ConductorsForUpratingExistingOverheadLines WG55 5May2012ID647VER25

Conductors for the
Uprating of Overhead
Lines
Working Group B2.1255
April 2!12"e#ruar$ 2!!%
WG B2.55&12 'Conductors for the Uprating of Overhead Lines( 1 )ov. 2!!*
Conductors for the Uprating
of Overhead Lines
Working Group
B2.1255
+resent ,e-#ers of the Working Group.
Chair-an of /C B2. 0. +apailiou1. /tephen 2/3it4erland/outh
Africa5
Convenor of WG B2.1255. 6. 6ouglass 2United /tates5
/ecretar$ of WG B2.1255. ,. Gaudr$ 2"rance5G. Beiden#ach 2Ger-an$5
7ask "orce Leader 1. 0i-ata 28apan5
7ask "orce /ecretar$ /. 9off-ann 2United 0ingdo-5
9. Argasinska 2+oland5 :. Berenstein 2United /tates5 0. Bakic 2/lovenia5 /.
9odgkinson 2Australia5 /. 9off-ann 2United 0ingdo-5 8. ;glesias 2/pain5 ". 8akl
2/lovenia5 7. 0u-eda 28apan5 6. Lee 20orea5 7. 0ikuta 28apan5 ". ,assaro 2;tal$5
A. ,a<3ell 2/3eden5G. ,irosevic 2Croatia5 =. ,organ 2Australia5 6. ,uftic
2/outh Africa5 :. O>ala 2"inland5 1. +uffer 2Ger-an$5 B. 1isse 2Belgiu-5
7.O./eppa 2United /tates5 ?. /hant4 2Canada5 1. 7hrash 2United /tates5 /. Ueda
2Bra4il5 L. =arga 29ungar$5
"or-er ,e-#ers of the Working Group and others 3ho
contri#uted to this #rochure.
1. 0leve#orn 2/3eden5 /. Laureote 2"rance5 :. ,otlis 2Canada5 7. Oku-ura
28apan5 ,. 7unstall 2United 0ingdo-5
2
Dedication
7he -e-#ers of Working Group B2.12 3ould
like to dedicate this technical #rochure to the
-e-or$ of :akov ,otlis. :akov 3as a
-e-#er of the 3orking group for -an$ $ears.
9e cared deepl$ a#out this 3ork and
contri#uted greatl$ to its ulti-ate for- and
content. :akov 3ill #e -issed #oth for his
contri#utions to our 3ork and even -ore as a
friend.
*
7a#le of Contents
"ore3ord......................................................................................................................................
6efinitions....................................................................................................................................
1. & Calculation of Conductor +erfor-ance at 9igh te-peratures................................................
1.1 ;ntroduction....................................................................................................................
1.2 7her-al 1ating Calculations At ?levated Conductor 7e-perature...............................
1.* /ag&tension ;ssues at 9igh Conductor 7e-perature......................................................
1.*.1 Graphical and linear -ethods for sag&tension calculations.....................................12
1.*.2 /ag&tension corrections for high te-peratures.......................................................1*
1.*.2.1 ?rrors affecting an$ high&te-perature sag calculation........................................
1.*.2.2 ?rrors affecting sag calculations in -ultiple span line sections..........................
1.*.2.* ?rrors affecting sag calculations of '0nee&point( te-perature for non&
ho-ogeneous 2e.g. AC/15 conductors...........................................................................
1.*.2.% /u--ar$ of high te-perature sag errors............................................................
1.% /u--ar$ of Conductor +erfor-ance at 9igh 7e-perature..........................................
2. & Conductors for ;ncreased 7her-al 1ating of Overhead 7rans-ission Lines.......................
2.1 ;ntroduction @ /u--ar$ of Conductor Use /urve$.....................................................
2.2 ;ncreasing Line Capacit$ 27her-al 1ating5 With ?<isting Conductors........................
2.2.1 ,aintaining electrical clearances...........................................................................2!
2.2.2 Li-iting loss of tensile strength.............................................................................2!
2.2.* Avoiding connector failures....................................................................................22
2.* ;ncreasing Line 7her-al 1ating Capacit$ #$ Conductor 1eplace-ent........................
2.*.1 1eplace-ent conductors for operation at -oderate te-peratures 2A1!!BC5...........2*
2.*.1.1 All Alu-iniu- Allo$ Conductor 2AAAC5..........................................................
2.*.1.2 Alu-iniu- Conductor Allo$ 1einforced 2ACA15.............................................
2.*.1.* /haped&3ire conductors......................................................................................
2.*.1.% ,otion&resistant conductors................................................................................
2.*.2 Conductors for operation at high te-perature 2C1!! BC5........................................25
2.*.2.1 Conductor -aterials............................................................................................
2.*.2.2 9igh te-perature conductor constructions.........................................................
2.*.* Application of high te-perature conductors...........................................................2D
2.*.*.1 2E57AC/1..........................................................................................................
2.*.*.2 G2E57AC/1........................................................................................................
2.*.*.* 2E57AC;1...........................................................................................................
2.*.*.% AC// and AC//F7W 2Originall$ designated //AC5.........................................
2.*.% Co-parison of high te-perature lo3&sag conductors............................................2G
2.*.%.1 6efinition of line reconductoring case studies....................................................
2.*.%.2 7her-al rating conditions for reconductoring design case studies......................
2.*.%.* Co-parison of reconductoring alternatives for Case /tud$ H1...........................
2.*.%.% Co-parison of reconductoring alternatives for Case /tud$ H2...........................
2.*.%.5 Co-parison of reconductoring alternatives for Case /tud$ H*...........................
2.% /u--ar$ of Conductors for ;ncreased 7her-al 1ating................................................
*. & Conclusion and 1eco--endations......................................................................................
%. & List of 1eferences................................................................................................................
Foreword
Across the developed 3orld there is a gro3ing need to increase the po3er handling capacit$ of
e<isting po3er trans-ission assets for #oth continuous nor-al loads and for post&contingenc$
e-ergenc$ loads. +articularl$ 3ith regard to ther-al ratings interest centers on lines 3hose
phase&phase voltage is less than 5!! k=.
At the sa-e ti-e there is fierce opposition to the construction of ne3 lines on #oth aesthetic
and environ-ental grounds and large capital invest-ents in trans-ission s$ste-s are difficult
to >ustif$ given the rapid gro3th of unregulated distri#uted generation and little certaint$ that
such invest-ents 3ill $ield accepta#le returns. As a result of these conflicting pressures
increasing the ther-al rating of e<isting overhead trans-ission lines #$ the -ethods descri#ed
in this #rochure is seen as a valid alternative to the construction of ne3 lines.
7he -ethods of increasing the ther-al rating of e<isting lines are as follo3s.
15 Weather data and load profiles can #e fed into co-puter progra-s 3here#$ pro#a#ilistic
ratings can #e deter-ined. 7his can #e done on a line&specific #asis or on a generic s$ste-&
3ide #asis. 7his can result in increased line ratings on a risk assess-ent #asis I1&%J. 7he use
of such -ethods ho3ever is dependent on regulations and statutor$ reKuire-ents for
electrical clearances. 2see for e<a-ple 7B 2GG5
25 A real&ti-e -onitoring s$ste- -a$ #e used that deter-ines the position of a conductor in
space there#$ deter-ining the rating of the line in real&ti-e I5&LJ. 1atings are t$picall$
calculated to avoid e<ceeding design sags during periods of poor cooling #$ assu-ing
pessi-istic 3eather para-eters. 1eal&ti-e rating s$ste-s allo3 net3ork operators to take
advantage of periods of #etter cooling nor-all$ increasing the ther-al rating of critical
circuits. 2see for e<a-ple 7B WG*D on 1eal&ti-e ,onitoring of Lines5
*5 7he electrical clearances under an e<isting line can #e re&assessed 3ith the possi#ilit$ that
the rated te-perature of the line can #e increased 3ith no ph$sical -odifications. 7his is
rarel$ possi#le. 9o3ever in -an$ cases relativel$ -odest ph$sical -odifications #ased
on a reassess-ent of clearances can allo3 an increase in the lineMs -a<i-u- allo3a#le
conductor te-perature. /uch ph$sical -odifications -ight involve -oving suspension
cla-ps re&tensioning the conductors raising conductor attach-ent heights or adding ne3
structures in long spans. 2e.g. 7B *2% on /ag&tension Calculations also *5*5
%5 7he e<isting conductor -a$ #e replaced 3ith a ne3 conductor that has either a lo3er
electrical resistance andFor is capa#le of operation at higher te-perature 3ithin the e<isting
line li-its on sag and tension 2i.e. has reduced high te-perature sag5. 2e.g. 7B %2D on
Acceptance 7esting of 97L/ conductors also **15
7he -ethods discussed in this #rochure refer to ite-s 2*5 and 2%5 a#ove. 7hese are -ethods
e<hi#iting lo3er capital cost -ini-al visual i-pact and easier environ-ental acceptance than
the construction of ne3 lines. 7hree -ethods of increasing ther-al rating are presented.
