Signal is generally applied to something that conveys information. Signals are represented mathematically as functions of one or more independent variables. Continuous-time signals are often referred to as analog signals.
Signal is generally applied to something that conveys information. Signals are represented mathematically as functions of one or more independent variables. Continuous-time signals are often referred to as analog signals.
Signal is generally applied to something that conveys information. Signals are represented mathematically as functions of one or more independent variables. Continuous-time signals are often referred to as analog signals.
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & TELECOMMUNICATION TAE:- (A REPORT ON DISCRETE TIME SYSTEM ) SUB: - Signal & system TOPIC:- Discrete-Time signal and ssystem Under the guidance of R.T. BANKAR Submitted by : Sushant kalaskar (38) Gaur av war ade (45) Sushil atone ( 39) Bhushan r agit (57)
Section :- C Date :-
Discrete-Time Signals and Systems INTRODUCTION:
The term signal is generally applied to something that conveys information. Signals may, for example, convey information about the state or behavior of a physical system. As another class of examples, signals are synthesized for the purpose of communicating information between humans or between humans and machines. Although signals can be represented in many ways, in all cases, the information is contained in some pattern of variations. Signals are represented mathematically as functions of one or more in- dependent variables. For example, a speech signal is represented mathematically as a function of time, and a photographic image is represented as a brightness function of two spatial variables. A common conventionand one that usually will be followed in this bookis to refer to the independent variable of the mathematical representation of a signal as time, although in specic examples, the independent variable may not in fact correspond to time. The independent variable in the mathematical representation of a signal may be either continuous or discrete. Continuous-time signals are dened along a continuum of time and are thus represented by a continuous independent variable. Continuous-time signals are often referred to as analog signals. Discrete-time signals are dened at discrete times,andthus, the in dependent variable has discrete values; that is, discrete-time signals are represented as sequences of numbers. Signals such as speech or images may have either a continuous-or a discrete-variable representation, and if certain condition hold, these representations are entirely equivalent. Besides the independent variables being either continuous or discrete, the signal amplitude maybe either continuous or discrete. Digital signals are those for which both time and amplitude are discrete. Signal-processing systems may be classied along the same lines as signals. That is, continuous-time systems are systems for which both the input and the output are continuous-time signals, and discrete-time systems are those for which both the input and the output are discrete-time signals. Similarly, a digital system is a system for which both the input and the output are digital signals. Digital signal processing, then, deals with the transformation of signals that are discrete in both amplitude and time. The principa lf ocus of this book is on discrete-timerather than digitalsignals and systems. However, the theory of discrete-time signals and systems is also exceedingly useful for digitalsignalsandsystems,particularly if the signal amplitude sare nely quantized. Discrete-time signal: A discrete signal or discrete-time signal is a time series consisting of a sequence of qualities. In other words, it is a type series that is a function over a domain of discrete integral. Unlike a continuous-time signal, a discrete-time signal is not a function of a continuous argument; however, it may have been obtained by sampling from a continuous-time signal, and then each value in the sequence is called a sample. When a discrete- time signal obtained by sampling a sequence corresponding to uniformly spaced times, it has an associated sampling rate; the sampling rate is not apparent in the data sequence, and so needs to be associated as a separate data item.
Fig: Discrete sampled signal
Fig: Digital signal Time signals: Uniformly sampled discrete-time signals can be expressed as the time-domain multiplication between a pulse train and a continuous time signal. This time-domain multiplication is equivalent to a convolution in the frequency domain. Practically, this means that a signal must be bandlimited to less than half the sampling frequency, i.e. Fs/2 - , in order to prevent aliasing. Likewise, all non-linear operations performed on discrete-time signals must be bandlimited to Fs/2 - . Wagner's book Analytical Transients proves why equality is not permissible.
Digital signals
Discrete cosine waveform with frequency of 50 Hz and a sampling rate of 1000 samples/sec, easily satisfying the sampling theorem for reconstruction of the original cosine function from samples. A digital signal is a discrete-time signal for which not only the time but also the amplitude has been made discrete; in other words, its samples take on only values from a discrete set (a countable set that can be mapped one-to-one to a subset ofintegers). If that discrete set is finite, the discrete values can be represented with digital words of a finite width. Most commonly, these discrete values are represented as fixed- point words (either proportional to the waveform values or companded) or floating-point words. The process of converting a continuous-valued discrete-time signal to a digital (discrete-valued discrete-time) signal is known asanalog-to-digital conversion. It usually proceeds by replacing each original sample value by an approximation selected from a given discrete set (for example by truncating or rounding, but much more sophisticated methods exist), a process known asquantization. This process loses information, and so discrete-valued signals are only an approximation of the converted continuous-valued discrete-time signal, itself only an approximation of the original continuous-valued continuous- time signal. Common practical digital signals are represented as 8-bit (256 levels), 16-bit (65,536 levels), 32-bit (4.3 billion levels), and so on, though any number of quantization levels is possible, not just powers of two.
