RR 602

Health and Safety
Executive
Assessment of gas detection
strategies for offshore HVAC ducts
based on CFD modelling
Prepared by the Health and Safety Laboratory
for the Health and Safety Executive 2007
RR602
Research Report
Health and Safety
Executive
Dr C J Lea & Dr M Deevy
Health and Safety Laboratory
Harpur Hill
Buxton
SK17 9JN
The aim of this study has been to undertake CFD modelling to provide a basis for advice to inspectors and the industry
on the effectiveness of flammable gas detection strategies for offshore HVAC ducts. CFD simulations of a high and
low pressure gas release have been undertaken for idealised representations of an offshore platform, as well as a high
pressure release for a more realistic geometry based on the Brae Alpha platform. In parallel with this modelling work a
literature review has been carried out to build on a scoping study by Walsh et al (2005).
This report and the work it describes were funded by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE). Its contents, including any
opinions and/or conclusions expressed, are those of the author alone and do not necessarily reflect HSE policy.
HSE Books
Crown copyright 2007
First published 2007
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
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photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the prior
written permission of the copyright owner.
Applications for reproduction should be made in writing to:
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St Clements House, 2-16 Colegate, Norwich NR3 1BQ
or by e-mail to hmsolicensing@cabinet-office.x.gsi.gov.uk
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Marathon Oil UK Ltd,
Flamgard Engineering Ltd, Integrated Engineering Services
Ltd, Groveley Detection Ltd and Honeywell Analytics for
providing information and assistance during the course of
this project. Dr Peter Walsh, HSL, has also provided helpful
guidance.
ii
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 FLOWANDDISPERSIONOFGASINADUCT 3
2.1 Turbulentflowinpipesandducts 3
2.2 Dispersioninpipesandducts 5
2.3 Summary 8
3 INGESTIONOFGASINTOHVACINLETS 9
3.1 Introduction 9
3.2 Scenario1 10
3.3 Scenario2 22
4 DISTRIBUTIONOFGASINSIDEANHVACDUCT 32
4.1 Overview 32
4.2 Results 33
5 GASRELEASEANDINGESTIONINTOHVACDUCTSFORA 37
REALISTICSCENARIO
5.1 Introduction 37
5.2 Modelgeometryandcomputationaldomain 37
5.3 Boundaryconditionsandflowphysics 38
5.4 Mesh,solutionnumericsandconvergence 43
5.5 Results 45
6 DISCUSSION 53
6.1 Reviewanddiscussionofresults 53
6.2 InitialrecommendationsforgasdetectionstrategiesinHVACducts 56
7 CONCLUSIONS 58
7.1 Recommendationsforfurtherwork 59
8 APPENDIX1:EXAMPLESOFCOEFFICIENTOFVARIATION 60
9 REFERENCES 61
iii
iv
EXECUTIVESUMMARY
Objectives
TheaimofthisstudyhasbeentoundertakeCFDmodellingtoprovideabasisforadviceto
inspectors and the industry on the effectiveness of flammable gas detection strategies for
offshore HVAC ducts. CFD simulations of a high and low pressure gas release have been
undertaken for idealised representations of an offshore platform, as well as a high pressure
releaseforamorerealisticgeometrybasedontheBraeAlphaplatform.Inparallelwiththis
modellingworkaliteraturereviewhasbeencarriedouttobuildonascopingstudybyWalshet
al(2005).
MainFindings
The most significant finding is that in all of the CFD simulations the distribution of gas at
HVACinletsisnon-uniform:largevariationsingasconcentrationarepresentoverthecross-
sectionofthemodelledHVACinlets.Thisresultisconsistentwiththetheoreticalbehaviourof
ahighpressuregasrelease.Neitheristhereasubstantialreasontobelievethatitisnotalso
consistentwiththebehaviourofalowpressuregasrelease.Itmeansthatthereisthepotential
for a gas release to be missed by detection systems unless this non-uniformity in gas
concentrationisanticipatedintheselectionandsitingofgasdetectorsatHVACinlets.
TheCFDresultsalsoshowthatavariationingasconcentrationoveraductcross-sectiononly
reducesslowlywithdistancealongastraightduct.Thisfindingisconsistentwithabodyof
relevant literature stemming from the sampling of gas distributions in the exhaust ducts of
nuclearstacks.
Thisliteraturehighlightsthatpurpose-designedmixingelementsandbendsinaductcanbe
effectiveincreatingwell-mixedconditionsinaduct,butatthecostofincreasedpressuredrop.
Italsosuggeststhatrelativelysmall-scaleobstructionssuchaslouvresandfiredampersare
unlikely to significantly enhance mixing. This is borne out by CFD modelling of such
obstructionsinthisstudy.
Theimplicationsofthemodellingwork,substantiatedbytheliterature,arethatintheabsence
of purpose-designed mixing elements or a series of bends upstream from gas detectors no
significant benefit would be gained from siting detectors a significant distance downstream
from an HVAC inlet. Also, no significant benefit can be expected to be gained from siting
detectors inside an HVAC duct compared to locating them immediately outside the HVAC
inlet.
TheCFDresultshavebeenpost-processedtogainfurtherinsightintothelikelyeffectivenessof
pointandinfra-redbeamoraspirateddetectorsystemsforHVACducts.Theresultingoutput
has been combined with the findings of the scoping study by Walsh et al (2005), and the
outcomesoftheliteraturereviewandCFDmodellingasreportedabove,toprovideabasisfor
thefollowinginitialrecommendationsonflammablegasdetectionstrategies:
- Detectoralarmlevelsshouldbesetaslowasreasonablypractical:10%LELorless.
- Pointcatalytic,pointinfra-red,extendedpathpointinfra-red,cross-ductbeaminfra-red
andaspiratedpointdetectorsystemsallhavethepotentialtobeeffectiveindetecting
non-uniformdistributionsofflammablegasinandaroundHVACductsprovidedthat
theirsensitivityissufficientlyhigh(lowdetectionlimit)andthatdueregardisgivento
thepossibilitythatgaswillbedistributednon-uniformly.
v
- Extended path point infra-red detector systems currently appear to offer the greatest
sensitivity, but multiple detectors should be used and sited so as to anticipate non-
uniformmixing.
- Cross-ductbeaminfra-red,extendedpathoraspiratedpointdetectorsystemsshouldbe
basedontwoapproximatelyorthogonalbeamsorlinesofaspiratedpointprobes.
- No significant benefit can be expected to be gained from siting detectors inside an
HVACductcomparedtolocatingthemimmediatelyoutsidetheHVACinlet.
- Intheabsenceofpurpose-designedmixingelementsoraseriesofbendsupstreamfrom
gasdetectorsnosignificantbenefitistobegainedfromsitingdetectorsasignificant
distancedownstreamfromanHVACinlet.
- Mixingelementshavethepotentialtoreduceanynon-uniformityinthedistributionof
gasinaductbuttheireffectivenessshouldbeprovenbyphysicaltests.
Recommendations
Itisrecommendedthatlarge-scalephysicaltestsusingcommercialdetectorsareundertakento
validatethefindingsofthisstudyandtosupportandrefinetheinitialrecommendationsabove.
It is also recommended that the minimum practical alarm levels for a range of commercial
detectortypes,especiallycross-ductbeaminfra-redsystems,areclarified.
Reference
WalshP,J ohnsonA,IvingsM(2005)EffectivenessofgasdetectioninHVACducts:Scoping
study.HealthandSafetyLaboratoryReportFM/04/11.
vi
1 INTRODUCTION
Theaccidentalreleaseofflammablegasonoffshoreinstallationscanpotentiallyleadtothe
build-up of an explosive mixture. Natural or forced ventilation can help to mitigate such
incidents and gas detection systems play a key role in reducing the risks from releases by
enablingearlydetectionandsubsequentinterventions.Theprovisionandsitingofgasdetectors
for open areas and gas turbine enclosures has been studied over a number of years and is
comparativelywelldocumented(HSE1993,Kelseyetal2000,Ivingsetal2002,HSE2003,
Kelseyetal2005).Howeverthereismuchlessinformationavailableongasdetectionsystems
forHVACductssupplyingairtoaccommodationmodules,temporaryrefugesorprocessareas
onaninstallation.TheinformationwhichisavailableonoffshoreHVACductstendstoaddress
otheraspectssuchasmechanicaldesignwithminimalinformationongasdetectionsystems(BS
ENISO15138:2001,Chin&Lam2004).
FollowinganincidentontheBraeAlphaplatforminNovember2004inwhichtherewasa
delayinconfirmeddetectionandshutdownoftheHVACsystem,despitegasbeingingested
intotheHVACinlets,itbecameclearthattherewasaneedforastudytoestablishthecurrent
stateoftheart.ThisledtotheinitiationofthescopingstudybyWalshetal(2005)intothe
effectiveness of gas detection systems for HVAC ducts on offshore installations. This was
carriedoutinresponsetoconcernsraisedbyHSEoffshoresafetyinspectorsonthepositioning
offlammablegasdetectorsinoraroundHVACinlets.
Walshetal(2005)reviewednationalstandards,industryguidance,publishedpapersandreports
to obtain information on the siting of flammable gas detection systems for offshore HVAC
inlets.SomeindustryguidancewasobtainedonperformancetargetsforHVACgasdetection
systemsspecifictoaparticularplatform,statingthatflammablegasatconcentrationsabove
20%LEL(LowerExplosiveLimit)atventilationintakeductsshouldleadtoanalarmandthat
concentrationsabove60%shouldleadtoisolationoftheintakebystoppingfansandclosing
dampers(Micropack,2000).Otherindustryguidanceadvisedthateitherpointorbeamdetectors
may be installed inside or outside of HVAC ducts and that for point detectors three should
normally be installed to maintain voting logic (Shell UK, 1995). Guidance has also been
obtainedfromagasdetectorcompanyadvisingontheappropriateproximityofpointdetectors
tofeaturessuchasbendsordiffusersingasturbineductwork.
Walshetal(2005)surveyedcommercialgasdetectorsystemsforHVACapplications.They
foundthatanumberofdifferingsystemsareavailable:pointcatalytic,pointinfra-red,beam
infra-redoraspiratedsystems.Ingeneraltheoperatingrangeofsuchsystemswasfoundtobe
upto100%LEL,withaminimumalarmlevelof20%LEL.However,Walshetalnotedthat
recentdevelopmentsinHVACgasdetectiontechnologyhaveledtotheavailabilityofextended
closedpathinfraredpointdetectorswhichmeasureanaverageconcentrationoverapathlength
of typically around 1 m. Such systems have increased sensitivity and typically allow for
minimum alarm levels of 5% LEL. Recent developments in catalytic point sensors for the
industrialgasturbineindustryalsoapparentlyallowforminimumalarmlevelsof5%LEL.
However,Walshetal(2005)foundessentiallynoguidancespecifictothesitingofgasdetectors
in and around HVAC inlets or on the effectiveness of differing siting strategies. They
recommendedthatfurtherworkbeundertakentoremedythissituation.Inconsultationwiththe
OffshoreSafetyDivision(OSD)inHSEtheyproposedthatthisfurtherworkshouldinitiallybe
basedonComputationalFluidDynamics(CFD)modelling,recognisingthatCFDcanguideany
potentialfutureexperimentalworkbyhelpingidentifyeffectiveandineffectivegasdetection
systems. This provides the basis and motivation for the project which is documented in the
presentreport.
1
TheoverallaimofthisprojectisthereforetoapplyCFDmodellingtoprovideabasisforadvice
to inspectors and the industry on theeffectiveness of flammable gas detection strategies for
offshoreHVACducts.ItbuildsuponthescopingstudyofWalshetal(2005).Theprimary
focusoftheprojectisonsitingstrategiesforgasdetectorslocatedinoraroundHVACinletsfor
circumstancesinwhichgasisnotingesteduniformlyovertheentireinlet.Thepresentproject
andtheearlierscopingstudyhavebothbeenfundedbyOSD.
InSection2ofthisreportthebehaviourofflowanddispersionofgasinaductisdiscussed.
This discussion is supported by a literature review that encompasses sources of information
whichcomplimentthatfromthefieldofgasdetectioninoffshoreHVACducts.
Section3addressescircumstancesbywhichanon-uniformdistributionofgascouldbepresent
immediatelyoutsideorinsideofanHVACinlet.Thisisofparticularrelevancetothepresent
project. Thus, if a well-mixed and uniform distribution of gas and air is present then the
positioningofdetectorsshouldhavelittleimpactontheperformanceofasystemindetecting
gas;insteadtheperformancewillbegovernedbyotherfactorssuchasthesensitivity,speedof
response and reliability of the detector. Such information is available from gas detector
companies supported by experience of use. Therefore in this section the outcome of CFD
modellingofgasreleasesispresentedfortwodifferingidealisedscenariosshowinghowanon-
uniformdistributionofgasandairmaybepresentinandaroundanHVACinlet.
Section4reportsthemixinganddistributionofgasinsideanHVACductassimulatedusing
CFD. The modelling extends that presented in Section 3 by focusing on the detail of the
geometryandassociatedflowfeatureslikelytobefoundinanactualHVACinlet.
Section5presentsCFDresultsforamorerealisticscenariobasedonthereleasefromtheBrae
AlphaplatforminNovember2004.Althoughthemostsignificantelementsofthisincidentare
represented,thescenarioisnotadetailedreplicationoftheincident;thiswouldbeverytime-
consumingtoundertakeandmaynotbepractical.Thevalueoftheseresultsinsteadliesinthe
moregenerallessonswhichtheyprovideonthebehaviourofareleaseinacomplexgeometrical
environmentandwhichissubsequentlyingestedintoHVACductsofvaryingsize.
The results from the CFD modelling are discussed in Section 6. Their implications for gas
detectionstrategiesforHVACductsarehighlighted.Initialrecommendationsontheeffective
sitingofflammablegasdetectorsinandaroundHVACinletsarealsoprovided.Conclusions
andrecommendationsforfurtherexperimentally-basedworkaregiveninSection7.Appendix1
provides illustrative values of a parameter which can be used to characterise the degree of
mixinginaduct.ReferencesareprovidedinSection9.
AlloftheCFDmodellinghasbeenundertakenusingANSYSCFX10,acommercialsoftware
package.
2
2 FLOWANDDISPERSIONOFGASINADUCT
2.1 TURBULENTFLOWINPIPESANDDUCTS
AnintroductiontotheflowregimeinHVACductsisprovidedbyWalshetal(2005).They
showthatforoffshoreHVACductstheReynoldsnumberwillbesufficientlyhighthattheflow
willbefullyturbulent.Thisisbasedonatypicalductvelocityof5m/sasoutlinedinBSEN
ISO15138andarangeofducthydraulicdiametersfrom0.5to5m,givingReynoldsnumbers
6
intherangeofapproximately10
5
to10.