a5 ;ncreasing the operating te-perature of e<isting conductors 3hile -aintaining adeKuate
electrical clearances. 2refer to 7B fro- WG %25
5
#5 1eplacing e<isting conductors 3ith lo3er resistance conductors operating at -oderate
te-peratures. 2e.g. 7B *%5 on ac resistance of stranded conductors5
c5 1eplacing e<isting conductors 3ith conductors capa#le of operating at high te-peratures
and e<hi#iting lo3 ther-al e<pansion. 27B 2%% **1 and 7B %2D
,ethods 2a5 and 2#5 a#ove are also discussed in related C;G1? docu-ents I1J and I5J.
1eference I1J concerns the use of statisticall$ safe ther-al ratings in place of conventional
'3orst&case( ratings. 1eference I5J considers the use of real&ti-e ther-al ratings #ased on
-easure-ent of actual 3eather and line conditions. ;t is possi#le to co-#ine these non&
ph$sical uprating -ethods 3ith the ph$sical -ethods of uprating discussed in this #rochure to
o#tain still greater i-prove-ents in trans-ission line capacit$.
;n addition certain factors -ust #e taken into account prior to uprating.
When uprating e<isting lines #$ replacing the conductors an assess-ent -ust #e -ade of
the -echanical capa#ilit$ of the e<isting structures and should onl$ #e atte-pted if the
structures are capa#le of supporting the reKuired loads. 2**15
7he use of a larger conductor i-poses greater loads on the e<isting structures and -a$
reduce the relia#ilit$ of the line unless the structures are reinforced.
;f reappraising the loading criteria for an uprated line the line designer should consider
changing the replace-ent conductor design co-ponent 3ire -aterials and -aking
changes in the tension li-its under #oth ever$da$ and e<tre-e conditions.
Bare overhead conductors are traditionall$ -ade up of nearl$ pure alu-iniu- 3ires usuall$
reinforced #$ steel 3ires 3here necessar$ for ph$sical strength. 7he conductors descri#ed in
this #rochure are not li-ited to these #asic 3ire t$pes #ut are li-ited to conductors 3hich are
co--erciall$ availa#le and 3hich have #een used e<tensivel$ in at least certain areas of the
3orld.
)o specific econo-ic anal$ses are descri#ed since each reconductoring application is in so-e
sense uniKue. 7echnical infor-ation and co-parisons ho3ever are -ade.
7his #rochure consists of t3o sections. 7he first section discusses ho3 li-its on conductor
operating te-perature are related to li-its on electrical clearance and loss of strength at high
te-perature. Based on this -ethodolog$ the second section descri#es the various choices that
allo3 increased line capacit$.
We hope that the #rochure 3ill #e of interest to the electric po3er industr$ and -ake a useful
contri#ution to develop-ent of appropriate strategies for increasing the ther-al rating of
e<isting overhead lines.
D
Definitions
Update references to 4irconiu- alu-iniu- allo$ to note e<istence of ;?C D2!!% in place of E
designations.
AAAC & All Alu-iniu- Allo$ Conductor.
ACA1 & Alu-iniu- Conductor Allo$ 1einforced.
AC/1 & Alu-iniu- Conductor /teel 1einforced.
AC// & Alu-iniu- Conductor /teel /upported & A stranded conductor -ade up of full$
annealed alu-iniu- strands over a core of steel strands.
A-pacit$ & 7he a-pacit$ of a conductor is that -a<i-u- constant current 3hich 3ill -eet the
design securit$ and safet$ criteria of a particular line on 3hich the conductor is used. ;n this
#rochure a-pacit$ has the sa-e -eaning as 'stead$&state ther-al rating.(
Annealing & 7he process 3herein the tensile strength of copper or alu-iniu- 3ires is reduced
at sustained high te-peratures.
A/7, & A-erican /ociet$ for 7esting and ,aterials. 2)ote e<istence of ne3 standards on
97L/5
?lectrical Clearance & 7he distance #et3een energised conductors and other conductors
#uildings and earth. ,ini-u- clearances are usuall$ specified #$ regulations.
?C 2grade alu-iniu-5 & ?lectrical Conductor grade alu-iniu- also called 1*5!&91G allo$ or
A1.
?9/ /teel & Also designated /*. ?<tra 9igh /trength steel 3ires for AC/1.
G7AC/1 & Gap& t$pe 7AL alu-iniu- allo$ Conductor /teel 1einforced.
9/ /teel & Also designated /2. 9igh /trength steel core 3ires for AC/1.
;.A.C./. or ;AC/ & ;nternational Annealed Copper /tandard.
;?C & ;nternational ?lectrotechnical Co--ission.
;nvar /teel & A steel core 3ire -ade 3ith high )ickel content to reduce the ther-al elongation
coefficient.
0nee&point 7e-perature & 7he conductor te-perature a#ove 3hich the alu-iniu- strands of an
AC/1 conductor have no tension or go into co-pression.
,a<i-u- Allo3a#le Conductor 7e-perature & 7he highest conductor te-perature at 3hich an
overhead po3er line can #e safel$ operated.
N
1B/ & 1ated Breaking /trength of conductor. A calculated value of co-posite tensile strength
3hich indicates the -ini-u- test value for stranded #are conductor. /i-ilar ter-s include
Ulti-ate 7ensile /trength 2U7/5 and Calculated Breaking Load 2CBL5.
1uling 2?ffective5 /pan & 7his is a h$pothetical level span length 3herein the variation of
tension 3ith conductor te-perature is the sa-e as in a series of suspension spans.
/6C & /elf&6a-ping Conductor is an AC/1 conductor 3herein the alu-iniu- strands are
trape4oidall$ shaped and si4ed such that there is a s-all gap #et3een la$ers to allo3 i-pact
da-ping of aeolian vi#ration.
72 & 73isted +air conductor 3herein t3o ordinar$ round stranded conductors are t3isted
around each other to enhance -echanical sta#ilit$ in 3ind.
7AC;1 & 7AL Alu-iniu- Allo$ Conductor reinforced 3ith an ;nvar steel core.
7AC/1 & 7AL Alu-iniu- Allo$ Conductor reinforced #$ a conventional stranded steel core.
7AL O 2'7her-al&resistant alu-iniu-(5 An alu-iniu- 4irconiu- allo$ that has sta#le
-echanical and electrical properties after continuous operation at te-peratures of up to 15!
o
C.
7her-al 1ating & 7he -a<i-u- electrical current 3hich can #e safel$ carried in overhead
trans-ission line 2sa-e -eaning as a-pacit$5.
7W conductor & A #are overhead stranded conductor 3herein the alu-iniu- strands are
trape4oidal in cross&section.
Uprating & 7he process #$ 3hich the ther-al rating of an overhead po3er line is increased.
Weight & 7his #rochure generall$ uses conductor in 3eight per unit length. ,ass per unit length
can #e o#tained #$ dividing #$ the acceleration of gravit$ 2appro<i-atel$ G.L1 -Fsec
2
5.
'Worst&case( 3eather conditions for line rating calculation & Weather conditions 3hich $ield the
-a<i-u- or near -a<i-u- value of conductor te-perature for a given line current.
E7AL O 2'/uper 7her-al&resistant alu-iniu-(5 An alu-iniu- 4irconiu- allo$ that has sta#le
-echanical and electrical properties after continuous operation at te-peratures of up to 21!
o
C.
