1 1 /9 Castaneda, Catalan, Catubag, Cayabyab, Cengca 1 13 August 2014 The Cell LECTURE I. How are specimens prepared for light microscopy? II. The Cell a. Definition b. Two Basic Compartments c. Components of the Cell d. Structure-Function Correlations of the Cell LABORATORY I. Staining of Histologic Structures II. Slides LECTURELECTURE I. SPECIMEN PREPARATION 1) Fixation To preserve tissue morphology and prevent cell digestion Use of fixative A snapshot of what it is 2) Dehydration To remove cell water (to prevent decay) Use of ethyl alcohol 3) Clearing Use of lipid solvent like benzene or xylene Tissue becomes transparent White spots = where fats were once located 4) Embedding Baked in paraffin (a white colorless soft solid) at 58-60 C Makes tissue more firm for sectioning 5) Sectioning Use of microtome (cutting tool used to cut extremely thin slices of material) Tissue is cut for Light Microscope (LM) : 3-8m & Electron Microscope (EM): 0.02-1 m; section = resolution 6) Staining Hematoxylin: Basic dye (basophilic) Purplish Blue Eosin: Acidic dye (acidophilic) Bright Pink a. Staining of Proteins: high carboxyl group content would be stained with basic dye (hematoxylin) and those high in amino group, acidic dye b. Staining of Nucleic Acids: NAs have phosphoric acid (strongly acidic) content which causes varying pH; they are basophilic (absorbs hematoxylin) at alkaline, neutral and moderately acid pH and acidophilic (absorbs eosin) at very acidic pH c. Staining of Mucopolysaccharides and Mucoproteins: they contain sulfate groups (very acidic), their affinity to dyes same as nucleic acids d. Staining of Fats and Carbohydrates: H&E procedure usually dissolves or does not stain these substances, thus cannot be seen properly; if structure is large enough, it is seen as unstained spot in cytoplasm Table 1. Staining Properties Structure being noted Philicity Dye Absorbed by structure Dye Color Acidic Basophilic Hematoxylin Blue or Purple Basic Acidophilic Eosin Red or Pink 1 The Cell Castaneda, Catalan, Catubag, Cayabyab, Cengca 2 /10 II. The Cell A. DEFINITION Cell - the smallest unit of protoplasm capable of an independent existence Cell Tissue Organ Organ System B. TWO BASIC COMPONENTS 1. Nucleus Repository of the cells genetic material (DNA) Tells the cell what to do; How long its lifespan will be Parts of the Nucleus: a. Chromatin Nucleic acids (Deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA): genetic material of the nucleus, resides in the chromosomes (1) Condensed inactive, stainable; Heterochromatin (2) Extended in transcription, not visible with LM; Euchromatin Only a fraction of the total complement of units of heredity (genes) is actively involved, at any given time, in directing protein synthesis. This portion is in the euchromatin, whereas the genes that are not being expressed are in the heterochromatin. Histone proteins package DNA into nucleosomes and for gene regulation Gene sequence of base pairs in the DNA that contain information for synthesis of nucleic acid or protein 1) Transcription (nucleus) = from DNA -> mRNA -> tRNA -> rRNA (codons) 2) Translation (cytoplasm) = in action b. Nuclear envelope: barrier, separates nucleus from cytoplasm Participates in chromatin organization Controls movement of macromolecules between the nucleoplasm and surrounding cytoplasm In EM: 2 parallel membranes separated by perinuclear cisterna (10- 30 nm space) - Outer membranes: may have ribosomes, continuous with rough endoplasmic reticulum - Inner and outer membranes: continuous with each other at nuclear pore complex (intricate complex of proteins) Nuclear pore: serve as avenues of communication between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm c. Nucleoli Deeply stained by basic dyes due to ribonucleoprotein Often surrounded by an intensely stained rim of nucleololus-associated chromatin Usually large in growing cells that are making large amounts of tissue proteins d. Nuclear Matrix scaffold/skeleton; 3- dimensional filamentous protein network 2. Cytoplasm: contains organelles (metabolically active, essential) and inclusions suspended in fluid called cytosol; where protein synthesis occurs C. COMPONENTS OF THE CELL 1. Organelles metabolically active, essential a. Endoplasmic Reticulum Continuous or extensive system of membrane-bounded canaliculi Visible in histological