Turbulenceisoftenassumedtobesynonymouswithgoodmixing.Althoughthisisgenerally
thecase,turbulentmixingdoesnotoccurinstantaneously.Itwouldbewrongtoassumethat
becausetheflowinHVACductsisturbulentanynon-uniformityinadistributionofgasatan
HVACinletwillveryquicklybedispersedtogivewell-mixeduniformconditions.Thishasa
significantimpactonthesitingofgasdetectorsinHVACducts.
Anindicationthatthisisthecaseisgivenbyexperimentaldataonturbulentdevelopingflowin
apipe.Sufficientlyfardownstreamfromtheentrancetoalongstraightpipethefloweventually
reachesaconditioninwhichitnolongerchanges.Itisthensaidtobefully-developed.
Forturbulentflowinasmoothpipethefully-developedmeanvelocityprofileapproximately
followsa1/n powerlaw(Hinze,1975):
/ 1 n
|

U 2x |
\
|
.
U d
max
whereUisthevelocityatdistancexfromthewallofapipeofdiameterdandU
max
isthepeak
5
velocity on the axis of the pipe. The constant, n, is 7 for a Reynolds number of 10 and
approximately9foraReynoldsnumberof10
6
.Forroughpipes,nincreasestobetween4and5.
Theturbulentmeanvelocityprofileisthereforeratherflatacrossmuchofthecross-sectionofa
pipe, dropping away steeply at the walls. Turbulent flow in a pipe is therefore often
characterisedasconsistingofarelativelythinnear-wallregionandacentralcore.
The distance before fully-developed conditions are established in a pipe is known as the
developmentlength.Thedevelopmentlengthdependsonanumberoffactors:theReynolds
number, geometry of the inlet and flow conditions upstream of the inlet. For flow from
quiescent surroundings into a straight pipe with rounded edges at its inlet the development
lengthforfully-developedturbulentflowisgivenbyWhite(1987):
L
e
Re 4 . 4
6 / 1
d
where L
e
is the development length and d is the pipe diameter. The development length is
6
approximately30 dto40 dforReynoldsnumbersintherangeofinterest,i.e.10
5
to10.For
laminarflow(Reynoldsnumberbelowabout2000to4000)thedevelopmentlengthsaremuch
greater.
The above expression applies to idealised conditions in which the flow is from quiescent
surroundingsandthepipeisstraightandroundedatitsinlet.Inthesecircumstancestheflow
whichentersthepipeisinitiallyuniformandlaminar.Alaminarboundarylayergrowsonthe
surfaceofthepipeandthenrapidlybecomesturbulent.Theturbulentboundarylayergrowsin
3
thicknessuntileventuallyitextendstotheaxisofthepipe.Fully-developedflowconditionsare
reachedshortlyafterwards.
Klein(1981)correlatesdataondevelopingflowinpipesfromarangeofsources,whichinclude
sharp-edgedinlets.Thesedatashowthatfully-developedflowisnotestablisheduntilgreater
thanabout50ddownstreamfromtheinlet.Otherworkers(Lawsetal,1979)haveindicatedthat
in the presence of significant obstructions at the inlet to a pipe, fully-developed flow isnot
established until significantly further downstream, possibly greater than 100 d. It should be
notedthatthesestudiesareseekingflowprofileswhichareexactlythesamewithdistancefrom
thepipeinletandsoareratherrigorousintheirrequirements.AsapracticalruleofthumbHinze
(1975) recommends that turbulent fully developedflow can be assumed to occur in straight
pipesafteraminimumdevelopmentlengthof40d.
The turbulent developingflow in a straight square or rectangular duct behaves in a broadly
similarmanner,inthatthedistancetofully-developedflowisnotshort.Melling&Whitelaw
(1976)presentdatawhichshowthatturbulentfully-developedflowinasquareductisreached
atabout25ductwidthsfromtheinlet.Othermeasurements,byGessneretal(1977),showthat
fully-developedflowisnotreacheduntilmuchfurtherdownstream,atbetween40to84duct
widthsdownstreamfromaroundedinlet.Thedevelopmentoftheflowoccursinmuchthesame
mannerasthatforacircularpipe,withthegradualgrowthofboundarylayersontheductwalls
untiltheyoccupytheentiresectionoftheduct.
There is a further feature of flow in straight square or rectangular ducts which should be
mentioned. This is the existence of a turbulence-driven secondary flow in the cross-stream
direction.Thesecondaryflowisofaverymuchsmallermagnitudethantheprimaryflowalong
theaxisoftheduct(Demuren&Rodi,1984).Itseffectistoslowlytransportmaterialfromthe
centreoftheducttowardsthewallsandbackagain.Overallthisleadstoanenhancementin
turbulentmixing.
ThissecondaryflowpresentsadifficultyforCFDmodels.Simulationsbasedonthecommonly-
usedk-cturbulencemodel(Launder&Spalding,1972)completelyfailtocapturethissecondary
flow(Speziale,1996).Moreadvancedturbulencemodelsareavailable(Gatski&Speziale1993,
Gatski&Rumsey2002)whichdocapturethesecondaryflowbuttheyoftentendtobemore
problematictoapplyandrequiremorecomputationalresources.However,thesecondaryflowis
notfullyestablishedimmediatelytheflowentersaduct;infactitisonlycompletelyestablished
whenfullydevelopedconditionsaremetfardownstream.Inpractice,offshoregasdetectorsfor
HVACductsarenearlyalwayslocatedclosetotheinlets.Thisispartlytominimisethevolume
ofgasingestedfollowingactiontoisolateanHVACsystemupondetectionofgas,andpartlyto
provideaccessformaintenanceandcalibration.Therefore,althoughastandardk-cturbulence
modelcannotcapturethesesecondaryflows,theresultingerrorisunlikelytobesignificantin
thefewductwidthsimmediatelydownstreamfromanHVACinlet,i.e.theregioninwhichgas
detectorsarecommonlyfound.
The literature on developing and fully-developed flow in pipes and ducts gives a useful
indication that equilibrium in the turbulent diffusion of momentum responsible for the
creationoffully-developedflowprofilesonlyoccursataconsiderabledistancedownstream
from the inlet to a straight pipe or duct. Of course, the offshore environment is somewhat
differentfromtheidealisedexperimentsuponwhichthisliteratureisbased:offshoreHVAC
inletsdonothaveroundededges;oftentheyaresharp-edgedandhaveobstructionssuchas
grilles or weather louvres across their entire face. Figure 1 shows some examples of such
features.
4
2.2
Figure1:ExamplesofHVACinlets
Usually, dampers will be encountered a short distance inside an HVAC duct; to provide
isolationfromfireandgasintheeventofanincident.Thedamperswillnormallybeopenand
paralleltothemainflowdirection,buttheystillpresentanobstructiontotheflow,asdoestheir
supporting structure. Overall, the gross effect of obstructions such as grilles, louvres and
damperswillbetogenerateturbulencewhichwillleadtoenhancedmixing.
DISPERSIONINPIPESANDDUCTS
Theabovediscussionhasconcentratedonthecharacteristicsofturbulentflowinstraightpipes
andducts.Ourmaininterestisintheturbulenttransferofmass,ormorespecifically,inthe
turbulentdiffusionofacontaminantsuchasnaturalgasatarelativelylowconcentration.It
should be noted that at low concentrations in the flammable range and for the velocities
typically encountered in offshore HVAC ducts, a natural gas mixture can be regarded as a
passivecontaminant,i.e.itistransportedby,butdoesnotdirectlyinfluencetheflow.Thisis
becausetheRichardsonnumber(Simpson,1997)islikelytobeatleastanorderofmagnitude
toolowforanyturbulence-modifyingeffectsofaslightlybuoyantgastodominateovershear-
inducedturbulence.
The turbulent diffusion of a contaminant which is essentially passive takes place in an
analogousmannertothatoftheturbulentdiffusionofmomentum.Botharetheresultofthe
same turbulent flow-field. It can therefore be expected that the dispersion of a passive
contaminantinaductwillfollowroughlythesamebehaviourasthatofthedevelopmentofthe
velocity profile: if the development length is long then the distance to uniformly mixed
conditionswillalsobelong.
Areviewoftheliteraturewasundertakentoobtainmoreinformationonthedevelopmentofan
initiallynon-uniformdistributionofpassivegasinaductorpipe,inthepresenceorabsenceof
obstructions.Initiallythisreviewfocusedonasearchforpapersinthefieldofgasdispersion,or
detection,inductsorHVACsystems.Thisproducedlittleusefulinformationonthedistribution
andmixingofgasinducts.Asearchforpapersinthefieldofsampling,ratherthandetectionor
dispersion,provedmuchmorefruitful.
Henceanumberofpaperswereobtainedonthesamplingofexhaustductstacksinthenuclear
industry(Hampletal1986,Rodgersetal1996,McFarlandetal1999a&1999b,Anandetal
2003andSeoetal2006).Thesepapersreportresearchintothemixingofapassivetracerin
circular,squareandrectangularductsinthepresenceorabsenceofbendsandmixingelements.
5
Inmostcasesthetracerwasreleasedfromasinglelocationontheaxisofaduct.Multiplepoint
concentration measurements were then made across the entire cross-section of the duct at a
number of axial locations. This body of research was largely undertaken to support an
improvement and updating of American standards on the sampling of gaseous radionuclide
emissions from stacks. Sampling had historically been required at multiple points over the
cross-sectionofaduct,withasmanyas20pointsbeingrequiredforlargeducts(Rodgersetal,
1996)toensurethatpeaksintheconcentrationdistributionwerenotmissed.Thesampleplane
was required to be no closer than eight duct diameters from the nearest upstream flow
disturbanceandtwoductdiametersfromthenearestdownstreamdisturbance.However,Hampl
(1986)suggestedthatupto50ductdiametersmaybeneededfornear-uniformmixingofa
passive tracer in a straight pipe, but less than two duct diameters for acceptable mixing
downstream of two elbows. Proposals for a new approach were therefore made, based on a
single point sample taken at a location where acceptable well-mixed conditions could be
assured.
Tocharacterisethedegreeofmixing,aparameterknownastheCoefficientofVariation(COV)
wasintroduced.Thisisdefinedas:
N
i
mean i
C C
N
COV
_
1
2
) (
1
1
C
mean
where Nisthenumberofsamplesataparticulardownstreamlocation,C
i
istheconcentrationof
theithsampleandC
mean
isthemeanconcentrationoverallsamplesatthatlocation,definedas:
1
N
C
_
C
mean i
N
i 1
As an example, if the concentration distribution is such that across one half of a duct the
concentrationisauniform30%LELwhilstacrosstheotherhalftheconcentrationisauniform
10% LEL, then the COV would be 50%. Appendix 1 provides examples of concentration
distributionsforarangeofCOVbetween10%and150%.TheupdatedAmericanstandards
(ANSI/HPSN13.1-1999)allowforsinglepointsamplingofgaseouscontaminantsinaductif
theCOVforbothvelocityandconcentrationofatracergasarelessthan20%overthecentral
two-thirdsofaduct.Wedonotsuggestorcommentonthepracticalityorappropriatenessof
thesecriteriaforoffshoreHVACducts.However,thenotionofaCOVishelpfulinquantifying
theuniformityofmixinginaduct:itisreadilycomputedfromCFDresults.Inaddition,this
bodyofresearchonstacksamplingprovidesmuchusefuldataonhowtheCOVisaffectedbya
rangeofconfigurations;thiscanbeusedtoinformthepresentresearch.
ThusMcFarlandetal(1999a)showedthatforatracerreleasedatasinglepointontheaxisofa
duct the COV can readily be reduced to ~5% following passage through a compact mixing
chamberinstalledinthepathofaduct.However,thepressurelossforthismixingchamberwas
notsmall(non-dimensionalpressurecoefficientofapproximately4.5,equivalenttoaheadloss
ofabout70Paforanaveragevelocityof5m/s)and,moresignificantly,itwouldrequirere-
engineeringofexistingHVACinstallations.
Measurements of the COV in straight circular pipes by Anand et al (2003) show that the
distancefromapointreleaseofatracertothatatwhichtheCOVislessthan20%dependson
theupstreamturbulenceintensity.Foralowturbulenceintensityof1.5%theCOVfallsvery
slowlywithdistanceandisstillover100%at30ductdiametersdownstreamfromthepointof
6
release.Evenwithahighturbulenceintensityof10%-generatedbypassingtheflowthrough
an array of thick rods a COV of 20% was still not reached after 25 duct diameters
downstream.
McFarland et al (1999b) investigated the effect of bends and static mixing elements on the
COV.Theyshowthatasinglesmooth90
o
bendinacircularductstillrequiresadistanceofnine
diametersdownstreamfromthebendbeforethe20%COVcriterionismet.Theperformanceof
thestaticmixingelementswasveryvariable:allresultedinthe20%COVcriterionbeingmet
withinninediametersdownstream,butthemosteffectivemixerswereabletomeetthecriterion
within three duct diameters of the mixing element. The most simple and effective mixing
elementsconsistedoftwolargeflowdeflectorsattachedtooppositewallsofaduct,leadingtoa
slot-likeopeninginthecentreoftheduct.Twoormoreofthesemixingelementswereusedin
series. The common characteristic of the most effective mixing elements appears to be the
introductionofcross-streammixingfromonesideofaducttoanotherduetotheintroductionof
largeturbulenteddies(Seoetal,2006).Mixingelementswhichonlyintroducedflowswirlwere
lesseffective.Onedisadvantageofthesesimpledeflectormixingelementsisarelativelylarge
non-dimensionalpressurecoefficient(5.0)fortwoelementsinseries.
Seoetal(2006)examinethebehaviouroftheCOVinsquareandrectangularducts(aspectratio
of3:1)withandwithoutbends.TheyreportthattheCOVissimilarforcircularandsquare-
sectionductsatlargedistancesdownstreamfromthetracerreleasepoint,bothwithandwithout
bends. This implies that the main findings of the previous work on circular-section ducts,
discussedabove,arelikelytolargelycarryovertosquare-sectionducts.However,asignificant
difference was found when the COV for the square and rectangular-section ducts were
compared:typicallytheCOVwasmuchhigherfortherectangularductatanygivendistance
downstreamfromthepointofrelease,byaboutafactoroffour.TheCOVforrectangularducts
withbendsarealsoconsistentlyhigherthanthesameflowconfigurationinasquareduct.Seoet
al speculate that this is because turbulent eddies in a wide duct have less opportunity to
effectivelytransfermassandmomentumfromonesideofaducttoanother.
