motion &stro)e( in the #irection of the
arro* *hen in"ut "ressure is a""lie#'
$ig ;": %ello(s
Dia&,ragms
A #ia"hra%m is a circular:sha"e# con$olute# membrane that is attache# to the
"ressure fi+ture aroun# the circumference &refer to 2i%ure .(' The "ressure
me#ium is on one si#e an# the in#ication me#ium is on the other' The #eflection
that is create# by "ressure in the $essel *oul# be in the #irection of the arro*
in#icate#
$ig ;"; Dia&,ragm
Dia"hra%ms "ro$i#e fast actin% an# accurate "ressure in#ication' Eo*e$er3 the
mo$ement or stro)e is not as lar%e as the bello*s
$ig ;"< Ca&s'les
Ca&s'les
There are t*o #ifferent #e$ices that are referre# to as ca"sule' The first is sho*n
in fi% .'@'The "ressure is a""lie# to the insi#e of the ca"sule an#
if it is fi+e# only at the air inlet it can e+"an# li)e a balloon' This arran%ement is
not much #ifferent from the #ia"hra%m e+ce"t that it e+"an#s both *ays'
The ca"sule consists of t*o circular sha"e#3 con$olute# membranes &usually
stainless steel( seale# ti%ht aroun# the circumference' The "ressure acts on the
insi#e of the ca"sule an# the %enerate# stro)e mo$ement is sho*n by the
#irection of the arro*'
The secon# ty"e of ca"sule is li)e the one sho*n in the #ifferential "ressure
transmitter &DP transmitter( in fi%ure .'P' The ca"sule in the bottom is constructe#
*ith t*o #ia"hra%ms formin% an outer case an# the inters "ace is fille# *ith
$iscous oil' Pressure is a""lie# to both si#e of the #ia"hra%m an# it *ill #eflect
to*ar#s the lo*er "ressure'
To "ro$i#e o$er:"ressuri4e# "rotection3 a soli# "late *ith #ia"hra%m:matchin%
con$olutions is usually mounte# in the center of the ca"sule' Silicone oil is then
use# to fill the ca$ity bet*een the #ia"hra%ms for e$en "ressure transmission'
,ost DP ca"sules can *ithstan# hi%h static "ressure of u" to 1. ,Pa &/000 "si(
on both si#es of the ca"sule *ithout any #ama%in% effect' Eo*e$er3 the sensiti$e
ran%e for most DP ca"sules is -uite lo*' Ty"ically3 they are sensiti$e u" to only a
fe* hun#re# )Pa of #ifferential "ressure'
Differential "ressure that is si%nificantly hi%her than the ca"sule ran%e may
#ama%e the ca"sule "ermanently'
;"1"< Di66erential Press're Transmitters
,ost "ressure transmitters are built aroun# the "ressure ca"sule conce"t' They
are usually ca"able of measurin% #ifferential "ressure &that is3 the #ifference
bet*een a hi%h "ressure in"ut an# a lo* "ressure in"ut( an# therefore3 are
usually calle# DP transmitters or DP cells'
2i%ure A illustrates a ty"ical DP transmitter' A #ifferential "ressure ca"sule is
mounte# insi#e a housin%' One en# of a force bar is connecte# to the ca"sule
assembly so that the motion of the ca"sule can be transmitte# to outsi#e the
housin%' A sealin% mechanism is use# *here the force bar "enetrates the
housin% an# also acts as the "i$ot "oint for the force bar' Pro$ision is ma#e in the
housin% for hi%h: "ressure flui# to be a""lie# on one si#e of the ca"sule an# lo*:
"ressure flui# on the other' Any #ifference in "ressure *ill cause the ca"sule to
#eflect an# create motion in the force bar' The to" en# of the force bar is then
connecte# to a "osition #etector3 *hich $ia an electronic system *ill "ro#uce a . :
/0 ma si%nal that is "ro"ortional to the force bar mo$ement'
$ig ;"= Ty&ical DP transmitter Constr'ction
This DP transmitter *oul# be use# in an installation as sho*n in 2i%ure P'

$ig ;"@ DP Transmitter A&&lications
A DP transmitter is use# to measure the %as "ressure &in %au%e scale( insi#e a
$essel' In this case3 the lo*:"ressure si#e of the transmitter is $ente# to
atmos"here an# the hi%h:"ressure si#e is connecte# to the $essel throu%h an
isolatin% $al$e' The isolatin% $al$e facilitates the remo$al of the transmitter'
The out"ut of the DP transmitter is "ro"ortional to the %au%e "ressure of the %as3
i'e'3 . mA *hen "ressure is /0 )Pa an# /0 mA *hen "ressure is C0 )Pa'
;"1"= Strain 9a'ges
Instr'mentation Engineering

48
$ig ;"A Strain 9'age
The strain %au%e is a #e$ice that can be affi+e# to the surface of an ob8ect to
#etect the force a""lie# to the ob8ect' One form of the strain %au%e is a metal *ire
of $ery small #iameter that is attache# to the surface of a #e$ice bein%
monitore#'
2or a metal3 the electrical resistance *ill increase as the len%th of the metal
increases or as the cross sectional #iameter #ecreases'
7hen force is a""lie# as in#icate# in 2i%ure =3 the o$erall len%th of the *ire ten#s
to increase *hile the cross:sectional area #ecreases'
The amount of increase in resistance is "ro"ortional to the force that "ro#uce#
the chan%e in len%th an# area' The out"ut of the strain %au%e is a chan%e in
resistance that can be measure# by the in"ut circuit of an am"lifier'
Strain %au%es can be bon#e# to the surface of a "ressure ca"sule or to a force
bar "ositione# by the measurin% element' Sho*n in 2i%ure ? &ne+t "a%e( is a
strain %au%e that is bon#e# to a force beam insi#e the DP ca"sule' The chan%e
in the "rocess "ressure *ill cause a resisti$e chan%e in the strain %au%es3 *hich
is then use# to "ro#uce a .:/0 mA si%nal'
2i% .'? Resisti$e Pressure transmitter
;"1"@ Ca&acitance Ca&s'le
Similar to the strain %au%e3 a ca"acitance cell measures chan%es in electrical
characteristic' As the name im"lies the ca"acitance cell measures chan%es in
ca"acitance' The ca"acitor is a #e$ice that stores electrical char%e' It consists of
metal "lates se"arate# by an electrical insulator' The metal "lates are connecte#
to an e+ternal electrical circuit throu%h *hich electrical char%e can be transferre#
from one metal "late to the other'
The ca"acitance of a ca"acitor is a measure of its ability to store char%e' The
ca"acitance of the ca"acitance of a ca"acitor is #irectly "ro"ortional to the area
of the metal "lates an# in$ersely "ro"ortional to the #istance bet*een them' It
also #e"en#s on a characteristic of the insulatin% material bet*een them' This
characteristic3 calle# "ermitti$ity is a measure of ho* *ell the insulatin% material
increases the ability of the ca"acitor to store char%e'
C is the ca"acitance in 2ara#s
A is the area of the "lates
D is the #istance of the "lates
Q is the "ermitti$ity of the insulator
By buil#in% a DP cell ca"sule so there are ca"acitors insi#e the cell ca"sule3
#ifferential "ressures can be sense# by the chan%es in ca"acitance of the
ca"acitors as the "ressure across the cell is $arie#'
;"1"A Im&act o6 O&erating Environment
All of the sensors #escribe# in this mo#ule are *i#ely use# in control an#
instrumentation systems throu%hout the "o*er station'
Their e+istence *ill not normally be e$i#ent because the "hysical construction *ill
be enclose# insi#e manufacturersR "ac)a%in%' Eo*e$er3 each is hi%hly accurate
*hen use# to measure the ri%ht -uantity an# *ithin the ratin% of the #e$ice' The
constraints are not limite# to o"eratin% "ressure' Other factors inclu#e
tem"erature3 $a"or content an# $ibration'
*i1ration
The effect of $ibration is ob$ious in the inconsistency of measurements3 but the
more #an%erous result is the stress on the sensiti$e membranes3 #ia"hra%ms
an# lin)a%es that can cause the sensor to fail' Vibration can come from many
sources'
Some of the most common are the lo* le$el constant $ibration of an unbalance#
"um" im"eller an# the lar%er effects of steam hammer' E+ternal $ibration &loose
su""ort brac)ets an# insecure mountin%( can ha$e the same effect'
Tem&erat're
The tem"erature effects on "ressure sensin% *ill occur in t*o main areas:
The $olumetric e+"ansion of $a"or is of course tem"erature #e"en#ent'
De"en#in% on the system3 the increase# "ressure e+erte# is usually alrea#y
factore# in'
The secon# effect of tem"erature is not so a""arent' An o"eratin% tem"erature
outsi#e the ratin% of the sensor *ill create si%nificant error in the rea#in%s' The
bour#on tube *ill in#icate a hi%her rea#in% *hen e+"ose# to hi%her tem"eratures
