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Alfred Adler (February 7, 1870 - May 28, 1937), an Austrian medical doctor and psycolo!

ist, "ounder o"


te scool o" indi#idual psycolo!y$
%orn in &en'i!, Austria and raised in (ienna, e trained as a doctor at te )ni#ersity o" (ienna Medical *cool
and +uali"ied in 189,$ -e became interested in psycolo!y as it related to pysical disorders$ -e met *i!mund
Freud in 1902 and tey "ormed te (ienna &sycoanalytic *ociety .it Adler as a president$
Adler .as in"luenced by te mental construct ideas o" (aiin!er and de#eloped a teory o" or!anic in"eriority
and compensation (ypertropy), .it te /masculine protest/ as te natural outcome in male-dominated
society$ Adler came to disa!ree .it Freud0s teories1 te di#er!ence became public in 1911 at te 2eimar
&sycoanalytic 3on!ress$ Adler contended .it Freud0s belie" in te dominance o" te se4 instinct and .eter
e!o dri#es .ere libidinal, e also attac5ed Freud0s ideas o#er repression$ Adler belie#ed tat te repression
teory sould be replaced .it te concept o" e!o-de"ensi#e tendencies - te neurotic state deri#ed "rom
in"eriority "eelin!s and o#er compensation o" te masculine protest, 6edipal comple4es .ere insi!ni"icant$
Adler le"t te (ienna society and "ormed te *ociety o" Free Analytic 7esearc, renamed te *ociety o"
8ndi#idual &sycolo!y in 1912$
-e .rote a boo5 de"inin! is 5ey ideas in 19121 ber den nervsen Charakter$ -e ar!ued tat uman
personality could be e4plained teleolo!ically, separate strands dominated by te !uidin! purpose o" te
indi#idual0s unconscious sel" ideal to con#ert "eelin!s o" in"eriority to superiority (or rater completeness)$ 9e
desires o" te sel" ideal .ere countered by social and etical demands$ 8" te correcti#e "actors .ere disre!arded
and te indi#idual o#er-compensated ten a in"eriority comple4 .ould occur, te indi#idual .ould become
e!ocentric, po.er-un!ry and a!!ressi#e or .orse$
-is e""orts .ere alted by 2orld 2ar 8, durin! .ic e ser#ed as a doctor .it te Austrian Army$ &ost-.ar
is in"luence increased !reatly into te 1930s, e establised a number o" cild !uidance clinics "rom 1921 and
.as a "re+uent lecturer in :urope and te )nited *tates, becomin! a #isitin! pro"essor at 3olumbia )ni#ersity
in 1927$ 9erapeutically is metods a#oided te concentration on adult psyce by attemptin! to pre-empt te
problems in te cild by encoura!in! and promotin! social interest and but a#oidin! pamperin! and ne!lect$ 8n
adults te terapy relied on te e4clusion o" blame or a superior attitude by te practitioner, te reduction o"
resistance by raisin! a.areness o" indi#idual bea#iour and te re"usal to become ad#ersarial$ 3ommon
teraputic tools included te use o" umour, istorical instances and parado4ical in;unctions$ Adler0s popularity
.as related to te comparati#e optimisim and compreensibility o" is ideas compared to tose o" Freud or
<un!$
8n 193= te Austrian !o#ernment closed most o" Adler0s clinics and in 193, Adler le"t Austria "or a
pro"essorsip at te >on! 8sland 3olle!e o" Medicine$ -is deat in Aberdeen, *cotland, 1937, .as a blo. to te
in"luence o" is ideas altou! a number o" tem .ere ta5en up by neo-Freudians$ ?oneteless, tere e4ists
presently se#eral scools dedicated to carryin! on te .or5 o" Al"red Adler suc as 9e Adler *cool o"
&ro"essional &sycolo!y .ic .as "ounded as 9e Al"red Adler 8nstitute o" 3ica!o by Adler0s proto!e,
7udol" @rei5urs$ 9ere are also #arious or!ani'ations promotin! @r$ Adler0s orientation to.ards mental and
social .ellbein!$ 9ese include 83A**8 and te ?ort American *ociety "or Adlerian &sycolo!y (?A*A&)$
William James
William James (<anuary 11, 18=2, ?e. Aor5 - Au!ust 2B, 1910 3ocorua, ?e. -ampsire), pilosoper and
elder broter o" te .riter -enry <ames, .as born in ?e. Aor5$ -e studied in France and tau!t at -ar#ard
until is deat$ 9o!eter .it 3arles *anders &ierce, .o coined te term, <ames "ounded te pilosopical
scool or (peraps more accurately) orientation o" pra!matism$ <ames .as not trained as a pilosoper, but
rater as a psycolo!ist, at te time .en te t.o disciplines .ere only be!innin! to separate temsel#es$ -e
.as in "act one o" te "irst laboratory psycolo!ists in America, tou! e .as also s5eptical o" te ultimate
#alue o" laboratories "or understandin! te uman mind$
<ames0s .as a mar5edly pluralistic and relati#istic pilosopy, e#en "or a pra!matist0s$ 2ile, li5e pra!matists
!enerally, e eld e4perimentation to be a .ay o" li"e, e did not loo5 to it "or ob;ecti#e 5no.led!e$ )nli5e
<on @e.ey, <ames ad no problem .it people oldin! .idely di#er!ent #ie.s o" te .orld, eac on te basis
o" teir o.n e4perience$
<ames also did important .or5 in te study and pilosopy o" reli!ion, pro#idin! a .ide-ran!in! account o" The
Varieties of Religious Experience (1902) and interpretin! tem accordin! to is pra!matic leanin!s$ *ome o" te
important claims e ma5es in tis re!ard1
7eli!ious !enius sould be te primary topic in te study o" reli!ion, rater tan reli!ious institutions--
since institutions are merely te remnant o" !enius$
9e intense, e#en patolo!ical #arieties o" e4perience (reli!ious or oter.ise) sould be sou!t by
psycolo!ists, because tey represent te closest tin! to a microscope o" te mind--tat is, tey so. us
in drastically enlar!ed "orm te normal processes o" tin!s$
8n order to use"ully interpret te realm o" common, sared e4perience and istory, .e must eac ma5e
certain /o#er-belie"s/ in tin!s .ic, .ile tey cannot be pro#en on te basis o" e4perience, elp us to
li#e "uller and better li#es$
Carl Rogers
Carl Ransom Rogers (<anuary 8, 1902 - February =, 1987) .as a psycolo!ist .o .as instrumental in te
de#elopment o" non-directi#e psycoterapy (7o!erian psycoterapy)$ -is basic tenets .ere unconditional
lo#e, a positi#e client-counselor relationsip, and tat te client could sol#e teir o.n problems by tal5in! about
tem .it someone else$
%orn in 6a5 &ar5, 8llinois$ -is "ater .as an en!ineer, is moter a ouse.i"e and de#oted 3ristian$ Follo.in!