Theeffectofgrillesontheturbulenceinaductisrelativelywellunderstood.Laws&Livesey
(1978)explainthattheeffectiseithertosuppress,orenhanceturbulence,andthisdependson
thegeometryofthegrille.Thusaveryfinegrille,ormesh,willtendtosuppressturbulence.
Anyturbulencewhichisintroducedbythemeshdecaysquicklyduetoitssmallscale.Agridof
relativelylargediameterrodswillenhanceturbulence,althoughLaws&Liveseystatethatitis
difficult to achieve a turbulence intensity of much higher than 10%. It is not clear whether
grillestypicallyusedtocoverHVACinletswillsuppressorenhanceturbulence.However,even
ifturbulenceissignificantlyenhanced,Anandetal(2003)showthattheCOVwillremainhigh
forlongdistancesdownstream.Foraninletturbulenceintensityof10%createdbyanarrayof
rodstheyfoundthattheCOVwasstillover50%at15ductdiametersdownstreamfromtherod
array. The reason for the relative ineffectiveness of such devices on mixing is that they
introduceturbulenceontoosmallalength-scale.
Muchoftheaboveworkisbasedonaflowwhichiswell-controlledattheinlettoaduct,for
examplebyuseofaroundedentranceorotherflowcontroldevices.Inthecaseofoffshore
HVACinstallationsthiswillnotbethecase:turbulencecanbegeneratedbylarge-scaleflow
separationatthesharp-edgedentrancetoaductorisalreadypresentintheambientflowoutside
oftheduct.McFarlandetal(1999b)notethattheearlierworkofHampletal(1986)wasbased
onasharp-edgedinletandincomparisontotheirlaterresearchwithawell-controlledapproach
flowtheCOVwerefoundtobereducedbybetweenafactoroftwotothree:flowseparationat
theinletenhancesmixinginsideaduct.Nevertheless,itshouldberecalledthatHampletalstill
suggestthatupto50ductdiametersmaybeneededfornear-uniformmixingofapassivetracer
inastraightpipe,evenwithasharp-edgedinlet.Itisdifficulttoknowtowhatextenttheeffect
7
ofturbulencewhichispresentintheambientflowaffectsthemixinginsideaduct.However,
thegrosseffectsofpre-existingturbulenceintheoutsideambientflowonmixinginaduct
shouldberepresented,albeitcrudely,bytheCFDmodellingwhichfollowsinSections3,4,and
5.
ItisalsosignificantthatbothAnandetal(2003)andSeoetal(2006)notethattheCOVislittle-
affectedbytheReynoldsnumber.Seoetalstatethatforasquareductthereisonlyasmall
effectoftheReynoldsnumberonCOVoverarangefrom25,000to150,000.Forarectangular
ductwitha3:1aspectratiothereisasignificantdependenceontheCOVforaReynoldsnumber
below50,000,butrelativelylittleeffectathigherReynoldsnumber.BothAnandetal(2003)
andSeoetal(2006)concludethat,forfullyturbulentflow,mixingisprimarilydependenton
geometry.
2.3 SUMMARY
Themainfindingsofrelevancetothepresentprojectfromtheaboveliteraturereviewareas
follows:
- TheReynoldsnumberforoffshoreHVACductsissufficientlyhighthattheflowwill
befullyturbulent.
- Aflowdevelopmentregionexistsdownstreamfromtheinlettoaduct;intheabsenceof
obstructionsandforasmoothlyroundedinletthelengthofthisregioncanbeassumed
tobeaminimumof40ductdiametersforastraightductwhereupontheflowissaidto
befully-developedanddoesnotchangefurtherdownstream.
- Inthedevelopmentregiontheflowmaynotbeturbulentacrosstheentiresectionofa
duct:inthisregionitismorelikelytobeturbulentinthepresenceofasharp-edged
entrancetotheductandwheretheductcontainsobstructionssuchaslouvres.
- A weak secondary flow exists in square and rectangular ducts which will enhance
mixing.InCFDmodellingthissecondaryflowisnotcapturedbythemostcommonly-
usedk-cturbulencemodel.However,thesecondaryflowisnotcompletelyestablished
untiltheflowisfullydeveloped,soassociatederrorsfromuseofthek-cmodelare
unlikelytobesignificantclosetoanHVACinlet.
- AnaturalgasmixturewhichisingestedintooffshoreHVACductsatconcentrationsin
theflammablerangecangenerallybetreatedasapassivecontaminant.
- Theturbulentdiffusionofapassivecontaminantinaductwilltakeplaceinabroadly
analogousmannertothatoftheturbulentdiffusionofmomentum;longdevelopment
lengthsimplysimilarlylongdistancesbeforewell-mixedconditionsareobtained.
- ThedegreeofmixinginaductcanbequantifiedbyaCoefficientofVariation,COV.
- Uniformmixingofapointreleaseofapassivetracerinaducttypicallyrequires50duct
diameters downstream from the release for a straight circular duct. The presence of
bendsandmixingelementscansignificantlyreducethisdistance.
- Theturbulentmixinginarectangularductwithalargeaspectratio(3:1andabove)is
significantlylesseffectivethanthatinasquareorcircularduct.
- Effectivemixinginaductisdrivenbylarge-scaleturbulenteddieswhichareableto
transfermassandmomentumacrosstheduct.
- Themosteffectivemixingelementsarethosewhichintroducelargeturbulenteddies.
- GrillesattheentrancetoHVACductsarelikelytobeineffectiveinintroducinglarge-
scaleturbulenteddiesandsowilldolittletoenhancemixing.
- Forfullyturbulentflow,mixinginaductisprimarilydependentongeometry.
8
3 INGESTIONOFGASINTOHVACINLETS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Thecircumstancesbywhichanon-uniformdistributionofgascouldbepresentimmediately
insideoroutsideofanHVACinletareofparticularinterestinthepresentproject.IfanHVAC
inletingestsanon-uniformdistributionofgasthenthereisthepossibilitythatthiscouldbe
missedbythedetectionsystem.
Tounderstandhowitmightbepossiblethatanon-uniformdistributionofgascouldbepresent
atanHVACinlet,itisusefultobrieflyexaminethecharacteristicsofagasjet.Forsimplicity
we examine a free round jet, although in practice a release is likely to be more complex.
Nevertheless,thissimplecasedoesgiveabroadindicationoftheflowbehaviourwhichmight
beexpectedofsomemorecomplexreleases.
Fardownstreamfromahighpressurereleasefromaroundhole,intheregionwheretheMach
number is low enough for the flow to be treated as incompressible (Ma < 0.3), the
concentrationonthecentre-lineoftheresultingjetisinverselyproportionaltodistance(Rodi,
1982):
u D
m
u 194 . 0 z
o

whereu
m
istheconcentrationonthecentre-lineatdistancez fromareleaseofdiameterDwith
an initial uniform concentration u
o
. Far downstream, the concentration varies continuously
acrosstheradiusofaroundjetandcanbedescribedbythefollowingfunction(Rodi,1982):
z
r
126 . 0
2
)
u u e
(
m
whereu istheconcentrationatradiusr.
Anexampleishelpfultoindicatetheradialvariationinconcentrationwhichisimpliedbythe
expression immediately above. Consider a release of pure methane such that the centre-line
concentrationoftheresultingjetisequaltoLEL10mdownstreamfromaninitialdiameterD
(tobedefined).Concentrationsof100%,50%,20%and10%LELwouldbeobtainedatradiiof
0m,1.05m,1.6mand1.9m.
Infactajetofthesedimensionscouldbeexpectedfromahighpressurereleaseofmethaneata
stagnationpressureandtemperatureof100barand40
o
C,fromaholeofapproximately12mm
diameter,respectively.Thisisalarge,butcredible,release.Notethattheholediameterof12
mmisnotDintheexpressionabove.Disthediameterofthejetwhenithasexpandedto
atmosphericpressure,85mminthisinstance-considerablylargerthanthereleasehole.The
expressionsbywhichthisfullyexpandeddiameterhasbeencalculatedaregiveninSection5.
This example shows that for a large, but credible, high pressure jet release the radial
concentrationat10mdownstreamcanvaryfromamaximumof100%LELatthejetcentre-line
tojust10%LELataradiusof1.9m.Thisdistance,overwhichconcentrationvariesbyafactor
of ten, is broadly comparable to the dimensions of typical offshore HVAC inlets. If such a
releasewereingestedintoanHVACinlet,thensignificantnon-uniformityingasconcentration
couldbeexpectedoutsideandinsideoftheHVACduct.
9
Inpracticeareleasecouldbeaffectedbymanyfactorssuchasthewindflowinandarounda
module,thepresenceofobstructions,impingementonnearbyobjects,etc.Thereleasecould
alsobeatlowerpressureandmoresignificantlyinfluencedbybuoyancy.Theeffectsofthese
factors,andothers,aredifficultorimpossibletopredictfromtheoryalone,butinprinciplecan
becapturedbyCFDmodelling.ThereforetwoscenarioshavebeensimulatedusingANSYS
CFX10toillustrateandexaminecircumstancesinwhichanon-uniformdistributionofgasand
airmaybeingestedintoHVACinlets.Thescenariosareidealisedbutstillincludemanyofthe
complicatingfactorsmentionedabove.
Scenario1isahighpressurereleasefromariserontheundersideofaplatform.Thereleaseis
directed horizontally underneath the platform towards an HVAC duct whichfaces vertically
downandwhoseinletprotrudesfromtheundersideoftheplatform.Scenario2isalowpressure
releasefromwithinamodule.Thereleaseisdirectedupwardsandoutofthemoduletopassup
thedownstreamfaceofaplatform.AhorizontalHVACductprotrudesfromthisdownstream
faceoftheplatformandisintersectedbytherelease.Fulldetailsoftheseidealisedscenarios,
includingadescriptionoftheCFDmodellingandresults,aregivenbelow
3.2 SCENARIO1
3.2.1 Modelgeometryandcomputationaldomain
ThemodelgeometryisshowninFigures2and3.Althoughitisaverysimplifiedrepresentation
of an offshore platform this geometry presents approximately the same obstruction to the
approachingwind-fieldasarealplatform,butwithouttheinclusionofanyplatform-specific
geometricalelementssuchasflare-stacks,helipad,etc.Themodelledgeometryconsistsofa
cubeofside30mwhosebaseislocated25mabovesealevel.Thereleaseislocated3mbelow
the platform, 6 m inboard from the platform edges, and is initially angled at 30
o
across the
undersideoftheplatformtowardsitsdownstreamedge.Thereleaseisalsoorientedatavery
shallow angle upwards such that its axis as it exits from the underside of the platform is
approximately 2 m below the base of the platform. The location and initial direction of the
releaseareindicatedinFigures2and3.AsingleHVACductofexternaldimensions3mx1.5
mandinternaldimensions2.84mx1.34mislocated4mfromthedownstreamfaceofthe
platformand12mfromthenearestedgeoftheplatform.Thesizeoftheductwasguidedby
informationsuppliedbyIntegratedEngineeringServicesLtd(specialistdesignerandsupplierof
offshoreHVACsystems).Theaxisoftheductisvertical,20.9mlongandprotrudes2mbelow
theundersideoftheplatform.TheHVACductcanbeseeninFigures2and3.
Figure2:Scenario1,geometry(HVACductinblue,gasreleaseinred)
10
a)Planview
b)Verticalelevation
Figure3:Scenario1,dimensions(m)
An extensive region of the atmosphere that surrounds the platform is included in the CFD
model.Thisistoensurethatthesimulatedflowaroundtheplatformisnotconstrainedbythe
presenceofthenearbyboundariesofthecomputationaldomain.Inparticularitallowsforthe
presenceoflarge-scaletime-dependentflowfeaturestodevelopnaturallyasaconsequenceof
flowoverthebluffbodyoftheplatform.Theresultingcomputationaldomainis120mwide,
11
115mhigh,240mlongandisillustratedinFigure4.ItincludestheentirelengthoftheHVAC
duct.Notethattheplatformhasbeenorientedat20
o
totheoncomingwinddirection.
Figure4:Scenario1,computationaldomain
3.2.2 Boundaryconditions
Theplatformislocatedintheatmosphericboundarylayer.Thereforeattheupwindfaceofthe
computational domain a neutral stability atmospheric boundary layer profile was prescribed
(Hargreaves&Wright,2007).Thewindspeedwasspecifiedtobe1.5m/sat25mabovesea
level.Althoughthisisalowwindspeedtheresultsshowthatitisstillsufficienttodeflectthe
trajectory of the jet towards the HVAC duct. At the upper boundary of the computational
domainaconstantshearstresswasappliedbyimposingaboundaryvelocityequaltothatwhich
wouldbeexpectedat115mabovesealevel.Atthedownwindandtwosideboundariesinthe
atmosphereaconditionwasappliedwhichallowsforflowtoleaveorenterthedomain.
At sea level a rough wall boundary condition was applied. The sides, base and top of the
platformwerealsospecifiedasroughwalls,withasurfaceroughnessappropriateforcorrugated
metal(White,1987).
Amassflowrateof19.2kg/swasimposedattheupperendoftheHVACduct.Thistypeof
boundaryconditionallowsthesimulationtocalculateanappropriateflowprofile,ratherthan
requiringaflowprofiletobeprescribed.Themassflowrateisequivalenttoauniformvelocity
of4m/s.Simulationshavealsobeenundertakenwithamassflowratewhichisequivalenttoa
uniformvelocityof6m/sandtheresultsarequalitativelyverysimilar.
Thereleasewasassumedtobefromahighpressureriser.Notethattheriserisnotexplicitly
includedinthemodelsinceitwillhavenegligibleeffectontheflow.Inrealityagasrelease
fromahighpressureriserwillinitiallybeunder-expandedandsupersonic,i.e.itexhaustsfrom
theriser,acceleratestohighMachnumberthenrelaxestoatmosphericpressurebyexpansion
throughacomplexshockstructure.Itisnotpracticalornecessarytoexplicitlysimulatethis
phaseofarelease.Instead,itisappropriateforsuchareleasetobemodelledfromalocationat
12
whichexpansiontoatmosphericpressurehasoccurredandtheflowisjustsonic(Ivingsetal,
2003).Thishastwoadvantages:itavoidstheneedtomodelthehighMachnumberregion
whichcanbeproblematic;andthedimensionofthejetafterexpansionismuchgreaterthanthat
ofthereleaseholeandsoismorereadilyresolvedbytheCFDmesh.