an# lo*er rea#in%s *hen abnormally col# : #ue to the stren%th an# elasticity of
the metal tube' This same effect a""lies to the other forms of sensors liste#'
*a&or Content
The content of the %as or flui# is usually controlle# an# )no*n' Eo*e$er3 it is
mentione# at this "oint because the "urity of the substance *hose "ressure is
bein% monitore# is of im"ortance : *hether %aseous or flui# D es"ecially3 if the
#e$ice is use# as a #ifferential "ressure #e$ice in measurin% flo* of a %as or
flui#'
Ei%her than normal #ensity can force a hi%her #ynamic rea#in% #e"en#in% on
*here the sensors are locate# an# ho* they are use#' Also3 the $a"or #ensity or
ambient air #ensity can affect the static "ressure Sensor rea#in%s an# DP cell
rea#in%s' Usually3 lo*er rea#in%s are a result of the lo*er a$ailable "ressure of
the substance' Eo*e$er3 a DP sensor locate# in a hot an# $ery humi# room *ill
ten# to rea# hi%h'
;"1"B $ail'res and A1normalities OverGPress're
All of the "ressure sensors *e ha$e analy4e# are #esi%ne# to o"erate o$er a
rate# "ressure ran%e' Plant o"eratin% systems rely on these "ressure sensors to
maintain hi%h accuracy o$er that %i$en ran%e' Instrument rea#in%s an# control
functions #eri$e# from these #e$ices coul# "lace "lant o"erations in 8eo"ar#y if
the e-ui"ment is sub8ecte# to o$er "ressure &o$er ran%e( an# subse-uently
#ama%e#' If a "ressure sensor is o$er ran%e#3 "ressure is a""lie# to the "oint
*here it can no lon%er return to its ori%inal sha"e3 thus the in#ication *oul# return
to some $alue %reater than the ori%inal'
Dia"hra%ms an# bello*s are usually the most sensiti$e an# fast actin% of all
"ressure sensors'
They are also ho*e$er3 the most "rone to fracture on o$er:"ressurin%' E$en a
small fracture *ill cause them to rea# lo* an# be less res"onsi$e to "ressure
chan%es' Also3 the lin)a%es an# internal mo$ements of the sensors often become
#istorte# an# can lea$e a "ermanent offset in the measurement' Bour#on tubes
are $ery robust an# can han#le e+tremely hi%h "ressures althou%h3 *hen
e+"ose# to o$er:"ressure3 they become sli%htly #isten#e# an# *ill rea# hi%h'
Very hi%h o$er:"ressurin% *ill of course ru"ture the tube'
$a'lty Sensing +ines
2aulty sensin% lines create inaccurate rea#in%s an# totally misre"resent the
actual "ressure
7hen the "ressure lines become "artially bloc)e#3 the #ynamic res"onse of the
sensor is naturally re#uce# an# it *ill ha$e a slo* res"onse to chan%e in
"ressure' De"en#in% on the se$erity of the bloc)a%e3 the sensor coul# e$en retain
an incorrect 4ero or lo* rea#in%3 lon% after the chan%e in $essel "ressure'
A crac)e# or "uncture# sensin% line has the characteristic of consistently lo*
rea#in%s' Sometimes3 there can be #etectable #o*n:s*in%s of "ressure follo*e#
by slo* increases'
+oss o6 +oo& Electrical Po(er
As *ith any instrument that relies on AC "o*er3 the out"ut of the D6P transmitters
*ill #ro" to 4ero or become irrational *ith a loss of "o*er su""ly'
;"7 $+O/ MEAS!REMENT
There are $arious metho#s use# to measure the flo* rate of steam3 *ater3
lubricants3 air3 etc'3 in a nuclear %eneratin% station' Eo*e$er3 in this mo#ule *ill
loo) at the most common3 namely the DP cell ty"e flo* #etector' Also in this
section *e *ill #iscuss the a""lication of a s-uare root e+tractor an# cut:off relay
"lus the "ossible sources of errors in flo* measurements an# #ifferent failure
mo#es that can occur'
;"7"1 $lo( Detectors
To measure the rate of flo* by the #ifferential "ressure metho#3 some form of
restriction is "lace# in the "i"eline to create a "ressure #ro"' Since flo* in the
"i"e must "ass throu%h a re#uce# area3 the "ressure before the restriction is
hi%her than after or #o*nstream' Such a re#uction in "ressure *ill cause an
increase in the flui# $elocity because the same amount of flo* must ta)e "lace
before the restriction as after it' Velocity *ill $ary #irectly *ith the flo* an# as the
flo* increases a %reater "ressure #ifferential *ill occur across the restriction' So
by measurin% the #ifferential "ressure across a restriction3 one can measure the
rate of flo*'
Ori6ice Plate
The orifice "late is the most common form of restriction that is use# in flo*
measurement' An orifice "late is basically a thin metal "late *ith a hole bore# in
the center' It has a tab on one si#e *here the s"ecification of the "late is
stam"e#' The u"stream si#e of the orifice "late usually has a shar"3 e#%e' 2i%ure
1 sho*s a re"resentati$e orifice "late'
$ig ;"1# A ty&ical Ori6ice Plate
7hen an orifice "late is installe# in a flo* line &usually clam"e# bet*een a "air of
flan%es(3 increase of flui# flo* $elocity throu%h the re#uce# area at the orifice
#e$elo"s a #ifferential "ressure across the orifice' This "ressure is a function of
flo* rate'
7ith an orifice "late in the "i"e *or)3 static "ressure increases sli%htly u"stream
of the orifice &#ue to bac) "ressure effect( an# then #ecreases shar"ly as the
flo* "asses throu%h the orifice3 reachin% a minimum at a "oint calle# the $ena
contracta *here the $elocity of the flo* is at a ma+imum' Beyon# this "oint3 static
"ressure starts to reco$er as the flo* slo*s #o*n' Eo*e$er3 *ith an orifice "late3
static "ressure #o*nstream is al*ays consi#erably lo*er than the u"stream
Pressure' In a##ition some "ressure ener%y is con$erte# to soun# an# heat #ue
to friction an# turbulence at the orifice "late' 2i%ure / sho*s the "ressure "rofile
of an orifice "late installation'
$ig ;"11 Ori6ice Plate Installation (it, &ress're &ro6ile
On obser$in% 2i%ure /3 one can see that the measure# #ifferential "ressure
#e$elo"e# by an orifice "late also #e"en#s on the location of the "ressure
sensin% "oints or "ressure ta"s'
$lange Ta&s
2lan%e ta"s are the most *i#ely use# "ressure ta""in% location for orifices' They
are holes bore# throu%h the flan%es3 locate# one inch u"stream an# one inch
#o*nstream from the res"ecti$e faces of the orifice "late' A ty"ical flan%e ta"
installation is sho*n in 2i%ure C' The u"stream an# #o*nstream si#es of the
orifice "late are connecte# to the hi%h "ressure an# lo*:"ressure si#es of a DP
transmitter' A "ressure transmitter3 *hen installe# to measure flo*3 can be calle#
a flo* transmitter' As in the case of le$el measurement3 the static "ressure in the
"i"e:*or) coul# be many times hi%her than the #ifferential "ressure create# by
the orifice "late'
In or#er to use a ca"sule that is sensiti$e to lo* #ifferential "ressure3 a three:
$al$e manifol# has to be use# to "rotect the DP ca"sule from bein% o$er:ran%e#'
The three:$al$e manifol# is #iscusse# in more #etail in the section on le$el
measurement'
$ig ;"17 Ori6ice Plate (it, $lange ta&s and t,ree valve mani6old
CORNER TAPS
$ig ;"1: Ori6ice &late (it, Corner ta&
Corner ta"s are locate# ri%ht at u"stream an# #o*nstream faces of the orifice
"lates &see 2i%ure .('
*ena Contracta Ta&s
$ig ;"1; Ori6ice &late (it, *ena Contracta ta&
Vena contracta ta"s are locate# one "i"e inner #iameter u"stream an# at the
"oint of minimum "ressure3 usually one half "i"e inner #iameter #o*nstream &2i%
.'1.('
Pi&e Ta&s
Pi"e ta"s are locate# t*o an# a half "i"e inner #iameters u"stream an# ei%ht "i"e
inner #iameters #o*nstream'
7hen an orifice "late is use# *ith one of the stan#ar#i4e# "ressure ta" locations3
an on:location calibration of the flo* transmitter is not necessary' Once the ratio
an# the )in# of "ressure ta" to be use# are #eci#e#3 there are em"irically #eri$e#
charts an# tables a$ailable to facilitate calibration'
Advantages and Disadvantages o6 Ori6ice Plates
A#$anta%es of orifice "lates inclu#e:
Ei%h #ifferential "ressure %enerate#
E+hausti$e #ata a$ailable
!o* "urchase "rice an# installation cost
Easy re"lacement
Disa#$anta%es inclu#e:
Ei%h "ermanent "ressure loss im"lies hi%her "um"in% cost'
Cannot be use# on #irty flui#s3 slurries or *et steam3 as erosion *ill alter
the #ifferential "ressure %enerate# by the orifice "late'