an education in an strict, reli!ious and etical en#ironment, e became a rater isolated, independent and
disciplined person, and ac+uired a 5no.led!e and an appreciation "or te scienti"ic metod in a practical .orld$
-is "irst career coice .as a!riculture, "ollo.ed by reli!ion$ At a!e 20, "ollo.in! is 1922 trip to %ei;in! "or an
international 3ristian con"erence, e started to doubt is reli!ious con#ictionsC to elp im clari"y is career
coice, e attended to a seminar entitled 02y am 8 enterin! te ministryD0, a"ter .ic e decided to can!e
career$
-e si!ned-up to te &sycolo!y pro!ram in 3ica!o, and obtained is &$@$ in 1931$ -e tau!t and practiced at
6io *tate (19=0), te )ni#ersity o" 3ica!o (19=,) and te )ni#ersity o" 2isconsin (19,7)$ -o.e#er,
"ollo.in! se#eral internal con"licts at te department o" psycolo!y o" 2isconsin, 7o!ers became disillusioned
.it academica$ -e recei#ed an o""er at >a <olla "or researc, .ere e remained, doin! terapy, speeces and
.ritin! until is sudden deat$
7o!ers also made a si!ni"icant impact upon :ducation &sycolo!y, a "ield in .ic is #ie.s are !enerally
re!arded as -umanist$
7o!ers0 idea o" te 0"ully "unctionin! person0 in#ol#ed te "ollo.in! +ualities, .ic so. mar5ed similarities
to %uddist tin5in!$
6penness to e4perience
9e accurate perception o" one0s "eelin!s and e4perience in te .orld$
:4istential li#in!
>i#in! in te present, rater tan te past (gone) or te "uture (yet to come)$
6r!anismic trustin!
9rustin! one0s o.n tou!ts and "eelin!s as accurate$ @o .at comes naturally$
:4periential "reedom
9o ac5no.led!e one0s "reedoms and ta5e responsibility "or one0s o.n actions$
3reati#ity
Full participation in te .orld, includin! contributin! to oters0 li#es$
John B. Watson
John Broadus Watson (1878-19,8) .as an American &sycolo!ist .o establised te psycolo!ical scool
o" bea#iorism$ -e is "amous "or boastin!, "acetiously, tat e could ta5e any 20 uman in"ants, and by
applyin! bea#ioural tecni+ues, could create .ate#er 5ind o" person (/be!!ar, butcerman, tie"/) e desired$
?aturallly, e admitted tat tis claim .as "ar beyond is means--notin!, merely, tat earlier psycolo!ists ad
made suc claims "or decades$
2it is bea#iorism, 2atson put te empasis on e4ternal bea#iour o" people and teir reactions on !i#en
situations, rater tan te internal, mental state o" tose people$ 8n is opinion, te analysis o" bea#iours and
reactions .as te only ob;ecti#e metod to !et insi!t in te uman actions$
2atson .as as5ed to lea#e te "aculty position e eld at <ons -op5ins )ni#ersity because e .as a#in! an
a""air .it a student, and subse+uently be!an .or5in! "or <$ 2alter 9ompson, an ad#ertisin! a!ency$
2atson as become immortali'ed in introductory psycolo!y te4tboo5s "or is attempts to condition "ear o" a
.ite rat into />ittle Albert/, a 9 mont old boy$ As te story o" >ittle Albert as made te rounds, inaccuracies
and inconsistencies a#e crept in, some o" tem e#en due to 2atson imsel"C see -arris "or an analysis$
Further Reading
Harris, Ben. "Whatever Happened to Little Albert?" American Psychologist, February 1979,
Volue !", #uber $, pp. 1%1&1'(. )on&line*
Furan +sy,holo-y .epartent/ 0ohn B. Watson. His Li1e in Words and +i,tures. )on&line*
Watson, 0ohn B. 2 3ayner, 3osalie )19$(*. "4onditioned eotional rea,tions" Journal of
Experimental Psychology, !)1*, pp. 1&1". )5he little Albert study, on&line*
Watson, 0ohn B. )191!*. "+sy,holo-y as the behaviorist vie6s it" Psychological Review, $(,
pp. 1%7&177. )on&line*
James W. Prescott
James W. Prescott has ade a a8or ,ontribution to the +sy,holo-y by his resear,h on the
ori-ins o1 Peace and Violence.
