Vectors and 3-D Geometry

LOCUS 1
Vectors and
3-D Geometry
CONCEPT NOTES
NOTES
01. Introduction
02. Basic Vector Operations
03. Dot Product
04. Product Product
05. Scalar Triple Product
06. Vector Triple Product
07. More Geometry with Vectors
08. Appendix : 3-D Geometry
Mathematics / Vectors and 3-D Geometry

LOCUS 2
Vectors and
3-D Geometry
Section - 1 INTRODUCTION
In very basic terms, a vector can be thought of as an arrow in the Euclidean plane. This arrow has a starting
(initial ) point A and an ending (final) point B:
A
Fig - 1
!!!"
This vector will be represented as AB . We thus see that a vector has two quantities associated with it:
(a) a magnitude
(b) a direction
These two quantities are necessary to carry someone from A to B; these two quantities are sufficient to uniquely
specify a vector.
Contrast a vector with a scalar, which is a physical quantity with just a magnitude but no associated direction.
Think of a force acting on a block.
→
F
θ
M
Fig - 2
To specify this force, you must specify both its magnitude and direction, and thus force is a vector quantity. You
might, as an example, specify this force by saying that it is 10 N strong and is applied at an angle of 30º to the
horizontal.

LOCUS 3
On the other hand, think about the work done by this force over a certain distance, which is obviously a scalar
since it will be a quantity with just a magnitude and no direction.
In the discussion that follows, we will see that for a physical quantity to be classified as a vector, it must satisfy
another constraint in addition to possessing a magnitude and a direction: it must satisfy the vector law of addition
(section – 2). In fact, there do exist quantities (like the rotation of a rigid body) which posses both magnitude and
direction but are not vectors because they do not satisfy the addition law.
!!!" "
We can represent a vector using its end-points (like AB earlier) or we can use lower-case letters (like a ). For
"
any vector a , we have three associated characteristics:
"
Length : The length (or magnitude) of a will be denoted by | a" |. Length is obviously a scalar.
"
Support : This is the line along which the vector a lies.
!!!" !!!" !!!"
Sense : The vector PQ will have a sense from P to Q along the support of PQ , while that of QP will be
!!!"
from Q to P along the support of PQ . Thus, the sense of a vector specifies its direction along its
support.
Some more terminology is in order before we begin to see the properties of vectors:
"
(A) Zero vector : A vector of magnitude zero is called a zero vector and is denoted as 0 . A zero vector
does not really have any direction, since how can you define the direction of a point?
We thus assume a zero vector to have any arbitrary direction. In a sense, you may say
that the zero vector is not a proper vector. In fact, vectors other than the zero vector are
called proper vectors!
" " "
(B) Unit vectors: Vector a is a unit vector if it is of unit length, i.e, if | a | = 1. If a is a unit vector, it is
generally denoted as â .
(C) Collinear vectors: These are essentially parallel vectors, i.e, have the same or parallel support.
Some elaboration must be done here: we will encounter, in our study of this chapter,
either fixed vectors or free vectors. As the name suggests, a fixed vector has its absolute
position fixed with respect to any choosen coordinate system; a free vector is one
which can be translated to any position in space, keeping its magnitude and direction
fixed.
For example, suppose that O is the origin and A is a fixed point in the coordinate
!!!"
system. Then the vector OA is fixed because its starting point, O is fixed.
On the other hand, suppose a vector a" corresponds to going 1 unit right and 2 units up
"
in the coordinate system. Then a is free since it can be translated to anywhere in the
coordinate system; it will still represent going 1 unit right and 2 units up.
When we talk of collinear vectors, it is implied that the vectors being talked about are
free vectors. Thus, for two vectors to be collinear, their supports only need to be parallel
(and not necessarily the same).

LOCUS 4
" "
(D) Equal vectors : Two vectors a and b are equal if
" "
(i) | a |=| b |
(ii) their directions are the same, i.e. their supports are the same OR parallel,
and they have the same sense.
It should be evident that when we are saying that two vectors are equal, we implicitly
assume that the we talking about free vectors.
(E) Co-initial vectors: Fixed vectors having the same initial point are called co-initial vectors.
(F) Co-terminus Fixed vectors having the same ending point are called co-terminus vectors.
vectors:
(G) Co-planar vectors: A system of free vectors is coplanar if their supports are parallel to the same plane.
Note that defined this way, two free vectors will always be coplanar. This is because
you can always bring these two vectors together to have the same initial point, and then
a plane can always be drawn through the two vectors. On the other hand, three free
vectors might or might not be coplanar; let us think of this more elaborately. Assume
" " " " "
three free vectors a , b and c . Suppose you bring together a and b to have the same
" " "
initial point O; you then draw the plane passing through a and b . Now, when c is
"
translated so that its initial point is O, it is not necessary for c also to lie in the plane that
" " " " "
you drew through a and b . Thus, a , b and c might or might not be coplanar
b c b
c
a a
O O
Plane through
c lies lie in the c does not lie in the
plane a and b a and b plane a and b
Fig - 3
" " "

(H) Negative of a : The negative of a vector a , denoted by – a , is a vector with the same magnitude as a
vector but has exactly the opposite direction.
(I) Position vector : The position vector of a point P is a fixed vector which joins the origin of the
reference frame to the point P.
We’ll be using position vectors a lot in our later discussions.

LOCUS 5
Section - 2 BASIC VECTOR OPERATIONS
You will be able understand the discussion that follows very clearly only if you try to visualise everything physically.
Everything about vectors will then automatically fall in place in your mind.
(A) ADDITION OF VECTORS : TRIANGLE / PARALLELOGRAM LAW

Most of you will already be very familiar with how to add vectors, from your study of physics.
" "
Consider two vectors a and b which we wish to add. Let
" " "
c = a +b
" " " "
Thus, c" should have the same effect as a and b combined. To find the combined effect of a and b ,
" "
we place the initial point of b on the end-point of a (or vice-versa):
→
b
A → B
a
Fig - 4
"
A person who starts at point A and walks first along a" and then along b will reach the point C. Thus, the
" " " " " !!!"
combined effect of a and b is to take the person from A to C, i.e, a + b = c should be the vector AC :
→ → → →
c → c = a+b
b
= AC
A → B
a
Fig - 5

LOCUS 6
" " "

In general, we see that to add two vectors, say a and b , we place the initial point of one of them, say b ,
" " " "
at the end-point of the other, i.e., a . The vector a + b is then the vector joining the tip of a to the
" " "
end-point of b . This is the triangle law of vector addition. a and b can equivalently be added using
the parallelogram law; we make the two vectors co-initial and complete the parallelogram with these two
vectors as its sides:
B C
Note that
→ →
→ BC= a
b →
AC= b
O → A
a
Fig - 6
!!!" " "
The vector OC then gives us the sum of a and b .
B C
→ →
b →+ b
a
O → A
a
Fig - 7
Note that the triangle and the parallelogram law are entirely equivalent; they are two slightly different
forms of the same fundamental principle.
We note the following straightforward facts about addition.
"
(a) Existence of identity: For any vector a ,
" " "
a +0 = a
"
so that 0 vector is the additive identity.
"
(b) Existence of inverse: For any vector a ,
" " "
a + ( −a ) = 0
and thus an additive inverse exists for every vector.
" "
(c) Commutativity: Addition is commutative; for any two arbitrary vectors a and b ,
" " " "
a+b= b +a
LOCUS 7
" " "

(d) Associativity: Addition is associative; for any three arbitrary vectors a , b and c ,
" " " " "

( ) ( "
a + b +c = a +b + c )
i.e, the order of addition does not matter.
Verify this explicitly by drawing a vector diagram and using the triangle / parallelogram
law of addition.
(B) SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS : An extension of addition

" " "
Consider two vectors a and b ; we wish to find c such that
" " "
c = a −b
We can slightly modify this relation and write it as
"
" "
c = a + −b( )
" "
and thus subtraction can be treated as addition. To do this, we first reverse the vector b to obtain − b
" "
and then use the triangle / parallelogram law of addition to add the vector a and (– b ):
→
a− →
→ b (i) Reverse b to obtain –b
b →
b
(ii) Add a and (-b) to obtain a – b
→ OR
a
(i) Make a and b co-initial.
(ii) Join the tip of b to the tip of a to

→ −b
a− → obtain a – b
b
Fig - 8
" " " " " "

Joining the tip of b to the tip of a (if a and b are co-initial) also gives us a − b .

LOCUS 8
" " "

Note that from the triangle law, it follows that for three vectors a , b and c representing the sides of a
triangle as shown,
→
b
→
c
→
a
Fig - 9
we must have
" " " "
a +b +c = 0
"
In fact, for the vectors ai , i = 1, 2.....n, representing the sides of an n-sided polygon as shown,
→
a4
→
a3
→ →
an → a2
a1
Fig - 10
we must have
" " " "
a1 + a2 + ....... + an = 0
since the net effect of all vectors is to bring us back from where we started, and thus our net displacement
is the zero vector.
Example – 1
" "
From any two vectors a and b , prove that
" " " " " " " " " " " "
(i) a +b ≤ a + b (ii) a −b ≤ a + b (iii) a +b ≥ a − b
When does the equality hold in these cases?

LOCUS 9
Solution: Consider this figure:

C
→ →
→a + b b
→
a
A B
–b
→
a →
−
b
C'
Fig - 11
The first two relations follow from the fact that in any triangle, the sum of two sides is greater than the
third side:
In ∆ ABC: AC ≤ AB + BC (we’ll soon talk about how and when the equality comes)
" " " "
⇒ a +b ≤ a + b
In ∆ ABC ': AC ' ≤ AB + BC ' = AB + BC

" " " "
⇒ a −b ≤ a + b
In the first relation, the equality can hold only if the two vectors have the same direction; this should be
intuitively obvious:
→ →
|a + b| = OB
→ →
a b = OA + AB
O A B → →
=|a|+|b|
Fig - 12
The equality in the second relation holds if the two vectors are exactly opposite:
→ → → →
→ |a – b| = |a + (–b)|
a
O A
= |OB' |
B → B'
→ A = |OA + AB'|
b –b
→ →
=|a|+|b|
Fig - 13

LOCUS 10
To prove the third relation, we use in ∆ABC in Fig - 11, the geometrical fact that the difference of any
two sides of a triangle is less than its third side:
AB − BC ≤ AC
" " " "
⇒ a − b ≤ a +b
" "
The equality holds when a and b are precisely in the opposite direction
→ →
|a + b| = |OA + AB|
→
O a
A = |OB|
B
B A = |OA – AB|
→
b → →
= || a | – | b ||
Fig - 14
The main point to understand from this example is how easily vector relations follows from corresponding
geometrical facts.
Example – 2
" "
Suppose that the vectors a and b represent two adjacent sides of a regular hexagon. Find the vectors representing
the other sides.
Solution: Let the hexagon be A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 , as shown:
A5 A4
A6 A3
→
b
A1 → A2
a
Fig - 15
First of all, we note an important geometrical property of a regular hexagon:

Diagonal = 2 × side
⇒ A1A 4 = 2 × A2A3
Also, since A1A4 || A2 A3, we have
!!!!!" !!!!!"
A1 A4 = 2 × A2 A3
"
= 2b
LOCUS 11
Now we use the triangle law to determine the various sides:

!!!!!" !!!!!" !!!!"
A3 A4 = A1 A4 − A1 A3
" " "
= (
2b − a + b )
" "
= b −a
!!!!!" "
A4 A5 = – a (only the sense differs; support is parallel to
"
the support of a )
!!!!!" !!!!!"
A5 A6 = − A2 A3
"
= –b
!!!!" !!!!!"
A6 A1 = − A3 A4
= " "
a −b
" "
Thus, all sides are expressible in terms of a and b .
Example – 3
" "
What can be interpreted about a and b if they satisfy the relation:
" " " "
a +b = a −b
" "
Solution: Make a and b co-initial so that they form the adjacent sides of a parallelogram:
B C
→
b
O → A
a
Fig - 16
We have,
" " !!!"
a + b = OC = OC
" " !!!"

and a − b = BA = BA
Thus, the stated relation implies that the two diagonals of the parallelogram OACB are equal, which
can only happen if OACB is a rectangle.
" " " "
This implies that a and b form the adjacent sides of a rectangle. In other words, a and b are
perpendicular to each other.
LOCUS 12
(C) MULTIPLICATION OF A VECTOR BY A SCALAR

"
Intuitively, we can expect that if we multiply a vector a by some scalar λ , the support of the vector will
not change; only its magnitude and / or its sense will. Specifically, if λ is positive, the vector will have the
same direction; only its length will get scaled according to the magnitude of λ . If λ is negative, the
direction of the product vector will be opposite to that of the original vector; the length of the product
vector will depend on the magnitude of λ .
→ →
a a
→
λa →
λa
λ>0 λ<0
Fig - 17
" "
Note that for any vector a , if we denote the unit vector along a by â , we have
" "
a = a aˆ
"
Put in words, if we multiply the unit vector along a vector a by its magnitude, we obtain that vector itself.
Put in a slightly different way, we have
"
a
aˆ = "
a
i.e, if we divide a vector by its magnitude, we obtain the unit vector along that vector’s direction.
" "
Another very important result that follows from this discussion is that two vectors a and b are collinear
if and only if there exists some λ ∈ # such that
" "
a = λb Collinear vectors
i.e, two vectors are collinear if one can be obtained from the other simply by multiplying the latter with a
scalar.
" "
This fact can be stated in another way : consider two non-collinear vectors a and b . If for some λ , µ ∈ # ,
the relation
" " "
λ a + µb = 0 ... (1)
is satisfied, then λ and µ must be zero. This is because (1) can be written as
"  µ"
a =  − b
 λ

LOCUS 13
" " " "

which would imply that a is a scalar multiple of b , i.e., a and b are collinear, contradicting our initial
" "
supposition that a and b are non-collinear.
In subsequent discussions, we’ll be talking a lot about linear combinations of vectors. Let us see what
" " "
we mean by this. Consider n arbitrary vectors a1 , a2 ......an . A linear combination of these n vectors is a
vector r" such that
" " " "
r = λ1a1 + λ2 a2 + ...... + λn an ... (2)
where λ1 , λ2 ....λn ∈ # are arbitrary scalars. Any sort of combination of the form in (2) will be termed a
linear combination.
Thus, using the terminology of linear combinations, we can restate the result we obtained earlier: for any
" "
two non-zero and non-collinear vectors a and b , if their linear combination is zero, then both the scalars
in the linear combination must be zero.
We now come to a very important concept.
THE BASIS OF A VECTOR SPACE

" "
Consider a two-dimensional plane, and any two arbitrary non-collinear vectors a and b in this plane. We make
the two vectors co-initial and use their supports as our reference axes:
A reference axes formed

by two arbitrary
→ non-collinear vectors
b
→
a
Fig - 18
" " "
Observe carefully that any vector r in the plane can be represented in terms of a and b . We find the components
" " " " "
of r along the directions of a and b ; those components must be some scalar multiples of a and b .
→
B C r = OC
= OA + OB
→
r →
→ = λ→
a + µb
b
for some λ, µŒ#
O → A
a
Fig - 19

LOCUS 14
Thus, any vector r" in the plane can be written as

" " "
r = λ a + µb for some λ , µ ∈ # ... (1)
" "
i.e, any vector r" in the plane can be expressed as a linear combination of a and b .
" "
We state this fact in mathematical terms as follows: the vectors a and b form a basis of our vector space (which
" "
is a plane in this case). The term “basis” means that using only a and b , we can construct any vector lying in the
" "
plane of a and b .
" "
Note that there’s nothing special about a and b ; any two non-collinear vectors can form a basis for the plane.
You must be very clear on the point that two collinear vectors cannot form the basis for a plane while any two
non-collinear vectors can. Understanding this fact is very crucial to later discussions.
" " " " "
Try proving this: let a and b form the basis of a plane. For any vector r in the plane of a and b , we can find
scalars λ , µ ∈ # such that
" " "
r = λ a + µb
Prove that this representation is unique.
The basic principle that we’ve learnt in this discussion can be expressed in a very useful way as follows:
Three vectors are coplanar if and only if one of them can be expressed as a linear
" " "
combination of the other two. i.e., three vectors a , b , c are coplanar if there exist scalars
l1 , l2 ∈ # such that
" " "

a = l1b + l2 c
We can write this as
" " " "
(1) a + ( −l1 ) b + ( −l2 ) c = 0
" " "
⇒ λ a + µb + γ c = 0
This form equivalently tells us that three vectors are coplanar if we can find three scalars
λ , µ , γ ∈ # for which their linear combination is zero.
Example – 4
" " " "
("
)
Suppose that for three non-zero vectors a , b , c , any two of them are non-collinear. If the vectors a + 2b and
" "
"
( ) "
c are collinear and the vectors b + 3c and a are collinear, prove that
" " " "

a + 2b + 6c = 0

LOCUS 15
Solution: We must have some λ , µ ∈ # such that

" " "
a + 2b = λ c ... (1)
" " "
b + 3c = µ a ... (2)
From (1), we have

"
" 1 "
c=
λ
(
a + 2b ) ... (3)
We use this in (2) :

" 3 " "
( )
"
b + a + 2b = µ a
λ
3 "  6" "

⇒  − µ  a + 1 +  b = 0
λ   λ
" "
Since a and b are non-collinear, their linear combination can be zero if and only if the two scalars
are zero.
This gives
3
−µ =0
λ
6
1+ =0
λ
1
⇒ λ = −6, µ = −
2
Using the value of λ in (3), we have

" " "
a + 2b + 6c = 0
____________________________________________________________________________________

LOCUS 16
In the preceeding discussion, we talked about the basis of a plane. We can easily extend that discussion to observe
that any three non-coplanar vectors can form a basis of three dimensional space:
→
R r = OS = OP + OQ + OR
→ →
= λ→
a + µb + γc
→
r for some
→ Q λ, µ, γ ∈!
c
→
b
O →
a P
Fig - 20
"
In other words, any vector r in 3-D space can be expressed as a linear combination of three arbitrary
" " "
non-coplanar vectors. From this, it also follows that for three non-coplanar vectors a , b , c , if their linear combination
is zero, i.e, if
" " " "
λ a + µb + γ c = 0 ( where λ , µ , γ ∈ # )
then λ , µ and γ must all be zero. To prove this, assume the contrary. Then, we have
"  µ "  γ "

a =  − b +  − c
 λ  λ
" " " " " "
which means that a can be written as the linear combination of b and c . However, this would make a , b and c
coplanar, contradicting our initial supposition. Thus, λ , µ and γ must be zero.
We finally come to what we mean by linearly independent and linearly dependent vectors.
" " " "
Linearly independent : A set of non-zero vectors a1 , a2 , a3 ...., an is said to be linearly independent if
vectors
" " " "
λ1a1 + λ2 a2 + ... + λn an = 0
implies λ1 = λ2 = .... = λn = 0
Thus, a linear combination of linearly independent vectors cannot be zero unless all the
scalars used to form the linear combination are zero.
" " " "
Linearly dependent A set of non-zero vectors a1 , a2 , a3 ,...., an is said to be linearly dependent if there exist
vectors: scalars λ1 , λ2 ....λn , not all zero such that,
" " " "
λ1a1 + λ2 a2 + ..... + λn an = 0

LOCUS 17
For example, based on our previous discussions, we see that

(i) Two non-zero, non-collinear vectors are linearly independent.
(ii) Two collinear vectors are linearly dependent
(iii) Three non-zero, non-coplanar vectors are linearly independent.
(iv) Three coplanar vectors are linearly dependent
(v) Any four vectors in 3-D space are linearly dependent.
You are urged to prove for yourself all these assertions.
Example – 5
" " " " " " " " " " " "
Let a1 , b and c be non-coplanar vectors. Are the vectors 2a − b + 3c , a + b − 2c and a + b − 3c coplanar or
non-coplanar?
Solution: Three vectors are coplanar if there exist scalars λ , µ ∈ # using which one vector can be expressed
as the linear combination of the other two.
Let us try to find such scalars:
" " " " " " " "
( "
) (
2a − b + 3c = λ a + b − 2c + µ a + b − 3c )
" " " "
⇒ ( 2 − λ − µ ) a + ( − 1 − λ − µ ) b + ( 3 + 2λ + 3µ ) c = 0
" " "
Since a , b , c are non-coplanar, we must have
2−λ −µ = 0
−1 − λ − µ = 0
3 + 2λ + 3µ = 0
This system, as can be easily verified , does not have a solution for λ and µ .
Thus, we cannot find scalars for which one vector can be expressed as the linear combination of the
other two, implying the three vectors must be non-coplanar.
" " "
As an additional exercise, show that for three non-coplanar vectors a , b and c , the vectors
" " " " " " " " "
a − 2b + 3c , a − 3b + 5c and −2a − 3b − 4c are coplanar.