*ent'ri T'1es
2or a""lications *here hi%h "ermanent "ressure loss is not tolerable3 a $enturi
tube &2i%ure A( can be use#' Because of its %ra#ually cur$e# inlet an# outlet
cones3 almost no "ermanent "ressure #ro" occurs' This #esi%n also minimi4es
*ear an# "lu%%in% by allo*in% the flo* to s*ee" sus"en#e# soli#s throu%h
*ithout obstruction'
$ig ;"1< *ent'ri t'1e installation
Eo*e$er a Venturi tube #oes ha$e #isa#$anta%es:
Calculate# calibration fi%ures are less accurate than for orifice "lates' 2or
%reater accuracy3 each in#i$i#ual Venturi tube has to be flo* calibrate# by
"assin% )no*n flo*s throu%h the Venturi an# recor#in% the resultin%
#ifferential "ressures'
The #ifferential "ressure %enerate# by a $enturi tube is lo*er than for an
orifice "late an#3 therefore3 a hi%h sensiti$ity flo* transmitter is nee#e#'
It is more bul)y an# more e+"ensi$e'As a si#e noteH one a""lication of the
Venturi tube is the measurement of flo* in the "rimary heat trans"ort
system' To%ether *ith the tem"erature chan%e across these fuel channels3
thermal "o*er of the reactor can be calculate#
$lo( No00le
A flo* no44le is also calle# a half $enturi 2i% .'1A sho*s a ty"ical flo* no44le
installation'
$ig ;"1= $lo( No00le Installation
The flo* no44le has "ro"erties bet*een an orifice "late an# a $enturi' Because of
its streamline# contour3 the flo* no44le has a lo*er "ermanent "ressure loss than
an orifice "late &but hi%her than a $enturi(' The #ifferential it %enerates is also
lo*er than an orifice "late &but a%ain hi%her than the $enturi tube(' They are also
less e+"ensi$e than the $enturi tubes'
2lo* no44les are *i#ely use# for flo* measurements at hi%h $elocities' They are
more ru%%e# an# more resistant to erosion than the shar":e#%e# orifice "late' An
e+am"le use of flo* no44les are the measurement of flo* in the fee# an# blee#
lines of the PET system'
El1o( Ta&s
Centrifu%al force %enerate# by a flui# flo*in% throu%h an elbo* can be use# to
measure flui# flo*' As flui# %oes aroun# an elbo*3 a hi%h:"ressure area a""ears
on the outer face of the elbo*' If a flo* transmitter is use# to sense this hi%h
"ressure an# the lo*er "ressure at the inner face of the elbo*3 flo* rate can be
measure#' 2i%ure = sho*s an e+am"le of an elbo* ta" installation'
One use of elbo* ta"s is the measurement of steam flo* from the boilers3 *here
the lar%e $olume of saturate# steam at hi%h "ressure an# tem"erature coul#
cause an erosion "roblem for other "rimary #e$ices'
Another a#$anta%e is that the elbo*s are often alrea#y in the re%ular "i"in%
confi%uration so no a##itional "ressure loss is intro#uce#'
$ig ;"1@ El1o( Ta& Installation
Pitot T'1es
Pitot tubes also utili4e the "rinci"les ca"ture# in BernoulliRs e-uation3 to measure
flo*' ,ost "itot tubes actually consist of t*o tubes' One3 the lo*:"ressure tube
measures the static "ressure in the "i"e' The secon#3 the hi%h:"ressure tube is
inserte# in the "i"e in such a *ay that the flo*in% flui# is sto""e# in the tube' The
"ressure in the hi%h:"ressure tube *ill be the static "ressure in the system "lus a
"ressure #e"en#ant on the force re-uire# sto""in% the flo*'
$ig ;"1A Pitot T'1es
Pitot tubes are more common measurin% %as flo*s that li-ui# flo*s' They suffer
from a cou"le of "roblems'
The "ressure #ifferential is usually small an# har# to measure'
The #ifferin% flo* $elocities across the "i"e ma)e the accuracy #e"en#ent on
the flo* "rofile of the flui# an# the "osition of the "itot in the "i"e'
Ann'1ar
An annubar is $ery similar to a "itot tube' The #ifference is that there is more
than one hole into the "ressure measurin% chambers' The "ressure in the hi%h:
"ressure chamber re"resents an a$era%e of the $elocity across the "i"e'
Annubars are more accurate than "itots as they are not as "osition sensiti$e or
as sensiti$e to the $elocity "rofile of the flui#'
$ig ;"1B Ann'1ar
;"7"7 SI'are Root E4tractor
U" to no*3 our flo* measurement loo" can be re"resente# by the installation
sho*n in 2i%ure ?' The hi%h an# lo*:"ressure ta"s of the "rimary #e$ice &orifice
ty"e sho*n( are fe# by sensin% lines to a #ifferential "ressure &D6P( cell' The
out"ut of the D6P cell acts on a "ressure to milli:am" trans#ucer3 *hich transmits
a $ariable .:/0 ma si%nal' The D6P cell an# transmitter are sho*n to%ether as a
flo* transmitter &2T('
$ig";"7#"A $lo( +oo& (it, Ori6ice Plate
This sim"le system althou%h %i$in% an in#ication of the flo* rate &G(3 is actually
transmittin% a si%nal "ro"ortional to the #ifferential "ressure &SP(' Eo*e$er3 the
relationshi" bet*een the $olume of flo* G an# SP is not linear' Thus such a
system *oul# not be a""ro"riate in instrumentation or meterin% that re-uires a
linear relationshi" or scale'
In actuality the #ifferential "ressure increases in "ro"ortion to the s-uare of the
flo* rate'
7e can *rite this as: P Q
2
In other *or#s the flo* rate &G( is "ro"ortionalH to the s-uare root of the
#ifferential "ressure'
Volumetric 2lo* Rate D GP
To con$ert the si%nal from the flo* transmitter3 &fi%ure ? abo$e( to one that is
#irectly "ro"ortional to the flo*:rate3 one has to obtain or e+tract the s-uare root
of the si%nal from the flo* transmitter' 2i%ure 10 illustrates the in"ut : out"ut
relationshi" of a s-uare root e+tractor'
&.'1(
&.'/(
59
$ig ;"71 SI'are root e4tractor In&'t and O't&'t
The s-uare root e+tractor is an electronic &or "neumatic( #e$ice that ta)es the
s-uare root of the si%nal from the flo* transmitter an# out"uts a corres"on#in%
linear flo* si%nal' Se$eral metho#s are use# in the construction of s-uare root
e+tractors' Eo*e$er3 it is beyon# the sco"e of this course to #iscuss the actual
circuitries'
A ty"ical s-uare root e+tractor installation is sho*n in 2i%ure 1C' This system
*oul# "ro#uce a .:/0:ma si%nal that is linear *ith the flo* rate'
$ig ;"77 A ty&ical sI'are root e4tractor installation
S-uare root e+tractors are usually current o"erate# #e$ices so they can be
connecte# #irectly in the .:/0 mA current loo" of a flo* transmitter' The out"ut of
the s-uare root e+tractor is a%ain a .:/0 mA si%nal' This si%nal is #irectly
"ro"ortional to the flo*:rate in the "i"e:*or)'
The si%nal from the s-uare root e+tractor usually %oes to a controller3 as sho*n in
2i%ure .'//'
The controller &*hich can be re%ar#e# as an analo% com"uter( is use# to control
the final control element3 usually a $al$e'
C'tGo66 relay
S-uare root e+tractors #o ha$e a #ra*bac)' At lo* $alues of in"ut3 $ery small
chan%es in the in"ut &#ifferential "ressure( to the e+tractor *ill cause a lar%e
chan%e in the s-uare root out"ut &flo* in#ication(' This system is #escribe# as
ha$in% hi%h %ain at $alues close to 4ero in"ut' Obser$e fi%ure .'/C belo*3 *hich
is an e+"an#e# $ersion of fi%ure 1/ at the lo*er en#' The amount of chan%e from
4ero "ressure to A an# from A to B is i#entical' Eo*e$er3 for the same in"ut
chan%e &SP(3 the %ain at lo* in"ut is %reater'
$ig ;"7: SI'are root e4tractor gra&, e4&anded vie(
To illustrate the effect of the $ery hi%h %ain in the s-uare root e+tractor at lo*
scale $alues consi#er a ty"ical situation' A "i"e $al$e is close# an# the 4ero flo*
"ro#uces a . mA out"ut from the flo* transmitter' If #ue to noise3 tem"erature or
other #isturbances3 the in"ut #rifte# from 0N to 1N &i'e'3 from . mA to .'1A mA(3
the out"ut *oul# ha$e chan%e# from 0N to 10N &. mA to @'A mA(' It is ob$ious
that this si%nificant error sent to the controller has to be eliminate#'
2or this reason3 s-uare root e+tractors are e-ui""e# *ith cut:off relays' The
settin% for the relay can be a#8uste# from AN to 10N of out"ut' Sho*n in 2i%ure
1@ is a res"onse cur$e for a cut:off relay set at PN out"ut' In this case3 any in"ut
si%nal belo* &0'0P(
/
or 0'.?N *oul# be i%nore# by the e+tractor' The out"ut of the
e+tractor *oul# remain at 0N as lon% as in"ut is belo* 0'.?N'
7hen the in"ut e+cee#e# 0'.?N3 the out"ut *oul# resume its normal cur$e3