sections ONLY if intact cells in tissue culture are stained with a lipophilic anionic In EM, it appears as branching tubular profiles of varying length; the tubules may expand into broad flat saccules called cisternae (fluid-filled cavities) Functional and Morphological Regional Differentiation: (1) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) Contains ribosomes 1 The Cell Castaneda, Catalan, Catubag, Cayabyab, Cengca 3 /10 (manufacture proteins) on the outer surface of its limiting membrane Most abundant in glandular cells that secrete protein; antibody- producing plasma cells; and liver cells that produce most blood proteins (2) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) Lacks adherent particles Synthesis of lipids (fatty acids, et. al) Mostly found in steroid-secreting endocrine cells In liver, it is mostly involved in synthesis of VLDL (very low- density lipoprotein) - cholesterol carrier Involved in the detoxification and metabolism of lipid-soluble drugs Break down stored glycogen to form free glucose Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: in muscle, storing and releasing Ca 2+ during muscle contraction b. Ribosomes Consists of RNA and proteins Attached in Rough ER and freely floating in free cytoplasm 1) In Rough ER: synthesize proteins for incorporation into cell membranes or lysosomes, or for export from the cell 2) In cytoplasm: make soluble proteins *ribosomal units can switch back and forth between these two functions depending on the type of protein they are making at a given time Sites where amino acids are assembled in synthesis of proteins. To carry out this function, 1) Ribosomes must occur in clusters or 10 or more linked to one mRNA or polyribosomes. 2) When chain of amino acids is formed long enough, they detach themselves and are found free within the RER. 3) Vesicle containing newly synthesized protein detaches from RER and proceeds to Golgi apparatus for processing c. Golgi Complex Essential for secretion; found in secretory cells It processes, concentrates and packages proteins from RER into secretory granules for discharge from the cell. Controls traffic of small vesicles involved in the recycling of membrane between organelles and cytoplasm and cell surface Revealed in LM only by staining with silver. In EM, it appears as a stack of 4 to 10 lamellae of cisternae Functional polarity (cis and trans faces) is evident Vesicles bud off from cisterna and fuse with the next one on the stack cis - "receiving" area; trans - "packaging"/ shipping d. Mitochondria flexible, shaping-changing rods Provides energy for motion and biosynthesis Principal biochemical activity: oxidative phosphorylation The oxidation of the nutrients, like glucose and fatty acids; energy thus generated is used to synthesize ATP; ATP (cells currency of Energy) broken down for energy release Its density in a cell reflects the cells energy requirement (kung saan mas busy, doon mas marami) Self-replicating organelles (via binary fission) with a limited life-span Origin from endosymbiosis of ancient bacteria 1 The Cell Castaneda, Catalan, Catubag, Cayabyab, Cengca 4 /10 - Similarities with bacteria 1) Own protein synthesis machinery (ribosomes) more like bacteria than eukaryotes (sensitivity to Streptomycin) 2) Inner membrane of mitochondria contains unusual phospholipid characteristic of bacterial membranes. Parts of the Mitochondria: 1) Membrane a. Inner Membrane: cristae mitochondriales; impermeable b. Outer Membrane: contains transmembrane channels 2) Spaces a. Intercristal Space: occupied by the mitochondrial matrix b. Intracristal Space/Membrane Space e. Lysosomes Round, ovoid or highly irregular, electron- dense bodies; heterogeneous disintegrator bodies Cellular digestion (histochemical demonstration of hydrolase) Work best in acidic conditions Defense against bacteria - abundant in phagocytic cells (macrophage, et. al) Apoptosis or cell death/suicide Intracellular digestion Types: 1) Primary: has not yet digested 2) Secondary: has digested or is digesting f. Peroxisomes Small, spherical bodies Contain oxidative enzymes and catalase Neutralize free radicals (highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons) that can scramble the structure of cells Oxidases convert free radicals to hydrogen peroxide (still reactive and dangerous if accumulated