G. H.

RAISONI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, NAGPUr

(An Autonomous Institute under UCG act 1956)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & TELECOMMUNICATION
TAE:- (A REPORT ON DISCRETE TIME SYSTEM )
SUB: - Signal & system
TOPIC:- Discrete-Time signal and ssystem
Under the guidance of
R.T. BANKAR
Submitted by :
Sushant kalaskar (38)
Gaur av war ade (45)
Sushil atone ( 39)
Bhushan r agit (57)


Section :- C
Date :-


Discrete-Time Signals and Systems
INTRODUCTION:

The term signal is generally applied to something that conveys
information. Signals may, for example, convey information
about the state or behavior of a physical system. As another
class of examples, signals are synthesized for the purpose of
communicating information between humans or between
humans and machines. Although signals can be represented in
many ways, in all cases, the information is contained in some
pattern of variations. Signals are represented mathematically as
functions of one or more in- dependent variables. For example,
a speech signal is represented mathematically as a function of
time, and a photographic image is represented as a brightness
function of two spatial variables. A common conventionand
one that usually will be followed in this bookis to refer to the
independent variable of the mathematical representation of a
signal as time, although in specic examples, the independent
variable may not in fact correspond to time. The independent
variable in the mathematical representation of a signal may be
either continuous or discrete. Continuous-time signals are
dened along a continuum of time and are thus represented by
a continuous independent variable. Continuous-time signals are
often referred to as analog signals. Discrete-time signals are
dened at discrete times,andthus, the in dependent variable
has discrete values; that is, discrete-time signals are
represented as sequences of numbers. Signals such as speech
or images may have either a continuous-or a discrete-variable
representation, and if certain condition hold, these
representations are entirely equivalent. Besides the
independent variables being either continuous or discrete, the
signal amplitude maybe either continuous or discrete. Digital
signals are those for which both time and amplitude are
discrete.
Signal-processing systems may be classied along the same
lines as signals. That is, continuous-time systems are systems
for which both the input and the output are continuous-time
signals, and discrete-time systems are those for which both the
input and the output are discrete-time signals. Similarly, a
digital system is a system for which both the input and the
output are digital signals. Digital signal processing, then, deals
with the transformation of signals that are discrete in both
amplitude and time. The principa lf ocus of this book is on
discrete-timerather than digitalsignals and systems.
However, the theory of discrete-time signals and systems is also
exceedingly useful for digitalsignalsandsystems,particularly if
the signal amplitude sare nely quantized.
Discrete-time signal:
A discrete signal or discrete-time signal is a time series
consisting of a sequence of qualities. In other words, it is a type
series that is a function over a domain of discrete integral.
Unlike a continuous-time signal, a discrete-time signal is not a
function of a continuous argument; however, it may have been
obtained by sampling from a continuous-time signal, and then
each value in the sequence is called a sample. When a discrete-
time signal obtained by sampling a sequence corresponding to
uniformly spaced times, it has an associated sampling rate; the
sampling rate is not apparent in the data sequence, and so
needs to be associated as a separate data item.

Fig: Discrete sampled signal

Fig: Digital signal
Time signals:
Uniformly sampled discrete-time signals can be expressed as
the time-domain multiplication between a pulse train and a
continuous time signal. This time-domain multiplication is
equivalent to a convolution in the frequency domain.
Practically, this means that a signal must be bandlimited to less
than half the sampling frequency, i.e. Fs/2 - , in order to
prevent aliasing. Likewise, all non-linear operations performed
on discrete-time signals must be bandlimited to Fs/2 - .
Wagner's book Analytical Transients proves why equality is not
permissible.




Digital signals


Discrete cosine waveform with frequency of 50 Hz and a
sampling rate of 1000 samples/sec, easily satisfying
the sampling theorem for reconstruction of the original cosine
function from samples.
A digital signal is a discrete-time signal for which not only the
time but also the amplitude has been made discrete; in other
words, its samples take on only values from a discrete
set (a countable set that can be mapped one-to-one to a subset
ofintegers). If that discrete set is finite, the discrete values can
be represented with digital words of a finite width. Most
commonly, these discrete values are represented as fixed-
point words (either proportional to the waveform values
or companded) or floating-point words.
The process of converting a continuous-valued discrete-time
signal to a digital (discrete-valued discrete-time) signal is known
asanalog-to-digital conversion. It usually proceeds
by replacing each original sample value by an approximation
selected from a given discrete set (for example by truncating or
rounding, but much more sophisticated methods exist), a
process known asquantization. This process loses information,
and so discrete-valued signals are only an approximation of the
converted continuous-valued discrete-time signal, itself only an
approximation of the original continuous-valued continuous-
time signal.
Common practical digital signals are represented as 8-bit (256
levels), 16-bit (65,536 levels), 32-bit (4.3 billion levels), and so
on, though any number of quantization levels is possible, not
just powers of two.