startin% at PN'
$ig ;"7; res&onse c'rve 6or e4tractor (it, @J c't o66 setting
;"7": Density Com&ensating $lo( Detectors
It must be remembere# that a DP transmitter use# for flo* measurement3
measures #ifferential "ressure3 not the $olume or mass of flo*' 7e ha$e sho*n
that #ifferential "ressure instruments re-uire that the s-uare root #ifferential
"ressure be ta)en to obtain $olumetric flo* G:
Volume of 2lo* =Q P/p
2or com"ressible $a"our such as steam3 it is more im"ortant to )no* the mass of
the flo* W rather than the $olume' To #etermine the mass of a li-ui#6%as the
#ensity &" 9 mass "er unit $olume( must also be obtaine#'
,ass of 2lo* =W = pQ pP
7e also )no* that #ensity $aries #irectly *ith "ressure an# in$ersely *ith
tem"erature:
p K pressure /temperature
$ig ;"7< Density Com&ensating 6lo( detector
The coefficient K &*hich can be obtaine# from tables( #e"en#s on a number of
$ariables inclu#in% the "i"e si4e an# the characteristics of the flui#6%as' It is
sufficient to say that if the "rocess tem"erature an# static "ressure is )no*n3
then the #ensity can be obtaine#
The #ensity com"ensatin% flo* #etector &sho*n schematically in fi%ure 1A( is a
necessity for steam flo* bet*een the boilers3 re:heaters an# the turbines3 *here
the mass &*ei%ht( of the steam is more im"ortant than the $olume'
Process Conditions
As "re$iously state#3 the measurement of flo* usin% any of the #e$ices
#escribe# abo$e is "urely inferential' It relies on the si%nal from a #ifferential
"ressure &D6P( cell to obtain an inferre# flo* measurement' This flo*
measurement coul# be either the $olume or mass of the li-ui#6%as' In either case
the instrumentation can be affecte# by the "rocess con#itions' The three main
"arameters are:
&.'C(
&.'.(
62
$l'id Tem&erat're
The tem"erature of the flo* -uantity has a #ramatic effect on the flo*
measurement' Un#er the ri%ht con#itions the li-ui# can either boil &"ro#ucin% %as
"oc)ets an# turbulence( or free4e &"ro#ucin% bloc)a%es an# #istorte# flo*
"atterns( at the sensors'
At the onset of tem"erature relate# flo* instrumentation "roblems the meter
rea#in%s *ill become unstable' as "oc)ets &causin% intermittent lo* "ressure(
at the hi%h "ressure sensin% lines *ill cause a""arent lo* flo* fluctuations' This
is more "re#ominant in orifice an# flo*:no44le installations' Turbulence at the
lo*:"ressure sensor *ill usually increase as the tem"erature increases to cause
a more stable but incorrect hi%h flo* rea#in%'
Tem"erature also affects the #ensity of the li-ui#6%as3 as "er the follo*in%
relationshi" &*here > is a constant for the li-ui#6%as('
The mass flo* &i'e'3 "oun#s of steam "er minute( $aries in$ersely *ith
tem"erature an# must be com"ensate# for usin% a #ensity com"ensatin% flo*
#etector'
The elbo* ta" sensor uses centrifu%al force to #etect flo* an# is most sensiti$e to
#ensity chan%es' The flo* rea#in%s *ill increase as the tem"erature #ecreases'
$l'id Press're
As *e ha$e 8ust seen3 "ressure also affects the #ensity of the flui#6%as' 2or the
elbo* ta" "re$iously mentione#3 the flo* rea#in%s *ill increase as the "rocess
"ressure increases'
2or all ty"es of D6P flo* sensors3 mass flo* *ill of course increase as the
"ressure increases' To obtain the correct measurement of mass flo*3 a #ensity
com"ensatin% flo* #etector must be use# as #escribe# "re$iously'
;"7"; $lo( Meas'rement Errors
7e ha$e alrea#y #iscusse# the "ros an# cons of each ty"e of flo* #etector
commonly foun# in a %eneratin% station' Some3 such as the orifice3 are more
"rone to #ama%e by "articulate or saturate# steam then others' Eo*e$er3 there
are common areas *here the flo* rea#in%s can be inaccurate or in$ali#'
Erosion
Particulate3 sus"en#e# soli#s or #ebris in the "i"in% *ill not only "lu% u" the
sensin% lines3 it *ill ero#e the sensin% #e$ice' The orifice3 by its #esi%n *ith a thin3
shar" e#%e is most affecte#3 but the flo* no44le an# e$en $enturi can also be
#ama%e#' As the material *ears a*ay3 the #ifferential "ressure bet*een the hi%h
&.'@(
&.'A(
63
an# lo* si#es of the sensor *ill #ro" an# the flo* rea#in% *ill #ecrease'
Over ranging Damage to t,e D-P Cell
A%ain3 as "re$iously #escribe#3 the system "ressures are usually much %reater
than the #ifferential "ressure an# three $al$e manifol#s must be correctly use#'
*a&or $ormation in t,e T,roat
D6P flo* sensors o"erate on the relation bet*een $elocity an# "ressure' As %as
re-uires less "ressure to com"ress3 there is a %reater "ressure #ifferential across
the D6P cell *hen the %as e+"an#s on the !P si#e of the sensor' The flo* sensor
*ill in#icate a hi%her flo* rate than there actually is' The turbulence create# at
the !P si#e of the sensor *ill also ma)e the rea#in% some*hat unstable' A small
amount of %as or $a"or *ill ma)e a lar%e #ifference in the in#icate# flo* rate'
The o""osite can occur if the $a"or forms in the EP si#e of the sensor #ue to
ca$itations or %as "oc)ets *hen the flui# a""roaches the boilin% "oint' In such an
instance there *ill be a fluctuatin% "ressure #ro" across the D6P cell that *ill %i$e
an erroneously lo* &or e$en ne%ati$e( D6P rea#in%'
Clogging o6 T,roat
Particulate or sus"en#e# soli#s can #ama%e the flo* sensor by the hi%h
$elocities *earin% at the flo* sensor surfaces' Also3 the buil#:u" of material in the
throat of the sensor increases the #ifferential "ressure across the cell' The error in
flo* measurement *ill increase as the flo* increases'
Pl'gged or +ea.ing Sensing +ines
The effects of "lu%%e# or lea)in% D6P sensin% lines is the same as #escribe# in
"re$ious mo#ules3 ho*e$er the effects are more "ronounce# *ith the "ossible
lo* #ifferential "ressures' Perio#ic maintenance an# blee#in% of the sensin%
lines is a must' The instrument error *ill #e"en# on *here the "lu%6lea) is:
On the EP si#e a "lu%%e# or lea)in% sensin% line *ill cause a lo*er rea#in%' The
rea#in% *ill become irrational if the !P "ressure e-uals or e+cee#s the EP
sensin% "ressure'
On the !P si#e a "lu%%e# or lea)in% sensin% line *ill cause a hi%her rea#in%'
;": +E*E+ MEAS!REMENT
Accurate continuous measurement of $olume of flui# in containers has al*ays
been a challen%e to in#ustry' This is e$en more so in the nuclear station
en$ironment *here the flui# coul# be aci#ic6caustic or un#er $ery hi%h
"ressure6tem"erature' 7e *ill no* e+amine the measurement of flui# le$el in
$essels an# the effect of tem"erature an# "ressure on this measurement' 7e *ill
also consi#er the o"eratin% en$ironment on the measurement an# the "ossible
mo#es of #e$ice failure'
;":"1 +evel Meas'rement %asics
Very sim"le systems em"loy e+ternal si%ht %lasses or tubes to $ie* the hei%ht
an# hence the $olume of the flui#' Others utili4e floats connecte# to $ariable
"otentiometers or rheostats that *ill chan%e the resistance accor#in% to the
amount of motion of the float' This si%nal is then in"utte# to transmitters that sen#
a si%nal to an instrument calibrate# to rea# out the hei%ht or $olume'
In this mo#ule3 *e *ill e+amine the more challen%in% situations that re-uire
inferential le$el measurement' This techni-ue obtains a le$el in#ication in#irectly
by monitorin% the "ressure e+erte# by the hei%ht of the li-ui# in the $essel'
The "ressure at the base of a $essel containin% li-ui# is #irectly "ro"ortional to
the hei%ht of the li-ui# in the $essel' This is terme# hy#rostatic "ressure' As the
le$el in the $essel rises3 the "ressure e+erte# by the li-ui# at the base of the
$essel *ill increase linearly':
,athematically3 *e ha$e:
The le$el of li-ui# insi#e a tan) can be #etermine# from the "ressure rea#in%
if the *ei%ht #ensity of the li-ui# is constant'
Differential Pressure &DP( ca"sules are the most commonly use# #e$ices to
measure the "ressure at the base of a tan)'
7hen a DP transmitter is use# for the "ur"ose of measurin% a le$el3 it *ill be calle#
a le$el transmitter.