In this scenario the release is modelled from the point at which expansion to atmospheric
pressurehasoccurred.ThereleaseissizedandspecifiedusingtheexpressionsinSection3.1for
afreeroundjetasaroughguide.Inthiscasethereleaseisfixedatapproximately23mfromthe
HVACduct.Apeakconcentrationof50%LELwasdecideduponasatargetconcentrationat
thislocationsincethisiscomparabletocurrentactionlevelsupondetectionofgasat50%to
60%LEL(Walshetal,2005).UsingtheexpressionsinSection3.1impliesthatafterexpansion
toatmosphericpressureajetwhichmeetsthesetargetconditionsshouldbespecifiedasbeing
0.1mindiameter.Notethatforahighpressurereleasethisactuallycorrespondstoamuch
smallerholesize.Forexample,iftheriserpressureandtemperaturewere100barand40
o
C,
thentheholesizewouldbeapproximately14mmdiameterforareleaseof100%methane.
Section5providesexpressionsbywhichthiseffectiveholesizecanbecalculated.
Thereleasewasthereforemodelledasasonicsourceof100%methaneoveranominaldiameter
of 0.1 m. The temperature of gas in the riser was assumed to be 40
o
C which gives a sonic
velocityof428m/s.Thereleaserateisapproximately2.5kg/s.
3.2.3 Flowphysics
Theflowoverabluffbodysuchasanoffshoreplatformisknowntobeinherentlytransient.
Largevorticesaretypicallyshedfromabluffbodytoformanoscillatingwake.Infactinitial
attempts to compute this scenario as steady-state failed to converge. Therefore, all the
simulationsundertakenandpresentedinthisreportaretime-dependent.
TheflowaroundtheplatformandintheHVACductwillbeturbulent.Thecommonly-usedk-c
turbulencemodel(Launder&Spalding,1972)hasbeenusedthroughoutthiswork.
Wallfunctionswereusedatallsolidboundaries,appropriatelymodifiedtoaccountforsurface
roughness.
ThephysicalpropertiesformethaneweretakenfromSantonetal(2002),includingitsLELof
4.4%byvolume.
3.2.4 Mesh
Anunstructuredmeshwasusedtoresolvethegeometry.Themeshwasrefinedinregionswhere
highgradientsofvelocityandconcentrationwereexpected;acrossthemethanejet,theHVAC
inletandduct.Atotalof22meshelementswereusedtoresolvethereleasesource.Onthewalls
oftheplatformfourlayersofprismaticmeshelementswereusedtoaidresolutionofthenear-
wallflowandhelpensurethatthefirstmeshnodecorrectlyfallswithinthelog-lawregionfora
turbulent boundary layer. A mesh with a total of 317,000 nodes (control volumes) was
generated,constructedfrom1.7millionmeshelements.ThemeshisillustratedinFigures5to
7,overleaf.
13
Figure5:Scenario1,mesh-verticalelevationcoincidentwiththerelease
Figure6:Scenario1,meshplanviewcoincidentwiththerelease
14
Figure7:Scenario1,meshdetailneartheHVACinlet
3.2.5 Solutionnumericsandconvergence
All simulations in this work have been undertaken using high-order-accuracy spatial and
temporaldiscretisationschemesinanefforttoreducenumericalerrors.
Time-dependentsimulationswereundertakenwithashorttime-stepof1stoaidconvergence
andalsotohelpresolvethemaintime-dependentflowfeatures.Anon-dimensionalfrequency
knownastheStrouhalnumber,S,canbeidentifiedforthetime-dependentflowoverasharp-
edgedbuilding:
S fW /U
wherefisfrequency,Wiswidthinthecross-winddirectionandUismeanvelocity.Foracube
ofside30mina1.5m/sflowtheStrouhalnumberhasavalueofapproximately0.1(Schetzand
Fuhs,1996),givingafrequencyof0.005Hz,equivalenttoatime-periodof200s.Hence,a
time-stepof1sisshortincomparisontothislongtime-period.Thetransientsimulationwasrun
untiltheflowappearedperiodic.Atotalof1600time-stepswerecomputed.
Theresidualsforalltransportequationsdecreasedbybetweenatleasttwoandusuallythree
ordersofmagnitude,toverysmallrmsvalues,andtheglobalimbalancesofmass,momentum,
energyandgasmassfractionallreducedtoverymuchlessthan0.05%ofreferencevalues.This
indicatesthatthesolutioniswell-converged.
15
3.2.6 Results
Theflow-fieldaroundtheplatformisshowninFigure8fortwotime-stepsseparatedby60s.
Althoughthegrossflowissimilarconsistingofmassiveflowseparationinthewakeofthe
platformthedetailoftheflowinthewakeregionisdissimilar.
a)timet
b)timet+60s
Figure8:Scenario1,velocityfieldinplanviewatmid-heightoftheplatform
16
Theflow-fieldinaverticalelevationisshowninFigure9.Again,theseparatedregioninthe
wakeoftheplatformcanbeseen.
Figure9:Scenario1,velocityfieldshownonaverticalplane
Thetime-dependentwakeflowhasaminoreffectonthetrajectoryofthegasjet,butsufficient
toaffecttheconcentrationdistributionattheHVACinletandinsidetheduct.Aniso-surfaceof
gasconcentrationat50%ofLELisshownattwotimesinFigures10and11.Thesetimes
representthetwoextremestatesinthequasi-periodictime-dependentflow.
a)timet b)timet+60s
Figure10:Scenario1,iso-surfaceat50%LEL,planview
17
a)timet b)timet+60s
Figure11:Scenario1,iso-surfaceat50%LEL,iso-metricview
Theverysmalldifferenceinthetrajectoryofthejetatthesetwotime-stepscanbeseentoresult
inamoresignificantinfluenceontheflowwithintheHVACduct.Thisisespeciallyevidentin
Figure11,inwhichamoreprominenttongueofgascanbeseenintheductatt+60s.
ThefullextentofthegasjetisshowninFigure12,below.Gasconcentrationsof10%LELand
aboveareevidentasignificantwaydownstreamfromtheplatform.
Figure12:Scenario1,gasconcentrationin%LEL,planview0.5mbelowtheHVAC
inlet
Thedistributionofgasat0.5mbelowtheHVACinlet,1mand3minsidetheHVACduct,is
showninFigure13attimetandt+60s.Thereisalargegradientinconcentrationacrossthe
ductineachcase,withconcentrationdifferingbyafactorofapproximatelyfiveorsixacross
the breadth of the duct. However, there is only a small difference in the concentration
distributionbetweenplaneslocatedimmediatelyoutsideandinsideoftheduct.Althoughgas
concentrationissomewhathigherintheHVACductattimet+60s,theoverallflowbehaviour
18
intheductremainsthesameforbothtime-steps.Hence,theresultsinFigures14to17,which
followbelow,areallpresentedattimet.
a)timet b)timet+60s
Figure13:Scenario1,gasconcentrationin%LELattheHVACinlet
TheflowbehaviourattheHVACinletisshowninFigure14.Thejetimpactsonesideofthe
HVACductandcreatesahighvelocityflowuponeside.Attheothersideoftheducttheflow
separatesandrecirculates.Thisrecirculationregionprobablycontributestothesomewhatbetter
mixedconditionsatthissideoftheduct.
Figure14:Scenario1,flow-fieldattheHVACinlet,velocityvectorsshownonavertical
planewhichintersectstheHVACduct
19
ThedistributionofgasaroundandinsidetheHVACductisshowninFigure15.Thelocationof
thegasjetjustoutsideoftheductisclearlyseen,withpeakconcentrationsgreaterthan100%
LEL. This is higher than the target concentration of 50% obtained from the round jet
expressions in Section 3.1. The difference is no doubt a result of the additional complexity
whichoccursforareleaseinacross-flowandwhosespreadingisconstrainedbytheunder-side
of the platform. Figure 15 indicates that well-mixed conditions are not achieved at the duct
outlet,almost21mdistantfromtheinlet.Thepresenceofaweakswirlingflowintheductis
implied by the concentration distribution in Figure 15, as the location of the peak gas
concentrationatacross-sectionisgraduallyshiftedtotheupwindfaceoftheduct.
ThedistributionofgasattwosamplelinesacrossthebreadthandwidthoftheHVACduct,1m
abovetheinletisshownoverleaf;Figures16 andFigure17.
Figure15:Scenario1,gasconcentrationin%LELintheHVACduct
20
Figure16:Scenario1,locationofsamplelines1minsidetheHVACinlet
100
100
90
90
80
80
70
70
60
60
%LEL 50 %LEL 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0
0
0 1 3 4 6 7 9 0 2 3 4 6 7 9 0 2 3 5 6 8 0 0 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 7 8 9 9 0 1 2
0
.
0
.
0
.
0
.
0
.
0
.
0
.
1
.
1
.
1
.
1
.
1
.
1
.
1
.
2
.
2
.
2
.
2
.
2
.
2
.
0
.
0
.
0
.
0
.
0
.
0
.
0
.
0
.
0
.
0
.
0
.
0
.
0
.
0
.
0
.
1
.
1
.
1
. . .
Di stanceacrossbreadthofduct,m Di stanceacrosswi dthofduct,m
a) Acrossthebreadthoftheduct b)Acrossthewidthoftheduct
Figure17:Scenario1,distributionofgas1minsidetheHVACinlet
LineintegralsofgasconcentrationhavebeencalculatedatthelocationsshowninFigure16to
model the output of cross-duct beam infra-red detectors. Values of these line integrals are
showninTable1.Theaverageconcentrationofgasintheductis27%LEL.
Table1:Scenario1,LineintegralsofgasconcentrationinsidetheHVACduct
Location of line integral Length of Concentration
Orientation Distance inside line LEL.m %LEL
inlet (m) integral (m) (m) per m
Mid-planeacrossbreadth 1.0 2.84 0.78 27
Mid-planeacrosswidth 1.0 1.34 0.27 20
AnindicationoftheeffectivenessofmixingintheHVACductcanbegivenbypost-processing
theCFDresultstoobtaintheCoefficientofVariation(COV)asdefinedinSection2.2-ata
numberofcross-sections.TheCOVfallsveryslowlyoverthefirstthreemetresoftheduct:
57%,56%and52%immediatelyoutside,at1mand3minside,respectively.10minsidethe
ductithasonlyfallento39%.AttheoutletoftheducttheCOVfallsto19%.Itcanbeseen
fromtheexamplesinAppendix1thatCOVvaluesof50%andgreaterimplyaveryhighdegree
ofnon-uniformityinconcentrationdistribution,whilstevenataCOVof20%thereisstilla
significantdifferencebetweenmaximumandminimumvaluesofconcentration.
21
1
2
7
1
3
4
3.3 SCENARIO2
3.3.1 Modelgeometryandcomputationaldomain
ThemodelgeometryisshowninFigures18and19.Again,thisisasimplifiedrepresentationof
anoffshoreplatform.Themodelledgeometryisretainedasacubeofside30mwhosebaseis
located25mabovesealevel.AhorizontalHVACductofinternaldimensions2.8mx1.8mis
located23mabovethebaseoftheplatform.Itisoffsettoonesideoftheplatformandopens
ontoitsdownstreamface,i.e.thewakeregion.Theductprotrudes0.5mfromthefaceofthe
platform. The size of this duct was also guided by information supplied by Integrated
EngineeringServicesLtd.Theductis23mlongandisshowninFigures18and19.
Thereleaseislocatedtowardsthedownstreamendofamodulewhichislocatedatlowlevelin
theplatform.Themoduleisassumedtobe5mhighanditsflooris5mabovethebaseofthe
platform.Themodulehastwosolidwallsandisopenatitsupwindanddownwindfaces.A
congestedregionoccupiestheupwindhalfofthemodule.Thereleaseissited0.46minsidethe
module,2mbelowitsroofandisdirectedupwardsatanangleof70
o
tothehorizontal.The
releaseisnotdirectlybelowtheHVACduct,butisoffsettowardsthecentreofthemodule.The
locationandinitialdirectionofthereleaseareindicatedinFigures18and19.
Figure18:Scenario2,geometry(HVACductinblue,gasreleaseinred)
22
a)Planview
b)Verticalelevation
Figure19:Scenario2,dimensions(m)
Onceagainanextensiveregionoftheatmospherethatsurroundstheplatformisincludedinthe
CFDmodel.ThecomputationaldomainisasperScenario1:120mwide,115mhigh,240m
long.ItincludestheentirelengthoftheHVACduct.Notethat,asperScenario1,theplatform
hasbeenorientedat20
o
totheoncomingwinddirection.
3.3.2 Boundaryconditions
Theboundaryconditionsatthesixouterfacesofthecomputationaldomainwereprescribedto
bethesameasthoseofScenario1,exceptthatthewindspeedwasslightlyhigher;2m/sat25
mabovesealevel.
A mass flow rate of 37.7 kg/s was imposed at the end of the HVAC duct, equivalent to a
uniformvelocityof6m/s.
Inthisscenariothegasreleasewasassumedtobeatlowpressureandvelocity,butinputovera
largerareathanthatofscenario1.Hence,thereleasewasspecifiedtobe100%methaneat
23
ambienttemperatureof10
o
Candaninitialvelocityof12.3m/soveracircularareaofnominal
diameter 0.29 m. The mass release rate is 22% that of scenario 1, being 0.55 kg/s. It is
postulatedthatareleaseofthistypeandmagnitudecouldpossiblyresultfromabreakina
pressurisedlineorvesselwhichissurroundedbysufficientlaggingorinsulationtosignificantly
reducebutnotentirelydestroyitsinitialmomentum.
3.3.3 Flowphysics
Theflowwasagainmodelledastime-dependent.Astandardk-cturbulencemodel(Launder&
Spalding,1972)wasalsoused.Wallfunctionswereemployedatallsolidboundaries,modified
toaccountforsurfaceroughness.PhysicalpropertieswereasperScenario1.
Thecongestedregionwhichoccupiestheupwindhalfoftheopenmodulewasmodelledasa
regionofisotropicresistancewithavolumeporosityofapproximately0.8.Ithastheeffectof
reducing,butnoteliminating,thecross-flowthroughthemodule.
3.3.4 Mesh
An unstructured mesh was generated. The mesh was again refined in regions where high
gradientsofvelocityandconcentrationwereexpected.Onthewallsoftheplatformandinside
themodulefourlayersofprismaticmeshelementswereusedtoaidresolutionofthenear-wall
flowandhelpensurethatthefirstmeshnodecorrectlyfallswithinthelog-lawregionfora
turbulentboundarylayer.Ameshwithatotalof378,000nodeswasgenerated,constructedfrom
2.0millionmeshelements.ThemeshisillustratedinFigures20to22.