in cell) Catalases convert hydrogen peroxide to water Oxidizes long chain of fatty acids Present in nearly all cell types; they are mostly found in metabolically active organs like the liver and kidney (both active in detoxification) Form by budding off of the ER 2. Cytoplasmic Inclusions Metabolically inert and dispensable Passive components of the cytoplasm as stored nutrients; inert-by products of metabolism; accumulations of endogenous or exogenous pigment Usually not bounded by a membrane Examples are glycogen, lipids, pigment (lipofuscin, melanin) and crystals 3. Cytoskeleton Structural support for the plasma membrane and cellular organelles Means for movement of cellular organelles Movement of specialized structures such as cilia and flagella Muscle contractility Three types of rods in cytoskeleton: microfilaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules (all are non-membranous) 4. Cell Membrane AKA plasmalemma A 2D viscous solutionallows for lateral movement of unbound proteins Tight junctions: prevent apico- basal movement of cells (lock cells in place/proper orientation) Consists of bimolecular layer of mixed phospholipids with the hydrophilic ends oriented outward, and various embedded integral proteins; Fluid mosaic model Regulates traffic in and out of cell Ions, gases, small uncharged 1 The Cell Castaneda, Catalan, Catubag, Cayabyab, Cengca 5 /10 polar molecules: allowed to pass Large macromolecules, charged molecules: not allowed in Active Transport ion channels, ion pumps Have devices for cell attachment and cell- to-cell communication Receptors bind and recognize specific molecules (i.e. transmitters, hormones, nutrients, etc.) D. STRUCTURE-FUNCTION CORRELATIONS OF THE CELL 1. Cell Motility (Mobile vs. Sessile) Mobile: free cells; migrate as needed Sessile: in close contact (ex. Epithelia). Movement limited to changes in surface configuration via microvilli or cytoplasmic streaming 2. Energy Production vs. Consumption 3. Electrical Conduction 4. Exocytosis Release of secretory products (ex. Glandular cells) Secretory products may be enclosed in granules, released upon cells reception of proper stimulus. 5. Digestion - through lysosomes 6. Transport through the cytoskeleton 7. Constantly Dividing vs. Permanent Cells Constant division: growth, renewal, repair Proliferation rates vary o Rapid proliferation: cell cycle Two types of division: mitosis (somatic cells), meiosis (germ cells) No cell division in postnatal life (permanent) Cardiac muscle, nervous tissue LABORATORY I. STAINING HISTOLOGIC STRUCTURES TYPES OF STAIN 1. H&E go together in most staining procedures. a. Hematoxylin = Purplish blue b. Eosin = Bright pink 2. Silver stain = Black stain; Silver staining aids visualization of intracellular and extracellular cellular components (DNA and proteins) by deposition of metallic silver particles on the targets (usually Reticular fibers, nerve fibers, fungi); argentaffin/arygrophilic substances stain black with silver 3. Orcein stain = commonly used for staining elastic fibers that color dark brown 4. Giemsa stain = used to differentiate nuclear and/or cytoplasmic morphology of platelets (blue), RBCs (pink/red), WBCs (blue), and parasites 1 The Cell Castaneda, Catalan, Catubag, Cayabyab, Cengca 6 /10 II. SLIDES A. Plasmalemma Smooth & sharply demarcated: Fuzzy: Ciliated: Flagellated: 1 The Cell Castaneda, Catalan, Catubag, Cayabyab, Cengca 7 /10 Brush or striated: Sterocillia: B. Cytoplasm Basophilic: Acidophilic: 1 The Cell Castaneda, Catalan, Catubag, Cayabyab, Cengca 8 /10 C. Organelles RER, Ribosomes: Golgi Complex: Fibrils: Figure 1 Myofibrils of skeletal muscle (http://www.lab.anhb.uwa.edu.au/mb140/corepages/ muscle/Images/skem0041he.jpg) D. Inclusions Secretory granules/droplets: 1 The Cell Castaneda, Catalan, Catubag, Cayabyab, Cengca 9 /10 Pigment granules Fat vacuole Figure 2: Slide 1 Phagocytosed matter E. Nuclear Envelope can be found in all cells F. Nucleolus G. Heterochromatin can be found in all cells 1 The Cell Castaneda, Catalan, Catubag, Cayabyab, Cengca 10 /10 H. Nucleoplasm can be found in all cells I. Nuclear Number J. Nuclear Size K. Position of Nucleus L. Nuclear Shape Reference Marieb, E. & Hoehn, K. (2011). Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology (9 th ed.). Pearson Education Inc. Pacual, J.L. The Cell. Power point