LOCUS 18
RESOLUTION OF A VECTOR IN A GIVEN BASIS
" "
Consider two non-collinear vectors a and b ; as discussed earlier, these will form a basis of the plane in which
" " " " "
they lie. Any vector r in the plane of a and b can be expressed as a linear combination of a and b :
→
r
→
b
O → A
a
Fig - 21
" !!!" !!!"

r = OA + OB
" "
= λ a + µb for some λ , µ ∈ #
!!!" !!!" " "
The vectors OA and OB are called the components of the vector r" along the basis formed by a and b . This
" " "
is also stated by saying that the vector r when resolved along the basis formed by a and b , gives the components
!!!" !!!"
OA and OB . Also, as discussed earlier, the resolution of any vector along a given basis will be unique.
We can extend this to the three dimensional case: an arbitrary vector can be resolved along the basis formed by
any three non-coplanar vectors, giving us three corresponding components. Refer to Fig - 20 for a visual picture.
RECTANGULAR RESOLUTION
Let us select as the basis for a plane, a pair of unit vector iˆ and ˆj perpendicular to each other.
Let θ be the angle that

B →
r makes with ^ i
→
⇒ OA =| r | cosθ
→ →
r
OB =| r | sinθ
^j
θ
O ^
i A
Fig - 22

LOCUS 19
"
Any vector r in this basis can be written as
" !!!" !!!"
r = OA + OB
" "
= ( r cos θ ) iˆ + ( r sin θ ) ˆj
= xiˆ + yjˆ
"
where x and y are referred to as the x and y components of r .
For 3-D space, we select three unit vectors iˆ, ˆj and kˆ each perpendicular to the other two.
^j
→
r
O
^
i
^
k
Fig - 23
"
In this case, any vector r will have three corresponding components, generally denoted by x, y and z. We thus
have
"
r = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ
The basis ( iˆ, ˆj ) for the two dimensional case and ( iˆ, ˆj , kˆ ) for the three-dimensional case are referred to as
rectangular basis and are extremely convenient to work with. Unless otherwise stated, we’ll always be using a
rectangular basis from now on. Also, we’ll always be implicitly assuming that we’re working in three dimensions
since that automatically covers the two dimensional case.

LOCUS 20
MAGNITUDE, DIRECTION COSINES AND DIRECTION RATIOS

Consider a vector
"
as shown in the figure below:
Y
r x
X
z
Z
Fig - 24
The magnitude or r" is simply the length of the diagonal of the cuboid whose sides are x, y and z. Thus
"
r = x2 + y2 + z2 ... (1)
"
Suppose r makes angles α , β and λ with the X, Y and Z axis, as shown:
Y
→
r
β
γ α
X
Fig - 25
Z
Then the quantities
l = cos α
m = cos β
n = cos γ
are called the direction cosines of r" (abbreviated as DCs. The DCs uniquely determine the direction of the
vector. Note that since
"
LOCUS 21
we have
" "
x = r cos α = l r
" "
y = r cos β = m r
" "
z = r cos γ = n r
"2
⇒ x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = (l 2 + m 2 + n 2 ) r
From (1), this gives
l 2 + m2 + n2 = 1
"
We can also infer from this discussion that the unit vector r̂ along r can be written as
"
r xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ
rˆ = " = "
r r
= liˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ

Direction ratios (DRs) of a vector are simply three numbers, say a, b and c, which are proportional to the
DCs, i.e
l m n
= =
a b c
It follows that DRs are not uniqe (DCs obviously are)
From a set of DRs {a, b, c}, the DCs can easily be deduced:
l m n l 2 + m2 + n2 1
= = = =
2
a b c a +b +c
2 2
a + b2 + c 2
2
a b c
⇒ l= ,m = ,n =
2 2
a +b +c
2 2
a +b +c
2 2
a + b 2 + c2
2
______________________________________________________________________________________
Before we go on to solving examples involving the concepts we’ve seen till now, you are urged to once again go
over the entire earlier discussion we’ve had, so that the “big picture” is clear in your mind.
Example – 6
Show that the vectors iˆ − 3 ˆj + 2kˆ, 2iˆ − 4kˆ − 4kˆ and 3iˆ + 2 ˆj − kˆ are linearly independent.

LOCUS 22
Solution: Let λ , µ , γ ∈ # be scalars such that

"
( ) ( ) ( )
λ iˆ − 3 ˆj + 2kˆ + µ 2iˆ − 4 ˆj − 4kˆ + γ 3iˆ + 2 ˆj − kˆ = 0
"
⇒ (λ + 2µ + 3γ ) iˆ + ( −3λ − 4µ + 2γ ) ˆj + ( 2λ − 4µ − γ ) kˆ = 0
λ + 2µ + 3γ = 0 

⇒ −3λ − 4 µ + 2γ = 0 
... (1)
2λ − 4µ − γ = 0 
The determined of the coefficient matrix is
1 2 3
−3 −4 2 ≠ 0
2 −4 −1
Thus, the system of equations in(1) has no solution for λ , µ and γ apart from the trivial solution
λ = µ = γ = 0. This implies that the three vectors are linearly independent.
Example – 7 COLLINEARITY OF POINTS

" " " " " " "
"
( ) (
Let a , b and c be three non-coplanar vectors. Prove that the points A 2a + b − c , B 5a − b + 2c and )
" " "
( ) "
C 8a − 3b + 5c are collinear. When we say the point P ( p ) , we mean the point whose position vector, i.e, the
!!!" "
vector drawn from the origin O to that point, OP, is p .
Solution: We have been given the position vectors of three points and we are required to prove that they are
collinear. Let us see what condition must be satisfied in order for three points to be collinear:
A B C
Three points A, B
and C, whose
position vectors are
→ → →
OA, OB and OC
respectively, will be
collinear if
→ →
O BC = λ AB
(origin) for some λ ∈ !
Fig - 26

LOCUS 23
Thus, there must be some λ ∈ # for which

!!!" !!!"
BC = λ AB
!!!" !!!" !!!" !!!"
⇒ (
OC − OB = λ OB − OA )
!!!" !!!" !!!" "
⇒ λ OA − (1 + λ ) OB + OC = 0
" " " " " " " " "

⇒ ( ) ( "
) (
λ 2a + b − c − (1 + λ ) 5a − b + 2c + 8a − 3b + 5c = 0 )
" " " "
⇒ (3 − 3λ ) a + ( 2λ − 2 ) b + (3 − 3λ ) c = 0
" " "
Since a , b and c are non-coplanar, we have
3 − 3λ = 0
2λ − 2 = 0
3 − 3λ = 0
This consistently gives the solution λ = 1 , implying A, B and C are collinear.
Example – 8
" " " " "
" "
( )
Let a , b and c be three non-coplanar vectors. Prove that the points A 2a + 3b − c , B a" − 2b − 3c" ,
"
( )
"
( " "
) (
" "
)
C 3a + 4b − 2c and D a − 6b + 6c are coplanar.
Solution: As in the previous example, we first draw a visual picture to determine when four points can be
coplanar.
B
Draw the vectors
→ →
AB and AD and the plane
passing through the two vectors.
For C to lie in this plane,
→
A C AC must be coplanar with
→ →
AB and AD ⇒ AC must be
D expressible as a linear combination
→ →
of AB and AD
Fig - 27
Thus, as explained in the figure, we must have some scalars λ , µ ∈ # for which

LOCUS 24
!!!" !!!" !!!"
AC = λ AB + µ AD
!!!" !!!" !!!" !!!" !!!" !!!"
⇒ (OC − OA) = λ (OB − OA) + µ (OD − OA) {O is the origin}
" " " " "

⇒
"
( " "
) ( "
a + b − c = λ −a − 5b + 4c + µ −a − 9b + 7c )
" " " "
⇒ (1 + λ + µ ) a + (1 + 5λ + 9µ ) b + ( −1 − 4λ − 7 µ ) c = 0
" " "
Since a , b and c are non-coplanar, we must have
1+ λ + µ = 0
1 + 5λ + 9 µ = 0
1 + 4λ + 7 µ = 0
!!!" !!!" !!!"
As can be easily verified, this system has the solution λ = −2, µ = 1, implying AB, AC and AD are
indeed coplanar.
Thus, the points A, B, C and D are coplanar.
Example – 9 SECTION FORMULA

"
"
()
Let A ( a ) and B b be two fixed points. Find the position vectors of the points lying on the (extended) line AB
which divide the segment internally and externally in the ratio m : n.
Solution: We consider internal division; the external division case follows analogously.
"
Let C (c ) be the point which divides AB internally in the ratio m : n.
n B
m :
C
A
→ →
c b
→
a
O
Fig - 28

LOCUS 25
We have,
!!!" m !!!"
AC = AB
m+n
!!!" !!!" !!!" !!!"

⇒ (OC − OA) = mm+ n ( OB − OA)
" "
⇒
" "
c −a =
m
m+n
(
b −a )
" "
" mb + na
⇒ c=
m+n
"
Similarly, the point D ( d ) which divides AB externally in the ratio m : n is given by
"
" mb − na"
d=
m−n
" "
" " a+b
A particular case of internal division is the mid-point of A( a ) and B (b ) : the mid-point is ,
2
Example – 10
Show by vector methods that the angular bisectors of a triangle are concurrent and find the position of the point of
concurrency in terms of the position vectors of the vertices.
" " "
Solution: Let the vertices of the triangle by A ( a ) , B (b ) and C (c ) . We use the geometrical fact that an angle
bisector divides the opposite side in the ratio of the sides containing the angle.
A (a )
Let the sides be

z y of lengths x, y and z.
Draw the bisectors
of angles A and B.
I Suppose they meet in I.
B (b) C (c )
D
x
Fig - 29

LOCUS 26
We thus have,
BD c
=
DC b
Thus, D is given by (the internal division formula):
" "
zc + yb
D≡
z+ y
In ∆ ABD, since BI is the angle bisector, we have
z
x
DI BD z + y x
= = =
IA BA z z+ y
Thus, we now have the position vectors of A and D we know what ratio I divides AD in. I can now be
easily determined using the internal division formula:
" "
"  zc + yb 
xa + ( x + y )  
 z+y 
I≡
x+ z+ y
" " "
xa + yb + zc
= ... (1)
x+ y+ z
The symmetrical nature of this expression proves that the bisector of C will also pass through I. The
angle bisectors will therefore be concurrent at I, called the incentre. The position vector of the incentre
is given by (1).
Example – 11
In a parallelogram ABCD, let M be the mid-point of AB. AC and MD meet in E. Prove that both AC and MD are
trisected at E.
Solution:
D C
We need to prove that

AE ME 1
= =
EC ED 2
E
A M B
Fig - 30

LOCUS 27
"
There’s no loss of generality in assuming A to be the origin (0) . Let B and C have the position vectors
" " !!!"
b and c . The position vector of D is given by AD where
!!!" !!!" !!!"
AD = AC + CD
" !!!"
= c − AB
" "
= c −b
" "
D is therefore the point c − b .
"
b
Since M is the mid-point of AB, M's position vector is . Let us first find the position vector of a
2
point E' which lies on AC and trisects it. We’ll then show that same point lies on DM and trisects on
DM and trisects it too, proving the stated assertion.
" " "
1× c + 2 × 0 c
E'≡ =
3 3
A point E'' which trisects MD is
"
" "
b
2 × + 1× c − b
2
( ) "
c
E'≡ =
3 3
Since E' and E'' are the same-point, say E, we see that AC and MD are trisected at E.
Example – 12
Prove that the lines joining the vertices of a tetrahedron to the centroids of the opposite faces are concurrent.
Solution: It is in this example that the powerful nature of vector algebra will become apparent; this is a 3-D
problem and any other methods of proving the assertion will be extremely cumbersome. For those of
you who are more mathematically inclined, you can try proving the assertion using already known
methods.
First of all, we need to know how to write the position vector of the centroid of a triangle in terms of
the position vectors of its vertices.
A (a )
Recall that the centroid

F E divides any median in
the ration 2 : 1
G Thus,
AG 1
=
GD 2
B (b) C (c )
D
Fig - 31
LOCUS 28
Since D is the mid-point of BC, we have

" "
b +c
D≡
2
Since AG : GD = 2 : 1, we can now determine G:
" "
b +c  "
2×  + 1× a " " "
G≡  2  =
a +b +c
2 +1 3
" " " "
We now consider a tetrahedron, say, with the vertices A ( a ) , B(b ), C ( c ) and D ( d ) .
D (d )
G is the centroid
of ∆ BCD
G
C (c )
A (a)
B (b)
Fig - 32
Consider the centroid of ∆BCD , say G, which will be given by

" " "
b +c +d
G≡
3
Now, pause and think about the assertion we are required to prove. If the four lines are indeed
concurrent, the point of concurrency must be given by a position vector which has a ‘symmetrical’
expression with respect to all the four vertices. Can you find a point on the segment AG which has a
symmetrical expression with respect to the four vertices?
A little thought will show that the answer is yes: consider the point P which divides AG in the
ratio 3: 1. P will be given by
" " "
b +c +d  "
3×   + 1× a " " " "
 3  a +b +c +d
P≡ =
3 +1 4
It is immediately apparent now that P lies on each of the four lines joining the vertices to centroids of
the opposite faces! In addition, we’ve also been able to find the position vector of P in terms of the
position vectors of the four vertices of the tetrahedron.

LOCUS 29
Example – 13
!!!" " !!!" " !!" " "

In a quadrilateral PQRS, PQ = a , QR = b and SP = a − b . If M is the mid-point of QR and X is a point on SM
such that SX : SM = 4 : 5, prove that P, X and R collinear.
Solution: Since no position vectors have been specified in the question (only the sides have been specified),
"
there is no loss of generality in assuming that P is the origin 0 .
R (a + b )
S ( b – a)
Note how the position vectors
X of the vertices of the quadrilateral
M have been specified. X is a point
such that SX : SM = 4 : 5
(Diagram not to scale)
Thus, SX : XM = 4 : 1
P (O) Q (a )
Fig - 33
We have,
" " "
M≡
(
a + a +b ) = a" + b"
2 2
"
" b " "
4 ×  a +  + 1× b − a
2 " ( "
3a + 3b
)
⇒ X≡  =
4 +1 5
3 " "
⇒ X≡
5
(
a +b )
Thus,
!!!" 3 !!!"
PX = PR
5
implying that P, X and R are collinear.

LOCUS 30
Example – 14
It is known that in a ∆ABC with centroid G, circumcentre O and orthocentre H,
OG : GH = 1: 2
Let P be any point in the plane of ∆ABC . Prove the following assertions:
!!!" !!!" !!!" !!!!" !!!" !!!" !!!" !!!" !!!" !!!" !!!" !!!"
(a) OG + OB + OC = OH (b) HA + HB + HC = 2 HO (c) PA + PB + PC = 3 PG
Solution:
C
Let D, E and F be the

H mid-points of
E D BC, CA and AB
G
respectively
O
A B
F
Fig - 34
!!!" !!!" !!!" !!!" !!!" !!!"
(
(a) OA + OB + OC = OA + OB + OC )
!!!" !!!"
= OA + 2OD (Since D is BC' s mid-point)
!!!"
= 3OG (Since G lies on AD and divides it in the ratio 2 : 1)
!!!!"
= OH (Since O, G and H are collinear and OH = 3OG)
!!!" !!!" !!!" !!!" !!!" !!!"
(b) HA + HB + HC = HA + HB + HC ( )
!!!" !!!"
= HA + 2 HD
!!!"
= 3HG (Same logic as above)
2 !!!"
= 3 × HO (again, same as above)
3
!!!"
= 2HO
(c) For any arbitrary point P in the plane of ∆ABC , we have
!!!" !!!" !!!" !!!" !!!" !!!"
(
PA + PB + PC = PA + PB + PC )
!!!" !!!"
= PA + 2 PD
!!!"
= 3PG
Go over the solution again if you find any part of it confusing.
LOCUS 31
Example – 15
Justify the following tests for collinearity and coplanarity

" " "
(a) Three points with position vectors a , b , c are collinear iff there exist scalars p, q, r not all zero such that
" " " "
pa + qb + rc = 0
where p + q + r = 0
" " " "
(b) Four points with position vectors a , b , c , d are coplanar iff there exist scalars p, q, r, s not all zero such
that
" " " " "
pa + qb + rc + sd = 0
where p + q + r + s = 0
Solution: There is nothing new in these tests; we’ve already seen their justification in the discussion preceeding
the examples. These tests are just the same facts put into slightly different language.
(a) Since p + q + r = 0, we have r = – ( p + q )
Assume r ≠ 0
" " " "
Now, pa + qb + rc = 0
" " " "
⇒ pa + qb − ( p + q ) c = 0
" "
" pa + qb
⇒ c=
p+q
" " "
This implies that c is the position vector of a point which divides the points a and b in the ratio
" " "
p : q. Thus, the points a , b and c are collinear.
" " "
Now, we prove the other way implication, i.e, we first assume that points a , b and c are collinear:
" " " "
⇒ b − a = λ (c − a )
" " " "

⇒ (1 − λ ) a + ( −1) b + (λ ) c = 0
" " " "
⇒ pa + qb + rc = 0
where p + q + r = (1 − λ ) + ( −1) + ( λ ) = 0
This completes our proof.

LOCUS 32
(b) Again, first assume the existence of scalars p, q, r, s such that
p+q+r+s =0
⇒ s = −( p + q + r)
Now,
" " " " "
pa + qb + rc + sd = 0
" " " " "
⇒ pa + qb + rc − ( p + q + r ) d = 0
" " " " " " "

⇒ ( ) (
p a −d +q b −d +r c −d = 0 ) ( )
Assuming p ≠ 0, we have
" " " "
(a" − d ) =  − qp  (b − d ) +  − rp  (c" − d )
" " " "
( ) (
= λ b −d +µ c −d )
" " " " " "
( )
That a − d can be written as a linear combination of the vectors b − d and c − d implies ( ) ( )
" " " " " "
( ) ( ) (
that a − d , b − d and c − d are coplanar. )
" " " "
⇒ Points with position vectors a , b , c , d are coplanar.
" "
" "
()
Now lets prove the other way implication. Assume that A ( a ) , B b , C (c ) and D d are coplanar( )
points. Thus, there must exist scalars λ , µ such that
!!!" !!!" !!!"
AB = λ AC + µ AD
" "
⇒ (b − a" ) = λ (c" − a" ) + µ (d − a" )
" " " " "
⇒ (λ + µ − 1) a + (1) b + ( −λ ) c + ( − µ ) d = 0
" " " " "
⇒ pa + qb + rc + sd = 0
where p + q + r + s = ( λ + µ − 1) + (1) + ( −λ ) + ( − µ )
=0
This completes the second proof.

LOCUS 33
Example – 16
If any point O inside or outside a tetrahedron ABCD is joined to the vertices and AO, BO, CO, DO are produced
so as to cut the planes of the opposite faces in P, Q, R, S respectively, prove that
OP OQ OR OS
+ + + =1
AP BQ CR DS
" " " "
Solution: Assume O to be the origin, and the position vectors of A, B, C, D to be a , b , c , d respectively.
" " " "
Since a , b , c , d are non-coplanar vectors, we must have scalars λ1 , λ2 , λ3 , λ4 such that (Page 17)
" " " " "
λ1a + λ2b + λ3c + λ4 d = 0 ... (1)
!!!" !!!"
Since AO is produced to meet the plane of the opposite face in P, AO and OP must be collinear
vectors. Thus,
!!!" !!!"
AO = µ OP for some µ ∈ #
" !!!"
⇒ − a = µ OP
" "
=µp ( p is the position vector of P)
This when used in (1) gives
" " " " "
( − µλ1 ) p + λ2b + λ3c + λ4 d = 0
However, since B, C, D and P will be coplanar, we have, using the result of the last example,
− µλ1 + λ2 + λ3 + λ4 = 0
λ1
⇒ µ=
λ2 + λ3 + λ4
!!!"
OP OP µ
⇒ = !!!" = (From (2))
AP AP 1 + µ
λ1
=
λ1 + λ2 + λ3 + λ4
λ1
=
∑ λi
We similarly have,
OQ λ OR λ OS λ
= 2 , = 3 , = 4
BQ ∑ λi CR ∑ λi DS ∑ λi
OP OQ OR OS
⇒ + + + =1
AP BQ CR DS

LOCUS 34
TRY YOURSELF - I
Q. 1 If the points with position vectors 60iˆ + 3 ˆj , 40iˆ − 8 ˆj and aiˆ − 52 ˆj are collinear, find a.
" " " " " "

Q. 2 Let a , b , c be three non-coplanar vectors. Prove that the points with position vectors a − 2b + 3c ,
" " " " "
2a + 3b − 4c and −7b + 10c are collinear.
Q. 3 Find a point P within a quadrilateral ABCD such that

!!!" !!!" !!!" !!!" "
PA + PB + PC + PD = 0
Q. 4 ABCD is a parallelogram. Let L and M be the mid-points of BC and CD respectively. Prove that
!!!" !!!!" 3 !!!"
AL + AM = AC
2
Q. 5 Prove that the line segments joining the mid-points of the adjacent sides of a quadrilateral form a
parallelogram.
Q. 6 Prove that the line segment joining the mid-points of the diagonals of a trapezium is parallel to the parallel
sides and equal to half of their difference.
Q. 7 Let ABCD be a quadrilateral and E and F be the mid-points of AC and BD respectively. Prove that
!!!" !!!" !!!" !!!" !!!"
AB + AD + CB + CD = 4 EF
" " " " " " " " "

Q. 8 Let a , b , c be non-coplanar vectors. Prove that the three vectors 3a − 7b − 4c , a + b + 2c and
" " "
3a − 2b + c are coplanar
" " " " " "

Q. 9 Let a , b , c from a linearly independent system of vectors. Show that the system of vectors ma + b + c ,
" " " " " "
a + mb + c and a + b + mc form a linearly independent system iff m = –2.
Q. 10 In ∆ABC , the point D lies on AC such that AD : DC = 2 : 1. BD is produced to F such that DF = 2BD
. Prove that AF is parallel to BC and is equal to 2BD.