To obtain ma+imum sensiti$ity3 a "ressure ca"sule has to be use#3 that has a
sensiti$ity ran%e that closely matches the antici"ate# "ressure of the measure#
li-ui#' Eo*e$er3 system "ressures are often much hi%her than the actual
hy#rostatic "ressure that is to be measure#' If the "rocess "ressure is acci#entally
a""lie# to only one si#e of the DP ca"sule #urin% installation or remo$al of the DP
cell from ser$ice3 o$er ran%in% of the ca"sule *oul# occur an# the ca"sule coul#
be #ama%e# causin% erroneous in#ications'
;":"7 T,ree *alve Mani6old
A three:$al$e manifol# is a #e$ice that is use# to ensure that the ca"sule *ill not
be o$er:ran%e#' It also allo*s isolation of the transmitter from the "rocess loo"' It
consists of t*o bloc) $al$es : hi%h "ressure an# lo*:"ressure bloc) $al$e : an#
an e-uali4in% $al$e. 2i%ure 1 sho*s a three $al$e manifol# arran%ement'
$ig ;"7= A t,ree valve mani6old
Durin% normal o"eration3 the e-uali4in% $al$e is close# an# the t*o bloc) $al$es
are o"en' 7hen the transmitter is "ut into or remo$e# from ser$ice3 the $al$es
must be o"erate# in such a manner that $ery hi%h "ressure is ne$er a""lie# to
only one si#e of the DP ca"sule'
O&erational SeI'ences o6 T,reeG*alve Mani6old *alving Transmitter into
Service
To $al$e a DP transmitter into ser$ice an o"erator *oul# "erform the follo*in%
ste"s:
1' Chec) all $al$es close#'
/' O"en the e-uali4in% $al$e D this ensures that the same "ressure *ill be
a""lie# to both si#es of the transmitter3 i'e'3 4ero #ifferential "ressure'
C' O"en the Ei%h Pressure bloc) $al$e slo*ly3 chec) for lea)a%e from both
the hi%h "ressure an# lo*:"ressure si#e of the transmitter'
.' Close the e-uali4in% $al$e D this loc)s the "ressure on both si#es of the
transmitter'
@' O"en the lo*:"ressure bloc) $al$e to a""ly "rocess "ressure to the lo*:
"ressure si#e of the transmitter an# establish the *or)in% #ifferential
"ressure'
A' The transmitter is no* in ser$ice'
Note it may be necessary to blee# any tra""e# air from the ca"sule housin%'
Removing Transmitter 6rom Service
Re$ersal of the abo$e ste"s allo*s the DP transmitter to be remo$e# from
ser$ice'
1' Close the lo*:"ressure bloc) $al$e'
/' O"en the e-uali4in% $al$e'
C' Close the hi%h:"ressure bloc) $al$e'
The transmitter is no* out of ser$ice'
Note the transmitter ca"sule housin% still contains "rocess "ressureH this *ill
re-uire blee#in%'
;":": O&en Tan. Meas'rement
$ig ;"7@ O&en Tan. +evel Meas'rement Installation
The sim"lest a""lication is the flui# le$el in an o"en tan)' 2i%ure .'/P sho*s a
ty"ical o"en tan) le$el measurement installation usin% a "ressure ca"sule le$el
transmitter'
If the tan) is o"en to atmos"here3 the hi%h:"ressure si#e of the le$el transmitter
*ill be connecte# to the base of the tan) *hile the lo*:"ressure si#e *ill be
$ente# to atmos"here' In this manner3 the le$el transmitter acts as a sim"le
"ressure transmitter' 7e ha$e:
Phi%h 9 Patm ; S:E
Plo* 9 Patm
Differential "ressure P 9 Phi%h : Plo* 9 S K E
The le$el transmitter can be calibrate# to out"ut . mA *hen the tan) is at 0N
le$el an# /0 mA *hen the tan) is at 100N le$el'
;":"; Closed Tan. Meas'rement
Shoul# the tan) be close# an# a %as or $a"our e+ists on to" of the li-ui#3 the %as
"ressure must be com"ensate# for' A chan%e in the %as "ressure *ill cause a
chan%e in transmitter out"ut' ,oreo$er3 the "ressure e+erte# by the %as "hase
may be so hi%h that the hy#rostatic "ressure of the li-ui# column becomes
insi%nificant' 2or e+am"le3 the measure# hy#rostatic hea# in a boiler may be only
three meters &C0 )Pa( or so3 *hereas the steam "ressure is ty"ically @ ,Pa'
Com"ensation can be achie$e# by a""lyin% the %as "ressure to both the hi%h an#
lo*:"ressure si#es of the le$el transmitter' This co$er %as "ressure is thus use#
as a bac)"ressure or reference "ressure on the !P si#e of the DP cell' One can
also imme#iately see the nee# for the three:$al$e manifol# to "rotect the DP cell
a%ainst these "ressures'
The #ifferent arran%ement of the sensin% lines to the DP cell is in#icate# a ty"ical
close# tan) a""lication &fi%ure .'/=('
$ig ;"7A Ty&ical Closed Tan. +evel Meas'rement System
7e ha$e:
Phi%h 9 P%as ; S' E
Plo* 9 P%as
SP 9 Phi%h : Plo* 9 S' E
The effect of the %as "ressure is cancelle# an# only the "ressure #ue to the
hy#rostatic hea# of the li-ui# is sense#' 7hen the lo*:"ressure im"ulse line is
connecte# #irectly to the %as "hase abo$e the li-ui# le$el3 it is calle# a #ry le%'
$ig ;"7B Dry leg Installation (it, T,ree valve Mani6old
Dry +eg System
A full #ry le% installation *ith three:$al$e manifol# is sho*n in 2i%ure .'/? If the
%as "hase is con#ensable3 say steam3 con#ensate *ill form in the lo*:"ressure
im"ulse line resultin% in a column of li-ui#3 *hich e+erts e+tra "ressure on the
lo*:"ressure si#e of the transmitter' A techni-ue to sol$e this "roblem is to a## a
)noc)out "ot belo* the transmitter in the lo*:"ressure si#e as sho*n in 2i%ure
.'/?' Perio#ic #rainin% of the con#ensate in the )noc)out "ot *ill ensure that the
im"ulse line is free of li-ui#'
In "ractice3 a #ry le% is sel#om use# because fre-uent maintenance is re-uire#'
One e+am"le of a #ry le% a""lication is the measurement of li-ui# "oison le$el in
the "oison in8ection tan)3 *here the %as "hase is non:con#ensable helium' In
most close# tan) a""lications3 a *et le% le$el measurement system is use#'
/et +eg System
In a *et le% system3 the lo*:"ressure im"ulse line is com"letely fille# *ith li-ui#
&usually the same li-ui# as the "rocess( an# hence the name *et le%' A le$el
transmitter3 *ith the associate# three:$al$e manifol#3 is use# in an i#entical
manner to the #ry le% system'
2i%ure .'C0 sho*s a ty"ical *et le% installation
$ig ;":# A (et leg installation
At the to" of the lo* "ressure im"ulse line is a small catch tan)' The %as
"hase or $a"or *ill con#ense in the *et le% an# the catch tan)' The catch
tan)3 *ith the incline# interconnectin% line3 maintains a constant hy#rostatic
"ressure on the lo*:"ressure si#e of the le$el transmitter' This "ressure3
bein% a constant3 can easily be com"ensate# for by calibration' &Note that
o"eratin% the three:$al$e manifol# in the "rescribe# manner hel"s to "reser$e
the *et le%'(
If the tan) is locate# out#oors3 trace heatin% of the *et le% mi%ht be necessary
to "re$ent it from free4in%' Steam lines or an electric heatin% element can be
*oun# aroun# the *et le% to )ee" the tem"erature of the con#ensate abo$e
its free4in% "oint'
Note the t*o sets of #rain $al$es' The transmitter #rain $al$es *oul# be use#
to #rain &blee#( the transmitter only' The t*o #rain $al$es locate# imme#iately
abo$e the three:$al$e manifol# are use# for im"ulse an# *et le% #rainin% an#
fillin%'
In a##ition to the three:$al$e manifol# most transmitter installations ha$e
$al$es *here the im"ulse lines connect to the "rocess' These isolatin% $al$es3
sometimes referre# to as the root $al$es3 are use# to isolate the transmitter
for maintenance'
+evel Com&ensation
It *oul# be i#ealistic to say that the DP cell can al*ays be locate# at the e+act
the bottom of the $essel *e are measurin% flui# le$el in' Eence3 the
measurin% system has to consi#er the hy#rostatic "ressure of the flui# in the
Instr'mentation Engineering @#
sensin% lines themsel$es' This lea#s to t*o com"ensations re-uire#'
Cero S'&&ression
In some cases3 it is not "ossible to mount the le$el transmitter ri%ht at the base
le$el of the tan)' Say for maintenance "ur"oses3 the le$el transmitter has to be
mounte# T meters belo* the base of an o"en tan) as sho*n in 2i%ure .'C1'
$ig ;":1 +evel transmitter (it, 0ero s'&&ression
The li-ui# in the tan) e+erts a $aryin% "ressure that is "ro"ortional to its le$el
E on the hi%h:"ressure si#e of the transmitter' The li-ui# in the hi%h:"ressure
im"ulse line also e+erts a "ressure on the hi%h:"ressure si#e' Eo*e$er3 this
"ressure is a constant &P 9 S"T( an# is "resent at all times'
7hen the li-ui# le$el is at E meters3 "ressure on the hi%h:"ressure si#e of the
transmitter *ill be:
Phi%h 9 S"E ; S "T ; Patm
Plo* 9 Patm
SP 9 Phi%h : Plo* 9 S"E ; S"T
That is3 the "ressure on the hi%h:"ressure si#e is al*ays hi%her than the
actual "ressure e+erte# by the li-ui# column in the tan) &by a $alue of S"T('
This constant "ressure *oul# cause an out"ut si%nal that is hi%her than . mA
*hen the tan) is em"ty an# abo$e /0 mA *hen it is full' The transmitter has to
be ne%ati$ely biase# by a $alue of :S "T so that the out"ut of the transmitter is
"ro"ortional to the tan) le$el &S"E( only' This "roce#ure is calle# Fero
Su""ression an# it can be #one #urin% calibration of the transmitter' A 4ero
su""ression )it can be installe# in the transmitter for this "ur"ose'
Cero Elevation
7hen a *et le% installation is use# &see 2i%ure .'C/(3 the lo*:"ressure si#e of
the le$el transmitter *ill al*ays e+"erience a hi%her "ressure than the hi%h:
"ressure si#e' This is #ue to the fact that the hei%ht of the *et le% &T( is al*ays
e-ual to or %reater than the ma+imum hei%ht of the li-ui# column &E( insi#e
the tan)' 7hen the li-ui# le$el is at E meters3 *e ha$e:
Phi%h 9 P%as ; S"E
Plo* 9 P%as ; S'T
SP 9 Phi%h : Plo* 9 S"E D S"T
9 : S &T : E(
Instr'mentation Engineering @1
The #ifferential "ressure SP sense# by the transmitter is al*ays a ne%ati$e
number &i'e'3 lo* "ressure si#e is at a hi%her "ressure than hi%h "ressure
si#e(' SP increases from P 9 :S'T to P 9 :S &T:E( as the tan) le$el rises from
0N to 100N'
If the transmitter *ere not calibrate# for this constant ne%ati$e error &:S'T(3 the
transmitter out"ut *oul# rea# lo* at all times' To "ro"erly calibrate the
transmitter3 a "ositi$e bias &;S'T( is nee#e# to ele$ate the transmitter out"ut'
$ig ;":7 ReI'irement 6or 0ero elevation
This "ositi$e biasin% techni-ue is calle# 4ero ele$ation'
;":"< %'11ler +evel Meas'rement System
If the "rocess li-ui# contains sus"en#e# soli#s or is chemically corrosi$e or
ra#ioacti$e3 it is #esirable to "re$ent it from comin% into #irect contact *ith the
le$el transmitter' In these cases3 a bubbler le$el measurement system3 *hich
utili4es a "ur%e %as3 can be use#'
O&en Tan. A&&lication 6or %'11ler System
2i%ure .'CC illustrates a ty"ical bubbler system installation'
Instr'mentation Engineering @7
$ig ;":: %'11ler System
As sho*n in 2i%ure .'CC3 a bubbler tube is immerse# to the bottom of the
$essel in *hich the li-ui# le$el is to be measure#' A %as &calle# "ur%e %as( is
allo*e# to "ass throu%h the bubbler tube' Consi#er that the tan) is em"ty' In
this case3 the %as *ill esca"e freely at the en# of the tube an# therefore the
%as "ressure insi#e the bubbler tube &calle# bac) "ressure( *ill be at
atmos"heric "ressure' Eo*e$er3 as the li-ui# le$el insi#e the tan) increases3
"ressure e+erte# by the li-ui# at the base of the tan) &an# at the o"enin% of
the bubbler tube( increases' The hy#rostatic "ressure of the li-ui# in effect
acts as a seal3 *hich restricts the esca"e of3 "ur%e %as from the bubbler tube'
As a result3 the %as "ressure in the bubbler tube *ill continue to increase until
it 8ust balances the hy#rostatic "ressure &P 9 S"E( of the li-ui#' At this "oint the
bac)"ressure in the bubbler tube is e+actly the same as the hy#rostatic
"ressure of the li-ui# an# it *ill remain constant until any chan%e in the li-ui#
le$el occurs' Any e+cess su""ly "ressure *ill esca"e as bubbles throu%h the
li-ui#.