E7AC;1 & E7AL alu-iniu- allo$ conductor reinforced #$ an ;nvar steel core.
L
1. - Calculation of Conductor Performance at
High temperatures
1.1 Introduction
7he ther-al rating of an overhead line is the -a<i-u- electrical current that $ields accepta#le
loss of conductor tensile strength over the life of the line and 3hich results in adeKuate
electrical clearance in all spans of the line under all 3eather conditions. Loss of tensile strength
is a function of te-perature the degree of cold 3ork during -anufacture and ti-e. ?lectrical
clearance is dependent on conductor sag 3hich is related to conductor te-perature along the
line.
Line current is appro<i-atel$ the sa-e in all spans 2unless there are 'taps(5. Air te-perature
and solar heating are also Kuite consistent fro- span to span. Wind speed and direction
ho3ever can var$ greatl$ fro- span to span along the line. /ince the te-perature attained #$
#are overhead conductors 3ith -oderate to high electrical currents is ver$ dependent on #oth
3ind speed and direction conductor te-perature can var$ along the line #oth 3ithin long spans
and fro- span to span.
Given the line current and 3eather conditions 2air te-perature solar heating 3ind direction
and speed5 at an$ location along the line the local conductor te-perature -a$ #e calculated #$
perfor-ing a heat #alance calculation such as that suggested in the C;G1? #rochure IGJ.
9o3ever since 3ind conditions can var$ greatl$ along the line especiall$ during periods of
lo3 3ind the calculation of appropriatel$ conservative line ratings is less dependent on the
details of the heat&#alance eKuations than on the choice of appropriatel$ conservative 3ind
speed and direction to represent 3orst&case conditions along the line.
?lectrical clearance #et3een energi4ed conductors and ground is dependent on the ground
profile the structure attach-ent heights the span length the ever$da$ sag after heav$ loading
events and the energi4ed conductorMs sag increase 3ith te-perature. 7he sag increase 3ith
te-perature is deter-ined #$ the conductorMs ther-al elongation and is a co-ple< function of
te-perature and tension. /ag&tension calculation -ethods are t$picall$ used to esti-ate the
relationship #et3een conductor te-peratures and sag&tension. At high conductor te-peratures
certain errors and assu-ptions found in co--on -ethods of #oth heat #alance and sag&tension
calculations -a$ lead to uncertaint$ concerning the -aintenance of adeKuate electrical
clearance and the avoidance of e<cessive tensile strength reduction. 7his section of the
#rochure discusses so-e of the -a>or sources of error in each of the co-ponent calculations
used in line ratings.
;n addition certain factors -ust #e taken into account prior to uprating.
When uprating e<isting lines #$ replacing the conductors an assess-ent -ust #e -ade
of the present capa#ilit$ of the structures. 1eplacing the conductors of an e<isting line
G
should onl$ #e atte-pted if it has #een de-onstrated that the structures are capa#le of
supporting the reKuired loads for the lifeti-e reKuired of the ne3 conductor s$ste-. ;n
so-e cases this -ight involve carr$ing out repairs or i-prove-ents to the structures.
When replacing conductors use of a larger conductor i-poses greater loads on the
e<isting structures and -a$ reduce the relia#ilit$ of the line unless the structures are
reinforced. When renovating and especiall$ 3hen uprating an e<isting line full
advantage should #e taken of #eneficial terrain and foliage conditions as the$ e<ist at
each and ever$ span or structure.
When reappraising the loading criteria for an uprated line the line designer should not
lose sight of the possi#ilities of #oth changing the conductor design or -aterials and of
eKual i-portance -aking changes to the usage or li-its of use that are applied to the
conductor. 2e.g. Li-iting the ratio of tension to 3eight per unit length 29F35 in order to
control Aeolian vi#ration I1!11J -a$ lead to the application of larger replace-ent
conductors 3ith reduced steel content and lo3er 3eight.5
1.2 Thermal Rating Calculations t !le"ated Conductor Temperature
Given '3orst&case( 3eather conditions used for rating purposes the -a<i-u- allo3a#le
te-perature of a lineMs energi4ed conductors deter-ines the ther-al rating of an overhead line.
7he -a<i-u- allo3a#le sag 2for 3hich the -ini-u- ground clearance is -aintained5 and the
-a<i-u- allo3a#le loss of tensile strength of this conductor 2over the life of the line5
deter-ine the -a<i-u- allo3a#le conductor te-perature. 7hus the ther-al rating of an$
overhead line is deter-ined #$ the relationship of current and conductor te-perature.
"igure 1 illustrates this relationship for three different si4ed conductors 3ith t$pical '3orst&
case( 3eather conditions. Other li-itations on po3er flo3 -a$ e<ist. "or e<a-ple po3er
flo3 on trans-ission circuits -a$ #e li-ited #$ the econo-ic cost of electrical losses #$
s$ste- sta#ilit$ concerns or #$ voltage 'drop( along the line.
7he relationship #et3een the current and te-perature 3as calculated #$ the use of ther-al
rating -ethod descri#ed in IGJ 3ith t$pical values for conductor resistance and di-ensions.
7he assu-ed 3eather conditions are descri#ed in the caption of "igure 1.
"ro- "igure 1 it can #e seen that a ther-al rating of 1!!! a-peres is not uniKue to an$
conductor alu-iniu- cross&sectional area. ;t -a$ #e o#tained #$ using a conductor 3ith an
alu-iniu- cross&sectional area of 25 L!!&--
2
at a conductor te-perature of N!PC 2#5 %!!&
--
2
conductor at 1!!PC or 2C5 a 2!!&--
2
conductor at 2!!PC.
Clearl$ if higher electrical losses are accepta#le and li-its on loss of tensile strength and
-a<i-u- sag can #e -et the s-all conductors at higher te-perature can $ield the sa-e
ther-al rating as large conductors at -ore conventional te-peratures.
;f the -a<i-u- allo3a#le operating te-perature of the e<isting line conductors is -odest it
-a$ #e possi#le to acco--odate operation at so-e3hat higher te-perature #$ re&tensioning
the original conductor or #$ raising attach-ent positions. ;n this -anner the lineMs ther-al
rating can #e increased 3ithout replacing the conductors.
;f the increased structural loads resulting fro- the use of larger dia-eter replace-ent conductor
are accepta#le it -a$ #e possi#le to increase the ther-al rating of the line and to reduce the
1!
nor-al electrical losses #$ using a larger conductor 3hich has lo3er electrical resistance.
Thermal Rating versus Maximum Conductor Temperature
40C air, 0.61 m/s wind, ull sun
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Conductor Temperature ! degC
T
h
e
r
m
a
l

R
a
t
i
n
g

!

a
m
p
e
r
e
s
800 mm
2
400 mm
2
200 mm
2
" # C
Figure 1 - $ine thermal rating as a function of ma%imum allowa&le conductor temperature
and conductor cross-sectional area
;n -an$ cases ho3ever the operation of e<isting line conductors at higher te-perature is not
possi#le and the use of a larger dia-eter replace-ent conductor -a$ reKuire e<tensive
structural -odifications that are either prohi#itivel$ e<pensive ph$sicall$ i-possi#le or
unaccepta#le to the pu#lic. ;n such cases the use of a s-aller cross&section replace-ent
conductor tolerant of operation at high te-peratures -a$ #e an attractive solution if the cost of
electrical losses is accepta#le. Of course the high te-perature conductors -ust also e<hi#it
relativel$ lo3 sag at high te-perature in order to -aintain electrical clearances. /o-e of the
conductors discussed in section 2 of this #rochure offer the possi#ilit$ of operating at higher
te-perature 3ithout structural reinforce-ent.

1.' (ag-tension Issues at High Conductor Temperature
A lineMs ther-al rating is specified such that its energi4ed conductors re-ain safel$ a#ove
people and vehicles under the line. As such it is critical that the correct sag&te-perature
relationship is o#tained for all operating te-peratures. 7his relationship is 3ell defined for
conductor operated at -oderate te-peratures 2up to appro<i-atel$ N5PC5 #ut it has #een found
that at higher conductor te-peratures particularl$ 3ith non&ho-ogeneous stranded conductors
such as AC/1 there are ano-alies relating to this relationship. 7his section highlights and
e<plains these ano-alies.