LOCUS 35
Section - 3 DOT PRODUCT
We have already seen the addition and subtraction of vectors. In this section, we’ll understand how we can define
the product of two vectors.
Before formally defining the dot product, let us try to understand why (such a) product is required at all.
"
Consider a force F acting on a block M at an angle θ to the horizontal.
→
F
θ
M
Fig - 35
This block, as an effect of the force, is displaced through a horizontal distance s. We can denote the displacement
by the vector s" , which has a horizontal direction and has a magnitude s.
→ →
F F
→
θ s
M
Fig - 36
In physics, you must have studied the concept of the work done by a force. This work done is the maximum if the
force and the displacement caused by it are in the same direction, and zero if the force and the displacement are
" "
perpendicular. This suggests that we must consider the component of F along s to evaluate its work done.
" " "
From the figure above, the component of F along the direction of s is F cos θ . The work done will then be
" "
W = F s cos θ ...(1)
We denote the right hand side of (1) by the dot product notation.
" " " "
W = F s cos θ = F ⋅ s
" "
In general, for two vectors a and b inclined at an angle θ to each other, their dot product P is defined as
" " " "
P = a ⋅ b = a b cos θ

LOCUS 36
It is very important to understand that P is a scalar quantity.

You can think of P in this way: it is a measure of the “effect” of one vector along the other. For two vectors of fixed
π π
magnitude , their dot product will decrease in magnitude as θ increases from 0 to (or decreases from π to ).
2 2
We can write P as
" " "
( "
)
P = a b cos θ = ( a cos θ ) b
Thus, P is the product of the modulus of either vector and the projection of the other in its direction.
From the definition of the dot product, we can make certain useful observations about its properties.
"
(i) The angle θ between two vectors a" and b is given by
" "
a ⋅b
cos θ = " "
a b
" " " "

(ii) a ⋅ b ≤ a b , the equality holding only if θ = 0 or π
" "
(iii) The projection of a on b is
" " "

a ⋅ b "  b  "
 = a ⋅ b$
pab = " = a ⋅ "
b  b 
 
" "
(iv) The projection of b on a is
" " "

a ⋅b  a  " $ "
pba = " =  "  ⋅ b = a ⋅ b
a  
a 
(v) Scalar product is commutative, i.e,

" " " "
a ⋅b = b ⋅ a
(vi) Scalar product is distributive, i.e
" " " " " " "
( )
a ⋅ b + c = a ⋅b + a ⋅c
" "
and (a" + b ) ⋅ c" = a" ⋅ c" + b ⋅ c"
(vi) The scalar product of two vectors is zero if and only if the two vectors are perpendicular.
This also gives
iˆ ⋅ ˆj = ˆj ⋅ iˆ = iˆ ⋅ kˆ = kˆ ⋅ iˆ = ˆj ⋅ kˆ = kˆ ⋅ ˆj = 0

LOCUS 37
(vii) For any vector a"
" " "2

a ⋅a = a
Thus,
iˆ ⋅ iˆ = ˆj ⋅ ˆj = kˆ ⋅ kˆ = 1
" "2 " " " "

(viii) a ± b = (a ± b ) ⋅ (a ± b )
"2 "2 " "

= a + b ± 2(a ⋅ b )
" " " " "2 "2

(a + b )(a − b ) = a − b
" "
(ix) This property is very important. If two vectors a and b have been specified in rectangular form, i.e.,
" "
a = a1 iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3 kˆ and b = b1 iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3 kˆ then
we have,
" "
( )(
a ⋅ b = a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3kˆ b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3kˆ )
= a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 {Using properties (vi) and (vii)}
" "
⇒ a ⋅ b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
" "
a ⋅b
The angle θ between the two vectors will be given by cos θ = " " :
a b
a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
⇒ cos θ =
a12 + a22 + a32 b12 + b22 + b32
(x)
"
The direction cosines l, m, n of a vector a will be given by
l = aˆ ⋅ iˆ, m = aˆ ⋅ ˆj , n = aˆ ⋅ kˆ
" " " " " "
(xi) Let r be a vector coplanar with the vectors a and b . If r" ⋅ a" = 0 and r ⋅ b = 0, this would imply that r
" " " "
is perpendicular to both a and b . This can only happen if a and b are collinear.
" " " "
Analogously, let r be an arbitrary vector and a , b , c be three vectors such that
" " " " " "
r ⋅ a = r ⋅b = r ⋅ c = 0
" " " " " " "
This means that r is perpendicular to each of a , b and c which can only happen if a , b and c are
coplanar.

LOCUS 38
" " " " " "

(xii) Let a , b , c be three non-coplanar vectors. We’ve already discussed that a , b , c can form a basis for
"
3-D space. Any vector r can be written in this basis as
" " " "
r = (r ⋅ aˆ )aˆ + (r ⋅ bˆ)bˆ + (r ⋅ cˆ)cˆ
"
 r" ⋅ a"  "  r" ⋅ b  "  r" ⋅ c"  "
=  " 2 a + " 2 b + " 2 c

 a   b   c 
     
This representation is of significant importance and you must understand how it comes about.
Example – 16
" "
Find the component of a vector b perpendicular to the vector a .
" " "
Solutions: We need to find r , the component of b perpendicular to a
→
b →
r
Q
P →
a
Fig - 37
We have
"
!!!"  b ⋅ a"  "
PQ =  " 2  a
 
 a 
" " !!!"
⇒ r = b − PQ
"
"  a" ⋅ b  "
= b − " 2 a
 
 a 
Example – 17
" " " " "
Let a , b and c" be three mutually perpendicular vectors of equal magnitude. Prove that the vector a + b + c is
equally inclined to each of the three vectors.

LOCUS 39
" " " "

Solutions: Let θa represent the angle between a and a + b + c . We have,
" " " "

a ⋅ (a + b + c )
cos θa = " " " "
a a +b +c
" " " " " "
a ⋅ a + a ⋅b + a ⋅c
=
" " " "2 ...(1)
a a +b +c
" " "
Let the magnitude of a , b and c be λ . Also since the three vectors are mutually perpendicular, we
" " " "
have a ⋅ b = a ⋅ c = 0 . Now,
" " "2 " " " " " "
a + b + c = ( a + b + c ) ⋅ (a + b + c )
" " " " " "
= a ⋅ a + b ⋅b + c ⋅c
= 3λ 2
Using these facts in (1), we have
λ2 1
cos θa = =
λ⋅ 3λ 3
" " "
It is easy to see that cos θb and cos θc will have the same value. Thus, a + b + c is equally inclined
" " "
to a , b and c .
Example – 18
Find the angle between the two diagonals of a cube.

Solutions:
y
Let us find the angle between

the diagonals OP and AB.
B P Note that the position vectors
of A, B and P are respectively
A ≡ a î
B ≡ a ^j + a ^k
O A P ≡ a î + a ^j + a ^k
x
where a is the side of the square
z
Fig - 38

LOCUS 40
We now have,
!!!" !!!"
OP ≡ aiˆ + ajˆ + akˆ ⇒ OP = 3a
!!!" !!!" !!!"
AB = OB − OA
!!!"
≡ − aiˆ + ajˆ + akˆ ⇒ AB = 3 a
Let θ denote the angle between OP and AB. Thus,

!!!" !!!"
OP ⋅ AB
cos θ = !!!" !!!"
OP AB
(aiˆ + ajˆ + akˆ) ⋅ (−aiˆ + ajˆ + akˆ)

=
( 3a) ( 3 a)
−a 2 + a 2 + a 2
=
3 a2
1
=
3
1
⇒ θ = cos −1
3
This is the angle between any two diagonals of (any) cube.
Example – 19
Let AD, BE and CF be the medians in ∆ABC . Prove that

!!!" !!!" !!!" !!!" !!!" !!!"
BC ⋅ AD + CA ⋅ BE + AB ⋅ CF = 0
Solutions:
→
A (a )
F E
→ →
B (b ) D C( c )
Fig - 39

LOCUS 41
Since D is the mid-point of BC, we have

" "
b +c 
D≡ 
 2 
!!!" " "
⇒ AD = (Position vector of D ) − (Position vector of A)
" "
b +c "
= −a
2
1 " " "

= (b + c − 2 a )
2
Thus,
!!!" !!!" 1 " " " " "
BC ⋅ AD = (c − b ) ⋅ (b + c − 2a )
2
=
2 (
1 "2 "2 " " "
c − b + 2a ⋅ (b − c ) ) ...(1)
Similarly,
!!!" !!!" 1 " 2 " 2 " " "
CA ⋅ BE =
2
(
a − c + 2b ⋅ (c − a ) ) ...(2)
( )
!!!" !!!" 1 " 2 " 2 " " "
AB ⋅ CF = b − a + 2c ⋅ ( a − b ) ...(3)
2
It is now immediately apparent that the right hand sides (1), (2) and (3) sum to zero. Thus, the stated
assertion is true.
Example – 20
Prove that the altitudes in a triangle are concurrent.

Solution: Assume the three vertices of the triangle to be A, B and C.
→
A (a )
E Draw the altitudes
AD and BE and
suppose they
→ intersect in H.
H(0)
If we prove that
CH is perpendicular
to AB, our task will be
accomplished.
→ →
B (b ) D C( c )
Fig - 40

LOCUS 42
" " " "

Assume H to be the origin 0 and A, B, C to have the position vectors a , b , c .
Since AH ⊥ BC , we have
" " "
a ⋅ (b − c ) = 0
" " " " ...(1)
⇒ a ⋅b = a ⋅c
Similarly, since BH ⊥ AC ,
" " "
b ⋅ (c − a ) = 0
" " " " ...(2)
⇒ a ⋅b = b ⋅c
From (1) and (2), we have
" " " "
a ⋅c = b ⋅c
" " "
⇒ (a − b ) ⋅ c = 0
⇒ CH ⊥ AB
Thus, the altitude through C passes through H, implying that the three altitudes are concurrent.
Example – 21
If a, b, c are the lengths of the sides of ∆ABC opposite to the angles A, B and C respectively, prove using vector
methods that
a (1 + cos A) + b(1 + cos B ) + c (1 + cos C ) = ( a + b + c )(cos A + cos B + cos C )

Solutions:
Denote for vectors

→ → representing the sides
c b
of the triangle by
→→ →
a, b and c.
B → C
a
Fig - 41
We have, by the triangle law,

" " " "
a +b +c = 0
" " "
⇒ a = −(b + c )
" " " " "
⇒ a ⋅ a = − a ⋅ (b + c )

LOCUS 43
" "
∵ a ⋅ b = − ab cos C 
⇒ a = ab cos C + ac cos B
2
 " " 
 a ⋅ c = −ac cos B 
⇒ a = b cos C + c cos B ...(1)

Similarly,
b = c cos A + a cos C ...(2)
c = a cos B + b cos A ...(3)

Adding (1), (2) and (3), we have
a + b + c = a (cos B + cos C ) + b(cos C + cos A) + c (cos A + cos B )
Adding a cos A + b cos B + c cos C on both sides, we have

a (1 + cos A) + b (1 + cos B ) + c (1 + cos C ) = ( a + b + c )(cos A + cos B + cos C )
Example – 22
" " "
Find three-dimensional vectors v1 , v2 and v3 satisfying the relations
" " " " " "
v1 ⋅ v1 = 4 v1 ⋅ v2 = −2 v1 ⋅ v3 = 6
" " " " " "
v2 ⋅ v2 = 2 v2 ⋅ v3 = −5 v3 ⋅ v3 = 29
Solutions: A reference frame for the vectors has not been specified; therefore, it is up to us to choose a reference
frame and then use it consistently and evaluate the required vectors in that reference frame.
"
Assume v1 to be along the x-direction, i.e.
"
v1 = 2iˆ
"
Let v2 = aiˆ + bjˆ + ckˆ
"
v3 = piˆ + qjˆ + rkˆ
Now we step by step use all the given relations to determine the unknown constraints:
" "
v1 ⋅ v2 = −2 ⇒ 2a = −2
⇒ a = −1 ...(1)
" "
v2 ⋅ v2 = 2 ⇒ a2 + b2 + c2 = 2
⇒ b2 + c2 = 1 ...(2) (from (1))

LOCUS 44
" "
v1 ⋅ v3 = 6 ⇒ 2p = 6
⇒ p=3 ...(3)
" "
v2 ⋅ v3 = −5 ⇒ ap + bq + cr = −5
⇒ bq + cr = −2 ...(4) (using (1) and (3))

" "
v3 ⋅ v3 = 29 ⇒ p 2 + q 2 + r 2 = 29
⇒ q 2 + r 2 = 20 ...(5) (using (3))
Notice that (2), (4) and (5) are three equations in four unknowns. To get over this problem (it is not a problem
actually! There will be an infinite set of vectors satisfying the given constraints. We have to find any one of them),
" " "
when we chose v1 to be along the x-axis, we could also have adjusted the co-ordinate frame, so that v1 and v2
lie in the x – z plane. This can always be done; since it is upto us to choose the frame of reference, we chose it so
" "
that the x – z plane co-insides with the plane of v1 and v2 .
"
How does this help? Now we’ll have one unknown less, since the y-component of v2 is zero, i.e., b = 0.
Thus, (2), (4) and (5) reduce to
c 2 = 1, cr = 0 − 2, q 2 + r 2 = 20
⇒ c = ± 1, r = ∓ 2, q = ±4
Thus, the three dimensional vectors that satisfy the given constraints can be
" " "
v1 = 2iˆ v2 = −iˆ + kˆ v3 = 3iˆ ± 4 ˆj − 2kˆ
OR
" " "
v1 = 2iˆ v2 = −iˆ − kˆ v3 = 3iˆ ± 4 ˆj + 2kˆ
To emphasize once again, we were required to find vectors satisfying the given constraints. This meant that absolute
positions of the vectors were not important; what mattered was their relative sizes and orientation; and thus the
coordinate axes was our choice. We selected it in a way which made the calculations most convenient.

LOCUS 45
TRY YOURSELF - II
Q. 1 Determine the values of c possible so that for all real x, the vectors cxiˆ − 6 ˆj + 3kˆ and xiˆ + 2 ˆj + 2cxkˆ
make an obtuse angle with each other.
"
Q. 2 Constant forces F1 ≡ (2iˆ − 5 ˆj + 6kˆ ) N and F2 ≡ ( −iˆ + 2 ˆj − kˆ ) N act on a particle and the particle is
displaced from A ≡ (4iˆ − 3 ˆj − 2kˆ) m to B ≡ (6iˆ + ˆj − 3kˆ) m .
Find the total work done by the forces.
Q. 3 Show that the diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other at right angles.
Q. 4 Using vectors, prove the trigonometric relation
cos( A ± B ) = cos A cos B ∓ sin A sin B
Q. 5 Prove that the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle are concurrent.
Q. 6 In ∆ABC with sides a, b, c opposite to angles A, B, C respectively, prove that
(i) a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2bc cos A
a 2 − b2
(ii) a cos B − b cos A =
c
Q. 7 Find the unit vector which makes equal angles with the vectors (iˆ − 2 ˆj + 2kˆ ), (−4iˆ − 3kˆ ) and ˆj
Q. 8 The lengths of the sides a, b, c of ∆ABC (a, b, c opposite to A, B, C respectively) satisfy the relation
a 2 + b 2 = 5c 2 . Prove that the medians drawn to the sides with lengths a and b, are perpendicular.
"
Q. 9 Find the possible values of a for which the vector r = (a 2 − 4) iˆ + 2 ˆj − (a 2 − 9) kˆ makes acute angles
with the coordinate axes.
Q. 10 Prove using vector methods that the angle in a semi-circle is a right angle.

LOCUS 46
Section - 4 CROSS PRODUCT
The dot product discussed in the previous section, was introduced through the requirement that arose in calculating
"
the work done by a given force F when the point of application of the force is displaced by a certain amount given
"
by s :
" "
W = F ⋅s
In this section, we’ll see that another form of vector product exists and is extremely useful to discuss
" many different
" "
physical phenomena; this product is called the cross product. The cross product of a and b is another vector c
and the relation is represented as
" " "
c = a ×b
Let us, through a physical example, understand what the cross product means.
"
Consider a horizontal magnetic field, which we can represent by B , and a charge q projected into this field with
"
a velocity v (at an angle θ with the horizontal).
→
v
θ →
B
q
Fig - 42
"
Experiments show that the force F acting on this particle
"
(a) is perpendicular to the plane of v" and B and goes into the plane for the figure above.
" "
(b) increases with increase in v and B .
π "
(c) is such that its magnitude increases as θ goes from 0 to . In fact, when v" and B are parallel, the force
2
" π
on the particle is zero. For fixed magnitudes of v" and B , the force is the maximum when θ = .
2
(d) increases with increase in charge.
This suggests the dependence
" " "
F ∝ q v B sin θ
which has been confirmed experimentally. In fact, the relation is (exactly),

" " "
F = q v B sin θ

LOCUS 47
"
The direction of F is found out to satisfy the right hand thumb rule. Holding out your thumb use your right hand
" " "
fingers to map out the rotation from v to B . The direction of F is given by the direction in which the thumb
points.
" " " "
Now, since F is a vector with direction perpendicular to both v and B , we write the expression for F as
" " "
F = q (v × B )
" " " "
where the vector v × B , the cross product of v and B , is understood to be a vector such that its magnitude
" "
is v B sin θ . and its direction is given by the right hand thumb rule
" " " " " " "
In general, the cross product of a and b , i.e. c = a × b is a vector with magnitude a b sin θ ( θ being the angle
" " " " " "
between a and b ) and direction perpendicular to the plane of a and b such that a , b and this direction form
a right handed system.
→
c
→ → →
| c | = | a | | b | sinθ
→
b
θ
→
a
→ →
Plane of a and b
Fig - 43
It is important to keep in mind that the cross product is a vector; the dot product was a scalar. The cross product
is also referred to as the vector product.
" " " " " "
The cross product of a and b , say c" , has an interesting geometrical interpretation. Since c = a b sin θ , c
" "
represents the area of the parallelogram with adjacent sides a and b :
→ →
Area of parallelogram = | a | b | sin θ
→
→ =|c|
b
→ → →
where c = a × b
θ
→
a Fig - 44

LOCUS 48
In fact, the area of the parallelogram can itself be treated as a vector (as it is in physical phenomena):
" " "
A = a ×b
" " 1 " 1 " "
The area of the triangle formed with a and b as two sides is simply A = a × b .
2 2
We now note some important properties of the cross product:
" "
(i) If a and b are parallel, their cross product is zero, i.e.
" " "
a ×b = 0
" " " " "
since sin θ = 0 . Conversely, if a × b = 0, then a and b must be parallel.
(ii) The cross product is not commutative. In fact,
" " " "
b ×a = −" ×" b
a
" " " "
This is because the direction of a × b was defined so that a , b and a × b form a right handed system
→ →
a×b
→ →
b b
→ →
a a
→ →
b×a
Fig - 45
(iii) The cross product is distributive over vector addition:
" " " " " " "
a × (b + c ) = a × b + a × c
" " " " " " "
and (a + b ) × c = a × c + b × c
"
(iv) iˆ × iˆ = ˆj × ˆj = kˆ × kˆ = 0
iˆ × ˆj = kˆ, ˆj × kˆ = iˆ, kˆ × iˆ = ˆj
These relations can be remembered as
^k ^j
î
Fig - 46

LOCUS 49
Going in the reverse direction, we have

ˆj × iˆ = − kˆ, iˆ × kˆ = − ˆj , kˆ × ˆj = −iˆ
" "
Thus, for two vectors a = a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3kˆ and b = b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3kˆ we have
" "
a × b = (a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3kˆ) × (b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3kˆ)
= a1 b2 kˆ − a1b3 ˆj − a2b1kˆ + a2b3iˆ + a3b1 ˆj − a3b2iˆ
= iˆ(a2b3 − a3b2 ) + ˆj ( a3b1 − a1b3 ) + kˆ(a1b2 − a2b1 )
This can be written concisely in determinant notation as
iˆ ˆj kˆ
" "
a × b = a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
"
(v) The unit vector(s) r̂ normal to the plane of a" and b can be written as
" "
a ×b
rˆ = ± " "
a ×b
Example – 23
1 !!!" !!!"
Prove that the area of a quadrilateral ABCD can be given by AC × BD
2
Solution:
A D
B
Fig - 47

LOCUS 50
The vector area of the quadrilateral can be written as

" !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!" !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!"!
A = area ( ∆ABC ) + area ( ∆ACD )
1 !!!" !!!" 1 !!!" !!!"