As the li-ui# le$el rises3 the bac)"ressure in the bubbler tube increases
"ro"ortionally3 since the #ensity of the li-ui# is constant'
A le$el transmitter &DP cell( can be use# to monitor this bac)"ressure' In an
o"en tan) installation3 the bubbler tube is connecte# to the hi%h:"ressure si#e
of the transmitter3 *hile the lo* "ressure si#e is $ente# to atmos"here' The
out"ut of the transmitter *ill be "ro"ortional to the tan) le$el'
A constant #ifferential "ressure relay is often use# in the "ur%e %as line to
ensure that constant bubblin% action occurs at all tan) le$els' The constant
#ifferential "ressure relay maintains a constant flo* rate of "ur%e %as in the
bubbler tube re%ar#less of tan) le$el $ariations or su""ly fluctuation' This
ensures that bubblin% *ill occur to ma+imum tan) le$el an# the flo* rate #oes
not increase at lo* tan) le$el in such a *ay as to cause e+cessi$e
#isturbances at the surface of the li-ui#' Note that bubblin% action has to be
continuous or the measurement si%nal *ill not be accurate'
An a##itional a#$anta%e of the bubbler system is that3 since it measures only
the bac)"ressure of the "ur%e %as3 the e+act location of the le$el transmitter is
not im"ortant' The transmitter can be mounte# some #istance from the
"rocess' O"en loo" bubblers are use# to measure le$els in s"ent fuel bays'
Closed Tan. A&&lication 6or %'11ler System
If the bubbler system is to be a""lie# to measure le$el in a close# tan)3 some
"ressure:re%ulatin% scheme must be "ro$i#e# for the %as s"ace in the tan)'
Other*ise3 the %as bubblin% throu%h the li-ui# *ill "ressuri4e the %as s"ace to
a "oint *here bubbler su""ly "ressure cannot o$ercome the static "ressure it
acts a%ainst' The result *oul# be no bubble flo* an#3 therefore3 inaccurate
measurement si%nal' Also3 as in the case of a close# tan) inferential le$el
measurement system3 the lo*:"ressure si#e of the le$el transmitter has to be
connecte# to the %as s"ace in or#er to com"ensate for the effect of %as
"ressure'
Some ty"ical e+am"les of close# tan) a""lication of bubbler systems are the
Instr'mentation Engineering @:
measurement of *ater le$el in the irra#iate# fuel bays an# the li%ht *ater le$el
in the li-ui# 4one control tan)s'
;":"< E66ect o6 Tem&erat're on +evel Meas'rement
!e$el measurement systems that use #ifferential "ressure SP as the sensin%
metho#3 are by their $ery nature affecte# by tem"erature an# "ressure'
Recall that the measure# hei%ht E of a column of li-ui# is #irectly "ro"ortional
to the "ressure P e+erte# at the base of the column an# in$ersely "ro"ortional
to the #ensity U of the li-ui#'
E V P6U
Density &mass "er unit $olume( of a li-ui# or %as is in$ersely "ro"ortional to its
tem"erature'
U V 16T
Thus3 for any %i$en amount of li-ui# in a container3 the "ressure P e+erte# at
the base *ill remain constant3 but the hei%ht *ill $ary #irectly *ith the
tem"erature'
E V T
Consi#er the follo*in% scenario' A %i$en amount of li-ui# in a container Lfi%ure
.'C.M is e+"ose# to hi%her "rocess tem"eratures Lfi%ure .'C@M'
$ig ;":; +o( Process tem&erat're
$ig ;":< Hig, Process tem&erat're
As the amount &mass( of li-ui# #oes not chan%e from fi%ure .'C. to .'C@3 the
"ressure e+erte# on the base of the container has not chan%e# an# the
in#icate# hei%ht of the li-ui# #oes not chan%e' Eo*e$er3 the $olume occu"ie#
by the li-ui# has increase# an# thus the actual hei%ht has increase#'
The abo$e scenario of fi%ure .'C. is a common occurrence in "lant
Instr'mentation Engineering @;
o"erations' Consi#er a le$el transmitter calibrate# to rea# correctly at P@
0
C'
If the "rocess tem"erature is increase# to ?0
0
C as in fi%ure .'CA3 the actual
le$el *ill be hi%her than in#icate#'
The tem"erature error can also occur in *et:le% systems &fi%ure .'CA(
$ig ;":= Tem&erat're E66ect On (et leg System
If the reference le% an# $ariable le% are at the same tem"erature that the le$el
transmitter &!T( is calibrate# for3 the system *ill accurately measure li-ui#
le$el' Eo*e$er3 as the "rocess tem"erature increases3 the actual "rocess flui#
le$el increases &as "re$iously #iscusse#(3 *hile the in#icate# measurement
remains unchan%e#'
2urther errors can occur if the reference le% an# the $ariable &sensin%( le% are
at #ifferent tem"eratures' The le$el in#ication *ill ha$e increasin% "ositi$e
&hi%h( error as the tem"erature of the *et reference le% increases abo$e the
$ariable &"rocess( le%'
As an e+am"le3 consi#er tem"erature chan%es aroun# a li-ui# stora%e tan)
*ith a *et le%' As tem"erature falls an# the *et le% cools off3 the #ensity of the
li-ui# insi#e it increases3 *hile the tem"erature in the tan) remains "ractically
unchan%e# &because of a much bi%%er $olume an# connection to the "rocess('
As a result the "ressure of the reference le% rises an# the in#icate# le$el
#ecreases' If it ha""ens to the boiler le$el measurement for a shut#o*n
system it can e$en lea# to an unnecessary reactor tri" on boiler lo* le$el'
Eo*e$er3 hi%h:le$el tri"s may be "re$ente# un#er these circumstances' In an
e+treme case the *et le% may free4e in$ali#atin% the measurement scheme
com"letely3 but it coul# be easily "re$ente# *ith trace heatin% as in#icate#
earlier &2i%ure .'CP('
2alse hi%h:le$el in#ication can be cause# by an increase# *et le%
tem"erature3 %as or $a"our bubbles or a #raine# *et le%'
A hi%h measure# tan) le$el3 *ith the real le$el bein% #an%erously lo*3 may
"re$ent the actuation of a safety system on a lo* $alue of the tri" "arameter'
The real le$el may e$en %et sufficiently lo* to cause either the ca$itation of the
"um"s that ta)e suction from the tan) or %as in%ress into the "um"s an# result
in %as loc)in% an# a re#uce# or no flo* con#ition' If the "um"s are associate#
*ith a safety system li)e ECI or a safety relate# system li)e PET shut#o*n
Instr'mentation Engineering @<
coolin%3 it can lea# to "ossible safety system im"airments an# increase#
"robability of resultant fuel #ama%e'
;":"@ E66ect o6 Press're on +evel Meas'rement
!e$el measurement systems that use #ifferential "ressure SP as the sensin%
metho#3 are also affecte# by "ressure3 althou%h not to the same #e%ree as
tem"erature mentione# in the "re$ious section'
A%ain the measure# hei%ht E of a column of li-ui# is #irectly "ro"ortional to the
"ressure P
!
e+erte# at the base of the column by the li-ui# an# in$ersely
"ro"ortional to the #ensity U of the li-ui#:
E V P
!