"or ne3 trans-ission lines preli-inar$ sag&tension calculations are perfor-ed for structural
design. 7hese calculations provide the -a<i-u- conductor tension loads. "inal design
11
includes stringing sag&tension ta#les for conductor sagging as 3ell as final sags at #oth
'ever$da$( and -a<i-u- design te-peratures for line la$out design that includes to3er
spotting and considerations of aeolian vi#ration etc. at -ini-u- te-perature.
;n this #rochure 3e are onl$ interested in the calculation of sag at the -a<i-u- allo3a#le
conductor te-perature. Broader issues of sag&tension calculation are discussed in I121*1%J.
7herefore our interest centres on #oth plastic and elastic elongation of trans-ission conductors
at or a#ove -a<i-u- allo3a#le conductor te-peratures of 1!!PC.
At high te-perature in lines 3ith uneKual suspension span lengths this #rochure considers the
possi#ilit$ that tension eKualisation #et3een suspension spans -a$ #e i-perfect. ;n particular
in lines 3ith grossl$ uneKual suspension span lengths sags in short spans -a$ #e
underesti-ated and in long spans overesti-ated. ?rrors associated 3ith the 'ruling span(
tension eKualisation assu-ption are investigated.
;n the case of non&ho-ogeneous conductors 2e.g. AC/15 3e are concerned 3ith the co-posite
#ehaviour at high te-perature. ;n particular 3e investigate ho3 co-pressive or residual forces
in the alu-iniu- strands #e$ond the 'knee&point( te-perature I151DJ -a$ influence the
-a<i-u- sag of the conductor.
;n order to understand the essential issues at high te-peratures it is i-portant to understand the
-ethods used for sag&tension calculations. 7his is covered in the follo3ing section.
1.'.1 )raphical and linear methods for sag-tension calculations *update to reflect
T#'2+,
7he graphical -ethod I12J as the na-e i-plies -akes use of e<peri-ental graphs and
eKuations to represent the stress&strain #ehaviour of stranded conductors as a function of load
ti-e and te-perature. /eparate e<peri-ental curves are used to represent the stress&strain
#ehaviour 3hen the conductor is first installed 2i.e. the 'initial( curve5 and after it has #een
installed for an e<tended period of ti-e during 3hich it is e<posed to ice and 3ind loading 2i.e.
the 'final( curve5.
7he linear -ethod 3hich -a$ also #e #ased on e<peri-ental data represents the stress&strain
#ehaviour of stranded conductor 3ith a single -odulus of elasticit$. 7he difference in initial
and final unloaded sags is usuall$ esti-ated #ased on e<perience rather than calculated.
Generall$ the change in -odulus 2e<peri-ental curve slope5 #et3een initial and final
conditions is ignored in the linear -ethod.
7he 'strain&su--ation( -ethod of sag&tension calculation I1%J also utilises la#orator$ test data
#ut offers the opportunit$ to -odel -ultiple load and high te-perature events rather than
assu-ing a single loading event.
All of the sag&tension calculation -ethods are #ased on finding the intersection of t3o
funda-ental t$pes of curves. the eKuili#riu- relationship #et3een conductor tension and
elongation arc length 2e<pressed as a percent increase over the span length5 and a co-posite
stress&strain curve of the conductor. As the length of the conductor changes 3ith te-perature
and 3ith ti-e and elevated loadings the sag&tension is recalculated #$ shifting the intersection
point of the stress&strain curve2s5 and their shape.
"igure 2 sho3s the t$pical result of sag&tension calculations #$ an$ of the -ethods. 7his figure
12
illustrates several aspects of an$ sag&tension calculation.
7here is a per-anent elongation of the conductor due to alu-iniu- creep
elongation reflected in the difference #et3een the initial and final unloaded sag at
15
o
C.
7he sag under nor-al -a<i-u- ice and 3ind loading is less than the sag at high
te-perature.
7he sag at -a<i-u- te-perature deter-ines -ini-u- ground clearance 2and is
sensitive to the ther-al elongation #ehavior of the conductor5.
GROUND LEVEL
Minimum Electrical
Clearance
Initial Intalle! "a# $15C
%inal Unl&a!e! "a# $15C
"a# $ Ma' Ice()in! L&a!
"a# $ Ma' Electrical
L&a!* +ma'
",an Len#t-

Figure 2 - T.pical sag-tension "ariation with time/ mechanical load/
and temperature.
1.'.2 (ag-tension corrections for high temperatures.*update T#'2+,
?ssentiall$ all of the calculation -ethods used for high te-perature sags are still #ased on
-ethods 3hich have #een verified as reasona#l$ accurate at relativel$ lo3 te-peratures onl$.
1ecentl$ field infor-ation regarding sags at high te-peratures has #eco-e availa#le I1NJ. 7his
infor-ation points out the need to correct the traditional calculations as su--arised #elo3. ;t is
i-portant to note that the individual error sources are cu-ulative and that -ost of the-
increase the sags. 7hus 3hile an$ individual error -a$ #e of s-all significance the co-#ined
effect can #e profound.
7here are several different sources of errors. 7he$ can #e categorised as those errors that affect
1*
high te-perature sag calculations for.
all t$pes of conductor in an$ single or -ultiple span line section
conductors in -ultiple suspension&span line sections
non&ho-ogeneous conductors 2e.g. AC/15
1.3.2.1 Errors affecting any high-temperature sag calculation.
At high conductor te-peratures several errors i-pact sag esti-ates for all such conductors.
7hese errors reflect the facts that stranded conductors at high te-perature are not isother-al
that such high te-peratures can influence conventional esti-ates of -odulus and ther-al
e<pansion and that plastic creep elongation of alu-iniu- strands is affected #$ te-perature.
7e-perature differences #et3een the strands 2re&3rite to agree 3 7B2!N update5 .
/ag calculations are conventionall$ -ade assu-ing the conductor is isother-al. Actuall$ the
te-perature difference #et3een the centre of the conductor and its surface is a function of the
current densit$ the nu-#er of la$ers the tension and the conductor dia-eter I1L 1GJ. "or
e<a-ple a current densit$ of 2.5 AF--
2
causes a surface te-perature of GGPC and core
te-perature of 1!1PC in %!* --
2
AC/1 '6rake.( On the other hand in a 1!G2 --
2
AC/1
'Blue#ird( 3hich has a -uch larger dia-eter a so-e3hat lo3er current densit$ of 2.! AF--
2
causes a surface te-perature of 122PC and a core te-perature of 12DPC.
7he correction for sags in non&steel core conductors is relativel$ straightfor3ard. 7he sag
correction consists of using average conductor te-perature instead of surface te-perature. 7he
resulting sag increase in a *!! - span varies fro- a fe3 centi-etres for s-all conductors to
over 1! c- for large conductors at 1!!PC. "or steel&cored conductors the situation is -ore
co-ple< #ecause the te-perature difference #et3een the steel and alu-iniu- 3ires also shifts
the knee&point te-perature up3ards. 2additional insight in N*L and 6ouglass paper radial and
a<ial gradients5
?ffect of te-perature on elastic -odulus and coefficient of ther-al e<pansion.
/ag calculation progra-s assu-e that the final elastic -odulus and the coefficient of ther-al
e<pansion of alu-iniu- and steel are constants independent of te-perature and stress.
Actuall$ the rate of change of the coefficient of ther-al e<pansion is a function of the stress
and elastic -odulus ? I2!J.
"or high&car#on steel the elastic -odulus decreases #$ a#out D.5QF1!!PC and for alu-iniu-
a#out 5QF1!!PC. Because of the higher elastic -odulus of steel the resulting sag error is -ore
pronounced for conductors 3ith high steel contents. "or e<a-ple in a *!! - span of AC/1
'6rake( the effect at 12!PC 3ould #e a !.2 to !.* - increase in the sag. /uch s-all variations
are likel$ to #e of -ini-al significance in uprating #ut should #e noted.
Creep elongation at high te-peratures and increased tension.