8t is !enerally 5no.n (bac5 to medie#al or ancient times) tat depri#ation o" sensory stimuli li5e #oice and
#ision in te early pases o" uman li"e .ill cause irre#ersible mental retardation in te cild$ Also te
pre#ention o" cild play .ill cause intellectual de"icits in te adult$ %ut eyes, ears and te nose are not te only
uman sensory systems$
Additionally tere are te t.o body sensor systems, te "somatosensors"$ 6ne is te #estibular sensor "or
maintainin! orientation and upri!t .al5$ 9e oter one is te s5in, "or sensin! touc$
Mother Bonding is Essensial for Peace
9rou! te .or5 o" <ames 2$ &rescott, &$@$ and #arious oters until te mid 1970s it .as establised tat
tese pre#iously ne!lected senses are o" o#er.elmin! importance "or te de#elopment o" social abilities "or
adult li"e$ 9eir depri#ation in cildood is a ma;or cause "or adult #iolence$
<ames 2$ &rescott, &$@$, .as a ealt scientist administrator at te ?ational 8nstitute o" 3ild -ealt and
-uman @e#elopment (?83-@), one o" te 8nstitutes o" te )* ?ational 8nstitutes o" -ealt (?8-) "rom 19BB to
1980$ -e created and directed te @e#elopmental %ea#ioral %iolo!y &ro!ram at te ?83-@ .ere e initiated
?83-@ supported researc pro!rams tat documented o. te "ailure o" /Moter >o#e/ in in"ant mon5eys
ad#ersely a""ected te biolo!ical de#elopment o" teir brains$ 9ese astonisin! abnormal brain can!es
underlie te bea#iors o" depression, impulse dyscontrol and #iolence tat result "rom moter-in"ant
separations$
Cultures that Punish Infants or Repress Seualit! are Violent
9ese bea#ioral e""ects .ere con"irmed in is antropolo!ical studies on primiti#e cultures includin! te
e""ects o" sensory depri#ation o" uman se4ual pleasure and a""ection durin! adolescence and .ritten up in te
paper %ody &leasure and te 6ri!ins o" (iolence$ 9e results o" tese scienti"ic studies do not support te many
traditional reli!ious and cultural #alues trou!out te .orld, .ic deny te importance o" /Moterin!/ and o"
yout a""ectional se4ual relationsips "or peace"ul and lo#in! bea#iors$
9e continuation o" tis researc .as obstructed and e#entually cancelled by te ?83-@$ :#en te e4istence
and results o" tese ?83-@ supported researc pro!rams .as consciously omitted in a recent ?8- publication$
Jean Piaget
Jean Piaget (Au!ust 9, 189B - *eptember 1B, 1980) .as a Frenc *.iss de#elopmental psycolo!ist .o is
most .ell 5no.n "or or!ani'in! co!niti#e de#elopment into a series o" sta!es$
For e4ample, e outlines "our sta!es o" co!niti#e de#elopment1
1$ *ensorimotor
2$ &reoperational
3$ 3oncrete 6perational
=$ Formal 6perational
9ese "our sta!es a#e te "ollo.in! caracteristics1
1$ in#ariant se+uence
2$ uni#ersal (not culturally speci"ic)
3$ related to co!niti#e de#elopment$ but$$$
=$ !enerali'able to oter "unctions
,$ sta!es are lo!ically or!ani'ed .oles
B$ ierarcical nature o" sta!e se+uences (eac successi#e sta!e incorporates elements o" pre#ious sta!es,
but is more di""erentiated and inte!rated)
7$ sta!es represent +ualitati#e di""erences inmodes o" tin5in!, not merely +uantitati#e di""erences
&ia!et0s teory supposes tat people de#elop schemas (conceptual models) by eiter assimilatin! or
accommodatin! ne. in"ormation$ 9ese concepts can be e4plained as "ittin! in"ormation in to e4istin! scemas,
and alterin! e4istin! scemas in order to accommodate ne. in"ormation, respecti#ely$
Altou! some o" &ia!et0s ideas are similar to tose o" >e# (y!ots5y, &ia!et .as apparently una.are o"
(y!ots5y0s .or5$ 6ri!inally a marine biolo!ist, .it a speciali'ation in te molluscs o" >a5e Eene#a, e
embar5ed on is studies o" de#elopmental biolo!y .en e obser#ed te .ay is in"ant dau!ters came to !rips
.it and ten mastered te .orld around tem$
&ia!et0s teories o" psycolo!ical de#elopment a#e pro#ed in"luential$ Amon! oters, te pilosoper and
social teorist < 9 r!en -abermas as incorporated tem into is .or5, most notably in 9e 9eory o"
3ommunicati#e Action$
&ia!et also ad a considerable impact in te "ield o" computer science$ *eymour &apert used &ia!et0s .or5 .ile
de#eloppin! te >o!o pro!rammin! lan!ua!e$ Alan Fay used &ia!et0s teories as te basis "or te @ynaboo5
pro!rammin! system concept, .ic .as "irst discussed .itin te con"ines o" te Gero4 &alo Alto 7esearc
3enter, or Gero4 &A73$ 9ese discussions led to te de#elopment o" te Alto prototype, .ic e4plored "or te
"irst time all te elements o" te E)8, or Erapical )ser 8nter"ace, and in"luenced te creation o" all o" te user
inter"aces .ic .ere to appear in te 1980s, te 1990s and beyond$
John Robert Anderson (born Au!ust 27, 19=7 in (ancou#er, %ritis 3olumbia) is a 3anadian-born
American psycolo!ist$ -e is currently pro"essor o" &sycolo!y and 3omputer science at 3arne!ie Mellon
)ni#ersity$
Education and career