Discrete System: A discrete system is a system with a countable number of states. Discrete systems may be contrasted with continuous systems, which may also be called analog systems. A final discrete system is often modeled with a directed graph and is analyzed for correctness and complexity according to computational theory. Because discrete systems have a countable number of states, they may be described in precise mathematical models. A computer is a finite state machine that may be viewed as a discrete system. Because computers are often used to model not only other discrete systems but continuous systems as well, methods have been developed to represent real-world continuous systems as discrete systems. One such method involves sampling a continuous signal at discrete time intervals. Discrete-time and continuous-time signals: If for a signal, the quantities are defined only on a discrete set of times, we call it a discrete-time signal. A simple source for a discrete time signal is the sampling of a continuous signal, approximating the signal by a sequence of its values at particular time instants. A discrete-time real (or complex) signal can be seen as a function from (a subset of) the set of integers (the index labeling time instants) to the set of real (or complex) numbers (the function values at those instants). A continuous-time real (or complex) signal is any real-valued (or complex-valued) function which is defined at every time t in an interval, most commonly an infinite interval.
Discretization: One of the fundamental distinctions between different types of signals is between continuous and discrete time. In the mathematical abstraction, the domain of a continuous-time (CT) signal is the set of real numbers (or some interval thereof), whereas the domain of a discrete-time (DT) signal is the set of integers (or some interval). What these integers represent depends on the nature of the signal. DT (discrete time) signals often arise via sampling of CT (continuous time) signals, for example, a continually fluctuating voltage on a line that can be digitized by an analog-to-digital converter circuit, wherein the circuit will read the voltage level on the line, say, every 50 microseconds. The resulting stream of numbers is stored as digital data on a discrete-time signal. Computers and other digital devices are restricted to discrete time. Signals in nature can be converted to electronic signals by various sensors. Some examples are: Motion. The motion of an object can be considered to be a signal, and can be monitored by various sensors to provide electrical signals.[5] For example, radar can provide an electromagnetic signal for following aircraft motion. A motion signal is one-dimensional (time), and the range is generally three-dimensional. Position is thus a 3-vector signal; position and orientation of a rigid body is a 6-vector signal. Orientation signals can be generated using a gyroscope.[6] Sound. Since a sound is a vibration of a medium (such as air), a sound signal associates a pressure value to every value of time and three space coordinates. A sound signal is converted to an electrical signal by a microphone, generating a voltage signal as an analog of the sound signal, making the sound signal available for further signal processing. Sound signals can be sampled at a discrete set of time points; for example, compact discs (CDs) contain discrete signals representing sound, recorded at 44,100 samples per second; each sample contains data for a left and right channel, which may be considered to be a 2-vector signal (since CDs are recorded in stereo). The CD encoding is converted to an electrical signal by reading the information with a laser, converting the sound signal to an optical signal.[7] Images. A picture or image consists of a brightness or color signal, a function of a two-dimensional location. The object's appearance is presented as an emitted or reflected electromagnetic wave, one form of electronic signal. It can be converted to voltage or current waveforms using devices such as the charge-coupled device. A 2D image can have a continuous spatial domain, as in a traditional photograph or painting; or the image can be discretized in space, as in a raster scanned digital image. Color images are typically represented as a combination of images in three primary colors, so that the signal is vector-valued with dimension three. Videos. A video signal is a sequence of images. A point in a video is identified by its two-dimensional position and by the time at which it occurs, so a video signal has a three- dimensional domain. Analog video has one continuous domain dimension (across a scan line) and two discrete dimensions (frame and line). Biological membrane potentials. The value of the signal is an electric potential ("voltage"). The domain is more difficult to establish. Some cells or organelles have the same membrane potential throughout; neurons generally have different potentials at different points. These signals have very low energies, but are enough to make nervous systems work; they can be measured in aggregate by the techniques of electrophysiology.