6U
Density &mass "er unit $olume( of a li-ui# or %as is #irectly "ro"ortional to the
"rocess or system "ressure Ps'
U V Ps
Thus3 for any %i$en amount of li-ui# in a container3 the "ressure P
!
&li-ui#
"ressure( e+erte# at the base of the container by the li-ui# *ill remain
constant3 but the hei%ht *ill $ary in$ersely *ith the "rocess or system
"ressure'
E V 16Ps
,ost li-ui#s are fairly incom"ressible an# the "rocess "ressure *ill not affect
the le$el unless there is si%nificant $a"or content'
;":"A +evel Meas'rement System Errors
The le$el measurement techni-ues #escribe# in this mo#ule use inferre#
"rocesses an# not #irect measurements' Namely3 the in#ication of flui# le$el is
base# on the "ressure e+erte# on a #ifferential "ressure &DP( cell by the
hei%ht of the li-ui# in the $essel' This "laces %reat im"ortance on the "hysical
an# en$ironmental "roblems that can affect the accuracy of this in#irect
measurement'
Connections
As amusin% as it may soun#3 many a$oi#able errors occur because the DP cell
ha# the sensin% line connections re$erse#'
In systems that ha$e hi%h o"eratin% "ressure but lo* hy#rostatic "ressure
#ue to *ei%ht of the flui#3 this is easy to occur' This is "articularly im"ortant for
close# tan) systems'
7ith an incorrectly connecte# DP cell the in#icate# le$el *oul# %o #o*n *hile
the true tan) le$el increases'
OverGPress'ring
Three $al$e manifol#s are "ro$i#e# on DP cells to "re$ent o$er:"ressurin% an#
ai# in the remo$al of cells for maintenance' Incorrect "roce#ures can
ina#$ertently o$er:"ressure the #ifferential "ressure cell' If the cell #oes not fail
imme#iately the internal #ia"hra%m may become #istorte#' The
Instr'mentation Engineering @=
measurements coul# rea# either hi%h or lo* #e"en#in% on the mo#e of
failure'
Note that if the e-uali4in% $al$e on the three:$al$e manifol# is ina#$ertently
o"ene#3 the le$el in#ication *ill of course #ro" to a $ery lo* le$el as the
"ressure across the DP cell e-uali4es'
Sensing lines
The sensin% lines are the umbilical cor# to the DP cell an# must be functionin%
correctly' Some of the errors that can occur are:
O1str'cted sensing lines
The small #iameter lines can become clo%%e# *ith "articulate3 *ith resultin%
inaccurate rea#in%s' Sometimes the "roblem is first note# as an unusually
slu%%ish res"onse to a "re#icte# chan%e in le$el' Perio#ic #rainin% an#
flushin% of sensin% lines is a must'
Draining sensing lines
As mentione# "re$iously3 the lines must be #raine# to remo$e any #ebris or
"articulate that may settle to the bottom of the tan) an# in the line' Also3 in
close# tan) #ry le% systems3 con#ensate must be remo$e# re%ularly to
"re$ent flui# "ressure buil#in% u" on the lo*:"ressure im"ulse line' 2ailure to
#o so *ill of course %i$e a lo* tan) le$el rea#in%' Proce#ural care must be
e+ercise# to ensure the DP cell is not o$er:ran%e# ina#$ertently #urin%
#rainin%' Such coul# ha""en if the bloc) $al$es are not close# an# e-uali4in%
$al$e o"ene# beforehan#'
2alse hi%h:le$el in#ication can be cause# by a lea)in% or #raine# *et le%' A
lea)in% $ariable &"rocess( le% can cause false lo*:le$el in#ication'
;"; TEMPERAT!RE MEAS!REMENT
E$ery as"ect of our li$es3 both at home an# at *or)3 is influence# by
tem"erature' Tem"erature measurin% #e$ices ha$e been in e+istence for
centuries' The a%e:ol# mercury in %lass thermometer is still use# to#ay an#
*hy notW The "rinci"le of o"eration is a%eless as the #e$ice itself' Its
o"eration *as base# on the tem"erature e+"ansion of flui#s &mercury or
alcohol(' As the tem"erature increase# the flui# in a small reser$oir or bulb
e+"an#e# an# a small column of the flui# *as force# u" a tube' 5ou *ill fin#
the same theory is use# in many mo#ern thermostats to#ay' In this mo#ule *e
*ill loo) at the theory an# o"eration of some tem"erature measurin% #e$ices
commonly foun# in a %eneratin% station' These inclu#e thermocou"les3
thermostats an# resisti$e tem"erature #e$ices' Thermocou"les &T6C( an#
resisti$e tem"erature #e$ices &RTD( are %enerally connecte# to control lo%ic
or instrumentation for continuous monitorin% of tem"erature' Thermostats are
use# for #irect "ositi$e control of the tem"erature of a system *ithin "reset
limits'
;";"1 Resistance Tem&erat're Detector 3RTD5
Instr'mentation Engineering @@
E$ery ty"e of metal has a uni-ue com"osition an# has a #ifferent resistance to
the flo* of electrical current' This is terme# the resisti$ely constant for that
metal' 2or most metals the chan%e in electrical resistance is #irectly
"ro"ortional to its chan%e in tem"erature an# is linear o$er a ran%e of
tem"eratures' This constant factor calle# the tem"erature coefficient of
electrical resistance &short forme# TCR( is the basis of resistance tem"erature
#etectors' The RTD can actually be re%ar#e# as a hi%h "recision *ire *oun#
resistor *hose resistance $aries *ith tem"erature' By measurin% the
resistance of the metal3 its tem"erature can be #etermine#'
Se$eral #ifferent "ure metals &such as "latinum3 nic)el an# co""er( can be
use# in the manufacture of an RTD' A ty"ical RTD "robe contains a coil of
$ery fine metal *ire3 allo*in% for a lar%e resistance chan%e *ithout a %reat
s"ace re-uirement' Usually3 "latinum RTDs are use# as "rocess tem"erature
monitors because of their accuracy an# linearity'
To #etect the small $ariations of resistance of the RTD3 a tem"erature
transmitter in the form of a 7heat stone bri#%e is %enerally use#' The circuit
com"ares the RTD $alue *ith three )no*n an# hi%hly accurate resistors'
$ig ;":@ RTD 'sing a /,eatStones %ridge
A 7heat stone bri#%e consistin% of an RTD3 three resistors3 a $oltmeter an# a
$olta%e source is illustrate# in 2i%ure .'CP' In this circuit3 *hen the current
flo* in the meter is 4ero &the $olta%e at "oint A e-uals the $olta%e at "oint B(
the bri#%e is sai# to be in null balance' This *oul# be the 4ero or set "oint on
the RTD tem"erature out"ut' As the RTD tem"erature increases3 the $olta%e
rea# by the $oltmeter increases' If a $olta%e trans#ucer re"laces the
$oltmeter3 a .:/0 mA si%nal3 *hich is "ro"ortional to the tem"erature ran%e
bein% monitore#3 can be %enerate#'
As in the case of a thermocou"le3 a "roblem arises *hen the RTD is installe#
some #istance a*ay from the transmitter' Since the connectin% *ires are lon%3
resistance of the *ires chan%es as ambient tem"erature fluctuates' The
$ariations in *ire resistance *oul# intro#uce an error in the transmitter' To
eliminate this "roblem3 a three:*ire RTD is use#'
Instr'mentation Engineering @A
$ig ;":A T,ree /ired RTD
2i%ure .'C= illustrates a three:*ire RTD installation'
The connectin% *ires &*13 */3 *C( are ma#e the same len%th an# therefore
the same resistance' The "o*er su""ly is connecte# to one en# of the RTD
an# the to" of the 7heatstone bri#%e' It can be seen that the resistance of the
ri%ht le% of the 7heatstone bri#%e is R
1
; R
/
; R
7/
' The resistance of the left le%
of the bri#%e is R
C
; R
7C
; RTD' Since R
71
9 R
7/
3 the result is that the
resistances of the *ires cancel an# therefore the effect of the connectin%
*ires is eliminate#'
RTD Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages:
O The res"onse time com"are# to thermocou"les is $ery fast D in the
or#er of fractions of a secon#'
O An RTD *ill not e+"erience #rift "roblems because it is not self:
"o*ere#'
O 7ithin its ran%e it is more accurate an# has hi%her sensiti$ity than a
thermocou"le'
O In an installation *here lon% lea#s are re-uire#3 the RTD #oes not
re-uire s"ecial e+tension cable'
O Unli)e thermocou"les3 ra#ioacti$e ra#iation &beta3 %amma an#
neutrons( has minimal effect on RTDs since the "arameter measure# is
resistance3 not $olta%e'
Disadvantages:
O Because the metal use# for a RTD must be in its "urest form3 they are
much more e+"ensi$e than thermocou"les'
O In %eneral3 an RTD is not ca"able of measurin% as *i#e a tem"erature
ran%e as a thermocou"le'
O A "o*er su""ly failure can cause erroneous rea#in%s
O Small chan%es in resistance are bein% measure#3 thus all connections
must be ti%ht an# free of corrosion3 *hich *ill create errors'
O Amon% the many uses in a nuclear station3 RTDs can be foun# in the
reactor area tem"erature measurement an# fuel channel coolant
tem"erature'