= ( AB × AC ) + ( AC × AD ) {To add the areas their directions must be the same}
2 2
1 !!!" !!!" !!!" !!!"
= ( AB × AC + AC × AD )
2
1 !!!" !!!" !!!" !!!"
= ( AB × AC − AD × AC )
2
1 !!!" !!!" !!!"
= ( AB − AD) × AC
2
1 !!!" !!!"
= DB × AC
2
Thus,
1 !!!" !!!"
A= AC × BD
2
Example – 24
" " " " " "
Find the perpendicular distance of C (c ) from the segment joining A( a ) and B (b ) , in terms of a , b , c .
Solution:
→ →
A( a ) C( c )
Let the perpendicular
distance be d.
d
→
B( b )
Fig - 48
Now,
1 !!!" !!!"
area ( ∆ABC ) = AB × AC
2
1 " " " "
= (b − a ) × ( c − a )
2
1 " " " " " "
= (b × c − b × a − a × c )
2
1 " " " " " "
= (a × b + b × c + c × a )
2
LOCUS 51
1
But area ( ∆ABC ) also equals × AB × d
2
1 1 " " " " " "

⇒ × AB × d = a × b + b × c + c × a
2 2
" "
Since AB equals (a − b ) , we have
" " " " " "

(a × b + b × c + c × a )
d= " "
a −b
Example – 25
"
Let Ai, i = 1, 2, 3, 4 be the areas of the faces of a tetrahedron. Let ni , i = 1, 2, 3, 4 be the outward drawn normals
to the respective faces with magnitudes equal to the corresponding areas.
" " " " "
Prove that n1 + n2 + n3 + n4 = 0
"
Solution: There is no loss of generality in assuming one vertex A to be the origin 0 . Let the other vertices
" " "
be B (b ), C (c ) and D ( d ) .
→
D( d )
→ →
n2 n1
→ →
n3
C (c )
→
A (O )
→
B (b)
→
n4
Fig - 49
In the following, note carefully how the order of the cross-product is taken:

LOCUS 52
We have
" 1 !!!" !!!"
n1 = ( BC × BD )
2
1 " " " "
=
2
{ }
(c − b ) × ( d − b )
1 " " " " " "

{
= c ×d + b ×c + d ×b
2
}
" 1 !!!" !!!"
n2 = ( AD × AC )
2
1 " " 1 " "
= ( d × c ) = − (c × d )
2 2
" 1 !!!" !!!"
n3 = ( AB × AD )
2
1 " " 1 " "
= (b × d ) = − ( d × b )
2 2
" 1 !!!" !!!
"
n4 = ( AC × AB )
2
1 " " 1 " "
= ( c × b ) = − (b × c )
2 2
From these relations, it is clear that
" " " " "
n1 + n2 + n3 + n4 = 0
Example – 26
" " " " " " " " "
Let a = 2iˆ + kˆ, b = iˆ + ˆj + kˆ and c = 4iˆ − 3 ˆj + 7 kˆ . Find a vector r" such that r × b = c × b and r ⋅ a = 0
" " " "
Solution: r ×b = c ×b
" " " "
⇒ (r − c ) × b = 0
" " "
⇒ r − c is parallel to b
Thus,
" " "
r − c = λb" for some λ ∈#
" " ....(1)
⇒ r = c + λb
Now, since
" "
r ⋅a = 0
" " "
⇒ (c + λ b ) ⋅ a = 0
" " " "
⇒ a ⋅ c + λa ⋅ b = 0
" "
a ⋅c
⇒ λ=−" "
a ⋅b
8+ 7
=−
2 + 0 +1
=–5
LOCUS 53
"
Using (1), we can now determine r :
" " "
r = c + λb
" "
= c − 5b
= (4iˆ − 3 ˆj + 7kˆ ) − 5(iˆ + ˆj + kˆ )
= −iˆ − 8 ˆj + 2kˆ
TRY YOURSELF - III
Q. 1 If A, B, C, D be any four points in space, prove that

!!!" !!!" !!!" !!!" !!!" !!!"
AB × CD + BC × AD + CA × BD = 4 × Area ( ∆ABC )
!!!" " !!!" " " !!!" "

Q. 2 Let OA = a , OB = 10a + 2b and OC = b , where O is the origin. Let p denote the area of the quadrilateral
OABC and q denote the area of the parallelogram with OA and OC as adjacent sides. Prove that p = 6q.
Q. 3 If A1, A2, A3, ... An are the vertices of a regular plane polygon with n sides and O is its centre, prove that
n −1 !!!" !!!" !!!" !!!"
∑ (OA i × OA i +1 ) = ( n − 1) (OA 1 × OA2 )
i =1
" " "

Let a = iˆ + ˆj + kˆ and b = ˆj − kˆ . Find a vector r such that a" × r" = b and a" ⋅ r" = 3
"
Q. 4
a b c
Q. 5 Prove the sine rule for a triangle ABC with sides a, b, c : = =
sin A sin B sin C

LOCUS 54
Section - 5 SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCTION
As the name suggests, a scalar triple product involves the (scalar) product of three vectors. How may such a
product be defined?
" " " " " " " "
Consider three vectors a , b and c . Consider the quantity a ⋅ (b ⋅ c ) . Since b ⋅ c is a scalar, you cannot define its
" " "
dot product with another vector. Thus, a ⋅ (b ⋅ c ) is a meaningless quantity.
" " " "
However, consider the expression a ⋅ (b × c ) . Since b × c" is a vector, its dot product with a" is defined. Thus,
" " " " " "
a ⋅ (b × c ) is defined and is termed the scalar triple product of a , b and c. This product is represented concisely
" " "
as [ a b c ] .
" " "
An alert reader might have noticed that another valid triple product is possible: a × (b × c ) . This is the vector
triple product and is considered in the next section.
" " "
Let us try to assign a geometrical interpretation to the scalar triple product (STP) [ a b c ] .
" " " " " "
First of all, make a , b , c co-initial. Assume for the moment that a , b , c are non-coplanar. Complete the
" " "
parallelopiped with a , b , c as adjacent edges:
E
h represents the height
of the parallelopiped
A
θ →
h a
C
D
→
c
O → B
b
Fig - 50
" " " " !!!"

Consider b × c . This is a vector perpendicular to the plane containing b and c . We have represented it by OE .
" !!!" " " " " !!!" !!!"
Let the angle between a and OE be θ . What can a ⋅ (b × c ) i.e. a ⋅ OE represent ? OE represents the area
of the parallelogram OBDC.
Thus,

LOCUS 55
" !!!" " !!!"

a ⋅ OE = a OE cos θ
" !!!"
= ( a cos θ) OE
= (Height of the parallelopiped h) × (Area of the base parallelogram)

= Volume of the parallelopiped.
"""
The STP [ a b c ] therefore represents the volume
" " "
of the parallelopiped with a , b , c as adjacent edges
Note that the volume V of the parallelopiped could equally well have been specified as
" " " """
V = b ⋅ ( c × a ) = [b c a ]
" " " """
= c ⋅ ( a × b ) = [c a b ]
Thus, we come to an important property of the STP:
""" """ """
[ a b c ] = [b c a ] = [ c a b ]
that is, if the vectors are cyclically permuted, the value of the STP remains the same. However, note that
" "" " " "
[ a b c ] = a ⋅ (b × c )
" " "
= − a ⋅ (c × b )
" " "
= −[ a c b ]
Let us see some more significant properties of the STP:
" " "

(i) The STP of three vectors is zero if any two of them are parallel. This implies as a corollary that [ a a b ] = 0
(always)
(ii) For any λ ∈# ,

" " " " " "
[ λ a b c ] = λ[ a b c ]
" " " " " " " " " "
(iii) [( a + b ) c d ] = [ a c d ] + [b c d ]
This property is very important and is used extremely frequently. The justification is straight forward:
" " " " " " " "
[( a + b ) c d ] = ( a + b ) ⋅ (c × d )
" " " " " "
= a ⋅ (c × d ) + b ⋅ (c × d ) {Dot product is distributive over vector addition}
" " " " " "
= [ a c d ] + [b c d ]

LOCUS 56
(iv) Three vector are coplanar if and only if their STP is zero. This is because the volume of the parallelopiped
formed by the three vectors becomes zero if they are coplanar.
" " " " " "
You are urged to rigorously prove the other way implication, i.e, prove that if [ a b c ] = 0 where a b c
" " "
are non-zero non-collinear vectors, then a , b , c must be coplanar.
" " "

(v) Let a = a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3kˆ, b = b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3kˆ and c = c1iˆ + c2 ˆj + c3kˆ . Then,
iˆ ˆj kˆ
" " " " " "
[a b c ] = a ⋅ (b × c ) = (a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3kˆ) ⋅ b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
= a1 (b2 c3 − b3c2 ) + a2 (b3c1 − b1c3 ) + a3 (b1c2 − b2c1 )
a1 a2 a3
= b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
This relation is quite useful and is worth remembering.
Example – 27
" " " " """ """ """ """

For four points with position vectors a , b , c , d prove that if  d b c  +  d c a  +  d a b  =  a b c  then the
four points must be coplanar.
Solution: Upon expansion, this relation gives

" " " " " " " " " " " "
( ) ( )
d ⋅ b × c + d ⋅ (c × a ) + d ⋅ a × b = a ⋅ b × c ( )
" " " " " " " "
⇒ {( " "
)
d ⋅ b × c + (c × a ) + a × b ( )} (
= a ⋅ b ×c )
" " " " " "
⇒ {( " "
)
d ⋅ b − a × (c − a ) = a ⋅ b × c} ( ) ...(1)
Note that the RHS of (1) can also be written as

" " " " " "
( ) {( " "
a ⋅ b × c = a ⋅ b − a × (c − a )) }
You must verify why this can be done. Using this in (1), we have
" "
(d − a" ) ⋅{(b − a" ) × (c" − a" )} = 0
LOCUS 57
" " " "

( )
This implies that the vector d − a is perpendicular to the cross product of the vectors b − a and ( )
" " " "
" "
( ) (
" "
(c − a ) , which in turn means that d − a must lie in the plane of b − a and (c − a ). )
" " " " " "
⇒ ( ) ( )
b − a , ( c − a ) and d − a are coplanar vectors
" " " "
⇒ a , b , c , d are coplanar points.
Example – 28
" " "

Prove that, for any three vectors a , b , c ,
" " " " " " """ " " "
( )( )
(a)  a + b b + c ( c + a ) = 2  a b c  (
(b)  a − b ) (b − c" ) (c" − a" ) = 0
Solution: (a) The left hand side is

" " " "
( ) {( ) " "
a + b ⋅ b + c × (c + a ) }
" " " " " " " "
= ( a + b ) ⋅ {b × c + b × a + c × a}
0
= [a b c ] + [ a b a ] + [ a c a ] + [ b b c ] + [ b b a ] + [ b c a ]
0 0 0
""
= 2  a b c 
" " " " " "
This relation incidentally proves that a + b , b + c and c" + a" are coplanar if and only if a , b and
"
c are coplanar.
" " " " " " "
( ) ( )
(b) Since a − b + b − c + (c − a ) = 0, these three vectors are the sides of a triangle, implying that
they are coplanar vectors. Thus, their STP must be zero.
Example – 29
" " " "

For any three non-coplanar vectors a , b , c and any other vector r , prove that the relation
""" " " " "  r" a" b" 
"  r b c  " [ c a] "
r =  " " " a + " " " b +  " " " c
r
a b c  a b c  a b c 
     
is satisfied.

LOCUS 58
" " " "

Solution: Assume r = xa + yb + zc where x, y, z ∈ # ...(1)
" " "
This can be done since a , b , c are non-coplanar vectors and hence any vector in space is expressible
as their linear combination. To find x, y, z we do the following:
" "
Take the dot product on both sides of (1) with b × c : ( )
0 0
" " " " " " "
r ⋅ (b × c ) = xa ⋅ (b × c ) + yb ⋅ (b × c) + z c . (b × c)
""" """
⇒ [ r b c ] = x[ a b c ]
" " "
[r b c ]
⇒ x= " " "
[a b c ]
Similarly, y and z can be determined. Now substituting the values of x, y and z in (1) proves the stated
assertion.
Example – 30
If the vector
"
α = aiˆ + ˆj + kˆ , a ≠ 1
"
β = iˆ + bjˆ + kˆ , b ≠ 1
"
γ = iˆ + ˆj + ckˆ , c ≠ 1
are coplanar, prove that
1 1 1
+ + =1
1− a 1− b 1− c
Solution: The coplanarity of the three vectors means that their STP must be zero:
a 1 1
⇒ 1 b 1 =0
1 1 c
⇒ a (bc − 1) + (1 − c ) + (1 − b) = 0
⇒ a + b + c = abc + 2 ...(1)
We now have
1 1 1
+ +
1− a 1− b 1− c
(1 − b)(1 − c) + (1 − a)(1 − c) + (1 − a)(1 − b)
=
(1 − a)(1 − b)(1 − c)
3 − 2(a + b + c) + (ab + bc + ac)
=
1 − (a + b + c) + (ab + bc + ac) − abc
3 − 2(a + b + c) + (ab + bc + ac)
= {Using (1) for the value of abc}
1 − (a + b + c) + (ab + bc + ac) + 2 − (a + b + c)
=1
LOCUS 59
Example – 31
" " " " "
Let a , b , c be three non-zero vectors such that c" is a unit vector perpendicular to both a and b . If the angle
" " π
between a and b is , prove that
6
" " " 1 "2 "2
[ a b c ]2 = a b
4
" " " " " " "
Solution: Since c is perpendicular to both a and b , c must be parallel to a × b , i.e, the angle between c and
" "
( a × b ) must be 0. Thus,
" " " " " "
[ a b c ] = [c a b ]
" " "
= c ⋅ (a × b )
" " "
= c a × b cos 0
" " π
= 1 ⋅ a b sin ⋅1
6
1 " "
= a b ...(1)
2
Squaring both sides of (1) proves the stated assertion.
Example – 32
" " "

For three arbitrary vectors a , b , c , prove that
" " " " " "
a ⋅ a a ⋅b a ⋅c
" "" " " " " " "
[a b c ]2 = b ⋅ a b ⋅ b b ⋅ c
" " " " " "
c ⋅a c ⋅b c ⋅c
" " "
Solution: The relation is most easily proved by assuming a , b , c in rectangular form:
"
a = a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3kˆ
"
b = b iˆ + b ˆj + b kˆ
1 2 3
"
c = c1iˆ + c2 ˆj + c3 kˆ
There’s no loss of generality in this assumption.
Now,
2
a1 a2 a3
" " "2
[a b c ] = b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3

LOCUS 60
a1 a2 a3 a1 a2 a3
= b1 b2 b3 b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3 c1 c2 c3
a12 + a22 + a32 a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 a1c1 + a2 c2 + a3c3

= b1a1 + b2 a2 + b3 a3 b12 + b22 + b32 b1c1 + b2 c2 + b3c3
c1a1 + c2 a2 + c3 a3 c1b1 + c2b2 + c3b3 c12 + c22 + c32
" " " " " "

a ⋅ a a ⋅b a ⋅c
" " " " " "
= b ⋅ a b ⋅b b ⋅c
" " " " " "
c ⋅ a c ⋅b c ⋅c
TRY YOURSELF - IV
Q. 1 Find the volume of the parallelopiped with sides given by (−3iˆ + 7 ˆj + 5kˆ ), (−5iˆ + 7 ˆj − 3kˆ ) and
(7iˆ − 5 ˆj − 3kˆ)
Q. 2 Find the value of λ for which the points

A(3iˆ − 2 ˆj − kˆ ), B (2iˆ + 3 ˆj − 4kˆ ), C (−iˆ + ˆj + 2kˆ ) and
D (4iˆ + 5 ˆj + λ kˆ ) are coplanar.
" " "

Q. 3 For three vectors a , b , c prove that
" " " " " " " " " "
[ a + b + c a + b a + c ] = −[ a b c ]
" " "

Q. 4 If the vectors α = aiˆ + ajˆ + ckˆ, β = iˆ + kˆ and r = ciˆ + cjˆ + bkˆ are coplanar, prove that c is the geometric
mean of a and b.
" " " " " "

Q. 5 Let a , b , c , l , m, n be arbitrary vectors. Prove that
" " " " " "
a ⋅l b ⋅l c ⋅l
" " " " " " " " " " " "
[a b c ][l m n ] = a ⋅ m b ⋅ m c ⋅ m
" " " " " "
a ⋅n b ⋅n c ⋅n
" " " " " " "

Q. 6 Let r = l (b × c ) + m(c × a ) + n( a × b ) . Prove that
" " " "
r ⋅ (a + b + c ) = l + m + n

LOCUS 61
Section - 6 VECTOR TRIPLE PRODUCT

" " "
As has already been mentioned in the previous section, the vector product v" of three vectors a , b , c is
defined as
" " " "
v = a × (b × c )
The most important property that the vector triple product satisfies is this:
" " " " " " " " " "
v = a × (b × c ) = (a ⋅ c ) b − (a ⋅ b )c
I II III (I ⋅ III) II – (I ⋅ II)III ...(1)
" "
Let us see how this property comes about. Since v" is perpendicular to (b × c ) (and a" too), v" must lie in the
" " " "
plane containing b and c (convince yourself about this). We may assume b and c to be non-collinear (since if
"
they are collinear, (1) automatically holds because both sides will be zero). Thus, b and c" form a basis of the
plane in which they lie.
" " "
v = λb + µ c for some λ , µ ∈ # ...(2)
" "
Now, since v is perpendicular to a too, we have
" "
v ⋅a = 0
" " "
⇒ (λ b + µ c ) ⋅ a = 0
" " " "
⇒ λ(a ⋅ b ) + µ(a ⋅ c ) = 0
λ µ
⇒ " " = " " = l (say)
( a ⋅ c ) −( a ⋅ b )
" " " "
⇒ λ = l ( a ⋅ c ), µ = −l ( a ⋅ b )
Using the values of λ and µ in (2), we have
" " " " " " "
v = l{( a ⋅ c )b − ( a ⋅ b )c } ...(3)
" "
The only task that now remains is to find out the value of l. This can be done by taking particular values of a , b
" " " "
and c ((3) must hold for all arbitrary vectors a , b , c ).
" " "
Let a = iˆ, b = iˆ + ˆj and c = kˆ
Thus,
" " " "
v = a × (b × c )
{ }
= iˆ × (iˆ + ˆj ) × kˆ
{
= iˆ × − ˆj + iˆ}
= − k̂
" " " " " "
and { } {
l (a ⋅ c )b − (a ⋅ b )c = l 0 − kˆ }
= – lkˆ
This gives l = 1. Thus, we see that the relation in (1) holds.
LOCUS 62
" " "

It should be obvious that the vector triple product is a non-associative operation. For example, a × (b × c ) lies in
" " " " " " " " " "
the plane of b and c while ( a × b ) × c = ( −c ) × (a × b ) lies in the plane of a and b .
In general, therefore,
" " " " " "
a × (b × c ) ≠ ( a × b ) × c
Example – 33
" "
For three arbitrary vectors a , b , c" , prove that the vectors
" " " "
r1 = a × (b × c )
" " " "
r2 = b × (c × a )
" " " "
r3 = c × (a × b )
are coplanar.
Solution: Using the expansion rule for the vector triple product obtained in the proceeding discussion, we have
" " " " " " "
r1 = ( a ⋅ c )b − ( a ⋅ b )c
" " " " " " "
r2 = (b ⋅ a )c − (b ⋅ c ) a
" " " " " " "
r3 = (c ⋅ b )a − (c ⋅ a )b
This gives
" " " "
r1 + r2 + r3 = 0
" " "
which implies that r1 , r2 , r3 must be the sides of a triangle, and hence must be coplanar.
Example – 34
" " "

For three arbitrary vectors a , b , c , prove that
" " " " " " " " "
[a × b b × c c × a ] = [ a b c ]2
Solution: The left hand side, upon expansion gives,
" " " "
{ " "
(a × b ) ⋅ (b × c ) × (c × a ) }
0
=(a × b) { ((b × c ) a )c – ((b × c ) c ) a }

" " " "
{
= (a × b ) ⋅ [a b
" "
c] c }
" " " " " "
{ }
= (a × b ) ⋅ c [a b c]
" " "
= [ a b c ]2
" " " " " " " " "
This also proves as a consequence that ( a × b ), (b × c ) and (c × a ) are coplanar iff a , b and c
are coplanar, a fact that can intuitively be expected.
LOCUS 63
Example – 35
" " " " " " " "
Show that (a × b ) × c = a × (b × c ) if and only if a and c are collinear.
Solution: Let us first assume that

" " " " " "
(a × b ) × c = a × (b × c )
" " " " " "
⇒ − c × ( a × b ) = a × (b × c )
" " " " " " " " " " " "
⇒ ( − c ⋅ b ) a − ( − c ⋅ a )b = ( a − c )b − ( a ⋅ b ) c
" " " " " "
⇒ (b ⋅ c )a = (a ⋅ b )c
" "
"  a ⋅b  "
⇒ a =  " " c
 b ⋅c 
"
= λ c where λ ∈ #
" " " "
Since a is a scalar multiple of c , this proves that a and c are collinear.
To prove the reverse implication is left to the reader as an exercise.
Example – 36
" " " "
For arbitrary vector a , b , c , d , prove the following relations.
" " " " " " " " " " " "
(i) ( a × b ) × (c × d ) = [ a b d ] c − [ a b c ] d
" " " " " " " " " " " "
(ii) a × (b × (c × d )) = (b ⋅ d )( a × c ) − (b ⋅ c )( a × d )
" " " "
" " " " a ⋅c a ⋅d
(iii) (a × b ) ⋅ (c × d ) = " " " "
b ⋅c b ⋅d
Solution: (i) This relation is simply obtained by expanding the left hand side:
" " " " " " " " " " " "
( a × b ) × (c × d ) = ( a × b ) ⋅ d ) c − (( a × b ) ⋅ c ) d
I II III
" " " " " " " "