7he effects of high te-perature creep are reasona#l$ 3ell kno3n I21 22J although there is a
relative scarcit$ of data of creep rates of different strand ratios. 9igh te-perature creep occurs
for AC/1 conductors having a proportion of steel less than NQ. ;t is i-portant to realise that
contrar$ to annealing there is no specific te-perature threshold for high te-perature creep. ;t
should also #e noted that old conductors 3hich are pri-aril$ -anufactured using hot&rolled
alu-iniu- rods have a higher creep rate than ne3er conductors -anufactured fro- the
continuous&cast 2'+roper4i(5 alu-iniu- rods that are prevalent toda$.
Creep rates depend on tension and te-perature. "or e<a-ple assu-e that a %!2 --
2
AAC
1%
'Ar#utus( is installed in a *!! - span and its final sag at 1!!PC is 12.! -. ;f the -aterial is
rolled rod operation at 1!!PC causes a sag increase of !.2 - in 1! hours !.D - in 1!! hours
and 1.1 - in 1!!! hours. ;f the -aterial is continuous cast 2'+roper4i(5 the sag increases 3ill
#e a#out D!Q of the a#ove values. ?ven on older e<isting lines re&tensioning an e<isting
conductor that has sta#ilised 2'stopped creeping(5 3ill cause additional creep due to the higher
tension.
RWhat a#out creep 3ith annealed alu-iniu- strandsS 6escription of ho3 creep occurs
ph$sicall$ in a t3o&part conductor 2tension&transfer5S T
A surve$ conducted a-ong utilities indicated that the -a>orit$ of the- realise annealing as a
potential pro#le- for high te-perature operation. "or the a#ove e<a-ple -ost utilities 3ould
recognise that 1!!!&hour operation at 1!!PC causes a s-all loss of strength 2a#out 2.5Q
according to I2*J5. Contrar$ to this ver$ fe3 utilities account for the acceleration of per-anent
creep elongation of alu-iniu- at high te-perature. 7his can co--onl$ cause su#stantial
pro#le-s at -uch lo3er te-peratures than annealing. 9o3ever conductor creep is deter-ined
#$ the co-#ination of te-perature and tension. As the conductor te-perature increases the
tension of line decreases. ;n conseKuence in so-e cases high te-perature creep is less than
roo- te-perature creep. ;nfor-ation on loss of strength due to high te-perature can #e found
in I2*J.
1.3.2.2 Errors affecting sag calculations in multiple span line sections.
/ags of individual spans in line sections 2i.e. #et3een dead&ends5 are often calculated using the
'ruling span( principle. 7he ruling span principle assu-es that the hori4ontal co-ponent of
tension is the sa-e in each suspension span #ecause the longitudinal s3ing of suspension
insulators eKualises the tension differences. ;n the recent past it has #een recognised that the
insulator s3ing eKualises the tension onl$ partiall$. When the conductor heats the insulator
strings nor-all$ s3ing fro- short spans into long spans and the result is that the tension varies
-ore in the short spans than in the long spans. 7his #ehaviour and its i-pact on sags is
descri#ed in detail in ;??? report I2%J 3hich found that -ost of the presentl$ availa#le -ulti&
span sagFtension progra-s provided si-ilar results. On the other hand the results of these
progra-s sho3ed that ruling span -ethod could cause sag errors 3hich could #e as -uch as 1
- in error at 1!!PC for certain co-#inations of uneKual length suspension spans.
R?<a-ple using +L/&CA66 finite ele-ent optionST
1.3.2.3 Errors affecting sag calculations of Knee-point temperature for non-homogeneous
(e.g. ACS! con"uctors. #Kneepoint e$planation nee"s to inclu"e anneale" aluminium
%&'S con"uctors since the change in slope is much greater. (hy )ere people a*le to ignore
this for many years (lo) ma$ temp+ ACS,
7he 'graphical -ethod( and the 'nu-erical -ethod( for sag calculations assu-e that there is a
definite 'knee&point te-perature( a#ove 3hich the stress of the alu-iniu- 3ires is 4ero. 7hus
#elo3 the knee&point te-perature the conductor sagFte-perature relationship depends on the
co-posite elastic -odulus and co-posite coefficient of ther-al e<pansion 3hile a#ove the
knee&point te-perature the #ehaviour depends on the elastic -odulus and coefficient of ther-al
e<pansion of steel onl$. ;t is no3 kno3n that.
7here is no e<act knee&point. 7here is t$picall$ a range of 1!&2!PC 3ithin 3hich the
conductor properties change fro- high to lo3 values.
7he coefficient of ther-al e<pansion and elastic -odulus #elo3 and a#ove the knee&
point te-perature -a$ differ su#stantiall$ fro- theoretical values I1N 25J.
7he knee&point te-perature is generall$ higher than assu-ed #$ classical calculation
15
-ethods. 7here are t3o different e<planations for the reason for the knee&point shift
I15 1DJ. Although conceptuall$ different the$ result in rather si-ilar knee&point shifts
and ther-o&elastic #ehaviour a#ove the knee&point. 7hus it has not #een possi#le to
>udge #et3een the relative -erits of the approaches.
7a#le 1 sho3s the variation in knee point te-perature 3ith conductor steel core si4e and 3ith
span length. 7he knee&point te-perature is not -uch a#ove su--er a-#ient for high steel
content AC/1 in short spans. 7hese calculations 3ere -ade using I12J.
1D
AC/1 /teel /pan 0neepoint 7e-p I
o
CJ
)a-e /tranding --
2
- )o Alu-
Co-pression
2! ,+a of Alu-
Co-pression
7ern %5FN 2L *!! 15! 15D
Condor 5%FN 5* *!! 1!! 112
6rake 2DFN DD *!! N! LL
,allard *!FN G2 *!! *2 52
6rake 2DFN DD %5! N% 1!!
6rake 2DFN DD *!! N! LL
6rake 2DFN DD 2!! 55 N1
6rake 2DFN DD 1!! %2 5!
Ta&le 1 - 01nee-point temperatures2 for "arious strandings of C(R as
determined &. the graphical method. ll ha"e an aluminium strand
area of +3' mm
2
1.3.2.- Summary of high temperature sag errors.
7he a#ove list of factors causing high te-perature sag errors -a$ not #e all&inclusive #ut
identifies the -ost co--on and the -ost significant causes of errors. ;t needs to #e stressed
that the errors are cu-ulative and -ostl$ additive 23ith the e<ception of the ruling span errors
3hich can #e either positive or negative5. 7hus in the 3orst case such errors can a-ount to a
sag error that can e<ceed 2 -eters for te-peratures a#ove 1!!
o
C in *!!- spans. ;t is thus
i-perative to anal$se and correct such errors #efore operating lines at te-peratures in e<cess of
1!!PC.
T.pical error magnitudes in high temperature sag calculations
AC/1 6rake AC/1 Condor AC/1 7ern
Alu-iniu- area 2strands5 %!* --
2
22D5 %!* --
2
25%5 %!* --
2
2%55
/teel area 2strands5 DD --
2
2N5 5* --
2
2N5 2L --
2
2N5
"inal tension at 2!
o
C 25 L!! ) 2* 15! ) 1G 1!! )
?Kuivalent span length 25! - 25! - 25! -
/ag at 2!PC %.L% - 5.!D - 5.*D -
!ffect of calculation methods on final 123 4C sag5
Calculation assu-ing constant -odulus N.ND - N.NL - L.5* -
Graphical -ethod 3ith no Al co-pression N.!! - N.5* - L.5* -
Graphical -ethod 3ith t$pical 2! ,+a
-a<i-u- co-pression
N.*2 - N.N* - L.5* -
dditional sag errors at 123 4C 5
7e-perature difference coreFsurface U!.!* - U!.!5 - U!.!D -
Change of elastic -odulus vs. te-perature U!.15 - U!.11 - U!.!D -
9igh te-perature creep ! ! U!.5! -
,ultiple span effects U!.D to &1.! U!.5 to &!.G - U!.5 to &!.L -
?ffect of core -agnetisation losses ! U !.!N - U!.!5 -
?ffect of -anufacturing te-perature UF& !.1% UF& !.12 !
7a#le 2 & T.pical differences in calculated high temperature sag as a
function of C(R steel core si6e.