Instr'mentation Engineering @B
$ail're Modes:
An o"en circuit in the RTD or in the *irin% bet*een the RTD an# the
bri#%e *ill cause a hi%h tem"erature rea#in%'
!oss or "o*er or a short *ithin the RTD *ill cause a lo* tem"erature
rea#in%
;";"7 T,ermoco'&le 3T-C5
A thermocou"le consists of t*o "ieces of #issimilar metals *ith their en#s
8oine#
To%ether &by t*istin%3 sol#erin% or *el#in%(' 7hen heat is a""lie# to the
8unction3
a $olta%e3 in the ran%e of milli:$olts &mV(3 is %enerate#' A thermocou"le is
therefore sai# to be self:"o*ere#' Sho*n in 2i%ure .'C? is a com"lete#
thermocou"le circuit'
$ig ;":B A t,ermoco'&le Circ'it
The $olta%e %enerate# at each 8unction #e"en#s on 8unction tem"erature' If
tem"erature T1 is hi%her than T/3 then the $olta%e %enerate# at <unction 1 *ill
be hi%her than that at <unction /' In the abo$e circuit3 the loo" current sho*n
on the %al$anometer #e"en#s on the relati$e ma%nitu#e of the $olta%es at the
t*o 8unctions'
In or#er to use a thermocou"le to measure "rocess tem"erature3 one en# of
the thermocou"le has to be )e"t in contact *ith the "rocess *hile the other
en# has to be )e"t at a constant tem"erature' The en# that is in contact *ith
the "rocess is calle# the hot or measurement 8unction' The one that is )e"t at
constant tem"erature is calle# col# or reference 8unction' The relationshi"
bet*een total circuit $olta%e &emf( an# the emf at the 8unctions is:
Circuit emf 9 ,easurement emf : Reference emf
If circuit emf an# reference emf are )no*n3 measurement emf can be
calculate# an# the relati$e tem"erature #etermine#'
To con$ert the emf %enerate# by a thermocou"le to the stan#ar# .:/0 mA
si%nal3 a transmitter is nee#e#' This )in# of transmitter is calle# a tem"erature
transmitter' 2i%ure .'.0 sho*s a sim"lifie# tem"erature transmitter
Instr'mentation Engineering A#
connection'
$ig ;";# A sim&li6ied T,ermoco'&le Tem&erat're Transmitter
In 2i%ure .'.0 abo$e3 the tem"erature measurement circuit consists of a
thermocou"le connecte# #irectly to the tem"erature transmitter' The hot an#
col# 8unctions can be locate# *here$er re-uire# to measure the tem"erature
#ifference bet*een the t*o 8unctions'
In most situations3 *e nee# monitor the tem"erature rise of e-ui"ment to
ensure the safe o"eration' Tem"erature rise of a #e$ice is the o"eratin%
tem"erature usin% ambient or room tem"erature as a reference' To
accom"lish this the hot 8unction is locate# in or on the #e$ice an# the col#
8unction at the meter or transmitter as illustrate# in fi%ure .'.1'
$ig ;";1 Ty&ical T,ermoco'&le Circ'it
T,ermoco'&le Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages:
O Thermocou"les are use# on most transformers' The hot 8unction is
insi#e the transformer oil an# the col# 8unction at the meter mounte# on
the outsi#e' 7ith this sim"le an# ru%%e# installation3 the meter #irectly
rea#s the tem"erature rise of oil abo$e the ambient tem"erature of the
location'
O In %eneral3 thermocou"les are use# e+clusi$ely aroun# the turbine hall
because of their ru%%e# construction an# lo* cost'
O A thermocou"le is ca"able of measurin% a *i#er tem"erature ran%e
than an RTD'
Disadvantages:
If the thermocou"le is locate# some #istance a*ay from the measurin%
#e$ice3 e+"ensi$e e+tension %ra#e thermocou"le *ires or
com"ensatin% cables ha$e to be use#'
Instr'mentation Engineering A1
Thermocouples are not used in areas where high radiation fields are present
for e!ample" in the reactor #ault$. %adioacti#e radiation e.g." &eta radiation
from neutron acti#ation$" will induce a #oltage in the thermocouple wires.
'ince the signal from thermocouple is also a #oltage" the induced #oltage will
cause an error in the temperature transmitter output.
Thermocouples are slower in response than %T(s
)f the control logic is remotel* located and temperature transmitters milli+
#olt to milli+ amp transducers$ are used" a power suppl* failure will of course
cause fault* readings'
Failure Modes:
,n open circuit in the thermocouple detector means that there is no path for current
flow" thus it will cause a low off+scale$ temperature reading.
, short circuit in the thermocouple detector will also cause a low temperature reading
-ecause it creates a lea.age current path to the ground and a smaller measured
#oltage.
4.3.3 Thermal Wells
The process en#ironment where temperature monitoring is re/uired" is often not onl*
hot" -ut also pressuri0ed and possi-l* chemicall* corrosi#e or radioacti#e. To
facilitate remo#al of the temperature sensors %T( and T1$" for e!amination or
replacement and to pro#ide mechanical protection" the sensors are usuall* mounted
inside thermal wells 2igure 4.42$.
$ig ;";7 Ty&ical T,ermo (ell Installation
A thermal *ell is basically a hollo* metal tube *ith one en# seale#' It is
usually mounte# "ermanently in the "i"e *or)' The sensor is inserte# into it
an# ma)es contact *ith the seale# en#' A #ra*bac) to thermo *ells is their
lon% res"onse time because heat must be transferre# throu%h the *ell to the
sensor' An e+am"le of the tem"erature res"onse for bare an# thermal *ell
installe# sensors is sho*n in fi%ure .'./',inimi4in% the air s"ace bet*een the
sensor an# the *ell3 ho*e$er3 can #ecrease this thermal la%. A #ra*bac) to
thermal
Instr'mentation Engineering A7
$ig ;";: Res&onse C'rve o6 1are and t,ermal (ell ins'lation
;";"; T,ermostats
Thermostats ha$e a #ifferent function than the resisti$e tem"erature #etectors
an# thermocou"les that *e ha$e 8ust #iscusse#' The thermostats #irectly
re%ulate the tem"erature of a system by maintainin% it constant or $aryin% it
o$er a s"ecific ran%e' The T6C or RTD coul# be use# as the tem"erature:
sensin% element of a thermostat3 but %enerally thermostats are #irect actin%
#e$ices'
The t*o common ty"es of thermostats are:
Pressure cylin#er
Bimetallic stri"
Press're Cylinders
The most common thermostat #e"en#s on the e+"ansion of the flui# such as
mercury or a soli# *ith an increase in tem"erature as in fi%ure .'..'
$ig ;";; T,ermostat Press're Cylinder
Instr'mentation Engineering A:
$ig ;";< T,ermostat Press're Cylinder a&&lication
The "lun%er connecte# to the "iston is use# to force contacts o"en an#
close# to control $al$e "ositions or "um" control' Often the "lun%er is #irectly
connecte# to the $al$e as in fi%ure .'.@ belo*' This is the same "rinci"le as
use# in automobile *ater thermostats *here the substance in the cylin#er is a
*a+ *ith a meltin% "oint of aroun# 1=0
#
2'
%imetallic Stri&s
A bimetallic stri" is constructe# by bon#in% t*o metals *ith #ifferent
coefficients of thermal e+"ansion &2i%ure .'.A(' If heat is a""lie# to one en# of
the stri"3 the metal *ith the hi%her coefficient of e+"ansion *ill e+"an# more
rea#ily than the lo*er one' As a result3 the *hole metallic stri" *ill ben# in the
#irection of the metal *ith the lo*er coefficient &2i%ure .'.P('
$ig ;";= A %imetallic Stri&
$ig ;";@%imetallic Stri& 1end A6ter Heat is a&&lied
Instr'mentation Engineering A;
7hen contacts are attache# to the stri"3 it can be use# as a fast actin%
thermostat to control air tem"erature as "er fi%ure .'.=' One #ra*bac) is that
there cannot be any flammable $a"ors surroun#in% the stri" #ue to arcin%
%enerate# across the contacts'
$ig ;";A %imetallic T,ermostats
One main a#$anta%e of the bimetallic stri" is that it can be use# to o"erate
o$er a ran%e of tem"eratures *hen the stri" is fashione# into a coil &for lar%er
s*in%( an# "lace# on an a#8ustable "i$ot &fi%ure .'.?(' ,ost room thermostats
o"erate on this "rinci"le'
$ig ;";B A&&lication o6 %imetallic Stri&
%imetallic T,ermometers
Another common confi%uration of the bimetallic stri" is coile# in a heli+ to
increase the s*in% or #is"lacement similar to the coil abo$e' In this sha"e3 the
stri" is more ru%%e# an# less sub8ect to $ibration' A helical bimetallic
thermometer is sho*n in 2i%ure .'@0 belo*'
Bimetallic thermometers in %eneral are $ery ru%%e# an# re-uire little
maintenance' They are usually use# to measure "rocess "arameters such as
"um" an# bearin% tem"erature'
Instr'mentation Engineering A<
2i% .'@0 Eelical Bimetallic Thermometer
Instr'mentation Engineering A=

Rolta Academy Engineering Design Services Chapter 1 Sensors and Primary Transducers

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