Figure20:Scenario2,mesh-verticalelevationcoincidentwiththerelease
24
Figure21:Scenario2,meshplanviewthroughtheHVACduct
Figure22:Scenario2,meshdetailneartheHVACinlet
3.3.5 Solutionnumericsandconvergence
Transient simulations were undertaken using high-order-accuracy spatial and temporal
discretisationschemeswithatime-stepof1s.Thesimulationswerecarriedoutuntiltheflow
appearedquasi-periodic.Over1300time-stepswerecomputed.Theresidualsforalltransport
equationsdecreasedbythreeormoreordersofmagnitude,toverysmallrmsvalues,andthe
25
globalimbalancesofmass,momentum,energyandgasmassfractionallreducedtoverymuch
lessthan0.05%ofreferencevalues.Thisindicatesthatthesolutioniswell-converged.
3.3.6 Results
Theflow-fieldaroundtheplatformisverysimilartothatofScenario1,showninFigures8and
9, except for the existence of a weak flow through the open module. The gross flow again
consistsofmassiveflowseparationinthewakeoftheplatform.
In this scenario the gas release has far lower momentum than the high pressure release of
Scenario1.Thus,itismoreinfluencedbythetime-dependentflowinthewakeoftheplatform.
Inaddition,thereleaseisalsopartlydrivenbyitsbuoyancy.Theseeffectsinteractinacomplex
mannerandtheirnetresultisthatthegasplumemeanderssignificantlyintheplatformwake.
ThiscanbeseeninFigure23,overleaf,whichshowsiso-surfacesat50%LELat40stime
intervals.Essentiallytheplumeoscillatesfromsidetoside.Attheextremityofthisoscillationit
encounterstheHVACductandgasisingested,seeFigures23eand23f.
26
a)timet b)timet+40s
c)timet+80s d)timet+120s
e)timet+160s f)timet+200s
Figure23:Scenario2,iso-surfaceat50%LEL,iso-metricview,at40sintervals
27
Alloftheresultswhichfollowarepresentedattheextremityofthemeanderingmotionofthe
plumeattimet+200s,whengasisbeingingestedintotheHVACductasperFigure23f.
Figure24showsthattheplumeattachestotheshelteredfaceoftheplatformtowardsitsupper
end.Thedistributionofgasoncross-sectionsat0.5moutsidetheHVACinlet,0.5m,2mand
10minsidetheHVACduct,aswellasattheendoftheduct,isshowninFigure25,together
withtheconcentrationonahorizontalplanedownthemiddleoftheduct.Figure26,overleaf
providesaclose-upviewofconcentrationattheHVACinlet.
Figure24:Scenario2,gasconcentrationin%LEL,elevationthroughthegasplume
28
Figure26:Scenario2,gasconcentrationin%LELat0.5moutside,0.5mand2.0m
insidetheHVACinlet
Figures25and26canbecomparedtoFigures13and15,showingthatthereisanevenmore
pronouncedconcentrationgradientacrosstheductthaninScenario1.Inonecorneroftheduct,
gas which is very close to its LEL is being ingested. However, in the opposite corner the
concentrationisclosetozero.Again,well-mixedconditionsarenotachievedattheductoutlet.
Also,thepresenceofaweakswirlingflowintheductisagainimpliedbythegradualshiftin
locationofthepeakgasconcentrationatacross-section.
Figure27showsthattheflowstayslargelyattachedtothewallsoftheductasitentersthe
HVACinlet,withlittlesignofanysignificantflowseparation.
29
ThedistributionofgasatfoursamplelinesacrossthebreadthandheightoftheHVACduct,0.5
mand2minsidetheinletseeFigure28below-isshowninFigure29.
Figure28:Scenario2,locationofsamplelines0.5mand2minsidetheHVACinlet
100
100
90
90
80
80
70
70
60
0.5m
inside
2.0m
inside
60
%LEL 50
%LEL 50
40
40
30
30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0.5m
inside
2.0m
inside
0
0
.
0
5
1
.
0
9
2
.
0
4
4
.
0
9
5
.
0
4
7
.
0
8
8
.
1
3
0
.
1
8
1
.
1
3
3
.
1
7
4
.
1
2
6
.
1
7
7
.
1
2
9
.
2
6
0
.
2
1
2
.
2
6
3
.
2
1
5
.
2
5
6
.
2
0
8
.
0 9 9 8 8 7
0 0 1 2 3 4
. . . . . .
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 6
5 6
. .
0 0
6
7
.
0
5
8
.
0
5
9
.
1
4
0
.
1
4
1
.
1
3
2
.
1
3
3
.
1
2
4
.
1
2
5
.
1
1
6
.
1
1
7
.
1
0
8
.
0
Di stanceacrossbreadthofduct,m Di stance acrosshei ghtofduct,m
a) Acrossthebreadthoftheduct b)Acrosstheheightoftheduct
Figure29:Scenario2,distributionofgas0.5mand2minsidetheHVACinlet
Lineintegralsofgasconcentrationhaveagainbeencalculated,atthelocationsshowninFigure
28,tomodeltheoutputofcross-ductbeaminfra-reddetectors.Valuesoftheselineintegralsare
Mid-planeacrossheight 0.5 1.8 0.25 14
The COV is given in Table 3, overleaf, showing that there is a very high degree of non-
uniformityinconcentrationdistributionthroughouttheentirelengthoftheduct.
30
Table3:Scenario2,COVatvariousdistancesinsidetheHVACduct
Distance inside the HVAC duct, m COV, %
-0.5 136
0.5 104
2.0 93
10.0 72
23.0 67
31
4 DISTRIBUTIONOFGASINSIDEANHVACDUCT
4.1 OVERVIEW
ThemodelgeometryofScenario2hasbeenrefinedtoincludeobstructionswhichrepresent
louvresandfiredampersattheHVACinlet.Allotheraspectsofthemodellingareidenticalto
Scenario2.Thisapproachallowstheeffectoftheseobstructionsonflowanddispersioninthe
ducttobeisolatedandexamined.ThiscaseisreferredtoasScenario3.
Asetof24louvresisrepresentedattheinletplaneoftheduct.Thegeometryoftheselouvres
wasbasedonaGDLLtddatasheet.GDLaremanufacturersandsuppliersofairdistribution
products. The complex ribbed geometry of the louvres has been simplified for modelling
purposes, whilst retaining their overall dimensions. Each modelled louvre is 10 mm thick,
inclinedatapproximately45
o
,withacentre-to-centrespacingof75mm.Thelouvresoccupythe
first80mmoftheduct.
Fire dampers, assumed to be fully open, are simply represented as an array of rectangular
obstructionslocated1minsidetheduct.Again,thecomplexgeometryofeachdamperhasbeen
simplified,buttheiroveralldimensionsandpositionhasbeenretained.Dataonfiredampers
wasobtainedfromFlamgardEngineeringLtd,uponwhichthismodelledgeometryhasbeen
based.Thedampersarerepresentedasbeing50mmthickand300mmwide,withpartial-width
dampers of 195 mm being included at locations nearest to the duct wall and supporting
assembly.Thissupportingassemblyhasalsobeenincludedinthemodelledgeometry.
ThemodelledgeometryandmeshattheHVACinletisshowninFigure30.
Figure30:Scenario3,detailofthegeometryandmeshattheHVACinlet
32
ThemeshisasusedinScenario2exceptthatitwasselectivelyrefinedattheHVACinletandin
theHVACduct.Layersofprismaticmeshelementswereaddedatalloftheductwalls,tobetter
representthenear-wallflow.Themeshrefinementandthelayersofinflatedmeshelementscan
beseeninFigure30.Anadditional186,000meshnodeswereaddedattheHVACinletand
insidetheduct,togiveameshwithatotalof564,000nodesconstructedfrom2.9millionmesh
elements.
Transient simulations were again undertaken using high-order-accuracy spatial and temporal
discretisation schemes, with a time-step of1 s. The simulations were started from an initial
solutionobtainedforScenario2attimet+20s,i.e.intermediatebetweenthatshowninFigures
23aand23b.Thesimulationwasthenadvancedforatotalof180s,atwhichtimethetrajectory
ofthegasplumehadreachedtheextremityofitsoscillationandwasbeingingestedintothe
HVACductinjustthesamemannerasScenario2attheequivalenttimeoft+200s.Results
presentedbelowarefortimet+200sandcanbecompareddirectlywiththoseforScenario2.
TheflowoutsideoftheHVACinletisessentiallyidenticalatthistimeforbothScenarios.
The convergence history was near-identical to that of Scenario 2, i.e. the solution is well-
converged.
4.2 RESULTS
The overall flow-field around the platform, as well as the trajectory of the gas plume, are
indistinguishablefromScenario2andthereforearenotpresented.
Thedistributionofgasoncross-sectionsat0.5moutsidetheHVACinlet,0.5m,2mand10m
insidetheHVACduct,aswellasattheendoftheduct,isshowninFigure31,togetherwiththe
concentrationonahorizontalplanedownthemiddleoftheduct.Thiscanbecomparedagainst
Figure25,forScenario2.ClosetotheHVACinletthegasdistributionisqualitativelysimilarin
bothscenarios,withaverymarkednon-uniformityinconcentrationoverductcross-sections,
whichoccursbecausegasisessentiallyingestedatjustonesideoftheduct.However,further
downtheducttheregionofhighestgasconcentrationoccursatthissamesideoftheduct,in
contrasttothatofScenario2inwhichthehighestconcentrationsoccurontheoppositesideof
theduct.Thissuggeststhatthelouvresanddampershaveallbuteliminatedtheweaklyswirling
flow implied in the results of Scenario 2. In both scenarios, well-mixed conditions are not
achievedattheductoutlet.
AmoredetailedviewofthegasconcentrationdistributionattheHVACinletisshowninFigure
32. Again, this can be compared to Scenario 2, Figure 26. Although the distributions are
qualitativelysimilaritwouldappearthattheflowisnobettermixedbythepresenceofthe
louvresanddampers.Infact,somewhathigherconcentrationsareevidentat2minsidetheinlet
inScenario3,thaninScenario2.Examinationofthevelocityfieldintheduct,Figures33and
34,revealsthatthisbehaviouriscausedbythelouvres.Thesehavetheeffectofdeflectingthe
flowtowardstheupperpartoftheduct,leadingtoanextensiveregionofseparatedrecirculating
flowinthelowerregionoftheduct.Gasistransportedwiththedeflectedflow,resultingin
higherconcentrationsattheroofoftheductcomparedtoScenario2.
Whilstitmayinitiallyappearsurprisingthatthelouvresanddampershavehadnosubstantial
effectonmixing,thisresultisconsistentwiththefindingsoftheliteraturereview:itisonly
whenlargeobstructionsarepresentwhicharecapableofgeneratingturbulenceatlargelength-
scalesoftheorderoftheductsizethatmixingislikelytobesignificantlyenhanced.
33
Figure32:Scenario3,gasconcentrationin%LELat0.5moutside,0.5mand2.0m
insidetheHVACinlet
34
Figure34:Scenario3,detailsofflow-fieldattheHVACinlet,velocityvectorsshownon
averticalplanewhichintersectstheHVACduct
ThedistributionofgasatfoursamplelinesacrossthebreadthandheightoftheHVACduct,
0.5m and 2 m inside the inlet see Figure 28 - is shown in Figure 35. There are no very
substantialdifferencesfromScenario2,seeFigure29,althoughingeneraltheconcentration
distributionsareslightlyskewedtowardsthegasplumesideandupperfaceoftheHVACduct.
35
100
100
90
90
80
80
70
70
60
0.5m
inside
2.0m
inside
60
%LEL 50
%LEL 50
40
40
30
30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0.5m
inside
2.0m
inside
0 5 9
0 1 2
. . .
0 0 0
4
4
.
0
9 4
5 7
. .
0 0
8
8
.
1
3 8 3 7
0 1 3 4
. . . .
1 1 1 1
2
6
.
1
7 2 6 1 6 1 5 0
7 9 0 2 3 5 6 8
. . . . . . . .
1 2 2 2 2 2 2

0
0
.
0
9
0
.
0
9
1
.
0
8
2
.
0
8
3
.
0
7
4
.
0
7
5
.
0
6
6
.
0
6
7
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0
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0
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9
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1
4
0
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1
4
1
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1
3
2
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1
3
3
.
1
2
4
.
1
2
5
.
1
1
6
.
1
1
7
.
1
0
8
.
0 0
Di stanceacrossbreadthofduct,m Di stance acrosshei ghtofduct,m
a) Acrossthebreadthoftheduct b)Acrosstheheightoftheduct
Figure35:Scenario3,distributionofgas0.5mand2minsidetheHVACinlet
Lineintegralsofgasconcentrationhavealsobeencalculated,atthelocationsshowninFigure
28,tomodeltheoutputofcross-ductbeaminfra-reddetectors.Valuesoftheselineintegralsare
Mid-planeacrossbreadth 2.0 2.8 0.19 6.6
Mid-planeacrossheight 2.0 1.8 0.17 9.3
TheCOVisgiveninTable5whichshowsthat,asperScenario2,thereisstillaveryhigh
degreeofnon-uniformityinconcentrationdistributionthroughouttheentirelengthoftheduct.
Indeed,theCOVisgenerallyslightlyhigherthaninScenario2.
Table5:Scenario3,COVatvariousdistancesinsidetheHVACduct
Distance inside the HVAC duct, m COV, %
-0.5 127
0.5 113
2.0 97
10.0 81
23.0 67
Althoughnotshown,thecomputednon-dimensionalnear-walldistanceintheduct,y+,iswell
withinacceptableboundsthroughoutalmosttheentirelengthoftheHVACduct.Thisindicates
thatthewallboundaryconditionintheductisbeingappropriatelyapplied.
36
5 GASRELEASEANDINGESTIONINTOHVACDUCTS
FORAREALISTICSCENARIO
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Sections3and4stronglyindicatethatbothhighandlowpressurereleasescanresultinnon-
uniformgasdistributionsatHVACinlets.However,thesescenariosaregeometricallyrather
idealised.Whilstsimplifiedgeometricalarrangementsareveryusefulinindicatinghowanon-
uniform gas distribution could be present at an HVAC inlet, the increased mixing and
channellingduetothepassageofagasreleasethroughcongestedareasisnotrepresented.Itis
thereforeimportanttomodelamorerealisticscenario,basedonagasreleasefromanexisting
offshore platform, to establish whether similar behaviour occurs with increased geometrical
complexity.Here,thescenarioconsideredisahighpressurereleaseresultingfromthefailureof
ariserontheBraeAlphaplatform,operatedbyMarathonOilUKLtd.
th
InfactonNovember27 2004ariserdidfailonBraeAlpha,resultinginahighpressuregas
releaseandsubsequentingestionofgasintoHazardousModulesviatheHazardousHVACinlet
duct.Asubsequentinvestigation(OSD,2006)reportsthatgasappearedtopassacrossonlypart
oftheductforseveralminutes,leadingtoadelayinconfirmeddetectionandshutdownofthe
HVACsystem.Thereisnosuggestionthatthedetectorswerenotoperatingcorrectly.