Anderson obtained a %$A$ "rom te )ni#ersity o" %ritis 3olumbia in 19B8, and a &$@$ in &sycolo!y "rom
*tan"ord in 1972$ Eordon %o.er .as is doctoral ad#isor$ -e became "aculty at Aale in 197B$ *ince 1978, e
as .or5ed as a pro"essor at 3arne!ie Mellon )ni#ersity$ From 1988 to 1989, e .as also president o" te
3o!niti#e *cience *ociety$
Research
8n co!niti#e psycolo!y, <on Anderson is .idely 5no.n "or is co!niti#e arcitecture A39-7
H1IH2I
$ -e as
publised many papers on co!niti#e psycolo!y, includin! recent criticism o" un;usti"ied claims in matematics
education tat lac5 e4perimental .arrant and sometimes (in e4treme cases) contradict 5no.n "indin!s in
co!niti#e psycolo!y$
H3I
-e .as also an early leader in researc on intelli!ent tutorin! systems, suc as co!niti#e tutors, and many o"
Anderson0s "ormer students, suc as Fennet Foedin!er and ?eil -e""ernan, a#e become leaders in tat area$
<on Anderson as ser#ed as president o" te 3o!niti#e *cience *ociety$ -e as recei#ed many oter scienti"ic
a.ards and onors, includin! one "rom te American Academy o" Arts and *ciences$ -e is a "ello. o" te
?ational Academy o" *ciences$
8n 200=, Anderson .on te @a#id :$ 7umelart &ri'e "or 3ontributions to te Formal Analysis o" -uman
3o!nition, and in 200B e .as te recipient o" te inau!ural @r A$-$ -eine5en &ri'e "or 3o!niti#e *cience$
"#ards
1977/ Aeri,an +sy,holo-i,al Asso,iation:s ;arly 4areer A6ard
1979&199"/ 3esear,h <,ientist A6ard, #=>H
199"/ Aeri,an +sy,holo-i,al Asso,iation:s .istin-uished <,ienti?, 4areer A6ard
1999/ >eber o1 the #ational A,adey o1 <,ien,es
@"A
1999/ Fello6 o1 Aeri,an A,adey o1 Arts and <,ien,es
$(("/ 5he .avid ;. 3uelhart +riBe
@%A
1or 4ontributions to the Foral Analysis o1 Huan
4o-nition
$((%/ Ho6ard 4rosby Warren >edal 1or outstandin- a,hieveent in ;Cperiental
+sy,holo-y in the Dnited <tates and 4anada, <o,iety o1 ;Cperiental +sy,holo-y
$(('/ =nau-ural .r. A.H. HeineEen +riBe
@'A
1or 4o-nitive <,ien,e a6arded by the 3oyal
#etherlands A,adey o1 Arts and <,ien,es
Wor$s
Anderson, 0. 3. )197'*. Language, memory, and thought. Hillsdale, #0/ La6ren,e ;rlbau
Asso,iates.
Anderson, 0. 3. )197(*. Cognitive psychology and its implications <an Fran,is,o/ Freean.
Anderson, 0. 3. )197!*. !he architecture of cognition 4abrid-e, >A/ Harvard Dniversity
+ress.
Anderson, 0. 3. )199(*. !he adaptive character of thought Hillsdale, #0/ La6ren,e ;rlbau
Asso,iates.
Anderson, 0. 3. )$((7*. "ow can the human mind occur in the physical universe# #e6 ForE/
GC1ord Dniversity +ress.
Solomon Eliot Asch (*eptember 1=, 1907 J February 20, 199B), also 5no.n as *laym, .as a American
Eestalt psycolo!ist and pioneer in social psycolo!y$
Earl! life and education
Asc .as born in 2arsa. .ic ten belon!ed to te 7ussian :mpire, to a <e.is Family$
H1I
-e immi!rated to
te )nited *tates in 1920 and recei#ed is bacelor0s de!ree "rom te 3olle!e o" te 3ity o" ?e. Aor5 in 1928$
At 3olumbia )ni#ersity, e recei#ed is master0s de!ree in 1930 and &$@$ in 1932$
Career
Asc .as a pro"essor o" psycolo!y at *.artmore 3olle!e "or 19 years, .or5in! .it psycolo!ists includin!
2ol"!an! FKler$
-e became "amous in te 19,0s, "ollo.in! e4periments .ic so.ed tat social pressure can ma5e a person
say sometin! tat is ob#iously incorrect$
9is e4periment .as conducted usin! 123 male participants$ :ac participant .as put into a !roup .it , to 7
/con"ederates/ (&eople .o 5ne. te true aims o" te e4periment, but .ere introduced as participants to te
nai#e /real/ participant)$ 9e participants .ere so.n a card .it a line on it, "ollo.ed by anoter card .it 3
lines on it labeled a, b, and c$ 9e participants .ere ten as5ed to say .ic line matced te line on te "irst
card in len!t$ :ac line +uestion .as called a /trial/$ 9e /real/ participant ans.ered last or penultimately$ For
te "irst t.o trials, te sub;ect .ould "eel at ease in te e4periment, as e and te oter /participants/ !a#e te
ob#ious, correct ans.er$ 6n te tird trial, te con"ederates .ould start all !i#in! te same .ron! ans.er$ 9ere
.ere 18 trials in total and te con"ederates ans.ered incorrectly "or 12 o" tem, tese 12 .ere 5no.n as te
/critical trials/$ 9e aim .as to see .eter te real participant .ould can!e is ans.er and respond in te
same .ay as te con"ederates, despite it bein! te .ron! ans.er$
*olomon Asc tou!t tat te ma;ority o" people .ould not con"orm to sometin! ob#iously .ron!, but te
results so.ed tat participants con"ormed to te ma;ority on 37L o" te critical trials$ -o.e#er, 2,L o" te
participants did not con"orm on any trial$ 7,L con"ormed at least once, and ,L con"ormed e#ery time$
-e also cooperated .it -$ 2it5in and inspired many ideas o" te teory o" co!niti#e style$
-e inspired te .or5 o" te psycolo!ist *tanley Mil!ram and super#ised is &$@ at -ar#ard )ni#ersity$