= [a b d ] c − [a b c ] d
" " " " " " " " " " "
(ii) a × (bI × (cII× dIII )) = a × ((b ⋅ d )c − (b ⋅ c )d )
" " " " " " " "
= (b ⋅ d )( a × c ) − (b ⋅ c )(a × d )
" " " " " " " "
(iii) ( a × b ) ⋅ (c × d ) = a ⋅ (b × (c × d )) (why ?)
" " " " " " "
= a ⋅ ((b ⋅ d )c − (b ⋅ c )d )
" " " " " " " "
= ( a ⋅ c )(b ⋅ d ) − ( a ⋅ d )(b ⋅ c )
" " " "
a ⋅c a ⋅d
= " " " "
b ⋅c b ⋅d

LOCUS 64
Example – 37
" " " " "

If a , b , c are vectors such that b = c , prove that
" " " " " "
{{ " "
} }
(a + b ) × (a + c ) × (b × c ) ⋅ (b + c ) = 0
Solution: The left hand side equals

" " " " " " " " " "
{{ } }
a × c + b × a + b × c × (b × c ) ⋅ (b + c )
" " " " " " " "
= {{(a × c ) × (b × c )} + {(b × a ) × (b × c )}} ⋅ (b + c )
" "
= {[a c c ]b –[a c b] c + [ b a c ] b + [ b a b ]c } ( b + c )
0 0
The last step uses the result of part (i) in the previous example. The expression now reduces to
" " " " " " " " " "
( −[ a c b ] c + [b a c ] b ) ⋅ (b + c )
" " " " " " "
= [ a b c ](c − b ) ⋅ (c + b )
" " " "2 "2
= [a b c ]( c − b )
" "
=0 (since c = b )
Example – 38
" " "
If a , b , c are non-coplanar unit vectors such that
" "
" " " b +c
a × (b × c ) =
2
" " " " "
and b and c are non-collinear, find the angle θ1 and θ2 which a makes with b and c respectively.
" "
" " " " " " " " " b +c
Solution: a × (b × c ) = (a ⋅ c ) b − (a ⋅ b ) c = (given)
2
" " 1 " " " 1 "

⇒  a ⋅c − b −  a ⋅b + c = 0
 2  2
" "
Since b , c are non-collinear vectors, we must have
" " 1 " " 1
a ⋅c = and a ⋅ b = −
2 2
1 1
⇒ cos θ1 = and cos θ 2 = −
2 2
π 3π
⇒ θ1 = and θ 2 =
4 4

LOCUS 65
Example – 39
" " "
If b , c , d are non-coplanar vectors, then prove that the vector
" " " " " " " " " " " " " "
r = ( a × b ) × (c × d ) + ( a × c ) × ( d × b ) + ( a × d ) × (b × c ) must be parallel to a .
Solution: We first write the expression in a slightly modified way (the reason for this will become clear
subsequently):
" " " " " " " " " " " " "
r = − ( c × d ) × ( a × b ) + ( a × c ) × ( d × b ) − (b × c ) × ( a × d )
Thus, we have written the first and third vector products in the original expression for r" in reverse.
Now, expanding each vector product using the using the result of Example - 36 Part - (i), we have
r = –[c d b ]a + [c d a ] b + [a c b ] d – [a c d ]b – [b c d ]a + [b c a ]d
" " " " " " "

= −([c d b ] + [b c d ]) a
" " " "
= −2[b c d ] a
" " " "
= λ a where λ ∈ # and λ ≠ 0 since b , c , d are non-coplanar
The reason for the manipulation done earlier should be apparent in step (1): the cancellation of the
terms indicated.
" " "
Since r can be written as a scalar multiple of a , r" must be parallel to a .

LOCUS 66
TRY YOURSELF - V
" " " " " " " " " " " "
Q. 1 Let p, q , r be the vectors b × c , c × a and a × b respectively. Show that a , b and c are parallel to
" " " " " "
q×r, r × p and p × q respectively.
Q. 2 Show that
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " "
[a × p b × q c × r ] + [a × q b × r c × p] + [a × r b × p c × q] = 0
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " "
Q. 3 For the vectors a , b , c , d , prove that (b × c ) ⋅ (a × d ) + (c × a )⋅ (b × d ) + (a × b ) ⋅ (c × d ) = 0
" " " " " 1"

Q. 4 If a , b and c" are three non-parallel non-coplanar unit vectors such that a × (b × c ) = b , prove that
2
" " " π π
the angles that a makes with b and c are and respectively.
2 3
" " " " " " " " " " " " " " " "
Q. 5 If a , b , c , d are non-zero vectors such that ( a × b ) × (c × d ) − (b × c ) × ( d × a ) = [ a c d ] b , show
" " "
that a , b and c must be coplanar.

LOCUS 67
Section - 7 MORE GEOMETRY WITH VECTORS
In the previous sections, we’ve already seen that vectors can be a powerful technique for geometrical problems,
especially three dimensional ones.
In this section, we’ll study the vectors approach to geometrical problems more deeply.
For a start, let us discuss some more geometry of tetrahedrons.
Example – 40
A regular tetrahedron is one in which all edges are equal. Prove that any two opposite edges in a regular tetrahedron
are perpendicular.
Solution:
B (b )
Assume one vertex of the

tetrahedron to be the origin 0.
The other three vertices are
assumed to be as indicated.
O(0) C (c )
D
A (a )
Fig - 51
Since all the edges of this tetrahedron are equal, we have

" " " " " " " " "
a = b = c = a −b = b −c = c −a
!!!"
We need to prove that any two opposite edges are perpendicular. Lets prove that OC is perpendicular
!!!"
to AB. The other cases can be proved similarly.
Since
" " " "
a −b = a −c

LOCUS 68
we have,
" "2 " "2

a −b = a −c
"2 "2 " " "2 "2 " "
⇒ a + b − 2a ⋅ b = a + c − 2 a ⋅ c ...(1)
" " "
Since a = b = c , (1) reduces to
" " " "
a ⋅b = a ⋅c
Similarly,
" " " "
b ⋅c = a ⋅c ...(2)
(2) upon rearrangement gives
" " "
( )
a − b ⋅c = 0
!!!" !!!"
⇒ BA ⋅ OC = 0
!!!" !!!"
⇒ BA is perpendicular to OC .
This completes our proof.
Example – 41
" " "
Let a , b , c represent three co-initial edges of a tetrahedron. Prove that the volume V of the tetrahedron is given
" 1 "
by V =  a" b c"  .
6 
" " "
Solution: Let one vertex of the tetrahedron be the origin O (0) while the other three vertices be A( a ), B (b )
"
and C (c ), as shown:
C (c )
O (0) B (b )
D
A (a)
Fig - 52
1
We will use the geometrical fact that the volume of a tetrahedron equals × (Area of base) × (height).
3
LOCUS 69
Let us evaluate the height of the tetrahedron DC from C to the triangular face OAB.
A unit vector nˆ , along DC, is given by
" "
a ×b
nˆ = " "
a ×b
The height CD can be obtained as the projection of OC onto the line along CD:
!!!"
CD = OC ⋅ nˆ
"
=
( a × b )⋅ c
"
"
"
"
a ×b
" " "

a b c 
=  " "
a ×b
Thus, the volume V is
1
V= × (area of ∆OAB) × CD
3
" " "

1  1 " "   a b c 
= × a ×b  × " "
3 2  a ×b
1 " " "

= a b c 
6 
Example – 42
Find the angle between any two faces of a regular tetrahedral.
Solution: Refer to Fig - 51 Example 40

The angle between any two faces will obviously equal the angle between the normals to the two faces.
Let us find the (acute) angle θ between the normals to the faces OAC and OAB.

LOCUS 70
" " " "

c ×a c ×a
ˆnOAC = " " = " "
c ×a c a sin π / 3
" " " "

a ×b a ×b
nÔAB = " " = " "
a ×b a b sin π / 3
" "
(c × a ) ⋅ ( a × b )
" "
" " "
⇒ nÔAC ⋅ nÔAB = " " 2
2
a b sin 2 π / 3
(∵ a =b =c )
" " " "
(c ⋅ a ) ( a ⋅ b ) − (c ⋅ b ) ( a ⋅ a )
" " " "
= "4
a sin 2 π / 3
"2 " " "2 " "

a b c a b c
−
= 4 2
"4 2
a sin π / 3
1 "4
−a
−1
= 4 =
"4 3 3
a ⋅
4
1
⇒ cos θ =
3
⇒ θ = cos −1 1 ( 3)
1
Thus, the angle between any two faces equals cos −1   .
3
Example – 43
The position vectors of the vertices A, B and C of a tetrahedron ABCD are iˆ + ˆj + kˆ, iˆ and 3iˆ respectively. The
altitude from the vertex D to the opposite face ABC meets the median line through A of the triangle ABC at E. If
AD is 4 units and the volume of the tetrahedron is 2 2 cubic units, find all the possible position vectors of the
3
point E.

LOCUS 71
Solution:
The volume V of the

tetrahedron is given by
1
V= (area of ∆ABC) (DE)
3
A C
E
F
B
Fig - 53
1  1 !!!" !!!" 
V = ×  AB × AC  × ( DE )
3 2 
2 2 ( DE )
⇒
3
=
6
× { (− ˆj − kˆ )× (2iˆ − ˆj − kˆ )}
=
DE
6
{
× −2 ˆj + 2kˆ }
2 2
= × DE
6
⇒ DE = 2
Since ∆ADE is right - angled at E, we have
AE = AD 2 − DE 2
= 16 − 4
=2 3
It is given that E lies on the median AF. Since F is the mid-point of BC, the position vector of F is 2iˆ.
Now, our problem has been reduced to this; we know the position vectors of A and F and we know
that AE = 2 3. We need to find the position vector(s) of E.
Let us suppose E divides AF in the ratio λ :1. Then the position vector of E is

LOCUS 72
λ (2i ) + 1⋅ (iˆ + ˆj + kˆ)

E≡
1+ λ
 1 + 2λ  ˆ  1  ˆ  1  ˆ
= i +   j + k ...(1)
 1+ λ  1+ λ  1+ λ 
!!!" λ ˆ ˆ ˆ
⇒ AE =
λ +1
(
i − j−k )
3λ
=
λ +1
Since AE = 2 3, we have
3λ
± =2 3
λ +1
λ
⇒ = ±2
λ +1
2
⇒ λ = −2, −
3
Using these values of λ in (1), the possible position vectors of E are (3iˆ − ˆj − kˆ ) and ( −iˆ + 3 ˆj + 3kˆ ).
______________________________________________________________________________________
VECTOR EQUATIONS OF A LINE
" "
Consider a straight line passing through the point A( a ) and parallel to the vector b .
→
b
→
A (a )
Fig - 54

LOCUS 73
Any point r" on this line can be written in terms of real parameter λ.
R
→
b
→
A (a )
→
r
→
O (o)
Fig - 55
" !!!" !!!"

r = OA + AR
" "
= a + λb where λ ∈ #
The equation
" " "
r = a + λb
can be viewed as the (vector) equation of this line. As we vary λ, we get varying position vectors r" and hence
varying points on this line.
This form of the equation of a line is called the parametric form since it involves the use of a parameter λ. We
!!!" "
could also have specified the equation in non-parametric form. Observe that since AR is parallel to b , we have
" " " "
(r − a )× b = 0
" " " "
⇒ r ×b = a ×b
This is the required equation of the line. You must convince yourself that this equation is valid; in particular,
understand that only points lying on the line and none other will satisfy this equation.

LOCUS 74
"
We can use the equations obtained above to obtained the equation of a line passing through the points A( a ) and
"
B (b ).
→
B (b)
→
A (a )
→
r
→
O (o)
Fig - 56
" " " "

r = a + λ (b − a ) Parametric form
OR
" " " " "
( r − a ) × (b − a ) = 0
" " " " "

⇒ r × (b − a ) = a × b Non - parametric form
Example – 44
In ∆ABC , D and E are points on BC and AC respectively such that BD = 2DC and AE = 3EC. Let P be the point
of intersection of AD and BE. Find BP : PE using vector methods.
Solution:
A
E
P
B D C
Fig - 57
LOCUS 75
" " "

There’s no loss of generality in assuming A to be the origin 0, and B and C to be the points b and c
respectively. By the section formula,
" "
b + 2c 3c
D≡ ,E ≡
3 4
The equation of AD can be written (in parametric form) as:
" "
" "  b + 2c 
r = 0+λ  ,λ ∈#
 3 
"  λ  "  2λ  "

⇒ r =  b +  c
3  3 
Similarly, the equation of BE can be written as
"
" "  3c " 
r = b + λ′ − b  , λ′ ∈ #
 4 
" "  3λ ′  "

⇒ r = (1 − λ ′ ) b +  c
 4 
AD and BE intersect at P. Thus, the position vector of P must satisfy the equations of both AD and
BE. This means that we must have
 λ  "  2λ  " "  3λ ′  "

 b +   c = (1 − λ ′ ) b +   c for some λ , λ ′ ∈ #
3  3   4 
λ  "  2λ 3λ ′  " "

⇒  + λ ′ − 1 b +  − c = 0
3   3 4 
" "
Since b and c are non-collinear, we must have
λ
+ λ′ −1 = 0
3
2λ 3λ ′
− =0
3 4
This system upon solving yields
9 8
λ= , λ′ =
11 11
Thus, the position vector of P can be obtained by substituting the value of λ (or λ ′) in the equations
for AD (or BE):
3 "
P≡
11
( "
b + 2c )
LOCUS 76
We now know the position vectors of B, P and E. We simply need to find BP : PE. Suppose this is
m :1. Then,
" "
 3c 
m   +1 b ()
3 "
 4 
m +1
=
11
b + 2c
"
( )
" " " "
⇒ 33mc + 44b = 12 ( m + 1) b + 24 ( m + 1) c
" " "
⇒ (32 − 12m ) b + (9m − 24 ) c = 0
8
⇒ m=
3
Thus,
BP : PE = 8 : 3
The technique used in this example, in particular the evaluation of P as the intersection point of two lines (whose
lines are in vector form), is very important and useful and you must understand it properly before proceeding.
Let us see more examples of this sort.
Example – 45
" " " " " " "

Let a = iˆ + ˆj and b = 2iˆ − kˆ. Find the point of intersection of the lines r" × a" = b × a" and r × b = a × b .
Solution: Both the lines have been specified in non-parametric form, which we can easily convert to parametric
form.
" " " " " " " where λ ∈ #
r ×a = b ×a ⇒ r = b + λa
" " " " " " "
where λ ′ ∈ #
r ×b = a ×b ⇒ r = a + λ ′b
If these two lines intersect, then we must have some values of λ , λ ′, say λ0 and λ0′ , such that
" " " "
b + λ0 a = a + λ0′b
" " "
⇒ (1 − λ0′ ) b + (λ0 − 1) a = 0
"
Since a" and b are non-collinear, we must have λ0 = λ0′ = 1. The position vector of the point of
intersection P can now be evaluated by substituting λ0 or λ0′ in the corresponding equation:
" " " "
P ≡ b +a = a +b
⇒ P ≡ 3iˆ + ˆj − kˆ

LOCUS 77
Example – 46
The median AD of a triangle ABC is bisected at E and BE is produced to meet AC in F. Prove by vector methods
1
that EF = BF .
4
Solution:
→
A(0)
F
E
→ →
B (b ) D C( c )
Fig - 58
" "
Assume A to be the origin and B, C to be the points b , c respectively. We have,
" "
b +c
D≡
2
" "
b +c
⇒ E≡
4
" "
" "  b + c "
⇒ Equation of BE : r =b +λ −b 
 4 
"  3λ  " λ "
⇒ r = 1 − b + c
 4  4
" "
Also, Equation of AC : r = λ ′c
Since AC and BE intersect in F, there must be some λ , λ ′ ∈ # such that
 3λ  " λ " "

1 −  b + c = λ ′c
 4  4
4 1
⇒ λ = , λ′ =
3 3
"
c
⇒ F≡
3
LOCUS 78
If E divides BF in the ratio k : 1, we have

" "
c 
k   +1 b
3
()
" "
b +c
=
k +1 4
" " " "
⇒ 4kc + 12b = 3 ( k + 1) b + 3 ( k + 1) c
⇒ k =3
Thus,
BE : EF = 3:1 ⇒ EF : BF = 1: 4
Example – 47
" " " " " "

Find the equation of the bisector(s) of the angle(s) between the straight lines r = a + λb and r = a + µ c .
" " "

Solution: Note that the lines pass through A( a ) and are respectively parallel to b and c :
c→
→
A (a ) →
b
Fig - 59
" "
We need to find the vector(s) equally inclined to b and c to be able to write the equation (s) of the
angle bisector(s). For this purpose, consider the co-initial unit vectors b̂ and cˆ :

LOCUS 79
C D
Complete the parallologram
OBDC and OBD'C' as
c^ indicated.
Since OB = OC = 1 unit
O ⇒ ∠COD = ∠DOB
^ B Since OB = OC' = 1 unit
b
⇒ ∠C'OD' = ∠D'OB
-c^
C' D'
Fig - 60
It should be clear from this figure that the two vectors equally inclined to b̂ and ĉ are simply the
!!!" !!!!"
diagonals of the two parallelograms drawn, i.e., OD and OD '. Thus, the directions of the two angle
bisectors are given by the vectors (bˆ + cˆ) and (bˆ − cˆ).
"
Since the angle bisectors we require both pass through a , we have their equations as
" " " "

(
r = a + λ (bˆ + cˆ) and r = a + λ bˆ − cˆ ) ,λ ∈ #
 b" c" 
"  
⇒ r = aˆ + λ  " ± "  , λ ∈#
 b c 
Example – 48
Using vector methods, prove this result from plane geometry : in a triangle, the angle bisector of any angle divides
the opposite side in the ratio of the sides containing the angle.
Solution: Assume a triangle ABC with position vectors of the vertices as indicated :
→
A(0)
AD is the angle bisector

of angle A.
→ →
B (b ) D C( c )
Fig - 61

LOCUS 80
Using the result of the previous example, the equation of AD can be written as
" "
(
r = 0 + λ bˆ + cˆ ) , λ ∈#
 " "
" b c 
⇒ r = λ " + " , λ ∈#
 b c 
 
Assume that D divides BC in the ratio µ :1. We wish to determine µ . The position vector of D is
" "
µc + b
D≡
µ +1
Thus, for some λ , µ ∈ #, we must have
 " " " "

b c  µ c + b
λ " + " =
 b c  µ +1
 
λ "   "
⇒  " − 1  b +  λ" − µ  c" = 0
 b µ +1   c µ +1 
   
"
Since b and c" are non collinear, we have
λ 1
" =
b µ +1 ...(1)
λ µ
" = ...(2)
c µ +1
Dividing (2) by (1), we have

"
b AB
µ= " =
c AC
Thus, D divides BC in the ratio AB : AC ; this proves the theorem.
Example – 49
" "
Find the perpendicular distance of the point A( a ) from the line r" = b + λc".