1N
7a#le 2 lists the sag errors produced #$ different knee&point assu-ptions. ;t also includes
esti-ates of sag errors due to other relativel$ '-inor( sources of calculation error including
consideration of radial te-perature differences #et3een the steel core and outside of the
conductor change in elastic -odulus 3ith te-perature non&ideal ruling span effects etc. )ote
that the errors due to non&ideal ruling span effects are generall$ larger than those errors due to
the other factors and that sags are usuall$ greater than predicted in the shortest spans and less
than predicted for relativel$ long spans.R6iscussion and e<a-ples of ho3 knee&point te-p is a
function of load histor$ O initialFfinal & and -aterials response to loadT
1.+ (ummar. of Conductor Performance at High Temperature
;t is econo-icall$ attractive to increase the ther-al rating of an e<isting line 3hile avoiding the
need to replace the e<isting trans-ission line conductor. 7his avoids the cost of #u$ing ne3
conductor reinforcing e<isting structures and the loss of service during the line reconductoring.
;n -ost cases the increase in ther-al rating that results fro- operating the e<isting conductor at
a higher te-perature is -odest #ut in certain lines even s-all -odifications can cause a
su#stantial increase in rating.
7he electrical current in the e<isting #are overhead trans-ission line conductor is li-ited in
order to avoid.
+er-anentl$ reducing the conductorMs tensile strength through annealing of alu-iniu-
+er-anentl$ lengthening the conductor 2and thus increasing its sag5 #$ a process of
accelerated high te-perature creep of alu-iniu-
,o-entaril$ violating regulator$ electrical clearances through e<cessive reversi#le sag
increase at high conductor te-perature.
;f it is necessar$ to reconductor an e<isting line 2either #ecause there is not sufficient electrical
clearance or #ecause the e<isting conductor is in poor condition5 it -a$ #e econo-icall$ 2and
so-eti-es environ-entall$5 attractive to use a replace-ent conductor that does not reKuire the
e<tensive reinforce-ent of e<isting structures. 7his nor-all$ reKuires that the replace-ent
conductor #e operated at te-peratures 3ell a#ove the annealing te-perature of ordinar$
alu-iniu- 2G!PC5 and presents a nu-#er of difficult calculation issues that are not nor-all$
encountered in conventional line design.
/ection 1 of this #rochure discusses so-e of the pri-ar$ concerns a#out high te-perature
operation of trans-ission line conductors. 7hese concerns involve the accurac$ of sag
calculations at te-peratures that -a$ at least occasionall$ e<ceed 1!!PC. )on&ho-ogeneous
conductors such as AC/1 present a particular challenge. /ag calculation errors -a$ result fro-
the follo3ing.
;ncorrect -odelling of ther-al elongation of non&ho-ogeneous conductors such as
AC/1 a#ove their knee&point te-perature.
+er-anent elongation of alu-iniu- strands 3hen tension andFor te-perature are a#ove
ever$da$ levels.
7e-perature differences #et3een the core and the surface of conductors at high current
densities.
7he failure of tension eKualisation at high conductor te-peratures in lines having large
span length variations.
1L
;ncreased effective electrical resistance due to core -agnetisation losses in steel core
high te-perature conductors.
While the preceding /ection of this #rochure presents so-e esti-ate of the order of -agnitude
of sag errors due to these factors it does not provide definitive ans3ers to all the Kuestions.
1G
2. - Conductors for Increased Thermal Rating of
7"erhead Transmission $ines
2.1 Introduction 8 (ummar. of Conductor 9se (ur"e. *:ew sur"e.;
How do we coordinate with <)+=; Pro&a&l. our customer is a
s.stem planner or design engineer/ <)+= customer is maintenance or
design or manufacturer,
7he first task of C;G1? 7" B2.12.1 3as to conduct an international surve$ of utilities to
deter-ine the identified needs for higher te-perature operation and the related present
practices. 1esponses 3ere received fro- N1 utilities in 15 countries. 7he$ indicated that
although the present practices had 3ide differences the anticipated needs sho3ed ver$ si-ilar
trends. R;nteresting to repeat the original surve$ to see ho3 things have changedST
7he surve$ confir-ed that the vast -a>orit$ of the installed conductors toda$ are AC/1 2L2Q5
although so-e ?uropean countries sho3 preferences for AAAC and ACA1 conductors in their
ne3er lines. /pecial conductors of -an$ t$pes e<ist I2D 2NJ 3hich reflects the need for local
solutions to regional pro#le-s. 1egionall$ so-e of these special conductors have #een used
enough to #e considered 'nor-al( there. ?<a-ples are 7W /6C AC// and 72 conductors in
)orth A-erica and 7AC/1 G7AC/1 and E7AC;1 in 8apan and Asian countries 2these
conductor t$pes are defined in the '6efinitions( section5.
,ost utilities in the 3orld operate their lines under nor-al conditions at te-peratures up to L5&
1!!PC 3ith e-ergenc$ te-peratures 3hich are usuall$ 1!&25PC higher #ut so-e utilities use
te-peratures of up to 12!PC nor-al and up to 15!PC e-ergenc$. 7he calculations used in
ther-al ratings of the lines are generall$ Kuite si-ilar and usuall$ follo3 reasona#l$ closel$
the recent C;G1? /tandard -ethod IGJ or the closel$ related ;??? /tandard N*L I2LJ. With a
fe3 nota#le e<ceptions ratings are calculated using deter-inistic assu-ptions of a high
a-#ient te-perature full solar radiation and a lo3 3ind speed. ,ost utilities assu-e 3ind
speeds of !.5&!.D -Fs #ut a nu-#er of utilities have recentl$ increased the 3ind speed
assu-ption to !.G&1.2 -Fs. 1efer to 7B 2GG hereT
7he surve$ sho3ed that -ost po3er utilities have felt the pressure to increase line ratings. 7he
-a>orit$ of the responses indicated that their co-pan$ had in the recent past increased the
-a<i-u- operating te-peratures of e<isting lines changed the 3eather assu-ptions used to
calculate line ratings andFor reconductored or re&tensioned lines. A significant -inorit$ had
either applied special conductors or used real&ti-e rating -ethods to increase a-pacit$. 7hese
trends are e<pected to continue in the future.
7he respondents 3ere asked to rank their interest in the future infor-ation needs of conductors.
7he highest interest 2NLQ co-#ined '=er$ 9igh( and '9igh(5 3as given to 'Better
infor-ation on high te-perature sags of present conductors( and ';nfor-ation on high
te-perature creep or annealing of present conductors.( 'Conductors 3ith reduced sag at high
2!
te-peratures( 2N5Q5 and ')e3 conductors for higher operating te-peratures( 2D5Q5 follo3ed
closel$.
7he surve$ clearl$ sho3ed that there is a need to operate e<isting lines at higher te-peratures.
On the other hand the individual responses sho3ed a -arked reluctance to drastic changes in
-aterials. A significant nu-#er of responses indicated that ne3 conductor -aterials should not
drasticall$ affect line design or -aintenance. A large nu-#er of respondents also indicated that
the accepta#le pre-iu- price for ne3 conductors 3as Kuite li-ited e<cept in ver$ special
cases 2such as river crossings and congested ur#an areas5 3here the cost of alternatives 2such as
e<pensive rerouting or underground ca#les5 3as ver$ high. RAdd -ore -aterial here a#out
s$ste- reasons for increased ther-al rating of linesT
2.2 Increasing $ine Capacit. >Thermal Rating? <ith !%isting
Conductors
Line ther-al ratings can #e increased 3ithout replacing the e<isting line conductors in one of
t3o 3a$s. the -a<i-u- allo3a#le conductor te-perature -a$ #e increasedV or a pro#a#ilistic
rating can #e deter-ined. Whatever the -ethod an increase in capacit$ of the line 3ill allo3
operation at higher current levels and increased electrical loading 3ill result in increased
average operating te-perature of the phase conductors their connectors and support hard3are.
/ince this approach is often taken on older lines -echanical relia#ilit$ is a significant concern.
;t should #e noted that the selection of less conservative 3eather conditions for ther-al rating
calculations 3ithout a thorough engineering anal$sis of line ratings is a potentiall$ dangerous
#ut econo-icall$ attractive process. ;ncreasing the ther-al rating on lines 3ithout such anal$sis
3ill inevita#l$ lead to an increased utilisation and an increased pro#a#ilit$ of sag clearance
violations. Generall$ this -ethod is not valid and can #e dangerous to pu#lic safet$.