George Wilson Albee (1921 J <uly 8, 200B) .as a pioneer in clinical psycolo!y, .o belie#ed societal
"actors .ere te ma;or cause o" mental illness$ -e .as one o" te leadin! "i!ures in te de#elopment o"
community psycolo!y$
Career
Albee .as born in *t$ Marys, &ennsyl#ania, e attended %etany 3olle!e and !raduated in 19=3$ -e .as
dra"ted into te Army Air Force until te end o" 2orld 2ar 88$
A"ter lea#in! te "orces e attended te )ni#ersity o" &ittsbur! .ere e attained is Masters and @octorate
de!rees$ -a#in! recei#ed is doctorate in 19=9 e spent te ne4t t.o years in a researc appointment at 2estern
&syciatric 8nstitute, later .or5in! "or te A&A as assistant e4ecuti#e secretary$
8n 19,3 Albee .ent to Finland "or a year as a Fulbri!t scolar, be"ore returnin! to te )*A to become a
&ro"essor at 3ase 2estern 7eser#e )ni#ersity, a post e eld "or 1B years$
8n 1971 Albee le"t 3ase 2estern "or a position at te )ni#ersity o" (ermont$ -e remained ere until is
retirement in 1991$ @urin! tat time, e married 3onstance 8mpallaria,and ad = 5ids1 Alec, >u5e, Maud and
*ara$
@urin! is career Albee .as te autor o" !roundbrea5in! studies in te ,00s and B00s, tat so.ed societal
"actors suc as po#erty, racism, se4ism and cild abuse, .ere to a lar!e de!ree responsible "or mental illness$
-e belie#ed te psycolo!ical pro"ession needed to "ocus more on pre#ention, rater tan one to one treatment$
A"ter is retirement Albee spent time tra#ellin! around te .orld !i#in! lectures on psycolo!y$ -e also "ound
time to .rite a umor column "or is local ne.spaper te >on!boat 6bser#er$
-e .as te autor o" more tan 200 articles and boo5 capters on community approaces to mental illness, as
.ell as .ritin! more tan a do'en boo5s$
Albee died in >on!boat Fey, Florida$
Positions and a#ards
<erved on ;isenho6er:s and 4arter:s +residential 4oissions on ental health.
Fro 19'9 H 197( Albee 6as the +resident o1 the Aeri,an +sy,holo-i,al Asso,iation )A+A*
197! re,eived the A+A .istin-uished +ro1essional 4ontribution A6ard.
199! a6arded the Aeri,an +sy,holo-i,al Foundation )A+F* Iold >edal.
1997 he re,eived the Li1etie A,hieveent A6ard in Applied +reventive +sy,holo-y.
Carl Campbell Brigham (May =, 1890 in Marlboro, Massacusetts J <anuary 2=, 19=3) .as a
pro"essor o" psycolo!y at &rinceton )ni#ersity0s @epartment o" &sycolo!y$
Career
%ri!am collaborated on 7obert Aer5es0 Army Mental 9ests and publised is in"luential boo5, A Study of
American Intelligence, on te results o" tat study in 1923$ Analy'in! te data "rom te Army tests, %ri!am
came to te conclusion tat nati#e born Americans ad te i!est intelli!ence out o" te !roups tested$ -e
proclaimed te intellectual superiority o" te /?ordic 7ace/ and te in"eriority o" te /Alpine/ (:astern
:uropean) and /Mediterranean 7aces/ and ar!ued tat immi!ration sould be care"ully controlled to sa"e!uard
te /American 8ntelli!ence$/ ?otin! troubled %ri!am so muc o.e#er, as misce!enation bet.een blac5s
and .ites, as %ri!am belie#ed /?e!roes/ .ere by "ar te most intellectually in"erior race$
H1I
9ou! e later denounced is e4pressed #ie.s on te intellectual superiority o" te /?ordic 7ace/ and
speci"ically diso.ned te boo5, it ad already been instrumental in anti-immi!ration le!islation and eu!enics
debate, bein! used "or instance by -arry >au!lin in te 192= con!ressional debates on immi!ration$ %ri!am
later caired te 3olle!e %oard commission .ic created te *colastic Aptitude 9est, no. simply called te
*A9 7easonin! 9est$
H2I
a!id ". Buss (born April 1=, 19,3) is a pro"essor o" psycolo!y at 9e )ni#ersity o" 9e4as at Austin,
5no.n "or is e#olutionary psycolo!y researc on uman se4 di""erences in mate selection$
Biograph!
%uss earned is &$@$ in psycolo!y at )ni#ersity o" 3ali"ornia, %er5eley in 1981$ %e"ore becomin! a pro"essor
at 9e )ni#ersity o" 9e4as, e .as assistant pro"essor "or "our years at -ar#ard )ni#ersity, and e .as a
pro"essor at te )ni#ersity o" Mici!an "or ele#en years$
9e primary topics o" is researc include matin! strate!ies, con"lict bet.een te se4es, status, social
reputation, presti!e, te emotion o" ;ealousy, omicide, anti-omicide de"enses, and most recently stal5in!$ All
o" tese are approaced "rom an e#olutionary perspecti#e$ %uss is te autor o" more tan 200 scienti"ic articles
and as .on many a.ards$ *ome o" tese a.ards include American sychological Association !AA"
#istinguished Scientific A$ard for Early Career Contribution to sychology in 1988 and AA %& Stanley 'all
(ectureship in 1990$
%uss is te autor o" a number o" publications and boo5s, includin! The Evolution of #esire, The #angerous
assion, The 'andbook of Evolutionary sychology and The )urderer *ext #oor, .ic introduces a ne.