LOCUS 81
Solution:
→
A (a )
We need to find AP
→
Let rP be the position
vector of P.
θ
→ →
B (b ) P (r P ) →
c
Fig - 62
AP = AB 2 − BP 2
!!!"
= AB 2 − ( AB ⋅ Cˆ )2
" "2 " "

= a − b − (a − b ) ⋅ cˆ
" " "

" " 2 (a − b ) ⋅ c
= a −b − "
c
This is one way to specify AP. Another way could be as follows:
1
Area (∆ABP ) = × BP × AP
2
1 " " " " 1 " "

⇒
2
( ) ( )
a − b × rP − b = rP − b ( AP )
2
" " "
1 " " ∵ rP − b = λ c 
⇒
2
( )
" 1 "
a − b × λ c = λ c ( AP )
2

for someλ ∈ # 

"
⇒ AP =
( a − b )× c
" "
"
c
" "
(
= a − b × cˆ )
We could have arrived at this last result even more easily:
AP = AB sin θ
" "
= a − b sin θ
" "
(
= a − b × cˆ )
LOCUS 82
Example – 50
Two straight lines in space are called skew lines if they are neither parallel nor intersecting. Find the shortest
distance between the two skew lines
" " "
L1 : r = a + λ b
" " "
L2 : r = c + µ d
Solution: First of all, convince yourself that there will be only one line along which the distance between L1 and
L2 is minimum. Such a line will be perpendicular to both L1 and L2.
→ L1
a
→ A Two skew lines, at a
b distance d. Visualise
d this diagram in three
dimensions
B
→
c → L2
d
Fig - 63
It should be obvious that since AB is perpendicular to both L1 and L2, i.e, since AB is perpendicular to
" " " "
both b and d , it must be collinear with the vector b × d . Thus, a unit vector n̂ along the direction AB
is given by
" "
b ×d
nˆ = " "
b ×d
The distance AB is now simply the projection of the line segment joining the points a" and c" along the
(extended) line AB. Again, visualise this in your mind; you must be very clear why this is so. We thus
have,
" "
d = AB = ( a − c ) ⋅ nˆ
" "
( a − c ) ⋅ (b × d )
" "
= " "
b ×d
We can deduce a very useful corollary from this result. The two straight lines L1 and L2 intersect (in
other words, they are coplanar) if
d =0

LOCUS 83
" "
( a − c ) ⋅ (b × d ) = 0
" "
⇒
" " " " " "

⇒ ( )
a⋅ b ×d = c ⋅ b ×d ( )
" " " " " "
⇒  a b d  = c b d 
   
Note that if L1 and L2 are parallel, then the distance between them can be evaluated simply as the
perpendicular distance of a" from L2 (or c" from L1).
________________________________________________________________________________________
VECTOR EQUATIONS OF A PLANE

Consider an arbitrary plane. How do you think that the equation of this plane can be specified? We need
(a) either a point on the plane and the orientation of the plane (the orientation of the plane can be specified by
the orientation of the normal of the plane).
(b) or a point on the plane and two vectors coplanar with the plane.
Depending on whether we have the information as in (a) or as in (b), we have two different forms for the equation
of the plane.
(a) Let the plane be such that if passes through the point a" and n" is a vector perpendicular to the plane
→
n
→
n is a vector
perpendicular to
→ the plane
r
→
a
→
O( 0 ) Fig - 64
" "
It is evident that for any point r" lying on the plane, the vectors ( r − a ) and n" are perpendicular. Thus,
" " "
(r − a ) ⋅ n = 0
" " " "
⇒ r ⋅n = a ⋅n
This is the required equation of the plane. Convince yourself that all (and only) points lying on the plane will
satisfy this equation.

LOCUS 84
" "
(b) Let the plane be such that it passes through the point a" and is parallel to the vectors b and c (in other
" " "
words, is coplanar with vectors b and c ). It is assumed that b and c" are non-collinear.
→ →
→ b and c lie in the plane
b whose equation we wish
to determine
→
c
→
a
→
O( 0 )
Fig - 65
" " " "

Since b and c are non-collinear, any vector in the plane of b and c can be written as
" "
λb + µ c , where λ , µ ∈ #
Thus, any point lying in the plane can be written in the form
" " " "
r = a + λb + µ c for some λ , µ ∈ #
This is the equation of the plane in parametric form. As we vary λ and µ , we get different points lying in
the plane.
" " "
To specify the equation of the plane in non-parametric form, note that for any point r in the plane, ( r − a )
" " " " " "
lies in the plane of b and c. Thus, ( r − a ) is perpendicular to b × c :
" " " "
(r − a ) ⋅ (b × c ) = 0
" " " " " "
⇒ r ⋅ (b × c ) = a ⋅ ( b × c )
" " " " " "

⇒ r b c  = a b c 
   
Convince yourself that all (and only) points r" lying on the plane will satisfy this relation.
Example – 51
"
Find the length of the perpendicular dropped from the point A( a ) onto the plane r" ⋅ nˆ = d .

LOCUS 85
Solution:
→
A( a )
n^
l
Let M be the foot of
the perpendicular.
We need to find AM,
say l.
M
→. ^
r n=d
Fig - 66
Let O be the origin. The position vector of M can be written as

" !!!" !!!!"
rM = OA + AM
"
= a − l nˆ where l = AM
Since M lies on the plane, we must have
"
rM ⋅ nˆ = d
"
⇒ (a − l nˆ ) ⋅ nˆ = d
"
⇒ a ⋅ nˆ − l = d
"
⇒ l = a ⋅ nˆ − d
"
Thus, the length AM is a ⋅ nˆ − d .
We could have evaluated this result straightaway by inspection using a slightly more elaborate diagram.
"
In particular, let us include the origin O (0) in our diagram:
→
A( a )
n^
M
P
→
O( 0 )
Fig - 67

LOCUS 86
OP, the perpendicular from O onto the plane, is of length d since the equation of the plane is r" ⋅ nˆ = d .
The component of OA along the extended line AM, say OAAM , will be a" ⋅ nˆ. Thus,
AM = OAAM − OP
"
= a ⋅ nˆ − d
Example – 52
" " "

(a) Find the angle between the line r = a + λb and the plane r" ⋅ nˆ = d .
" "
(b) Find the angle between the planes r ⋅ nˆ1 = d1 and r ⋅ nˆ2 = d 2 .
Solution: (a)
→ → →
r = a + λb
The angle between the line
n^ and the plane is given by
θ'
cos θ = cos( π – θ') = sinθ'
θ 2
⇒ sinθ = cosθ'
Fig - 68
"
θ' is simply the angle between the vectors n̂ and b .
Thus,
"
b ⋅ nˆ ˆ
cos θ′ = " = b ⋅ nˆ
b nˆ
The angle between the line and the plane is therefore given by
sin θ = cos θ′ = bˆ ⋅ nˆ
⇒ ( )
θ = sin −1 bˆ ⋅ nˆ

LOCUS 87
(b) The angle θ between the two planes will simply be the angle between their normals. Thus,
nˆ1 ⋅ nˆ2
cos θ = = nˆ1.nˆ2
nˆ1 nˆ2
⇒ θ = cos −1 ( nˆ1 ⋅ nˆ2 )
Example – 53
It is physically obvious that two planes will intersect in a straight line.

Prove that the equation of the plane passing through the line of intersection of the planes
" "
P1 ≡ r1 ⋅ n1 − d1 = 0
" "
P2 ≡ r ⋅ n2 − d 2 = 0
can be written as P1 + λ P2 = 0.
Solution: First of all, let us verify whether P1 + λ P2 = 0 is indeed a plane:

" " " "
P1 + λ P2 ≡ (r ⋅ n1 − d1 ) + λ (r ⋅ n2 − d2 ) = 0
" " "
⇒ r ⋅ ( n1 + λ n2 ) − ( d1 + λ d 2 ) = 0 ...(1)
This of the form

" "
r ⋅n −d = 0
and hence represents a plane.
For this plane to pass through the intersection line of P1 and P2, we must prove that every point lying
on the intersection line of P1 and P2 must satisfy the equation P1 + λ P2 = 0. This is very straight
"
forward. Assume r0 to be any point lying on the intersection line P1 and P2 :
" " " "
⇒ r0 ⋅ n1 − d1 = 0 , r0 ⋅ n2 − d 2 = 0
" " " "
⇒ r0 ⋅ n1 − d1 + λ (r0 ⋅ n2 − d 2 ) = 0
" " "
⇒ r0 ⋅ ( n1 + λ n2 ) − ( d1 + λ d 2 ) = 0
"
This proves that r0 satisfies (1). Thus, the stated assertion is correct.

LOCUS 88
Example – 54
Find the perpendicular distance of any corner of a cube of side a from a diagonal not passing through it.
Solution: Let us take the cube in the following configuration:
y
B The position vectors

of A and B are ai^ and
a (^j + ^k) respectively.
O x
A
z Fig - 69
Let us find the perpendicular distance d of O from AB. Using the result of Example 24, this equals
!!!" !!!"
OA × OB
d = !!!" !!!"
OA − OB
=
(
iˆ × ˆj + kˆ )
iˆ − ˆj − kˆ
kˆ − ˆj
=
iˆ − ˆj − kˆ
2
=
3

LOCUS 89
Example – 55
Find the position vector of the point of intersection of the three planes
" " " " " "
r ⋅ n1 = d1 , r ⋅ n2 = d 2 , r ⋅ n3 = d3
" " "
where n1 , n2 and n3 are non-coplanar vectors.
" " "
Solution: The condition that n1 , n2 , n3 are non-coplanar will ensure that the three planes are guaranteed to
"
intersect in in a point (think about this carefully). Let r0 be the point of intersection of the three planes.
We have,
" " " " " "
r0 ⋅ n1 = d1 , r0 ⋅ n2 = d 2 , r0 ⋅ n3 = d 3
"
We must find a way to express r0 in terms of the known vectors/ quantities. For this purpose, let us
" " " " " "
consider as the basis of our three dimensional space the vectors {( n1 × n2 ) ( n2 × n3 ) ( n3 × n1 )}.
" " " " " " " " "
This can be done since if n1 , n2 , n3 are non-coplanar so are n1 × n2 , n2 × n3 and n3 × n1. It will soon
become clear why this should be done.
"
We can now write r0 as
" " " " " " "
r0 = λ1 ( n1 × n2 ) + λ2 ( n2 × n3 ) + λ3 ( n3 × n1 ) where λ1 , λ2 , λ3 ∈ #
" " " " " " " "
⇒ r0 ⋅ n3 = λ1 [n1 n2 n3 ] ⇒ d3 = λ1 [n1 n2 n3 ]
d
⇒ λ1 = " " 3 "
[n1 n2 n3 ]
d d
Similarly, λ2 = " " 1 " and λ3 = " " 2 "
[n1 n2 n3 ] [n1 n2 n3 ]
Thus,
" 1 " " " " " "

r0 = " " " {d 3 ( n1 × n2 ) + d1 ( n2 × n3 ) + d 2 ( n3 × n1 )}
[n1 n2 n3 ]

LOCUS 90
TRY YOURSELF - VI
Q. 1 Show that the external bisector of the angle A of a triangle ABC divides BC externally in the ratio
AB : AC.
" " " " " "
Q. 2 Find the equation of the plane containing the two parallel lines r = a + λb and r = α + µb in non-
parametric form.
Q. 3 Find the equation of the plane passing through the points A(2iˆ + ˆj + 3kˆ), B ( −iˆ + 2 ˆj + 4kˆ) and
C (2 ˆj + kˆ ). Find the position vector of the point D at which the line
"
r = (iˆ − ˆj + kˆ) + λ (2iˆ + kˆ )
intersects the plane of triangle ABC.
Q. 4 In a ∆OAB , E is the mid-point of OB and D is a point on AB such that AD : DB = 2 : 1. If OD

and AE intersect in P, prove that OP : OD = 3 : 5.
Q. 5 Points D, E, F divide the sides BC, CA and AB of ∆ABC respectively in the ratios 2 : 3, 1 : 2 and
3 : 1. Prove using vector methods that AD, BE and CF are concurrent.
Q. 6 Prove from first principles (that is, without using any other results) that the angle bisectors in any
triangle are concurrent.
Q. 7 If one diagonal of a quadrilateral bisects the other, prove that it divides the quadrilateral into two
triangles of equal areas.
Q. 8 In a triangle ABC, E and F are the mid -points of AC and AB respectively. CP is drawn parallel to AB
to meet BE produced in P. Show that
1
area (∆FEP ) = area (∆FCE ) = area (∆ABC )
4
Q. 9 In a tetrahedron, the four lines joining the vertices of a tetrahedron to the centroids of the opposite
faces are concurrent. (We’ve already proved this earlier).
Prove that the point of concurrency divides each of the four lines in the ratio 3 : 1.
Q. 10 Lines L1 and L2 are drawn through P (5iˆ + 7 ˆj − 2kˆ ) and Q ( −3iˆ + 3 ˆj + 6kˆ ) parallel to (3iˆ − ˆj + kˆ )
and (−3iˆ + 2 ˆj + 4kˆ ) respectively. A line L parallel to (2iˆ + 7 ˆj − 5kˆ ) intersects L1 and L2 in A and B

LOCUS 91
respectively. Determine A andSOLVED

B. EXAMPLES
Example – 1
Let ABC and PQR be two triangles in a plane. Assume that the perpendiculars from the points A, B, C to the sides
QR, RP, PQ respectively are concurrent. Using vector methods, prove that the perpendiculars from P, Q, R to
BC, CA, AB respectively are also concurrent.
Solution:
→
A( a )
The perpendiculars
from A, B, C to QR, RP, PQ
meet in O which we can assume
to be the origin. The position
→ → vectors have been assumed as
C( c ) B( b ) indicated
D
→
P( p )
O
→
R( r )
→
Q( q )
Fig - 70
We have,
OA ⊥ QR, OB ⊥ RP, OC ⊥ PQ
" " " " " " " " "
⇒ a ⋅ (r − q ) = b ⋅ ( p − r ) = c ⋅ (q − p ) = 0 ...(1)
We now proceed as follows. We draw the perpendiculars from P, Q to BC, CA respectively (not
"
shown in the figure) and assume that these perpendiculars meet in Z ( z ).
"
If we find Z ( z ) and show that RZ is perpendicular to AB, the concurrency will be established.
Since, by assumption,
!!!" !!!" !!!" !!!"
PZ ⊥ BC and QZ ⊥ CA
"
( p − z ) ⋅ (c − b ) = 0 and ( q" − z" ) ⋅ ( a" − c" ) = 0
" " "
⇒
" " " " " " " " "

⇒ { ( ) } {( " "
)
p ⋅ c − b + q ⋅ (a − c ) = z ⋅ c − b + (a − c ) }
LOCUS 92
The left hand side can be modified using (1), and thus we obtain,
" "
{− p" ⋅ b + q" ⋅ a" + ( p" − q" ) ⋅ c"} = z" ⋅ (a" − b )
" " " " " " "
⇒ q ⋅ a − p ⋅b = z ⋅ a − b ( )
" "
⇒ (a" − b ) ⋅ r" = z" ⋅ (a" − b ) (Again using (1))
"
⇒ (a" − b ) ⋅ (r" − z" ) = 0
" " " "
⇒ a − b is perpendicular to r − z .
⇒ AB is perpendicular to RZ.
This establishes the concurrency of the three perpendiculars.
Example – 2
" "
For any two vectors u and v , prove that
(1 + u" )(1 + v" ) = (1 − u" ⋅ v" ) + u" + v" + (u" × v" )

2 2 2 2
Solution: It should be apparent that we should start with expanding the right hand side. To expand the second
" "2 "2 "2 " "
term in the RHS, we use the relation a + b = a + b + 2 a ⋅ b ( )
Thus,
" " 2 " " " " " " " " " "
RHS = 1 + (u ⋅ v ) − 2u ⋅ v + {u + v + (u × v )}⋅ {u + v + (u × v )}
" " 2 " " "2 "2 " " " "2
= 1 + (u ⋅ v ) − 2u ⋅ v + u + v + 2u ⋅ v + u × v
"2 "2 " " 2 " " 2

= 1 + u + v + (u ⋅ v ) + (u× v )
Assuming the angle between u" and v" to be θ , the underlined expression can be written simply as
"2 "2 "2 "2 "2 "2
u v cos 2 θ + u v sin 2 θ = u v . Thus,
"2 "2 "2 "2

RHS = 1 + u + v + u v
(
"2 "2
= 1+ u 1+ v )( )
LOCUS 93
Example – 3
" " "

If a , b , c are three non-coplanar unit vectors equally inclined to one another at an angle θ such that
" " " " " " "
a × b + b × c = pa + qb + rc ,
" " "
find p, q , r in terms of θ. Also, show that
q2
p2 + + r2 = 2
cos θ
Solution: Note that
" " " " " " " " " " " "
a ⋅ a = b ⋅ b = c ⋅ c = 1; a ⋅ b = b ⋅ c = c ⋅ a = cos θ
Also
" " " " " "

a ⋅ a a ⋅b a ⋅c  We'll need this value 
" " " 2 " " " " " "  
a b c  = b ⋅ a b ⋅ b b ⋅ c
   later; that's why we 
" " " " " "  are evaluating it here 
c ⋅a c ⋅b c ⋅c  
1 cosθ cosθ
= cosθ 1 cosθ
cosθ cosθ 1
= 1 − 3cos 2 θ + 2 cos3 θ
= (1 − cos θ ) (1 + 2 cos θ )
2
" " "

⇒  a b c  = (1 − cos θ ) 1 + 2 cos θ
 
The given relation is
" " " " " " "
a × b + b × c = pa + qb + rc
" " "
Taking the dot product on both sides successively with a , b , c , we get the following system of equations.
" " "

p + q cos θ + r cos θ =  a b c 
p cos θ + q + r cos θ = 0
" " "

p cos θ + q cos θ + r =  a b c 

LOCUS 94
Using Cramer’s rule (or otherwise, by elimination), p, q, r can be evaluated. For example,
" " "

a b c  cos θ cos θ

0 1 cos θ
" " "
a b c  cos θ 1

p=
1 cos θ cos θ
cos θ 1 cos θ
cos θ cos θ 1
" " "

 a b c  (1 − cos θ )
= 
" " " 2
a b c 
 
1
=
1 + 2cos θ
Similarly,
−2 cos θ 1
q= , r=
1 + 2 cos θ 1 + 2 cos θ
These values confirm that
q2
p2 + + r2 = 2
cos θ
Example – 4
Let V be the volume of the parallelopiped formed by the vectors

"
a = a1iˆ + a2 ˆj + a3kˆ
"
b = b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3 kˆ
"
c = c1iˆ + c2 ˆj + c3 kˆ
3
If ar , br , cr , r = 1, 2,3 are non-negative numbers such that ∑ (a
r =1
r + br + cr ) = 3L, show that V ≤ L3 .

LOCUS 95
Solution: We have,
" " "
V =  a b c 
a1 a2 a3
= b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
= a1b2 c3 + a2b3c1 + a3b1c2 − ( a1b3c2 + a2b1c3 + a3b2 c1 )
≤ a1b2 c3 + a2b3c1 + a3b1c2 ...(1)
The last step is justified since all the ai′s, bi′s and ci′s are positive.
Now, by the AM-GM in equality, we have
27 ( a1b2 c3 ) ≤ ( a1 + b2 + c2 )
3
27 ( a2b3c1 ) ≤ ( a2 + b3 + c1 )
3
27 ( a3b1c2 ) ≤ ( a3 + b1 + c2 )
3
Adding these three inequalities, we have
27 ( a1b2 c3 + a2b3c1 + a3b1c2 ) ≤ ( a1 + b2 + c3 ) + ( a2 + b3 + c1 ) + ( a3 + b1 + c2 )

3 3 3
...(2)
The right hand side is of the form
x3 + y 3 + z 3
where x, y, z ≥ so that
x3 + y 3 + z 3 ≤ ( x + y + z )
3
...(3)
Using (3) in (2), we have
27 ( a1b2 c3 + a2b3c1 + a3b1c2 ) ≤ ( a1 + a2 + a3 + b1 + b2 + b3 + c1 + c2 + c3 ) = 27 L3

3
...(4)
From (1) and (4), it follows that
V ≤ L3

LOCUS 96
Example – 5
" " " "

Let u , v , w be three non-coplanar unit vectors and α , β , γ be the angles between u" and v , v" and w " and "
w
" " " "
and u respectively. Let x , y , z be the unit vectors along the bisectors of the angles α , β , γ respectively. Prove
that
" " " " " " 1 " " " 2 α β γ

[x × y
y × z z × x ] = [u v w] sec 2 sec 2 sec 2
16 2 2 2
" " "
Solution: Since u , v , w are unit vectors, we have
" " α " " β " " γ

u + v = 2 cos , v + w = 2 cos , w + u = 2 cos
2 2 2
" " "
Now, since x , y , z are unit vectors along the bisectors of α , β , γ , we have
" " " " " "
" u +v " v +w " w+u
x= , y= , z=
2 cos α 2 cos β 2 cos γ
2 2 2
" " " " " " " " "2
LHS = [ x × y y × z z × x] = [x y z]
"" " " " "2

=
[u + v v+w w + u]
α β γ
64 cos 2 cos 2 cos 2
2 2 2
=
(2 [u"
" " 2
v w])
α β γ
64 cos 2 cos 2 cos 2
2 2 2
= RHS
This proves the stated assertion.

LOCUS 97
ASSIGNMENT
[ LEVEL - I ]
Q. 1 Prove that the line segment joining the mid-points of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side
and equal to half of it.
Q. 2 A transversal cuts the sides OL, OM and diagonal ON of a parallelogram OLNM in A, B and C
respectively. Prove that
OL OM ON
+ =
OA OB OC
Q. 3 A line makes angle α , β , γ and δ with the diagonals of a cube. Prove that
4
cos 2 α + cos 2 β + cos 2 γ + cos 2 δ =
3
Q. 4 Prove that if two medians in a triangle are equal, then it must be isosceles.
Q. 5 Prove using vector methods the trigonometric relation
sin ( A ± B ) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
a a 2 1 + a3
" " "
Let b b 2 1 + b3 = 0. If the vectors A = iˆ + ajˆ + a kˆ, B = iˆ + bjˆ + b kˆ and C = iˆ + cjˆ + c 2 kˆ are
2 2
Q. 6
c c 2 1 + c3
coplanar, prove that abc = −1.