The aim of the present scenario is not to replicate this incident. This would be very time-
consuming,wouldrequirethecollationofmuchdetailedinformationandmaybeimpractical.
Theaimisinsteadtodrawuponsomeelementsofthisplatformandincidenttodeviseamore
realisticscenariothantheidealisedconfigurationspresentedinSections3and4,soenabling
moregeneralconclusionsontheinteractionofgasandHVACinletsandducts.
5.2 MODELGEOMETRYANDCOMPUTATIONALDOMAIN
Figure36showsthemodelledgeometryandindicatesthelocationoftherelease.
Figure36: Modelledgeometry
37
5.3
AverysimplifiedrepresentationoftheBraeAlphaplatformhasbeenusedasthebasisofthis
morerealisticscenario.Theoveralldimensionsoftheplatformandplansofthemostsignificant
geometricalfeaturesatthemodulesupportframe(MSF)levelwereprovidedbyMarathonOil.
Thesewereusedtoguidethesize,shapeandlocationofmajorobstructionstothewindfield
andgasdispersionatMSFlevel.Note,thatduringthe2004incidentgaswasreleasedfromthe
topofarisercaissonandsubsequentlypassedbelowandthroughtheMSFlevel.Onlythose
platformsupportlegsclosesttothereleasehavebeenmodelled.
TherearethreeHVACductswhichpenetratetheflooroftheMSF:HazardousSupplyPlant
Roomduct,SafeSupplyPlantRoomduct,PermanentLivingQuarters(PLQ)duct.Figure37
shows these ducts. The Hazardous Supply duct is essentially open and free from major
obstructions,apartfromawalkway(notrepresented)atapproximatelymid-heightoftheduct.
Theothertwoductshavealsobeenmodelledasbeingfreefromobstructions.Moredetailonthe
modellingoftheHVACductsandthereleasegeometryisgiveninSection5.3.
Figure37:ModelledgeometryshowingHVACducts
BOUNDARYCONDITIONSANDFLOWPHYSICS
Aswiththeidealisedscenarios,alargeregionoftheatmospheresurroundingtheplatformwas
modelled.IdenticalboundaryconditionstothoseimposedinScenario1wereapplied,except
thatthewindspeedismuchhigher;12.3m/satthetopoftheplatform(65mabovesea-level).
Thisappearstobeaplausiblevalueforwindspeedsonthedayofthereleasein2004.Thewind
directionwasreportedasbeingfrom45EastofplatformNorth(OSD,2006).However,initial
CFDsimulationswiththiswinddirectionshowedthatthegascloudwoulddisperseawayfrom
theplatformandthatthegasconcentrationintheHVACductswouldbenegligible.Hence,an
alternativewinddirectionwaschosen,5WestofplatformNorth,suchthatthegascloudwould
bedirectedacrossthethreeHVACducts.Thiswinddirectionwassetbyfixingtheplatformat
5 to the main axis of the computational domain. The majority of the results presented in
Section5.5relatetothiswinddirection.ThecomputationaldomainisillustratedinFigure38.
38
Figure38:CFDdomainandboundaryconditions
ThesizeandlocationoftheHVACductsisillustratedinFigure39.Volumeflowratesthrough
theHVACductswerebasedoninformationprovidedbyMarathonOil:
- HazardoussupplyHVAC:148m
3
/s.
- SafesupplyHVAC:63m
3
/s.
- PLQHVAC:32m
3
/s.
39
a.)PlanviewofMSF
c.)Sourcedimensions
b.)Sourcelocation
Figure39:PlanviewofthemodelledMSF,alsoshowingthemodelledreleasesource
40
Thesevolumeflow-rateswereimposedasauniformout-flowvelocityonadownstreamface
withintheducts.Theout-flowboundaryconditionwasartificiallylocatedattheendsofthe
HVACsupplyroomsinanattempttoreducetheinfluenceofthisassumedboundarycondition
ontheflowdetailintheHVACducts.Noattemptwasmadetomodelfeaturessuchasfire
damperswhichexistbetweentheHVACductsandsupplyplantrooms.Figure40showsthe
positionoftheout-flowboundaryconditions.
Figure40:PositionofHVACductoutletboundaryconditions
th
TheNovember27 2004gasreleaseonBraeAlpharesultedfromthefailureofariserinsidea
caisson.Thepressurisationofthecaissonresultedintheverticaldisplacementofone-halfofa
two-partsealaroundanoilproductionriser.Theresultinggasreleasefromthecaissonoccurred
overthegapbetweentheoilproductionriserandthecaissontoponitsSouthside,extending
overhalfitscircumference.
Theoilproductionriserextends1.5mverticallyabovethecaissontopbeforebending90such
that it is horizontal and oriented in a Southerly direction. The release would probably be
directedupthisshortverticalsectionoftheriserbeforeimpingingonthehorizontalsection
above.Themodellingofthisflowislikelytobeverydifficultsinceanextremelyfinemesh
wouldberequiredtoresolvetheresultingboundarylayerthatwouldformalongtheriser.In
addition,suchanapproachmightresultinnumericalinstabilitiesduetotheveryhighnear-wall
velocitygradientsinthatregion.Instead,asimplifiedgeometrywasusedtocapturethemain
featuresofthejetimpingementonthehorizontalsectionofthepipe.Thissimplifiedgeometry
isshowninFigure41.
41
Figure41:Simplifiedgeometryatthereleasesource
Thelocationofthetopofthecaissonwasveryapproximately4metresbelowtheMSFlevel,
6.5mfromtheWesternperimeterand5mfromtheNorthernperimeteroftheplatform.Aplan
viewinFigure39showstheoveralldimensionsofthemodelledMSF-includingthelocation
anddimensionsoftheHVACductstogetherwiththelocationofthereleaserelativetothe
NorthandWestfacesoftheplatform.
DuringtheNovember2004incidentthereleasefromthetopofthecaissonoccurredoveran
approximatelysemi-circularslot,1mmwideand480mmlong(OSD,2006). Thestagnation
conditionsofgasinthecaisson(assumedtobepuremethane)areprescribedasfollows:
P
0
=20barg,T
0
=273K
Under these conditions the flow would be choked and the resulting jet under-expanded. As
explainedinSection3.2.2,itisnotpracticalornecessarytomodelsuchanunder-expanded
releasefromtheimmediatetopofthecaisson.Instead,aneffectivesourceisprescribed,atthe
pointatwhichthereleasehasexpandedtoatmosphericpressurebutisstillatsonicvelocity
(Mach1).Themethodologybywhichthiseffectivesonicsourcecanbeobtainedisprovidedin
Ivingsetal(2003)andisreproducedhereinsummaryform.Itisbasedonanassumptionof
isentropicflowthroughthereleaseslot,followedbyexpansiontosonicvelocitybutwiththe
samemassflowrateandstatictemperatureastheoriginalunder-expandedrelease.
42
5.4
Thefollowingisentropicflowexpressionsrelateconditionsatthereleasepoint(subscript1)to
thosefromtheknownstagnationconditions(subscript0):
2
T
1
1
T T (
+1
), P P ( ) ,V
1
RT
1 1 0 1 0 T
0
themassreleaserate,m,isgivenby;
m V A
1 1 1
inwhichadischargecoefficientofunityhasbeenassumed.
1
isgivenby:
P /RT
1 1 1
Ewan & Moodie (1986) have shown that an under-expanded jet can be represented by an
equivalentjetatatmosphericpressure.Theequivalent,oreffective,jetisassumedtobesonic
withamassflowrateandtemperaturethesameastheoriginaljet,butwithanewareabasedon
expansionofthejettoatmosphericpressure.Thefollowingeffectivesourceexpressionsapply:
V V
1
, P T T
1
, A A P /P
2 2
P
ambient
,
2 2 1 1 ambient
wheresubscript2referstotheeffectivesonicsource.
Theexpressionsabovecanbeusedtoobtainthefollowingboundaryconditionsfortheeffective
sonicsource,assumingthattheruptureinthecaissontopisshapedasasemi-circularslot1mm
wideand480mmlong:
V
2
=400m/s, T
2
=237K,P
2
=101325Pa,A
2
=5324.4mm
2
Figure41showstheshapeanddimensionsoftheeffectivesonicsource,modelledasasemi-
circularslotwiththesameinnerradiusasthereleasesourcebutwithawidthof10.1mmrather
than1mm.
All other aspects of the modelling of the flow physics are the same as that for Scenario 1,
Section3.2.3
MESH,SOLUTIONNUMERICSANDCONVERGENCE
Anunstructuredmeshwasgeneratedwhichwasrefinednearthesourceandinotherregions
wherehighgradientsofvelocityandmassfractionwereexpected.Atotalof665,000mesh
nodeswereused. Figure42showsthemeshonthesurfaceofthecaissonandFigure43shows
themeshinaplanethroughtheexpectedtrajectoryofthecloud.
43
a)Caissontopandsource b)Closeupofsource
Figure42:Meshresolutionatthesource
Figure43:Meshresolutioninaplanethroughtheexpectedtrajectoryofthecloud
Time-dependent simulations were undertaken with a time-step of 1 s. High-order-accuracy
spatialandtemporaldiscretisationschemeswereused.TheresultsintheregionoftheHVAC
ducts were essentially steady in time, although the flow over the platform was unsteady.
Equationresidualsreducedbytwoordersofmagnitudetoverysmallrmsvaluesandtheglobal
imbalancesoftransportedvariableswerelessthan0.1%ofreferencevalues,indicatinggood
convergence.
44
5.5 RESULTS
5.5.1 Overallflowfieldanddispersion
Figure44showsaniso-surfaceof10%LELforaninitialwinddirectionof45Eastofplatform
North.Thefigureshowsthatthegasclouddispersesawayfromtheplatform.
Figure44:Iso-surfaceof10%LELforawinddirectionof45EastofplatformNorth
Figure45showsaniso-surfaceof10%LELforawinddirectionof5WestofplatformNorth.
Alloftheresultswhichfollowcorrespondtothiswinddirection.Gascanbeseentodisperse
throughthewesternhalfoftheplatformattheMSFlevel.Inthisfigure,velocityvectorsina
vertical plane are also shown to give an indication of the flow around the platform (the
maximumspeedshownis15m/s).AswiththemoreidealisedscenariosinSections3and4,
thereisalargewakeregionintheleeoftheplatform.
Amoredetailedviewofthe10%LELiso-surfaceisshowninFigure46.Thegasjetisvery
quicklydeflectedinthedirectionoftheprevailingwind,meaningthatthereisnoimpingement
ontheundersideofthemodulewhichislocatedimmediatelyabovetheMSFlevel.Asthegas
travelsthroughtheMSFitischannelledaroundobstructionswhichgenerateturbulenceintheir
wake. Qualitatively it would appear that gas dispersion is enhanced by the presence of
congestionintheMSF.
Figure 46 also indicates that gas spreads underneath the MSF level and is ingested by the
HVACducts.ThisisconfirmedinFigure47,whichshowscontoursofgasconcentrationina
horizontalplane23.5mabovesealevel(justabovetheMSFfloor).Gasisvisibleinallofthe
HVACducts,althoughatlowconcentrationsintheHazardousandSafeSupplyducts.However,
inthePLQHVACduct,gasataconcentrationofgreaterthan10%LELisvisiblealongits
entirelength.Velocityvectorsonthisplanearealsoshowntoindicatetheflowspeedthrough
theMSF(themaximumspeedshownis15m/s).
45
Figure45:Iso-surfaceof10%LELforawinddirectionof5WestofplatformNorth
Figure46:Detailof10%LELiso-surface
Figure47:Gasconcentrationcontoursin%LELonahorizontalplaneat23.5mabove
sea-leveljustabovetheMSFfloor.
46
5.5.2 GasdistributionintheHazardoussupplyHVACduct
Figure 48 shows contours of gas concentration across the Hazardous supply HVAC duct at
approximatelytheheightatwhichgasdetectorswerelocatedduringthe2004incidentonBrae
Alpha.Theaverageconcentrationofgasintheductis5.4%LEL.Whilstthisisarelativelylow
averageconcentration,gasisdistributedverynon-uniformly:peakconcentrationsarecloseto
10%,butwithaconcentrationminimumoflessthan1%.TheCOVforgasatthisplaneis39%,
whichasindicatedinAppendix1representsasignificantvariationinvaluesoverthecross-
section.
Figure48:Gasconcentrationcontours(%LEL)acrossthehazardousHVACduct,
23.5mabovesea-levelandjustabovetheMSFfloor
Figure 49 shows locations at which point and line integrals of gas concentration in the
Hazardoussupplyducthavebeenobtainedfrompost-processingoftheCFDresults.Ineffect,
pointdetectorshavebeenlocated0.6mand0.4mfromthesidesoftheduct(asshowninthe
diagram),andplacedat23.5mabovesealevel.Inaddition,horizontallinesalongeachdiagonal
at 23.5 m are shown, along which integrals of gas concentration have been computed to
replicatetheoutputofcross-ductbeaminfra-reddetectors.
a)Planview b)Viewfromsoutheast
Figure49:LocationsofgasdetectorsinHazardoussupplyHVACductandgas
concentrationsatselectedpoints
47
Thegasdistributionalonglines1and2(Figure49)isshowninFigure50.Valuesoftheline
integralsalonglines1and2areshowninTable6.
%

L
E
L

9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Line1
Line2
Distance along line (m)
Figure50:Gasconcentration(%LEL)inHazardoussupplyHVACduct,
alonglines1and2
Table6:Realisticscenario,lineintegralsofgasconcentrationinsidetheHazardous
supplyHVACduct
Location of line
integral
Length of line
integral (m)
Concentration
LEL.m
(m)
%LEL
per m
Line1 7.42 0.44 5.9
Line2 7.42 0.33 4.4
Thevaluesofgasconcentrationatthefourpointdetectors(Figure49)rangefrom3.1%to8.1%
LEL,i.e.approximatelyafactorof2.5variationbetweenminimumandmaximumvalues.The
twolineintegrals,replicatingtheeffectofcross-ductbeamdetectors,showmuchlessdifference
intheirvaluesandbothareclosetotheactualaverageconcentrationofgasintheduct(5.4%
LEL).
Alsoofinterestistheflow-fieldintheHazardoussupplyHVACduct,Figure51.Regionsof
flowseparationandrecirculationareevidentclosetotheHVACinlet.