teory o" omicide "rom an e#olutionary perspecti#e$ -e is also te autor o" Evolutionary sychology+ The
*e$ Science of the )ind .ic is currently in its tird edition and .as released in 2007$ 8n 200,, %uss edited a
de"initi#e re"erence #olume, The 'andbook of Evolutionary sychology$
H1I
-is latest boo5 is entitled ,hy
,omen 'ave Sex, coautored .it 3indy Meston$
H2I
%uss is in#ol#ed .it e4tensi#e cross-cultural researc collaborations and lectures .itin te )$*$
H3I
"ct Fre%uenc! "pproach
8n science, it as pro#en to be #ery di""icult, i" not impossible, to "ind e4act de"initions "or concepts o" layman
psycolo!y, by eiter statin! te conditions tat constitute a certain personality trait, or by e4austi#ely listin!
all te acts tat identi"y a bearer o" tat trait$ 2at exactly de"ines an indi#idual as /creati#e/, /umorous/, or
/ambitious/D :+ually di""icult is te measurement o" o. stron!ly a trait is pronounced in an indi#idual$ As a
solution, %uss and F$ -$ 3rai5 (1980) proposed to introduce prototype teory into personality psycolo!y$
H=IH,IHBI
First, a !roup o" people is as5ed to list acts tat a person bearin! te trait in +uestion .ould so.$ ?e4t, a
di""erent !roup o" people is as5ed to name "rom tat list tose acts tat are most typical "or te trait$ 9en te
measurement is conducted by countin! te number o" times (.itin a !i#en period o" time), a proband per"orms
te typical acts$
Wor$s
Pu&lished &oo$s
Buss, ..>., "5he ;volution G1 .esire/ <trate-ies G1 Huan >atin-". Basi, BooEs, 199%. &
=<B# 977&("'%($1"!7
Buss, ..>., ".an-erous +assion/ Why 0ealousy =s As #e,essary As Love and <eC". .iane
+ub 4o, $(((. &=<B# 977&(7%'7'%"7"
Buss, ..>., "5he HandbooE o1 ;volutionary +sy,holo-y". Wiley, $((%. &=<B# 977&
("71$'"(!!
Buss, ..>., "5he >urderer #eCt .oor/ Why the >ind =s .esi-ned to Jill". +en-uin, $(('.
&=<B# 977&(1"!(!7(%7
>eston, 4.>. and Buss, ..>., "Why Woen Have <eC/ Dnderstandin- <eCual >otivations
1ro Adventure to 3even-e". 5ies BooEs, $((9. &=<B#&1( (7(%(77!"$
Buss, ..>., "5he .an-erous +assion/ Why 0ealousy is #e,essary in Love and <eC".
Bloosbury +ublishin- +L4, $((1. &=<B# 977&(7"7%%!'(1
Buss, ..>. and >alauth, #., "<eC, +o6er, 4onKi,t/ ;volutionary and Feinist
+erspe,tives". GC1ord Dniversity +ress, D<A, 199'. &=<B# 977&(19%1(!%71
Robin #an "aconald unbar (born <une 28, 19=7, >i#erpool)
H1IH2I
is a %ritis antropolo!ist and
e#olutionary biolo!ist, specialisin! in primate bea#iour$ -e is best 5no.n "or "ormulatin! @unbar0s number,
rou!ly 1,0, a measurement o" te /co!niti#e limit to te number o" indi#iduals .it .om any one person can
maintain stable relationsips/$
H3I
@unbar, son o" an en!ineer, recei#ed is early education at ?ortamptonsire, ten Ma!dalen 3olle!e, 64"ord,
.ere is teacers included ?ico 9inber!en$ -e spent t.o years as a "reelance science .riter$
H2I
@unbar0s academic and researc career includes te )ni#ersity o" %ristol,
H=I
)ni#ersity o" 3ambrid!e "rom 1977
until 1982, and )ni#ersity 3olle!e >ondon "rom 1987 until 199=$ 8n 199=, @unbar became &ro"essor o"
:#olutionary &sycolo!y at )ni#ersity o" >i#erpool, but e le"t >i#erpool in 2007 to ta5e up te post o"
@irector o" te 8nstitute o" 3o!niti#e and :#olutionary Antropolo!y, )ni#ersity o" 64"ord$
H1IH,I
&ro"essor @unbar is a director o" te %ritis Academy 3entenary 7esearc &ro;ect (%A37&) /From >ucy to
>an!ua!e1 9e Arcaeolo!y o" te *ocial %rain/ and is in#ol#ed in te planned %A37& /8denti"yin! te
)ni#ersal 7eli!ious 7epertoire/$
@i!ital #ersions o" selected publised articles autored or co-autored by im are a#ailable "rom te )ni#ersity
o" >i#erpool :#olutionary &sycolo!y and %ea#ioural :colo!y 7esearc Eroup$
'onors
1997, Fello6 o1 the British A,adey )FBA*
@$A
199", ad hominem 4hair, +sy,holo-y, Dniversity o1 Liverpool
@'A
$ermann Ebbinghaus (<anuary 2=, 18,0 M February 2B, 1909) .as a Eerman psycolo!ist .o
pioneered te e4perimental study o" memory, and is 5no.n "or is disco#ery o" te "or!ettin! cur#e and te
spacin! e""ect$ -e .as also te "irst person to describe te learnin! cur#e$
H1I
-e .as te "ater o" te eminent
?eo-Fantian pilosoper <ulius :bbin!aus$
Professional career
A"ter ac+uirin! is &@, :bbin!aus mo#ed to %erlin, .ere e spent se#eral years be"ore lea#in! to tra#el in
France and :n!land "or te ne4t tree years$ 8n :n!land, e may a#e tau!t in t.o small scools in te *out
o" te country (Eor"ein, 198,)$ 8n >ondon, in a used boo5store, e came across Eusta# Fecner0s boo5
Elements of sychophysics .ic ar!uably spurred im to conduct is "amous memory e4periments$ -e be!an
is .or5 in 1879, but e may a#e per"ormed is "irst set o" e4periments on se#eral students "rom te :n!lis
scools e ad tau!t at$ 8n 188,, te year e publised is monumental .or5 Memory1 A Contribution to
Experimental sychology e .as accepted as a pro"essor at te uni#ersity o" %erlin$ 8n %erlin, e "ounded te
&sycolo!ical ;ournal -eitschrift f.r hysiologie und sychologie der Sinnesorgane (The sychology and
hysiology of the Sense /rgans)$ -e also "ounded t.o psycolo!ical laboratories in Eermany$ -is #ery sparse
contributions to academic .ritin! e#entually cost im te seat o" ead o" pilosopy department at te
uni#ersity o" %erlin, .ic ended up !oin! to 3arl *tump"$ ?e#erteless, e .as described as an e4cellent
teacer and elo+uent spea5er$
Contri&utions to memor!