2.2.1 @aintaining electrical clearances.
;f the -a<i-u- allo3a#le conductor te-perature is to #e increased then the corresponding
-a<i-u- conductor sag 3ill increase and e<isting electrical clearances 3ill decrease. A
careful ph$sical revie3 of the line under ever$da$ conditions is reKuired for the co-putation of
revised line clearances at the ne3 higher te-perature. With steel&reinforced alu-iniu-
conductors 2e.g. AC/15 the ther-al elongation rate at high te-perature -ust also #e re&
evaluated as discussed in later sections of this #rochure.
;f the electrical clearance corresponding to the ne3 higher conductor te-perature is deter-ined
to #e a#ove the appropriate legal -ini-u- at all points along the line then no -odifications
need #e undertaken. =erification of adeKuate sag should #e undertaken after esta#lishing higher
ratings 3ithout ph$sical -odification of the line. 7he calculation of clearances at high
conductor te-peratures should consider the possi#le per-anent elongation of alu-iniu-
conductor due to e<tended operation at high te-perature.
;f electrical clearances corresponding to the ne3 higher conductor te-perature are inadeKuate
then either the support points -ust #e raised the conductor tension increased suspension cla-p
positions changed or conductor length reduced. All such ph$sical -odifications -ust #e
carefull$ considered and strain structures reinforced if these conductor changes increase the
-a<i-u- conductor tensions. R1ange of differences in clearance and ho3 this -ight influence
the choice of uprating approach.T
21
2.2.2 $imiting loss of tensile strength. *<) +2,
"or conductor te-peratures a#ove G!PC hard&dra3n alu-iniu- and copper strands 3ill lose
significant tensile strength 2'anneal(5 over ti-e I2* 2GJ. Copper 3ires -a$ also anneal at
lo3er te-peratures although the rate is ver$ slo3. 7e-peratures #elo3 *!!PC do not affect the
tensile strength of steel strands. Alu-iniu- conductors having a steel core 2AC/15 also
e<perience loss of co-posite strength if operated a#ove G!
o
C #ut since the strength of the steel
core is unaffected the reduction in tensile strength in the alu-iniu- strands is of less concern
than for phase conductors -ade entirel$ of alu-iniu- or copper strands.
Alu-iniu- strands -ade fro- rod -ade #$ the continuous casting process are less suscepti#le
to annealing than those dra3n fro- 'rolled rod.( /ince the rod source for an e<isting stranded
conductor -a$ #e unkno3n it is conservative to assu-e 'rolled rod( as the source of
alu-iniu- 3ires.
"nnealing o 1$%0!&1' &ard (rawn "luminum )ire
.0
.5
70
75
80
85
/0
/5
100
001 1 10 100 1000 10000
*xposure Time ! &ours
+

R
e
m
a
i
n
i
n
g

o

,
n
i
t
i
a
l

T
e
n
s
i
l
e

-
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
1.%C
1%0C
100C
Figure ' -T.pical annealing cur"es for aluminium wires/ drawn from
0rolled2 rod/ of a diameter t.picall. used in transmission conductors *1',.
7he conductor te-perature -ust re-ain a#ove G!PC for an e<tended period of ti-e for the
reduction of strength to #eco-e significant. "or e<a-ple 3ith reference to "igure * an all
alu-iniu- conductor at 1!!PC -ust re-ain at that te-perature for %!! hours to lose 5Q of its
tensile strength. 7his loss of tensile strength is cu-ulative over the life of the line so routine
e-ergenc$ operation at 1!!PC -a$ #e unaccepta#le over ti-e even though individual events
-a$ persist for no -ore than a fe3 hours.
As the conductor te-perature increases the rate of annealing increases rapidl$. At 125PC an
all alu-iniu- conductor 3ill lose 5Q of its tensile strength in onl$ *! hours. "or alu-iniu-
strands dra3n fro- continuous cast rod the loss of strength in these t3o high te-perature&ti-e
22
co-#inations is negligi#le.
7he loss in tensile strength at te-peratures a#ove 1!!PC 2a#ove 125
o
C for 3ire fro-
continuous cast rod5 -a$ #e li-ited #$ using 'li-ited ti-e( ratings 3here high currents are
allo3ed onl$ for #rief periods of ti-e. As noted in -an$ references the presence of a steel
core 3hich does not anneal reduces the loss of strength for AC/1 conductors.
RAdd -aterial fro- WG%2 on high te-p effects on splices and hard3are. Also 7B**1 for
discussion of da-age to insulators fro- 97L/T
2*
2.2.' "oiding connector failures.*see CI)R! <) +2,
Unless an increase in rating is preceded #$ a careful inspection of the energi4ed conductors
connectors and hard3are the higher operating te-peratures 3ill result in a reduction in
relia#ilit$. As descri#ed in reference I*!J the detection of '#ad( co-pression splices prior to
their failure during e-ergenc$ loadings is not si-ple. 1egardless of the pro#a#ilit$ of
-echanical failure a connector is usuall$ considered failed if it operates at a te-perature in
e<cess of the conductor.
7here are t3o t$pes of connectors. lo3 tension and full tension splices. Lo3 tension connectors
include co-pression and #olted t$pes and are used at strain structures in '>u-pers( and other
locations 3here the full rated -echanical load of the conductor 3ill not develop. "ull tension
splices are found in span and at ter-ination points of line sections.
One of the greatest challenges in increasing the line capacit$ 3ithout replacing the conductors
concerns evaluating the connectors . 7his is the result of a nu-#er of factors.
7he 3ork-anship of old connectors is pro#le-atic.
7here -a$ #e a variet$ of e<isting connector t$pes to evaluate.
;nfrared te-perature -easuring ca-eras are ineffective at nor-al electrical load levels.
Corrosion in connectors is hard to detect.
As a result of these uncertainties an effort should #e -ade to identif$ old connectors that are
likel$ to fail under increased electrical loads. 7his can #e done 3ith infrared or resistance
checks I*!J. ;f the condition of e<isting connections is uncertain then shunts or -echanical
reinforce-ent should #e considered in order to avoid -echanical failures at high current
loading.
2.' Increasing $ine Thermal Rating Capacit. &. Conductor
Replacement
Conductor replace-ent can #e a ver$ effective -ethod of increasing the capacit$ of a
trans-ission line. 6epending on the t$pe of conductor alread$ in place the te-perature for
3hich it 3as originall$ designed and the desired ne3 operating te-perature significant
enhance-ents in #oth ther-al rating and relia#ilit$ can #e achieved at a cost that -a$ #e ver$
-uch less than that of #uilding a ne3 trans-ission line. 7his does ho3ever assu-e that ver$
fe3 if an$ structural -odifications are reKuired to ena#le the to3ers to acco--odate the ne3
conductor. 7here is a 3ide variet$ of conductors in use 3orld3ide and an$ specific choice for
a particular pro>ect 3ill depend on the circu-stances and conditions applica#le to that pro>ect.
1eplacing the conductors of an e<isting line can onl$ #e atte-pted on a line that has
de-onstrated over a period of $ears that it has so-e reserve of strength to resist the 3eather&
related loads that have occurred. 7he relia#ilit$ of a line that has e<hi#ited freKuent structural
failures is unlikel$ to i-prove as a result of reconductoring.
;ncreasing the a-pacit$ of an e<isting line #$ use of a replace-ent conductor larger than the
original 2having lo3er resistance5 3ill increase #oth ice and 3ind loads and tension loads on
e<isting structures. A larger conventional conductor i-posing greater loads on the e<isting
structures -a$ reduce the relia#ilit$ of the e<isting line unless the structures are reinforced.
2%
;ncreasing the a-pacit$ of an e<isting line #$ use of a replace-ent conductor having nearl$ the
sa-e dia-eter as the original conductor #ut capa#le of operation at higher te-perature 23ithin
e<isting sag clearance and loss&of&strength constraints5 -a$ avoid the need for e<tensive
reinforce-ent of suspension structures. /ection 2.*.% of this #rochure considers several
different t$pes of high&te-perature lo3&sag conductors that can #e used to increase the
a-pacit$ of e<isting lines 3ith a -ini-u- of structural reinforce-ent.
2.'.1 Replacement conductors for operation at moderate temperatures >A1334C?.