Figure51:Flow-fieldintheHazardoussupplyHVACduct
48
During the course of this work an alternative slightly simpler geometry was used, in which
certainblockageswhichrepresentplenumsconnectingtheHVACsupplyroomstothemodule
abovewerenotincluded.Theresultsofthesesimulationsweresomewhatdifferentfromthose
presentedaboveandgiveanindicationoftheeffectofrelativelysmallchangestothemodelled
geometry. Figure 52 shows the two model geometries, highlighting the plenums above the
HVACsupplyrooms.
a)Geometry1 b)Geometry2
(asdescribedinSection5.2) (notincludingblockageduetoplenums)
Figure52:Alternativemodelgeometry
The results for Geometry 2 showed more transient behaviour in the duct than those for
Geometry1.Gasconcentrationsmonitoredatanumberoflocationsintheductsuggestthatthe
flowinthisregionistime-dependentwithatimeperiodofapproximately10s.Figure53shows
contoursofconcentrationacrosstheHazardoussupplyHVACductforGeometry2atdifferent
times.
a)t b)t+5sc)t+10s
Figure53:Gasconcentrationcontours(%LEL)acrossthehazardousHVACductfor
Geometry2,atvarioustimes.
Attimet,theaverageconcentrationacrosstheductatthedetectorheightis7.8%LEL,whilst
theCOVforgasis37%.Verysimilarvaluesareobtainedatlatertimes.
49
Figure54showsthegasconcentrationalonglines1and2,forbothGeometry1and2(attime
t).Valuesofthelineintegralsalonglines1and2forGeometry2areshowninTable7.
%

L
E
L

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Geometry1-Line1
Geometry1-Line2
Geometry2-Line1
Geometry2-Line2
Figure54:Gasconcentration(%LEL)inHazardoussupplyHVACduct,
alonglines1and2
Table7:Realisticscenario,Geometry2,lineintegralsofgasconcentrationinsidethe
HazardoussupplyHVACduct
Location of line
integral
Length of line
integral (m)
Concentration
LEL.m
(m)
%LEL
per m
Line1 7.42 0.62 8.3
Line2 7.42 0.47 6.3
Again,thetwolineintegralsarebothclosetotheactualaverageconcentrationofgasintheduct
(7.8%LEL).
5.5.3 GasdistributioninthePLQHVACduct
ThePLQHVACductisfarsmallerthantheHazardoussupplyHVACduct,just1.5msquare,
comparedto6.25mx4m.Itmightinitiallybeexpectedthat,sincethePLQductissmaller,
moreuniformityinthegasconcentrationwouldbeseenacrosstheduct.Infactthisisnotthe
case.Figure55,overleaf,showscontoursofgasconcentrationacrossthePLQHVACductfor
Geometry 1. There is a very marked variation in gas concentration across the duct, which
persistsuptheduct.TheCOV2minsidetheduct,is43%.Thepeakgasconcentrationisgreater
thanintheHazardoussupplyduct,withanaveragevalueof16.4%LEL.
ForGeometry2,thesituationisqualitativelysimilar,exceptthatthegasconcentrationisoverall
oflowermagnitude;anaverageof4.1%.However,theCOVat2minsidetheductremains
high,56%,indicatingthattheflowisfarfrombeingwell-mixed.
50
a)2minsidetheduct b)4minsidetheductc)6minsidetheduct
Figure55:Gasconcentrationcontours(%LEL)acrossthePLQduct,Geometry1.
NotethatplatformNorthistotheleft,Easttothetopofthefigures,etc.
Figure56showsthelocationofhorizontalsamplelinesacrossthePLQduct,2minsidetheduct
inlet.Theconcentrationdistributionalongthesesamplelinesisshownoverleaf,inFigure57.
Figure56:Locationsofsamplelines2minsidethePLQduct
51
Gas concentrations in PLQ HVAC duct
%

L
E
L

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-
-
Withplenums-Line1
Withplenums-Line2
Noplenums Line1
Noplenums Line2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Figure54:Gasconcentration(%LEL)inPLQHVACduct,
alonglines1and2
Lineintegralsofgasconcentrationhavebeencomputedalonglines1and2inthePLQHVAC
duct,forGeometry1and2.TheresultsaregiveninTable8.
Table8:Realisticscenario,lineintegralsofgasconcentrationinsidethe
PLQHVACduct
Geometry
Location of line
integral
Length of line
integral (m)
Concentration
LEL.m
(m)
%LEL
per m
1 Line1 1.5 0.24 16.1
1 Line2 1.5 0.25 16.8
2 Line1 1.5 0.06 4.0
2 Line2 1.5 0.06 4.1
Thetwolineintegrals(replicatingtheeffectofcross-ductbeamdetectors)foreachgeometry
givevalueswhichareveryclosetotheactualaverageconcentrationofgasintheduct:16.4%
and4.1%LELforGeometry1&2,respectively.Theline-integratedconcentrationisalmostthe
sameforlines1and2,whichsimplyreflectsthefactthatthepeakconcentrationgradientis
alongadiagonaloftheduct(thesamplelinesareacrossthewidthoftheduct).
52
6.1
6 DISCUSSION
REVIEWANDDISCUSSIONOFRESULTS
In every Scenario the most significant feature of the CFD results is the presence of a large
variationingasconcentrationacrossHVACinlets.Thischaracteristicoftheflowisconsistent
withtheconcentrationfieldexpectedofajetreleaseatalargedistancefromthereleasesource
(asdescribedinSection3.1).Whilstthebehaviourofabuoyantplumeisdifferentindetailitis
similarinessence,thereforethelowmomentumreleaseofScenarios2and3wouldalsobe
expectedtoshowasignificantvariationinconcentrationacrosstheplumeatalargedistance
fromthegassource.InthisrespecttheCFDresultsareunsurprisingandbroadlyconsistentwith
theestablishedfluidmechanicsofjetsandplumes.
IneveryScenarioinwhichgasentersastraightHVACduct,therateatwhichthevariationin
gasconcentrationovertheductcross-sectionreduceswithdistancealongtheductisveryslow.
ThisoutcomeoftheCFDmodellingisconsistentwiththebodyofliteraturereviewedinSection
2.2. The variation in gas concentration over a duct cross-section can be expressed as a
CoefficientofVariation(COV).ThecomputedrateofdecayofCOVwithdistancealonga
straightductisqualitativelysimilartothatfromthissamebodyofliterature,inthattheCOV
reducesslowlywithdistancealongastraightduct.
Furthermore, the computed effect of louvres and fire dampers on mixing over a duct cross-
sectionisseentobeverysmall.ThisisevidentifthevaluesforCOVarecomparedinTables3
and 4. Again, the literature reviewed in Section 2.2 strongly suggests that only purpose-
designedmixingelements,orbendsinaduct,areeffectiveinsubstantiallyenhancingmixing.
So,whilsttherenecessarilyremainssomeuncertaintyintheabilityoftheCFDmodellingto
reproduce the fine details of turbulent mixing in the wake of obstacles such as louvres and
grilles(discussedinmoredetailattheendofthisSection),overallthisaspectoftheCFDresults
isagainconsistentwiththefindingsoftheliteraturereview.
Insummary,thereisnosubstantialreasontodoubtthattheCFDresultsbroadlyreflectthegross
flow behaviour in and around HVAC ducts, at least for the simplified release sources and
geometriesconsideredinthisstudy.
OnefurtheraspectoftheCFDresultsshouldbementioned:thatthepresenceofalargevariation
ingasconcentrationacrossaHVACductappearstooccurnotonlyforverylargeductcross-
sectionswithahighaspectratio(width:breadth),butalsoformoremodestly-sizedsquareducts.
Therangeofductsizesexaminedinthisstudyvariesfromamaximumof6.25mx4m,through
2.8mx1.8mand2.84mx1.34m,toaminimumof1.5mx1.5m.IneverycasetheCOVat,
orcloseto,theductinletisquitelarge,althoughsmallervaluesofCOVareseenfortherealistic
scenariothanforthesimplifiedcases.However,withductsofsmallerdimensionsthanthose
examinedhereitcanbeexpectedthatthevariationingasconcentrationwouldalsobesmaller,
althoughpossiblystillsignificant.
InprincipletheCFDresultsinthisstudycanbeusedtodrawsomegeneralconclusionsonthe
likelyeffectivenessofdifferingflammablegasdetectionstrategiesforHVACinletsandducts.
However,itshouldnotbeforgottenthatCFDmodellingisanapproximationtoreality.Also
thereareotherfactors,inadditiontothefindingsofthisreport,thatarelikelytoinfluencethe
choiceofgasdetectionstrategysuchascost,maintenance,reliability,etc.Nevertheless,with
these caveats in mind, it is possible to draw some conclusions. In due course, experimental
validation via large-scale physical tests using commercial detectors would be very useful in
reducingremaininguncertainties.
53
Hence,forlargeducts(majordimension>>1m),itwillbedifficulttoalwaysensurethatpeaks
in gas concentration are not missed by point-based detection systems, especially if standard
catalytic or infra-red point detectors are used and typically set to alarm at 20% LEL. For
example,examinationoftheresultsofScenario1,Figure13a,atalocation1minsidetheduct,
showsthatgasconcentrationsarelessthan20%LELoverabouthalfofthecross-sectionofthe
duct,eventhoughtheaverageconcentrationofgasintheductis27%LEL,i.e.well-abovea
20%alarmlevel.ForScenario3,Figure32,at0.5mor2minsidetheduct,gasconcentrations
are below 20% LEL over the vast majority of the duct cross-section, although the average
concentrationofgasintheductisjustgreaterthan20%LEL.Ifusingapoint-baseddetection
systemsomemitigationforthissituationwouldbepossibleifmultipledetectorswereusedand
locatedtowardstheextremitiesoftheductcross-section.However,theCFDresultsindicatethat
foralargeductuptofourpointdetectorscouldbeneededforsystemswhichalarmupontwo
positivedetections.Additionalmitigationcouldbegainedbytheuseofloweralarmsettings.
HSE(2006)recommendthatthefeasibilityofalarmlevelsof~10%beexplored.Theuseof
extendedpathpointinfrareddetectorscouldalsobebeneficial,sincetheseappeartohavemuch
highersensitivity-withquotedminimumalarmlevelsof5%-althoughwhethertheyoperate
reliablyinanoffshoreenvironmentiscurrentlyuncertain.Thesedetectortypesalsohavethe
benefitthattheycoverapathlengthoftheorderof1m,soprovidinggreatercoveragethan
standardpointdetectors.Forthesereasonsextendedpathpointinfra-reddetectorscouldalsobe
well-suitedtothemonitoringofsmallducts.
Forlargeducts,cross-ductbeaminfra-reddetectorsystemscouldpotentiallybebeneficial.This
ispartlybecausethepathlengthisrelativelylong-therebymaximisingabsorptionofthebeam
-andpartlybecausetheyarelesslikelythanapointdetectortomissapeakinconcentration
duetotheircoverageofaduct.However,thereissomeuncertaintyastowhethertheyhave
sufficientlyhighsensitivity.Lineintegralsofgasconcentrationhavebeencomputedfromthe
CFD results in this study to replicate the output of cross-duct beam infra-red detectors. For
Scenarios1to3,inwhichtheaverageconcentrationofgasintheductwasalwaysgreaterthan
20%,lineintegralswhichwereequivalenttomaximumandminimumoutputof0.78LEL.mto
0.17LEL.mwereobtained.Itisquestionablewhetheroutputaslowas0.17LEL.mwouldmeet
minimumalarmlevelsforcross-ductbeaminfra-redsystems.TheCFDresultsinthepresent
studyindicatethatthevariationofgasconcentrationoveraductcross-sectioncanoccurina
simplefashionasagradientalongthemajoraxisofaduct(Scenario1,Figure13)oralongits
diagonal(realisticscenarioPLQduct,Figure55),or,inamorecomplexmanner(Scenario3,
Figure32;realisticscenariohazardoussupplyduct,Figures48&53).Hence,wherecross-duct
beaminfra-reddetectorsystemsareemployed,twobeamswouldberecommendedtoreducethe
likelihoodthatapeakingasconcentrationcouldbemissed.Thebeamswouldprobablybestbe
arrangedsoastobeapproximatelyorthogonal,eitheralongthediagonalsofaduct,oracrossthe
width&breadthofaduct.
Aspiratedsystemscouldalsopotentiallybebeneficialforgasdetectioninalargeduct,sincein
principletheycouldalsoprovidegoodcoverageofaduct.Ifsuchsystemsareconfiguredasa
line of sample holes, then two lines would be recommended, arranged approximately
orthogonally, for the same reasons as given above. There is again some uncertainty as to
whether the sensitivity of the detector at the end of an aspirated probe system would be
sufficientlyhigh.
TheCFDmodellinginthisstudyindicatesthatdetectortypeswhicharebasedonsampling
alongaline(eithercross-ductbeaminfra-red,extendedpathpointinfra-red,oraspiratedline
sample probes) tend to give an average concentration which is more approximately
representativeoftheaverageconcentrationofgasinaduct(seeTable1,Scenario1;Tables6,7
54
and 8, realistic scenario) than might be obtained with a limited number of point detectors.
However,thisisnotalwaysthecase(seeTable4,Scenario3).
OnthebasisofthepresentCFDresults,andthefindingsoftheliteraturereview,therewould
appear to be no significant increase to be gained in the likelihood of gas detection as a
consequenceofsitingdetectorsalongwaydownanHVACduct-intheexpectationthatwell-
mixedconditionswillexist.Anynon-uniformdistributionofgasattheinlettoanHVACductis
verylikelytopersistalongwaydownstreaminsidetheduct,atleastasfarasanyfans,unless
purpose-designed mixing elements or bends are also present in the duct. This behaviour is
illustratedinFigures15and31.Inaddition,thereareotherpracticalconsiderationsraisedby
suchastrategy,suchasthefactthatalargervolumeofgaswouldbeingestedpriortoclosureof
dampers.
TheCFDresultsindicatethatthedistributionofgasimmediatelyoutsideofanHVACinletis
quitesimilartothatwhichexistsashortdistanceinsidetheinlet.SeeFigures13and32.The
literature review also suggests that unless purpose-designed mixing elements or bends are
present close to an HVAC inlet then the COV reduces slowly with distance along a duct.
Therefore,therewouldappeartobenosignificantbenefittobegainedfromsitingdetectors
insideanHVACductcomparedtolocatingdetectorsimmediatelyoutsidetheduct.Practical
considerations,suchaseaseofaccesstodetectorsformaintenancepurposes,orshelteringof
detectorsfromtheweather,couldbeofmoreimportance.