8n 188,, e publised is !roundbrea5in! 0ber das %ed1chtnis (/6n Memory/, later translated to :n!lis as
)emory& A Contribution to Experimental sychology) in .ic e described e4periments e conducted on
imsel" to describe te processes o" learnin! and "or!ettin!$
:bbin!aus made se#eral "indin!s tat are still rele#ant and supported to tis day$ First, ar!uably is most
"amous "indin!, te "or!ettin! cur#e$ 9e "or!ettin! cur#e describes te e4ponential cur#e tat illustrates o.
"ast .e tend to "or!et te in"ormation .e ad learned$ 9e sarpest decline is in te "irst t.enty minutes, ten in
te "irst our, and ten te cur#e e#ens o"" a"ter about one day$
9e learnin! cur#e, .ic .as described by :bbin!aus, re"ers to o. "ast .e learn in"ormation$ 9e sarpest
increase occurs a"ter te "irst try, and !radually e#ens out, meanin! tat less and less ne. in"ormation is
retained a"ter eac repetition$ >i5e te "or!ettin! cur#e, te learnin! cur#e is also e4ponential$
:bbin!aus ad also documented te serial position e""ect, .ic describes o. te position o" an item in te
list a""ects te li5eliood o" said item bein! recalled$ 9e t.o main concepts in te serial position cur#e are te
recency and primacy e""ects$ 9e recency e""ect re"ers to te "act tat .e remember te most recent in"ormation
better because it is still stored in sort-term memory$ 9e primacy e""ect is rememberin! te "irst items in a list
better due to increased reearsal and commitment to lon!-term memory$
9e oter important disco#ery is tat o" sa#in!s$ *a#in!s re"ers to te amount o" in"ormation retained in te
subconscious e#en a"ter tis in"ormation ad been completely "or!otten (cannot be consciously accessed)$ 9o
test tis, :bbin!aus .ould memori'e a list o" items until per"ect recall and ten .ould not access te list until
e could no lon!er recall any o" its items$ -e ten .ould relearn te list, and compare te ne. learnin! cur#e to
te learnin! cur#e o" is pre#ious memori'ation o" te list$ 9e second list .as !enerally memori'ed "aster, and
tis di""erence bet.een te t.o learnin! cur#es is .at :bbin!aus called Nsa#in!sO$
:bbin!aus also described te di""erence bet.een in#oluntary and #oluntary memory, te "ormer occurrin!
N.it apparent spontaneity and .itout any act o" te .illO and te latter bein! brou!t Ninto consciousness by
an e4ertion o" te .illO$
9e bul5 o" te .or5 on memory prior to :bbin!ausPs contributions centered primarily on obser#ational
description and speculation, .it most o" tis .or5 underta5en by pilosopers$ For e4ample, 8mmanuel Fant
used pure description to discuss reco!nition and its components and *ir Francis %acon claimed tat te simple
obser#ation o" te rote recollection o" a pre#iously learned list .as Nno use to te artO o" memory$ 9is
dicotomy bet.een descripti#e and e4perimental study o" memory .ould resonate later in :bbin!ausPs li"e,
particularly in is public ar!ument .it "ormer collea!ue, 2ilelm @iltey$
:bbin!ausPs e""ect on memory researc ad been almost immediate$ 2it #ery "e. .or5s publised on
memory in te pre#ious t.o millennia, :bbin!ausPs .or5 on memory spurred memory researc in te )nited
*tates in te 1890s, .it 32 papers publised in 189= alone$ 9is researc .as also coupled .it te !ro.in!
de#elopment o" mecani'ed mnemometers J #arious de#ices tat aided in te recordin! and studyin! o"
memory, .ic illustrates te pro!ress tat .as launced "rom :bbin!ausPs .or5$
9e reaction to is .or5 in is day .as mostly positi#e$ ?oted psycolo!ist 2illiam <ames called te studies
NeroicO and said tat tey .ere Nte sin!le most brilliant in#esti!ation in te istory o" psycolo!yO$ :d.ard
%$ 9itcener also mentioned tat te studies .ere te !reatest underta5in! in te topic o" memory since
Aristotle$
Altou! :bbin!aus is !enerally considered te one .o populari'ed e4periments in psycolo!y it is
important to note tat e .as not te "irst one to conduct e4periments in psycolo!y$ <oann Andreas *e!ner,
more tan a century be"ore, ad in#ented te N*e!ner-.eelO to see te len!t o" a"ter-ima!es by seein! o.