Q. 7 ABCDEF is a regular hexagon. M is the mid-point of DE, N is the mid-point of AM and P is the mid-
!!!" !!!" !!!"
point of BC. Write the vector NP using the vectors AB and AF as basis.
" " " " "
Q. 8 If a , b , c are three coplanar vectors and a and b are non-collinear, prove that c" can be written as
" ∆ " ∆ "
c = 1 a+ 2 b
∆ ∆
where
" " " " " " " "
c ⋅a a ⋅b a ⋅a c ⋅a "2 "2 " "
∆1 = " " " " , ∆ 2 = " " " " , ∆ = a b − a ⋅ b
c ⋅b b ⋅b a ⋅b c ⋅b
{ ( )}
2
Q. 9 Prove that the mid-points of two opposite sides of a quadrilateral and the mid-points of the diagonals
are the vertices of a parallelogram.
" " " "
Q. 10 Find the equation of the plane passing through the line of intersection of the planes r ⋅ n1 = d1 , r ⋅ n2 = d 2
" " " "
and parallel to the line of intersection of the planes r ⋅ n3 = d 3 and r ⋅ n4 = d 4 .

LOCUS 98
Q. 11 Prove using vectors that the mid-point of the hypotenuse of a right angled triangle is equidistant from
its vertices.
Q. 12 Prove that in a cuboid, the sum of the squares of the diagonals is equal to four times the sum of the
squares of any three co-initial edges.
Q. 13 Show that each of the four faces of a tetrahedron subtends the same volume at the centroid.
Q. 14 P and Q are the mid-points of the non-parallel sides BC and AD of a trapezium ABCD. Show that
area ( ∆APD ) = area ( ∆CQB )
1 a 2 sin B sin C
Q. 15 Prove that the area ∆ of a triangle ABC can be given by ∆ = where the symbols
2 sin A
have their usual meanings.
Q. 16 Prove that if the diagonals of a parallelogram are of equal lengths, then it must be a rectangle.
" " "
Q. 17 If a , b , c are coplanar vectors, prove that
" " " " " " " " "

a b c a ⋅ a a ⋅b a ⋅c
" " " " " " " " " " " "
(i) a ⋅ a a ⋅b a ⋅c = 0 (ii) b ⋅ a b ⋅ b b ⋅ c = 0
" " " " " " " " " " " "
b ⋅a b ⋅b b ⋅c c ⋅a c ⋅b c ⋅c
" " " "2

"
( )
2 2 2
Q. 18 For any vector r , prove that r × iˆ + r × ˆj + r × kˆ = 2 r
[ LEVEL - II ]
−3
Q. 19 In ∆ABC , prove that cos 2 A + cos 2 B + cos 2C ≥
2
Q. 20 The internal bisectors of the angles A, B and C of ∆ABC meet the opposite sides in D, E and F
respectively. Prove that
1
area ( ∆DEF ) ≤ area ( ∆ABC )
4
" "
Q. 21 Let A (t ) = f1 (t ) iˆ + f 2 (t ) ˆj and B (t ) = g1 (t ) iˆ + g 2 (t ) ˆj , t ∈ [0,1] where f1 , f 2 , g1 , g2 are
continuous functions.
" " " "
If A (t ) and B (t ) are non-zero vectors for all t and A ( 0 ) = 2iˆ + 3 ˆj , A (1) = 6iˆ + 2 ˆj ,
" " " "
B ( 0 ) = 3iˆ + 2 ˆj and B (1) = 2iˆ + 6 ˆj , then show that A (t ) and B (t ) are parallel for some t.

LOCUS 99
Q. 22 (a) Prove that the segment joining the middle points of the two non-parallel sides of a trapezium is parallel
to the parallel sides and equal to half their sum.
(b) Prove that the segment joining the mid-points of the diagonals of a trapezium is parallel to the parallel
sides and equal to half their difference.
BD CE AF
Q. 23 In a triangle ABC, D, E, F are taken on BC, CA and AB respectively such that = = = n.
DC EA FB
n2 − n + 1
Prove that area ( ∆DEF ) = area ( ∆ABC )
( n + 1)
2
" " " " " " " " "

Q. 24 Let a , b , c be three non-coplanar vectors, so that  a b c  ≠ 0. Define the set of vectors, a1 , b1 , c1
as
" " " " " "
" b ×c " c×a " a ×b
a1 = " " " , b1 = " " " , c1 = " " "
a b c  a b c  a b c 
     
Observe that
" " " " " "
a ⋅ a1 = b ⋅ b1 = c ⋅ c1 = 1
" " " " " "
The system of vectors a1 , b1 , c1 is called the reciprocal system of the set of vectors a , b , c .
"
" " " 1 " " " " " " a" + b + c"
(a) Prove that  a1 b1 c1  = " " " (b) Prove that b1 × c1 + c1 × a1 + a1 × b1 = " " "
  a b c  a b c 
   
" ˆ ˆ ˆ "
(c) Find explicitly the reciprocal system of the set of vectors a = i + j − k , b = 2iˆ − ˆj + 3kˆ and
"
c = iˆ + 2 ˆj − kˆ and prove that it satisfies the two properties above.
Q. 25 Points P, Q, R divide BC, CA and AB of ∆ABC in the ratio 1 : 2. The segments AP, BQ and CR form
the triangle XYZ. Prove that ∆ABC and ∆XYZ have the same centroid.
" " " "
Q. 26 Let u" and v" be two given non-collinear unit vectors and w
" be a vector such that w + ( w × u ) = v.
" " " 1

Prove that (u × v ) ⋅ w ≤
2
Q. 27 Three concurrent straight lines OA, OB, OC are produced to D, E, F respectively. AB and DE, BC
and EF, CA and FD intersect in X, Y, Z respectively. Prove that X, Y, Z are collinear.
Q. 28 Let OABC be a regular tetrahedron of side L. D is the circumcentre of ∆OAB and E is the mid-point
of AC. Find DE.
Q. 29 Prove that the point of intersection of the diagonals of a trapezium lies on the line passing through the
mid-points of the parallel sides.
Q. 30 Show that the angle between any edge and a face not containing that edge of a rectangular tetrahedron
 1 
is cos −1  .
 3
LOCUS 100
ANSWERS
TRY YOURSELF I
Ans. 1 – 40
Ans. 3 Mid point of the line segment joining the mid points of AC and BD
TRY YOURSELF II
 4 
Ans. 1 c∈− ,0
 3 
Ans. 2 – 15 J
Ans, 7 ±
1
51
(
−5iˆ + ˆj + 5kˆ )
Ans. 9 a ∈ ( −3, 2 ) ∪ ( 2, 3)
TRY YOURSELF III
" 5 2 2
Ans. 4 r = iˆ + ˆj + kˆ
3 3 3
TRY YOURSELF IV
Ans. 1 264 cubic units
146
Ans. 2 λ=−
17
TRY YOURSELF VI
" " " " " " " "

Ans. 2 { } {
r ⋅ (α − a ) × b = a ⋅ (α − a ) × b }
Ans. 3
"
( )
r ⋅ 3iˆ + 8 ˆj + kˆ = 17 ; 7iˆ − 11 ˆj + 4kˆ
Ans. 10 A ≡ 2iˆ + 8 ˆj − 3kˆ ; B ≡ ˆj + 2kˆ

LOCUS 101
ASSIGNMENT
!!!" 3 !!!" 1 !!!"

Ans. 7 NP = AB − AF
4 2
" " "
Ans 10
" " " [ n1 n3 n4 ]
r ⋅ ( n1 − λ n2 ) = d1 − λ d 2 where λ = " " "
[n2 n3 n4 ]
L
Ans 28
2

LOCUS 102
APPENDIX : 3D GEOMETRY
In our study of coordinate geometry we used coordinates to study planar geometry. We can easily extend the use
of coordinates to study geometry in three dimensions; this is what we’ll be doing in this chapter.
Most of the discussion of this chapter follows in a very straight forward manner from our discussions on Vectors;
that is the reason for this topic being discussed in the Appendix. It is being assumed in the subsequent discussions
that you have studied Vectors very thoroughly. You will, in due course, realise that the relations and formulae we
derive in this chapter are nothing but slightly different expressions of things we’ve already covered in Vectors.
Section - 1 INTRODUCTION : BASIC FORMULAE
As we have studied in the chapter on vectors, we need three non-coplanar directions as our reference axis to
specify the position of any point. It is most convenient to take the three non-coplanar directions (denoted
conventionally by x, y and z directions) as being mutually perpendicular to each other.
y
A rectangular axes
in three dimensions.
Note that the positive
directions of the x–,
y– and z–axis form
a right handed system.
z
Fig - 1
Such a reference axes is termed a rectangular coordinate axis. Any point P in space can now be specified with
respect to this frame by specifying the components (coordinates) of P along each axis.
For example, in the figure below,
y
P Assume
OA = a
OB = b
OC = c
O x
A
C
z Fig - 2
LOCUS 103
the coordinates of P along the x –, y – and z – axis are given to be a, b and c. Thus, P can be specified as
P ≡ ( a, b, c )
In two dimensions, two coordinates were sufficient to uniquely determine any point; in three dimensions, we need
three coordinates.
Note that a two dimensional coordinate axes divides the plane into four quadrants; a three dimensional coordinate
axes will divide the space into eight “compartments” known as octants. As an elementary exercise, write down
the coordinates of some arbitrary points in each of the eight octants.
DISTANCE FORMULA
Let A( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B( x2 , y2 , z2 ) be two arbitrary points. We need to find the distance between A and B in terms
of the coordinates of A and B. Observe the following diagram carefully:
B Note that since
A ≡ ( x1 , y1, z1 )
B ≡ ( x2 , y2, z 2 )
D we have
AC = |x2 – x1|
A C CD = |y2 – y1|
x
BD = |z2 – z1|
z Fig - 3
AB is simply the length of the diagonal of the cuboid drawn (as depicted above):
AB 2 = AC 2 + CD 2 + BD 2
AB 2 = ( x1 − x2 ) + ( y1 − y2 ) + ( z1 − z2 )
2 2 2
( x1 − x2 ) + ( y1 − y2 ) + ( z1 − z2 )
2 2 2
⇒ AB =
This is the distance formula for three dimensions. It has a form exactly similar to the distance formula for two
dimensions.

LOCUS 104
As an example, let A ≡ (1, 2, 3) , B ≡ (3, 2, 1) and C ≡ ( 2, 2, 2 ) . We have,
(1 − 3) + ( 2 − 2 ) + (3 − 1)
2 2 2
AB = =2 2
(3 − 2 ) + ( 2 − 2 ) + (1 − 2 )
2 2 2
BC = = 2
(1 − 2 ) + ( 2 − 2 ) + (3 − 2 )
2 2 2
AC = = 2
Incidentally, C is the mid point of AB since AC + BC = AB and AC = BC.
Example – 1
Find the locus of the point P equidistant from the four points O ( 0, 0, 0 ) , A ( x, 0, 0 ) , B ( 0, y, 0 ) and C ( 0, 0, z ).
Solution: Let P ≡ ( a, b, c )
We have,
OP 2 = AP 2
a 2 + b2 + c 2 = ( a − x ) + b2 + c 2
2
⇒
a2 = (a − x )
2
⇒
= a 2 + x 2 − 2 ax
x
⇒ a=
2
y z x y z
Similarly, b = and c = . Thus, the point P is  , ,  .
2 2 2 2 2
Example – 2
Find the locus of a point P which moves so that its distances from the points A (0, 2, 3) and B ( 2, –2, 1) are always
equal.
Solution: P will obviously lie on the perpendicular bisector of AB. Let the co-ordinates of P be (x, y, z).
Therefore,
PA2 = PB2
x 2 + ( y − 2 ) + ( z − 3) = ( x − 2 ) + ( y + 2 ) + ( z − 1)
2 2 2 2 2
⇒
⇒ x − 2 y − z +1 = 0
This is the required locus of P (if you think carefully, it is a plane)

LOCUS 105
SECTION FORMULA
Consider two arbitrary points A( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B( x2 , y2 , z2 ). We need to find the coordinates of the points P and
Q dividing AB internally and externally respectively, in the ratio m : n.
The approach used in the evaluation of the coordinates of P and Q is analogous to how we derived the section
formula in the two dimensional case.
B
Let M be the point
on AB such that
M AM m
=
MB n
C Drop a perpendicular
N (MN) from M onto AC.
A E D
x
z Fig - 4
In ∆ABC , we have
AM AN MN
= = ...(1)
AB AC BC
Assume the coordinates of M to be (x, y, z). Thus, the relation in (1) can be written as
m AE MN NE  AN AE NE 
= = = ∵ in ∆ACD, = = 
m + n AD BC CD  AC AD CD 
m x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
⇒ = = =
m + n x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z 2 − z1
mx2 + nx1 my + ny1 mz + nz1
` ⇒ x= , y= 2 , z= 2
m+n m+n m+n
Thus, the coordinates of M are
 mx + nx1 my2 + ny1 mz2 + nz1 

M ≡ 2 , , 
 m+n m+n m+n 

LOCUS 106
The form of the coordinates is the same as in the two dimensional case, as might have been expected. The
coordinates of M ' which divides AB externally in the ratio m : n can be obtained by substituting –n for n in the
coordinates of M.
As elementary applications of the section formula, do the following problems :
(a) The mid-points of the sides of a triangle are (1, 5, –1), (0, 4, –2) and (2, 3, 4). Find its vertices.
(b) Find the coordinates of the centroid of the triangle with vertices ( xi , yi , zi ) , i = 1, 2,3.
DIRECTION COSINES AND DIRECTION RATIOS
The direction cosines of a (directed) line are the cosines of the angles which the line makes with the positive
directions of the coordinate axes.
Consider a line OL as shown, passing through the origin O. Let OL be inclined at angles α , β , γ to the coordinate
axes.
y
γ α
x
O
z
Fig - 5
Thus, the direction cosines are given by
l = cos α , m = cos β , n = cos γ

Note that for the line LO (i.e., the directed line segment in the direction opposite to OL), the direction cosines will
be –l, –m, –n.
The direction cosines for a directed line L not passing through the origin are the same as the direction cosines of
the directed line parallel to L and passing through the origin.
Note that for any point P lying on the line OL with direction cosines l, m, n such that OP = r, the coordinates of P
will be
x = lr , y = mr , z = nr
⇒ p ≡ (lr , mr , nr )
LOCUS 107
Now, since
OP = r
⇒ l 2 r 2 + m2r 2 + n 2r 2 = r
⇒ l 2 + m2 + n2 = 1
The direction cosines of any line will satisfy this relation.

The direction ratios are simply a set of three real numbers a, b, c proportional to l, m, n, i.e.
l m n
= =
a b c
From this relation, we can write
a b c a2 + b2 + c2
= = =± = a 2 + b2 + c2
l m n l +m +n
2 2 2
a b c
⇒ l=± , m=± , n=±
a 2 + b2 + c 2 a 2 + b2 + c2 a 2 + b2 + c 2
These relations tell us how to find the direction cosines from direction ratios.
Note that the direction cosines for any line must be unique. However, there are infinitely many sets of direction
ratios since direction ratios are just a set of any three numbers proportional to the direction cosines.
Example – 3
How many lines can we draw that are equally inclined to each of the three coordinate axis?
Solution: Intuitively, we can expect the answer to be 8, one for each of the 8 octants. Lets try to derive this
answer rigorously.
Assume the direction cosines of the lines to be l, m, n. Thus,
l 2 + m2 + n2 = 1 ...(1)
But since the lines are equally inclined to the three axes, we have l = m = n . This gives using (1),
1
l =m=n =
3
1 1 1
⇒ l=± , m=± , n=±
3 3 3
It is obvious that 8 combinations of l, m, n are possible. Hence, 8 lines can be drawn which are
equally inclined to the axes.
LOCUS 108
Example – 4
Find the direction cosines of the line segment joining A( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B( x2 , y2 , z2 ).
Solution: Refer to Fig - 4. Note that the x, y and z-components of the segment AB are AD, CB and DC
respectively. If the direction cosines of AB are l, m, n and the length of AB is d, we have
ld = x2 − x1 , md = y2 − y1 , nd = z2 − z1
Thus, the direction cosines of AB are given by
x2 − x1 y −y z −z
l= , m= 2 1, n= 2 1
d d d
This result is quite important and will be used frequently in subsequent discussions.
Example – 5
Find the projection of the line segment joining the points A( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B( x2 , y2 , z2 ) onto a line with direction
cosines l, m, n.
!!!"
Solution: Let us first consider a vector approach to this problem. The vector AB can be written as
!!!"
AB = ( x2 − x1 ) iˆ + ( y2 − y1 ) ˆj + ( z2 − z1 ) kˆ
A unit vector û along the line with direction cosines l, m, n will be
û = liˆ + mjˆ + nkˆ

!!!"
Therefore, the projected length of AB upon this line will be.
!!!"
d = AB ⋅ uˆ
= l ( x2 − x1 ) + m ( y2 − y1 ) + n ( z2 − z1 )
This assertion can also be proved without resorting to the use of vectors. For this, we first understand
the projection of a sequence of line segments on a given line.
Assume P1 , P2 , P3 .....Pn to be n points in space. The sum of projections of the sequence of segments
P1 P2 , P2 P3 ,.....Pn −1 Pn onto a fixed line L will be the same as the projection of PP
1 n onto L. This should
be obvious from the following diagram:

LOCUS 109
P n-1
P2
P4 Pn
P1
P3
L
Q n-1 Qn
Q4
Q2 Q3
Q1
Fig - 6
The projection of the segment PP

1 n onto L is Q1Qn . The sum of projections of segments
1 2 , P2 P3 .....Pn −1 Pn onto L is Q1Q2 + Q2 Q3 + ..... + Qn −1Qn = Q1Qn .

PP
We use this fact in our original problem as follows:
A C
x
z Fig - 7
The projection d of AB onto any line L (with direction cosines say l, m, n) will be sum of projections
of AC, CD, DB onto L. Since AC, CD, and DB are l ( x2 − x1 ) , m ( y2 − y1 ) and n ( z2 − z1 )
respectively, we get the total projection of AB onto L as
d = l ( x2 − x1 ) + m ( y2 − y1 ) + n ( z2 − z1 )

LOCUS 110
Example – 6
Two lines L1 and L2 have direction cosines {l1 , m1 , n1} and {l2 , m2 , n2 } respectively. Find the angle at which L1
and L2 are inclined to each other respectively.
Solution: The unit vectors û1 and û2 along L1 and L2 respectively can be written as
uˆ1 = l1iˆ + m1 ˆj + n1kˆ, uˆ2 = l2iˆ + m2 ˆj + n2 kˆ
The angle θ between û1 and û2 (and hence L1 and L2 ) is given by
cos θ = uˆ1 ⋅ uˆ2 = l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2
⇒ θ = cos −1 (l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 )

We can dedude the following conditions on the direction cosines of L1 and L2.
" "
If L1 and L2 : u1 = λu2
are parallel
l1 m1 n1
: ⇒ = =
l2 m2 n2
" "
If L1 and L2 u1 ⋅ u2 = 0
are perpendicular:
⇒ l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = 0
What will be the corresponding conditions had a set of direction ratios been specified instead of the
direction cosines?
Example – 7
For the lines L1 and L2 of the previous example, find the direction cosines of the line L3 perpendicular to both L1
and L2 .
"
Solution: Let the unit vector along L3 be u3 . We have,
" " "
u3 = u1 × u2
iˆ ˆj kˆ
= l1 m1 n1
l2 m2 n2
= iˆ ( m1n2 − m2 n1 ) + ˆj ( n1l2 − n2l1 ) + kˆ (l1m2 − l2 m1 )
Since û3 is a unit vector itself, the direction cosines of L3 are simply
( m1n2 − m2 n1 ) , ( n1l2 − n2l1 ) , (l1m2 − l2 m1 )

LOCUS 111
Example – 8
Find the angle between the lines whose direction cosines are given by the equations
3l + m + 5n = 0, 6mn − 2nl + 5lm = 0

Solution: Using the value of m from the first equation in the second, we have
−6 (3l + 5n ) n − 2nl − 5l (3l + 5n ) = 0
⇒ 45ln + 30n 2 + 15l 2 = 0
⇒ 2 n 2 + 3ln + l 2 = 0
⇒ ( 2n + l )( n + l ) = 0
⇒ 2 n = −l or n = −l
For l = −2 n, we obtain m = n. A set of direction ratios of one line is therefore {−2n, n, n}.
For l = − n, we obtain m = −2n. A set of direction ratios of the other line is therefore {−n, − 2n, n}.
Using the result of example 6 (the one that you were asked to prove at the end of the question), the
1
angle between the two lines can now be evaluated to be cos −1   .
6
Section - 2 PLANE
In the chapter on Vectors, we have already learnt how to write the equations for a plane, in different forms. In this
section, we will extend that discussion and learn how to write the equation of a plane in three dimensional coordinates
form.
The general vector equation of a plane is of the form
" " ; l is a constant
r ⋅n = l
where r" is the variable vector xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ representing any point on the plane, while n" is a fixed vector, say
aiˆ + bjˆ + ckˆ which is perpendicular to the plane. Thus, the equation of the plane can be written as
( xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ) ⋅ (aiˆ + bjˆ + ckˆ) = l

⇒ ax + by + cz = l
⇒ ax + by + cz + d = 0 ; d = −l

LOCUS 112
This is the most general equation of a plane in coordinate form. Note that this equation of the plane contains only
three arbitrary constants, for, it can be written as
 a  b  c
  x +   y +   z + 1 = 0
d d d
⇒ λ1 x + λ 2 y + λ3 z + 1 = 0
Thus, three independent constraints are sufficient to uniquely determine a plane. For example, three non collinear
points are sufficient to uniquely determine the plane passing through them.
Example – 9
Write the equation of an arbitrary plane passing through the point A ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) .