TheCFDresults,supportedbythefluidmechanicsofflowaroundabluffbody,showthatthe
flow around an offshore platform is likely to be time-dependent as a consequence of flow
separationinthewakeoftheplatform.Inaddition,theflowaroundotherbluffobjectsona
platform can lead to transient flow in their wake. The time-scales for such transient flow
featurescancoveralargerange;fromminutesforflowovertheentireplatform(seeSection
3.2.5)topossiblytensofsecondsorless(anindicationoftime-scalesoftheorderof10sis
evident in the simulation of the realistic scenario, see Section 5.5.2, Figure 53). The time-
dependencyoftheflowandgasdispersion,anditsimplicationsongasdetectorresponse,isnot
investigatedfurtherinthisstudy.Thisisinpartbecausethesimulationswouldprobablyneedto
berepeatedusingamuchmoresophisticatedapproachtothemodellingofturbulencebefore
firm conclusions could be reached. This would be very time-consuming and possibly
impractical.However,thelikelyexistenceoftime-dependencyofflowandgasdispersionona
rangeoftime-scalesaddsweighttorecommendationsthatdetectionlimitsshouldbeaslowas
reasonablypractical.
As mentioned above, it should not be forgotten that CFD modelling is an approximation to
reality.UncertaintyintheCFDresultswillariseprimarilyasaconsequenceofapproximations
andassumptionswhichareimplicitintheturbulencemodelling.ErrorsintheCFDresultswill
ariseprimarilyasaresultofmeshresolution,althoughthemeshesusedinthisstudyarerefined
inregionsofsteepgradients.Also,high-order-accuracynumericaldiscretisationschemesare
employed.Nevertheless,numerically-generateddiffusionislikelytobepresent.However,this
artificialdiffusionwillgenerallyleadtoareductioningasconcentrationgradients,suchthatin
realityevenmoresignificantvariationsingasconcentrationcouldbeexpected.
Perhapsofmoresignificanceisthefactthatonlyafewscenarioshavebeeninvestigated,fora
limitedrangeofconditions,andthatthesescenariosareallsomewhatidealised.Evenso,the
CFDresultsareconsistentwiththeoutcomesoftheliteraturereviewandtheknownbehaviour
of flow and gas dispersion in and around ducts. Nevertheless, the recommendations which
follow in Section 6.2, on gas detection strategies, are necessarily labelled as initial
recommendations. Experimental validation, via large-scale physical tests using commercial
detectors,isthereforerecommendedasanextsteptoreduceremaininguncertainties.
55
6.2 INITIALRECOMMENDATIONSFORGASDETECTIONSTRATEGIES
Initial recommendations on flammable gas detection strategies for HVAC ducts are listed
below.TheseinitialrecommendationsarebasedonthefindingsofthescopingstudybyWalsh
etal(2005),areviewoftheliteratureonflowanddispersioninductswhichispresentedin
Section2,aswellastheoutcomesoftheCFDmodellingreportedinSections3to5.
(1) Detector alarm levels should be set as low as reasonably practical: 10% LEL or less.
Justification:Thepossibilityofsignificantnon-uniformityinthedistributionofgaswhichis
ingestedintoanHVACducthasbeendemonstratedbyCFDmodellingandisalsoindicatedby
theoreticalconsiderations.Theliteraturereviewhashighlightedthat,intheabsenceofpurpose-
designedmixingelements,aninitialnon-uniformdistributionofgasinaductrequiresavery
longdownstreamdistancebeforeuniformityisapproached.HVACdetectorsarenowavailable
withaconcentrationrangeof0to20%LELandquotedminimumalarmlevelsof5%LEL
(Walsh et al, 2005). To reduce the likelihood that detectors will miss a non-uniform
distributionofgasingestedintoanHVACduct,itisrecommendedthatalarmlevelsbesetno
greaterthan10%LEL.HSEhavealreadyprovidedinformationwhichstatesthatalthoughitis
common practice for gas detector alarm levels to be set at 20% LEL, duty holders should
explorethefeasibilityofreducingthisalarmlevelto~10%LEL(HSE,2006).Thelowalarm
levelshavetobebalancedwiththeminimisationoffalsealarms,whicharisefromdetectordrift
andtransientoperationalactivities.
(2) Point catalytic, point infra-red, extended path point infra-red, cross-duct beam infra-
red and aspirated point detector systems all have the potential to be effective in detecting
non-uniform distributions of flammable gas in and around HVAC ducts provided that
their sensitivity is sufficiently high (low detection limit) and that due regard is given to the
possibility that gas will be distributed non-uniformly.
Justification:Walshetal(2005)reviewedanumberofdifferentdetectortypes.Arangeof
detectortypesareavailablewithhighsensitivity,althoughthereissomequestionastowhether
allofthepointandcross-ductbeaminfra-redsystemshavesufficiently-highsensitivity.Each
detectortypehasitsbenefitsandlimitations,demandingdifferingsitingrequirementstoensure
thatanon-uniformdistributionofgasisnotmissed.
(3) Extended path point infra-red detector systems currently appear to offer the greatest
sensitivity, but multiple detectors should be used and sited so as to anticipate non-uniform
mixing.
Justification:Walshetal(2005)showthatextendedpathpointinfra-reddetectorsystemsare
availablewithaconcentrationrangeof0to20%LELandquotedminimumalarmlevelsof5%
LEL.Inaddition,speciallydesignedpointcatalytic(e.g.forgasturbineenclosures)detectors
areavailablewithasimilarsensitivity(typicalcatalyticdetectorsareusuallynotassensitiveor
asreliableasinfra-redtypes).However,whethereithertypeoperatereliablyinthefieldwith
minimumfalsealarmsiscurrentlyuncertain.TheCFDmodellingdemonstratesthatthereisa
possibilityofsignificantnon-uniformityinthedistributionofgasinsideandaroundanHVAC
inlet.Theliteraturereviewindicatesthatthisnon-uniformitywillreduceslowlywithdistance
downstreaminaduct.Itisdifficulttoprovidefirmguidanceonhowmanypointorextended
pathdetectorsshouldbeusedsincethisdependsonthesizeandshapeofaduct.However,there
shouldbegoodcoverageofthecross-sectionoftheduct.Forlargeductsthismaymeanthat
fourdetectorswouldbeneededforsystemswhichalarmupontwopositivedetections.
56
(4) Cross-duct beam infra-red, extended path or aspirated point detector systems should
be based on two approximately orthogonal beams or lines of aspirated point probes.
Justification:Asstatedabove,theCFDmodellingdemonstratesthatthereisapossibilityof
significantnon-uniformityinthedistributionofgasinsideandaroundanHVACinletwhilstthe
literaturereviewindicatesthatthisnon-uniformitywillreduceslowlywithdistancedownstream
inaduct.Forthesereasonsthereshouldbegoodcoverageofthecross-sectionofaduct.This
canbeachievedbytwoinfra-redbeams,eitherasopen-pathcrossductorextendedpathpoint
infra-red,orlinesofaspiratedpointprobes,arrangedapproximatelyorthogonally.
(5) No significant benefit can be expected to be gained from siting detectors inside an
HVAC duct compared to locating them immediately outside the HVAC inlet.
Justification:Theliteraturereviewindicatesthateffectivemixinginaductisonlyachievedif
large-scaleturbulenteddiesareintroducedviapurpose-designedmixingelementsorbends.The
CFDmodellingindicatesthatlouvresattheinlettoaductorfire/gasdampersinsideaductwill
not,inthemselves,besufficienttorapidlyensurethatwell-mixedconditionsexistinaduct.In
factCFDsimulationsindicatethatanon-uniformdistributionofgasimmediatelyoutsideofan
HVACinletpersistsdownstreamfromthesegeometricalelements.Theliteraturereviewalso
indicates that grilles at the entrance to HVAC ducts are unlikely to significantly enhance
mixing.
(6) In the absence of purpose-designed mixing elements or a series of bends upstream from
gas detectors no significant benefit is to be gained from siting detectors a significant
distance downstream from an HVAC inlet.
Justification:TheliteraturereviewandtheCFDmodellingstronglyindicatethat,forastraight
duct,well-mixedconditionsareonlyachievedaverylongwaydownstreamfromanHVAC
inlet.
(7) Mixing elements have the potential to reduce any non-uniformity in the distribution of
gas in a duct but their effectiveness should be proven by physical tests.
Justification:Thisissupportedbytheliteraturereview.Itshouldalsobenotedthatmixing
elementswillresultinanadditionalresistancetoflowinaductandthattheresultingpressure
dropmaybesignificant.
The above recommendations are based on evidence from CFD modelling and the published
literature. However, CFD modelling has inherent uncertainties and it is not certain that the
findingsfromtheliteraturearealwaysdirectlyrelevant.Thereforeitisstronglyrecommended
thattheaboveinitialrecommendationsaresubstantiatedbyphysicaltrials,usingrealdetectors.
57
7 CONCLUSIONS
TheaimofthisstudyhasbeentoundertakeCFDmodellingtoprovideabasisforadviceto
inspectors and the industry on the effectiveness of flammable gas detection strategies for
offshore HVAC ducts. CFD simulations of a high and low pressure gas release have been
undertaken for idealised representations of an offshore platform, as well as a high pressure
releaseforamorerealisticgeometrybasedontheBraeAlphaplatform.Inparallelwiththis
modellingworkaliteraturereviewhasbeencarriedouttobuildonthescopingstudyofWalsh
etal(2005).
ThemostsignificantfeatureoftheCFDresultsisthatinallcasesthedistributionofgasat
HVAC inlets was non-uniform: large variations in gas concentration were present over the
cross-section of the modelled HVAC inlets. This result was found tobe consistent with the
theoretical behaviour of a high pressure gas release. Neither is there a substantial reason to
believethatitisnotalsoconsistentwiththebehaviourofalowpressuregasrelease.Itmeans
thatthereisthepotentialforagasreleasetobemissedbydetectionsystemsunlessthisnon-
uniformity in gas concentration is anticipated in the selection and siting of gas detectors at
HVACinlets.
TheCFDresultsalsoshowthatavariationingasconcentrationoveraductcross-sectiononly
reducesslowlywithdistancealongastraightduct.Thisfindingwasfoundtobeconsistentwith
abodyofrelevantliteraturestemmingfromthesamplingofgasdistributionsintheexhaust
ductsofnuclearstacks.Thisliteraturehighlightsthatpurpose-designedmixingelementsand
bendsinaductcanbeeffectiveincreatingwell-mixedconditionsinaduct,butatthecostof
increasedpressuredrop.Italsosuggeststhatrelativelysmall-scaleobstructionssuchaslouvres
and fire dampers are unlikely to significantly enhance mixing. This was borne out by CFD
modellingofsuchobstructions.Theimplicationsofthemodellingwork,substantiatedbythe
literature, are that in the absence of purpose-designed mixing elements or a series of bends
upstream from gas detectors no significant benefit would be gained from siting detectors a
significant distance downstream from an HVAC inlet. Also, no significant benefit can be
expectedtobegainedfromsitingdetectorsinsideanHVACductcomparedtolocatingthem
immediatelyoutsidetheHVACinlet.
TheCFDresultswerepost-processedtogainsomefurtherinsightintothelikelyeffectiveness
ofpointandinfra-redbeamoraspirateddetectorsystemsforHVACducts.Theresultingoutput
has been combined with the findings of the scoping study by Walsh et al (2005), and the
outcomesoftheliteraturereviewandCFDmodellingasreportedabove,toprovideabasisfor
thefollowinginitialrecommendationsonflammablegasdetectionstrategies:
- Detectoralarmlevelsshouldbesetaslowasreasonablypractical:10%LELorless.
- Pointcatalytic,pointinfra-red,extendedpathpointinfra-red,cross-ductbeaminfra-red
andaspiratedpointdetectorsystemsallhavethepotentialtobeeffectiveindetecting
non-uniformdistributionsofflammablegasinandaroundHVACductsprovidedthat
theirsensitivityissufficientlyhigh(lowdetectionlimit)andthatdueregardisgivento
thepossibilitythatgaswillbedistributednon-uniformly.
- Extended path point infra-red detector systems currently appear to offer the greatest
sensitivity, but multiple detectors should be used and sited so as to anticipate non-
uniformmixing.
58
7.1
- Cross-ductbeaminfra-red,extendedpathoraspiratedpointdetectorsystemsshouldbe
basedontwoapproximatelyorthogonalbeamsorlinesofaspiratedpointprobes.
- No significant benefit can be expected to be gained from siting detectors inside an
HVACductcomparedtolocatingthemimmediatelyoutsidetheHVACinlet.
- Intheabsenceofpurpose-designedmixingelementsoraseriesofbendsupstreamfrom
gasdetectorsnosignificantbenefitistobegainedfromsitingdetectorsasignificant
distancedownstreamfromanHVACinlet.
- Mixingelementshavethepotentialtoreduceanynon-uniformityinthedistributionof
gasinaductbuttheireffectivenessshouldbeprovenbyphysicaltests.
RECOMMENDATIONSFORFURTHERWORK
TheCFDmodellinginthisstudyisconsistentwiththefindingsoftheliteraturereviewandthe
theoreticalbehaviourofhighandlowpressuregasreleases.However,CFDmodellingisan
approximationtoreality.Also,therangeofscenarioswhichhavebeeninvestigatedusingCFD
arerelativelysmall,aswellasbeingsomewhatidealised.Inadditionthereareotherfactors,
suchasthereliabilityofdetectors,whichhavenotbeenaddressedinthisstudy.Thereforeitis
recommended that large-scale physical tests, using commercial detectors, are undertaken to
validatethefindingsofthisstudyandtosupportandrefinetheinitialrecommendationsabove.
Itwouldalsobeusefultoclarifytheminimumpracticalalarmlevelsforarangeofcommercial
detectortypes,especiallycross-ductbeaminfra-redsystems.
59
8 APPENDIX1:EXAMPLESOFCOEFFICIENTOF
VARIATION
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40-60
20-40
0-20
e)50% f)50%
0
20
40
60
80
100
80-100
60-80
40-60
20-40
0-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
80-100
60-80
40-60
20-40
0-20
g)100% h)100%
FigureA1:Exampledistributionsofascalaronaregular10x10gridwithCoefficient
ofVariationrangingfrom10%to100%.
60
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65
Published by the Health and Safety Executive 12/07
Health and Safety
Executive
The aim of this study has been to undertake CFD modelling
to provide a basis for advice to inspectors and the industry
on the effectiveness of flammable gas detection strategies
for offshore HVAC ducts. CFD simulations of a high
and low pressure gas release have been undertaken for
idealised representations of an offshore platform, as well as
a high pressure release for a more realistic geometry based
on the Brae Alpha platform. In parallel with this modelling
work a literature review has been carried out to build on a
scoping study by Walsh et al (2005).
This report and the work it describes were funded by
the Health and Safety Executive (HSE). Its contents,
including any opinions and/or conclusions expressed, are
those of the author alone and do not necessarily reflect
HSE policy.
RR602
www.hse.gov.uk

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