"ast a .eel .it a ot coal attaced .ould a#e to mo#e in order "or te red ember circle "rom te coal to be
complete$ (see iconic memory)
*ir %rancis Galton F7* (1B February 1822 J 17 <anuary 1911), cousin o" *ir @ou!las Ealton, al"-cousin
o" 3arles @ar.in, .as an :n!lis (ictorian polymat, antropolo!ist, eu!enicist, tropical e4plorer,
!eo!raper, in#entor, meteorolo!ist, proto-!eneticist, psycometrician, and statistician$ -e .as 5ni!ted in
1909$
Ealton ad a proli"ic intellect, and produced o#er 3=0 papers and boo5s trou!out is li"etime$ -e also created
te statistical concept o" correlation and .idely promoted re!ression to.ard te mean$ -e .as te "irst to apply
statistical metods to te study o" uman di""erences and ineritance o" intelli!ence, and introduced te use o"
+uestionnaires and sur#eys "or collectin! data on uman communities, .ic e needed "or !enealo!ical and
bio!rapical .or5s and "or is antropometric studies$
-e .as a pioneer in eu!enics, coinin! te #ery term itsel" and te prase /nature #ersus nurture/$ -is boo5,
'ereditary %enius (18B9), .as te "irst social scienti"ic attempt to study !enius and !reatness$
H1I
As an
in#esti!ator o" te uman mind, e "ounded psycometrics (te science o" measurin! mental "aculties) and
di""erential psycolo!y$ -e de#ised a metod "or classi"yin! "in!erprints tat pro#ed use"ul in "orensic science$
As te initiator o" scienti"ic meteorolo!y, e de#ised te "irst .eater map, proposed a teory o" anticyclones,
and .as te "irst to establis a complete record o" sort-term climatic penomena on a :uropean scale$
H2I
-e
also in#ented te Ealton 2istle "or testin! di""erential earin! ability$
James Jerome Gibson (<anuary 27, 190=J@ecember 11, 1979), .as an American psycolo!ist .o
recei#ed is &$@$ "rom &rinceton )ni#ersity0s @epartment o" &sycolo!y, and is considered one o" te most
important 20t century psycolo!ists in te "ield o" #isual perception$ 8n is classic .or5 The erception of the
Visual ,orld (19,0) e re;ected te "asionable bea#iorism "or a #ie. based on is o.n e4perimental .or5,
.ic pioneered te idea tat animals 0sampled0 in"ormation "rom te 0ambient0 outside .orld$ -e also coined
te term 0a""ordance0, .ic re"ers to te opportunities "or action pro#ided by a particular ob;ect or en#ironment$
9is concept as been e4tremely in"luential in te "ield o" desi!n and er!onomics1 see "or e4ample te .or5 o"
@onald ?orman .o .or5ed .it Eibson, and as adapted many o" is ideas "or is o.n teories$
H1I
8n is later .or5 (suc as, "or e4ample, The Ecological Approach to Visual erception (1979)), Eibson became
more pilosopical and criticised co!niti#ism in te same .ay e ad attac5ed bea#iorism be"ore$ Eibson
ar!ued stron!ly in "a#our o" direct perception and direct realism (as pioneered by te *cottis pilosoper
9omas 7eid), as opposed to co!niti#ist indirect realism$ -e termed is ne. approac ecolo!ical psycolo!y$
-e also re;ected te in"ormation processin! #ie. o" co!nition$ Eibson is increasin!ly in"luential on many
contemporary mo#ements in psycolo!y, particularly tose considered to be post-co!niti#ist$
Hcitation neededI
8 seem to be, to my surprise, a member o" a lar!e pro"ession$ 9ere are some 20$000 psycolo!ists in tis
country alone, nearly all o" .om a#e become so in my adult li"etime$ 9ey are all prosperous$ Most o" tem
seem to be busily applyin! psycolo!y to problems o" li"e and personality$ 9ey seem to "eel, many o" tem,
tat all .e need to do is to consolidate our scienti"ic !ains$ 9eir sel"-con"idence astonises me$ For tese !ains
seem to me puny, and scienti"ic psycolo!y seems to me ill-"ounded$ At any time te .ole psycolo!ical
applecart mi!t be upset$ >et tem be.areQ
H2I
Eibson .as married to "ello. psycolo!ist :leanor < Eibson$
Pu&lications
Iibson, 0.0. 2 Iibson, ;. )19%%*. +er,eptual learnin-/ diLerentiation or enri,hent? +sy,.
3ev., '$, !$&"1.
Iibson, 0.0. )19%(*. 5he +er,eption o1 the Visual World. Boston/ Hou-hton >iMin.
Iibson, 0.0. )19''*. 5he <enses 4onsidered as +er,eptual <ystes. Boston/ Hou-hton
>iMin. =<B# (!1!$!9'1"
Iibson, 0.0. )197$*. A 5heory o1 .ire,t Visual +er,eption. =n 0. 3oy,e, W. 3oBenboo );ds.*.
5he +sy,holo-y o1 Jno6in-. #e6 ForE/ Iordon 2 Brea,h.
Iibson, 0.0. )1977*. 5he 5heory o1 ALordan,es )pp. '7&7$*. =n 3. <ha6 2 0. Brans1ord );ds.*.
+er,eivin-, A,tin-, and Jno6in-/ 5o6ard an ;,olo-i,al +sy,holo-y. Hillsdale, #0/ La6ren,e
;rlbau.
Iibson, 0.0. )1979*. 5he ;,olo-i,al Approa,h to Visual +er,eption. Boston/ Hou-hton
>iMin.=<B# (797%99%97 )197'*
Iibson, 0.0. )197$*. 3easons 1or 3ealis/ <ele,ted essays o1 0aes 0. Iibson, ;. 3eed 2 3.
0ones );ds.*. Hillsdale, #0/ La6ren,e ;rlbau. =<B# 977&(797%9$(77

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