" "
Solution Let us denote the position vector of A by A ; A is therefore x1iˆ + y1 ˆj + z1kˆ. Now, assume that the
"
normal to the plane is n = aiˆ + bjˆ + ckˆ, where a, b, c are variable :
→
n
→ →
A r
Fig - 8
" " "
"
( )
Thus, for any variable point r = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ on the plane, since r − A is perpendicular to n, we
have
" " "
( )
r − A ⋅n = 0
⇒ (( x − x ) iˆ + ( y − y ) ˆj + ( z − z ) kˆ) ⋅ (aiˆ + bjˆ + ckˆ) = 0

1 1 1
⇒ a ( x − x1 ) + b ( y − y1 ) + c ( z − z1 ) = 0 ...(1)
This is the required equation of an arbitrary plane through the point A( x1 , y1 , z1 ).

LOCUS 113
We could have arrived at this equation alternatively as follows: we assume the general equation of a
plane which is
ax + by + cz + d = 0 ...(2)
If this passes through ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) we have
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d = 0 ...(3)
By ( 2 ) − (3) , we arrive at the same equation as in (1).
Example – 10
Find the equation of the plane passing through the points P(1, 1, 0), Q (1, 2, 1) and R (–2, 2, –1).
Solution: Let S(x, y, z) be any arbitrary point in the plane whose equation we wish to determine:
Q
P S
Fig - 9
!!!" !!!"
Since PQ × PR will be perpendicular to this plane, we must have
!!!" !!!" !!!"
(
PS ⋅ PQ × PR = 0 )
iˆ ˆj kˆ
⇒ { }
( x − 1) iˆ + ( y − 1) ˆj + zkˆ ⋅ 0 1 1 = 0
−3 1 −1
⇒ {( x − 1)iˆ + ( y − 1) ˆj + zkˆ}⋅ (−2iˆ − 3 ˆj + 3kˆ ) = 0

⇒ 2 ( x − 1) + 3 ( y − 1) − 3 z = 0
⇒ 2 x + 3 y − 3z = 5
We could have proceeded alternatively as follows: using the result of the last example, any arbitrary
plane through P(1, 1, 0) will be of the form
a ( x − 1) + b ( y − 1) + cz = 0
a b
⇒ λ1 ( x − 1) + λ 2 ( y − 1) + z = 0 ; λ1 = , λ2 =
c c
LOCUS 114
If this passes through Q(1, 2, 1) and R(–2, 2, –1), we have
λ2 + 1 = 0
and −3λ1 + λ2 − 1 = 0
2
⇒ λ1 = − , λ 2 = −1
3
Thus, the equation of the plane is
2
− ( x − 1) − ( y − 1) + z = 0
3
⇒ 2 ( x − 1) + 3 ( y − 1) − 3 z = 0
⇒ 2 x + 3 y − 3z = 5
Example – 11
Find the equation of the plane intercepting lengths a, b and c on the x-, y- and z-axis respectively.
Solution: The plane passes through the points A(a, 0, 0), B (0, b, 0) and C(0, 0, c). For any variable point S
(x, y, z) in this plane, we have (as discussed in the previous section),
!!!" !!!" !!!"
(
AS ⋅ AB × AC = 0 )
iˆ ˆj kˆ
⇒ { }
( x − a) iˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ ⋅ − a b 0 = 0
−a 0 c
⇒ {( x − a) iˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ} ⋅ (bciˆ + acjˆ + abkˆ) = 0

⇒ (bc )( x − a ) + acy + abz = 0
⇒ bcx + acy + abz = abc
x y z
⇒ + + =1
a b c
This general equation has the same form as the equation of the line in intercept form; which further
proves the analogy between the formulae in two and in three dimensions.

LOCUS 115
Example – 12
A plane is at a distance p from the origin and the direction cosines of the (outward) normal to it are l, m, n. Find
its equation.
Solution: The unit vector n̂ normal to the plane is
n̂ = liˆ + mjˆ + nkˆ
"
( )
For any point r xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ in the plane, we have
"
r ⋅ nˆ = p
⇒ lx + my + nz = p
This is the required equation; it is called the normal form of the plane’s equation. As an exercise,
convert the general equation of the plane
ax + by + cz + d = 0
into normal form.
Example – 13
Find the angle of intersection of the two planes
a1x + b1 y + c1z + d1 = 0
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0
Solution: From the equations of the planes, it is evident that the following vectors are to these planes arespectively:
"
n1 = a1iˆ + b1 ˆj + c1kˆ
"
n2 = a2iˆ + b2 ˆj + c2 kˆ
Since the acute angle θ between the two planes will be the acute angle between their normals, we
have
" "
n1 ⋅ n2
cos θ = " "
n1 n2
a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2

=
a12 + b12 + c12 a22 + b22 + c22

LOCUS 116
Incidentally, we can now derive the conditions for these planes to be parallel or perpendicular.
" " a1 b1 c1
Planes are parallel if n1 = λn2 ⇒ = =
a2 b2 c2
" "
Planes are perpendicular if n1 × n2 = 0 ⇒ a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0
It should be obvious that for two parallel planes, their equations can be written so that they differ only
in the constant term. Thus, any plane parallel to ax + by + cz + d = 0 can be written as
ax + by + cz + d ' = 0 where d ' ∈ # ( and d ' ≠ d ) .
Example – 14
(a) Find the distance of the point P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) from the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0.
(b) Find the distance between the two parallel planes

ax + by + cz + d1 = 0
ax + by + cz + d 2 = 0
Solution: (a) The distance l of P from the given plane will obviously be measured along the normal to the plane
passing through P:
P
l →
n
ax+by+cz+d = 0
Fig - 10
We write the equation of the plane as
" "
r ⋅ n = −d
" "
where r = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ is any point on the plane and n = aiˆ + bjˆ + ckˆ is the normal to the plane.
!!!"
Let O be the origin. Since Q lies on the plane, its position vector OQ must satisfy the equation of
!!!" !!!" !!!"
the plane. But OQ = OP + PQ. Thus,
!!!" !!!" "
( )
OP + PQ ⋅ n = −d
!!!" "
Note that PQ = λ"n where λ = ±l (which sign to take depends on which direction n" points in).
n

LOCUS 117
Thus,
 !!!" λ n"  "

 OP + "  ⋅ n = −d
 n 
!!!" " λ n" ⋅ n"

⇒ OP ⋅ n + " = −d
n
⇒ ( x iˆ + y ˆj + z kˆ ) ⋅ (aiˆ + bjˆ + ckˆ ) + λ n" = −d

1 1 1
"
⇒ ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d = −λ n
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d

⇒ λ =l = "
n
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d

⇒ l=
a 2 + b2 + c 2
(b) Assume any point P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) on the first plane. We have
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d1 = 0
⇒ d1 = − ( ax1 + by1 + cz1 ) ...(1)
The distance of P from the second plane, say l, can be evaluated as described in part (a) above :
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d 2

l= ...(2)
a 2 + b2 + c 2
Using (1) in (2), we have
d 2 − d1
l=
a 2 + b2 + c 2
This is the required distance between the two planes.
Example – 15
Find the equation of the plane (s) bisecting the angle(s) between two given planes
P1 ≡ a1 x + b1 x + c1 z + d1 = 0
P2 ≡ a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d 2 = 0

LOCUS 118
Solution: Note that as in the case of the intersection of straight lines, there will be two (supplementary) angles
formed when two planes intersect: one will be acute and the other obtuse (or both could be right). The
angle bisector plane of two planes has essentially the same property as the angle bisector of two lines:
any point on the angle bisector plane of the planes P1 and P2 will be equidistant from P1 and P2.
If we assume an arbitrary point S(x, y, z) on the angle bisector plane(s) of P1 and P2 , we have,
Distance of S from P1 = Distance of S from P2
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d 2
⇒ =
a12 + b12 + c12 a22 + b22 + c22
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d 2
⇒ =±
a +b +c
2
1 1
2 2
1 a22 + b22 + c22
As expected, we get two angle bisector planes, one corresponding to the “+” and one to the “–” sign.
As in the case of straight line angle bisectors, we can prove that the equation of the angle bisector
containing the origin will be given by the “+” sign if d1 and d2 are of the same sign. You are urged to
prove this as an exercise.
For two planes with equations
" "
P1 ≡ a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 ≡ r ⋅ n1 + d1 = 0
" "
P2 ≡ a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d 2 = 0 ≡ r ⋅ n2 + d 2 = 0
we have already proved in the chapter on vectors that any plane passing through the intersection line
of P1 and P2 can be written as
P1 + λ P2 = 0, λ ∈#
Let us use this to solve a problem.
Example – 16
Find the equation of the plane passing through the line of intersection of
P1 ≡ x + 3 y − 6 = 0
P2 ≡ 3x − y + 4 z = 0
and at a unit distance from the origin.
Solution: Any plane through the intersection line of P1 and P2 can be written as
P1 + λ P2 = 0
⇒ (1 + 3λ ) x + (3 − λ ) y + 4λ z − 6 = 0 ...(1)

LOCUS 119
The distance of this plane from the origin (0, 0, 0) is 1. We thus have, using the formula for the distance
of a point from a plane,
(1 + 3λ ) 0 + (3 − λ ) 0 + 4λ (0 ) − 6
=1
(1 + 3λ ) + (3 − λ ) + ( 4λ )
2 2 2
(1 + 3λ ) + (3 − λ ) + ( 4λ )
2 2 2
⇒ = 36
⇒ λ = ±1
Thus, if fact two such planes will exist . Using the values of λ obtained in (1), the equations of these
two planes will be 2 x + y + 2 z + 3 = 0 and − x + 2 y − 2 z + 3 = 0.
Section - 3 STRAIGHT LINE
In this section, we’ll discuss how to write the equation for a straight line in coordinate form. There are essentially
two different ways of doing so:
UNSYMMETRICAL FORM OF: A line can be defined as the intersection of two planes. Thus, the equations
THE EQUATION OF A LINE of two planes considered together represents a straight line. For example,
the set of equations
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0
represents the straight line formed by the intersection of these two planes.
Recall that the planes will intersect only if they are non-parallel, i.e., only if
a1 : b1 : c1 ≠ a2 : b2 : c2
SYMMETRICAL FORM OF : Consider a line with direction cosines l, m, n and passing through the point
THE EQUATION OF A LINE A( x1 , y1 , z1 ). For any point P ( x, y, z ) on this line, the set of numbers
{( x − x ) , ( y − y ) , ( z − z )} must be proportional to the direction cosines,
1 1 1
as has already been discussed. Thus, the equation of this line can be written
as
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= =
l m n
Extending this, we can write the equation of the line passing through
A ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) as
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= =
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1

LOCUS 120
Note that for any point P ( x, y, z ) at a distance r from A ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) along

the line with direction cosines l, m, n, we have
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= = =r
l m n
Thus, the coordinates of P can be written as
x = x1 + lr , y = y1 + mr , z = z1 + nr
This is a useful fact and we’ll be using it frequently.
Example – 17
Find the direction cosines of the line 6 x − 2 = 3 y + 1 = 2 z − 2.

Solution: We have ,
 1  1
6  x −  = 3  y +  = 2 ( z − 1)
 3  3
1 1
x− y+
⇒ 3= 3 = z −1
1 2 3
Comparing this with the symmetrical form of the equation of a line, we can say that the direction ratios
of this line are proportional to 1, 2, 3. Thus, the direction cosines are
1 1 2 3
l= = , m= , n=
12 + 22 + 32 14 14 14
1 2 3
⇒ The direction cosines are , , .
14 14 14
Example – 18
x y z
Find the distance of the point A (1, –2, 3) from the plane x − y + z = 5 measured parallel to the line = = .
2 3 −6
Solution: The direction cosines of the line parallel to whom we wish to measure the distance, can be evaluated
to be
2 3 6
, ,−
7 7 7
LOCUS 121
Thus, any point on the line through A with these direction cosines, at a distance r from A, will have the
coordinates
 2r 3r 6r 
1 + , − 2 + , 3 − 
 7 7 7 
If this point lies on the given plane, we have
 2r   3r   6r 
 1 +  −  −2 +  +  3 −  = 5
 7   7  7 
⇒ r =1
Thus, the required distance is 1 unit.
Example – 19
Find a set of direction ratios of the line
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 ; a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d 2 = 0
a1 : b1 : c1 ≠ a2 : b2 : c2
Solution: The equation of the line has been specified in unsymmetric form, i.e., as the intersection of two
non-parallel planes.
Visualise in your mind that when two planes intersect, the line of intersection will be perpendicular to
normals to both the planes. Normal vectors to the two planes can be taken to be
"
n1 = a1iˆ + b1 ˆj + c1kˆ
"
n2 = a2iˆ + b2 ˆj + c2 kˆ
" "
Thus, the line of intersection will be parallel to n1 × n2 , i.e. to
iˆ ˆj kˆ
a1 b1 c1 = iˆ (b1c2 − b2 c1 ) + ˆj (c1a2 − a1c2 ) + kˆ ( a1b2 − a2b1 )
a2 b2 c2
A set of direction ratios of the line of intersection can be taken to be
(b1c2 − b2c1 ) , (c1a2 − a1c2 ) , ( a1b2 − a2b1 )

LOCUS 122
Example – 20
Find the equation of the plane passing through the line
2x + y − z − 3 = 0 = 5x − 3 y + 4z + 9
x −1 y − 3 z − 5
and parallel to the line = =
2 4 5
Solution: In terms of a parameter λ , the equation of the plane that we require can be written as
( 2 x + y − z − 3 ) + λ (5 x − 3 y + 4 z + 9 ) = 0
⇒ ( 2 + 5λ ) x + (1 − 3λ ) y + ( 4λ − 1) z + (9λ − 3) = 0 ...(1)
For this plane to be parallel to the given line, its normal must be perpendicular to the given line. Using
the condition for perpendicularity, we thus have
2 ( 2 + 5λ ) + 4 (1 − 3λ ) + 5 ( 4λ − 1) = 0
⇒ 3 + 18λ = 0
1
⇒ λ=−
6
Using this value of λ in (1), we get the required equation of the plane as 7 x + 9 y − 10 z = 27.

LOCUS 123
ASSIGNMENT ( 3-D GEOMETRY )
Q. 1 Show that the points A (3, 3, 3), B (0, 6, 3), C (1, 7, 7) and D ( 4, 4, 7) are the vertices of a square.
Q. 2 Show that the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 divides the line joining the points ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and ( x2 , y2 , z2 )
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d
in the ratio − ax + by + cz + d .
2 2 2
Q. 3 A directed line segment makes angles 45° and 60° with x-axis and y-axis respectively and an acute
angle with z-axis. If P(–1, 2, –3) and Q (4, 3,1) are two points in space, find the projection of PQ on
the given line.
Q. 4 If the edges of a rectangular parallelopiped are a, b, c, prove that the angles between the four diagonals
are given by
 a 2 ± b2 ± c2 
cos−1  2 2 2  .
 a +b +c 
Q. 5 Find the angle between the lines whose direction cosines are connected by the relations:
l − 5m + 3n = 0 and 7l 2 + 5m 2 − 3n 2 = 0
Q. 6 Show that the straight lines whose direction cosines are given by the equations al + bm + cn = 0 and
ul 2 + vm 2 + wn 2 = 0 are perpendicular, if a ( v + w ) + b (u + w ) + c (u + v ) = 0 and, parallel, if
2 2 2
a2 b2 c2
+ + = 0.
u v w
Q. 7 Show that the four points (0, –1, –1), (–4, 4, 4), (4, 5, 1) and (3, 9, 4) are coplanar. Find the equation
of the plane containing them.
Q. 8 Find the equation of the plane that bisects the segment joining the points (1, 2, 3) and (3, 4, 5) at right
angles.
Q. 9 Prove that the points A ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) lie on the same or opposite sides of the plane
ax + by + cz + d = 0 accordingly as the expressions ( ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d ) and ( ax2 + by2 + cz2 + d )
are of the same or opposite signs.
Q. 10 A variable plane is at a constant distance p from the origin and meets the coordinates axes in A, B, C.
Show that the locus of the centroid of the tetrahedron OABC is x −2 + y −2 + z −2 = 16 p −2 .
Q. 11 Show that the origin lies in the acute angle between the planes x + 2 y + 2 z = 9 and
4 x − 3 y + 12 z + 13 = 0.

LOCUS 124
Q. 12 Let P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) , Q ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) and R ( x3 , y3 , z3 ) be the vertices of ∆PQR with area A.

Let ∆PQ
1 1 R1 , ∆P2Q2 R2
and ∆P3Q3 R3 be the projections of ∆PQR on y-z, z-x and x-y planes
respectively, and let their areas be Ax , Ay and Az respectively. Prove that
A2 = Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2
Generalize this result, if possible.
Q. 13 P is a point on the plane lx + my + nz = p. A point Q is taken on the line OP such that OP ⋅ OQ = p 2 ;

prove that the locus of Q is p (lx + my + nz ) = x 2 + y 2 + z 2
x −1 y + 3 z + 1
Q. 14 Find the equation of two planes through the origin which are parallel to the line = =
2 −1 −2
5
and at a distance of units from it.
3
Q. 15 Show that the two lines
x − xi y − yi z − zi
= = , i = 1, 2
li mi ni
are coplanar if
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
l1 m1 n1 = 0
l2 m2 n2
x +1 y − 3 z + 2 x y−7 z +7
Q. 16 Show that the lines = = and = = intersect. Find the coordinates of
−3 2 1 1 −3 2
the point of intersection and the equation of the plane containing them.
Q. 17 (i) Find the equation of the plane passing through the points (2, 1, 0), (5, 0, 1) and (4, 1, 1).
(ii) If P is the point (2, 1, 6), then find the point Q such that PQ is perpendicular to the plane in (i) and
the mid-point of PQ lies on it.
x −1 y − 2 z − 3
Q. 18 Find the projection of the line = = on the plane x − y + z + 2 = 0.
3 4 5
x y z
Q. 19 Find the locus of a point which moves in such a way that its distance from the line = = is twice
1 1 −1
its distance from the plane x + y + z = 0.
x−9 y +4 z −5
Q. 20 Prove that the lines = = and 6 x + 4 y − 5 z − 4 = 0 = x − 5 y + 2 z − 12 are coplanar.
2 −1 1
Find also their point of intersection.

LOCUS 125
ANSWERS
ASSIGNMENT
Ans. 3
5
2
( 2 +1 )
Ans. 7 5 x − 7 y + 11z + 4 = 0
Ans. 8 x+ y+z =9
Ans. 16 ( 2,1, −3) ; x+ y+ z =0
Ans. 17 x + y − 2 z − 3 = 0; (6,5, −2 )
x+2 y+2 z+2

Ans. 18 = =
5 16 11
Ans. 19 x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 5 xy + 3 yz + 3 zx
Ans. 20 (3, −1, 2 )

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LOCUS 1

02. Basic Vector Operations

03. Dot Product

04. Product Product

05. Scalar Triple Product

06. Vector Triple Product

07. More Geometry with Vectors

08. Appendix : 3-D Geometry

Mathematics / Vectors and 3-D Geometry

Mathematics / Vectors and 3-D Geometry

Mathematics / Vectors and 3-D Geometry

" " "

Mathematics / Vectors and 3-D Geometry

Section - 2 BASIC VECTOR OPERATIONS

(A) ADDITION OF VECTORS : TRIANGLE / PARALLELOGRAM LAW

Mathematics / Vectors and 3-D Geometry

" " "

" " "

" " " " "

(B) SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS : An extension of addition

(ii) Join the tip of b to the tip of a to

" " " " " "

Mathematics / Vectors and 3-D Geometry

" " "

When does the equality hold in these cases?

Mathematics / Vectors and 3-D Geometry

Solution: Consider this figure:

In ∆ ABC ': AC ' ≤ AB + BC ' = AB + BC

Mathematics / Vectors and 3-D Geometry

First of all, we note an important geometrical property of a regular hexagon:

Now we use the triangle law to determine the various sides:

" " !!!"

(C) MULTIPLICATION OF A VECTOR BY A SCALAR

Mathematics / Vectors and 3-D Geometry

" " " "

THE BASIS OF A VECTOR SPACE

A reference axes formed

Mathematics / Vectors and 3-D Geometry

Thus, any vector r" in the plane can be written as

" " "

" " " "

Mathematics / Vectors and 3-D Geometry

Solution: We must have some λ , µ ∈ # such that

From (1), we have

We use this in (2) :

3 "  6" "

Using the value of λ in (3), we have

Mathematics / Vectors and 3-D Geometry

"  µ "  γ "

Mathematics / Vectors and 3-D Geometry

For example, based on our previous discussions, we see that

You are urged to prove for yourself all these assertions.

Mathematics / Vectors and 3-D Geometry

RESOLUTION OF A VECTOR IN A GIVEN BASIS

" !!!" !!!"

Let θ be the angle that

Mathematics / Vectors and 3-D Geometry

Mathematics / Vectors and 3-D Geometry

MAGNITUDE, DIRECTION COSINES AND DIRECTION RATIOS

From (1), this gives

= liˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ

Mathematics / Vectors and 3-D Geometry