Discrete System:
A discrete system is a system with a countable number of
states. Discrete systems may be contrasted with continuous
systems, which may also be called analog systems. A final
discrete system is often modeled with a directed graph and is
analyzed for correctness and complexity according to
computational theory. Because discrete systems have a
countable number of states, they may be described in precise
mathematical models.
A computer is a finite state machine that may be viewed as a
discrete system. Because computers are often used to model
not only other discrete systems but continuous systems as
well, methods have been developed to represent real-world
continuous systems as discrete systems. One such method
involves sampling a continuous signal at discrete time
intervals.
Discrete-time and continuous-time signals:
If for a signal, the quantities are defined only on a discrete set
of times, we call it a discrete-time signal. A simple source for a
discrete time signal is the sampling of a continuous signal,
approximating the signal by a sequence of its values at
particular time instants.
A discrete-time real (or complex) signal can be seen as a
function from (a subset of) the set of integers (the index
labeling time instants) to the set of real (or complex) numbers
(the function values at those instants).
A continuous-time real (or complex) signal is any real-valued (or
complex-valued) function which is defined at every time t in an
interval, most commonly an infinite interval.





Discretization:
One of the fundamental distinctions between different types of
signals is between continuous and discrete time. In the
mathematical abstraction, the domain of a continuous-time
(CT) signal is the set of real numbers (or some interval thereof),
whereas the domain of a discrete-time (DT) signal is the set of
integers (or some interval). What these integers represent
depends on the nature of the signal.
DT (discrete time) signals often arise via sampling of CT
(continuous time) signals, for example, a continually fluctuating
voltage on a line that can be digitized by an analog-to-digital
converter circuit, wherein the circuit will read the voltage level
on the line, say, every 50 microseconds. The resulting stream of
numbers is stored as digital data on a discrete-time signal.
Computers and other digital devices are restricted to discrete
time.
Signals in nature can be converted to electronic signals by
various sensors. Some examples are:
Motion. The motion of an object can be considered to be a
signal, and can be monitored by various sensors to provide
electrical signals.[5] For example, radar can provide an
electromagnetic signal for following aircraft motion. A motion
signal is one-dimensional (time), and the range is generally
three-dimensional. Position is thus a 3-vector signal; position
and orientation of a rigid body is a 6-vector signal. Orientation
signals can be generated using a gyroscope.[6]
Sound. Since a sound is a vibration of a medium (such as air), a
sound signal associates a pressure value to every value of time
and three space coordinates. A sound signal is converted to an
electrical signal by a microphone, generating a voltage signal as
an analog of the sound signal, making the sound signal available
for further signal processing. Sound signals can be sampled at a
discrete set of time points; for example, compact discs (CDs)
contain discrete signals representing sound, recorded at 44,100
samples per second; each sample contains data for a left and
right channel, which may be considered to be a 2-vector signal
(since CDs are recorded in stereo). The CD encoding is
converted to an electrical signal by reading the information
with a laser, converting the sound signal to an optical signal.[7]
Images. A picture or image consists of a brightness or color
signal, a function of a two-dimensional location. The object's
appearance is presented as an emitted or reflected
electromagnetic wave, one form of electronic signal. It can be
converted to voltage or current waveforms using devices such
as the charge-coupled device. A 2D image can have a
continuous spatial domain, as in a traditional photograph or
painting; or the image can be discretized in space, as in a raster
scanned digital image. Color images are typically represented as
a combination of images in three primary colors, so that the
signal is vector-valued with dimension three.
Videos. A video signal is a sequence of images. A point in a
video is identified by its two-dimensional position and by the
time at which it occurs, so a video signal has a three-
dimensional domain. Analog video has one continuous domain
dimension (across a scan line) and two discrete dimensions
(frame and line).
Biological membrane potentials. The value of the signal is an
electric potential ("voltage"). The domain is more difficult to
establish. Some cells or organelles have the same membrane
potential throughout; neurons generally have different
potentials at different points. These signals have very low
energies, but are enough to make nervous systems work; they
can be measured in aggregate by the techniques of
electrophysiology.