7his section of the #rochure descri#es t3o #road categories of replace-ent conductor. ?ach is
suita#le for operation at -oderate te-peratures 2A1!!PC5. 7he first categor$ includes
conductors using alternative -aterials to those used in AC/1. 7hese are AAAC and ACA1
conductors 3hich #oth -ake use of alu-iniu- allo$ in their construction I*1 *2J. AAC/1
2Alu-iniu- Allo$ Conductors /teel 1einforced5 also -ake use of alu-iniu- allo$ #ut onl$
give a #enefit over standard AC/1 3here the$ -ake use of high te-perature allo$s such as
7AL and E7AL and are therefore not descri#ed in this section. 7he second categor$ includes
replace-ent conductors 3ith alternative stranding arrange-ents to the standard round&3ire
construction. 7hese conductors include those 3ith co-pacted constructions and those designed
to resist 3ind&induced -otion. 7hese t$pes of construction are applica#le to conductors of all
-aterial t$pes including those designed for high operating te-peratures.
2.3.1.1 All Aluminium Alloy Con"uctor (AAAC!.
"or trans-ission lines strung 3ith AC/1 designed for relativel$ lo3 te-perature operation
25! to D5PC5 restringing 3ith AAAC can offer a significant i-prove-ent in ther-al rating.
AAAC conductors have a higher strength to 3eight ratio than AC/1 and if strung to a si-ilar
percentage of rated #reaking strength 21B/5 can #e rated for higher te-perature operation than
AC/1 3ithout e<ceeding design sags. ;t should #e noted ho3ever that stringing to a si-ilar
percentage of 1B/ 3ould result in a -uch higher ratio of hori4ontal tension 295 to unit 3eight
of conductor 235 3hich can cause pro#le-s for lines sensitive to aeolian vi#ration. ;n the
United 0ingdo- 3here favora#le terrain andFor vi#ration da-pers allo3 stringing at relativel$
high 9F3 values IG 1!J AAAC has #een used e<tensivel$ for the uprating of AC/1 lines.
AAAC is also 3idel$ used in other countries for the construction of ne3 lines.
7he allo$ used in AAAC is -ost co--onl$ a heat&treata#le alu-iniu-&-agnesiu-&silicon
allo$ designated #$ ;?C D!1!%. 7here are -an$ te-pers availa#le var$ing in strength and
conductivit$. Conductivities range #et3een 52.5Q and 5N.5Q ;AC/ 2?C grade Alu-iniu- has
a conductivit$ of D1Q ;AC/5 3hile strengths var$ #et3een 25! ,+a and **! ,+a. As a rule
of thu-# the higher the conductivit$ of the allo$ the lo3er the strength and vice versa.
Alu-iniu- allo$ conductors 22G5 ,+a 5D.5Q ;AC/5 have #een 3idel$ used in the U0 to
replace AC/1 2'Ee#ra( %!!--
2
no-inal alu-iniu- area 5%FN < *.1L-- strands5. Co-paring
properties an AAAC 3ith the sa-e dia-eter as Ee#ra 3ill #e *.5Q stronger 1L.5Q lighter and
have a 5Q lo3er 6C resistance. ,atching either the resistance or the strength of Ee#ra gives
si-ilar results #ut 3ith a slightl$ s-aller conductor. ;f cli-atic conditions and to3er
capa#ilities per-it the use of a larger conductor then an AAAC 3ith the sa-e unit 3eight as
'Ee#ra( 3ill #e 2%Q stronger have a 2!.5Q lo3er 6C resistance #ut have a dia-eter al-ost
1!Q larger.
25
Where the AAAC can #e strung at a si-ilar percentage of 1B/ to AC/1 ther-al rating
increases of up to %!Q can #e achieved 3ith a conductor of the sa-e dia-eter and 5!Q 3ith a
conductor of the sa-e 3eight. 7his -a$ reKuire additional -echanical da-ping since the 9F3
ratio of the AAAC 3ill #e higher than the AC/1 that it replaces. 7here are no ferro-agnetic or
transfor-er effect losses 3ith AAAC.
AAAC generall$ has good corrosion perfor-ance. 7he lack of a steel core re-oves the
possi#ilit$ of galvanic corrosion taking place such as is possi#le in AC/1. 9o3ever corrosion
is still possi#le especiall$ in coastal regions and it is often standard practice to use greased
AAAC to prevent corrosion #$ salt aerosols.
2.3.1.2 Aluminium Con"uctor+ Alloy einforce" (ACA!.
ACA1 co-#ines strands -ade fro- alu-iniu- allo$ t$picall$ the sa-e as that used for
AAAC and ?C grade alu-iniu-. 7his allo3s the properties of the conductor to #e opti-ised
for a particular application. B$ increasing the a-ount of ?C grade alu-iniu- used the
conductivit$ of the conductor is increased though at the e<pense of strength. Like3ise if the
nu-#er of allo$ strands is increased the -echanical strength of the conductor is increased at
the e<pense of conductivit$. Again as 3ith AAAC the #enefits of using ACA1 conductors to
replace AC/1 conductors 3ill depend on allo3a#le stringing tensions.
2.3.1.3 Shape"-)ire con"uctors.
Overhead line conductors are nor-all$ constructed fro- helicall$ 3ound 3ires 3ith a circular
cross section. 7his results in a conductor cross&section containing fairl$ large inter&strand voids
3ith W2!Q of the total cross&sectional area of the conductor #eing air. B$ using 3ires 3ith a
trape4oidal shape conductors can #e constructed 3ith an increased proportion of -etal 3ithin
their cross section. Co-pacted conductors can #e ho-ogenous like AAACF7W 3ith all strands
e<cept the king 3ire #eing of trape4oidal shape or non&ho-ogenous like AC/1F7W 3ith a
round&3ired steel core surrounded #$ trape4oidal alu-iniu- 3ires. 9o3ever the strands that
-ake up shaped&strand conductors need not #e trape4oidal. One conductor design has -osaic
2'E(5 shaped strands that effectivel$ lock together.
/haped&3ire conductors have a larger alu-iniu- area and thus lo3er resistance than a nor-al
round strand conductor 3ith the sa-e outside dia-eter. When reconductoring an e<isting line
3ith shaped&3ire conductor the increased 3eight of the conductor 3ill result in slightl$ higher
to3er loads #ut cli-atic loads due to 3ind andFor ice 3ill not #e increased as these are a
function of dia-eter. "or 3ind&onl$ loading conditions loads -a$ actuall$ #e lo3er as the
aerod$na-ic properties of the surface result in a lo3er drag coefficient at high 3ind speeds.
One e<a-ple of shaped&3ire conductor that achieves a lo3 drag coefficient is one that has an
oval cross&section the orientation of 3hich varies along its length giving a 'spiral&elliptic(
shape. I**J
"urther-ore shaped&3ire conductors have #een sho3n to possess slightl$ #etter characteristics
of energ$ a#sorption of vi#ration due to the higher surface area of the contacts #et3een strands
of ad>acent la$ers 3hich results in lo3er inter&strand contact stresses I*% *5J.
2.3.1.- .otion-resistant con"uctors.
/haped&3ire conductors have also #een used to reduce the effects of 3ind&induced -otions.
/uch conductors include 'self da-ping( 2/6C5 conductor 3hich incorporates s-all gaps
#et3een the successive la$ers of strands allo3ing energ$ a#sorption through i-pact I*D *NJ.
Another conductor 3hich resists -otion is the '72( conductor consisting of t3o standard
round conductors 3rapped a#out one another 3ith a heli< appro<i-atel$ * -eters long I*LJ.
2D
7his resists -otion due to its aerod$na-ic characteristics and is 3idel$ used in the United
/tates.
?<isting lines are nor-all$ designed or reconductored 3ith 72 or /6C in order to i-prove their
resistance to ice galloping flashovers and to aeolian vi#ration. At least theoreticall$ 72 can #e
-ade 3ith an$ of the conductors discussed in this section possi#l$ including those designed for
operation at high te-perature.
2.'.2 Conductors for operation at high temperature >B133 4C?.
7his section presents co-parative infor-ation for four #asic t$pes of trans-ission conductor O
7AC/1 2or E7AC/15 G7AC/1 2or GE7AC/15 7AC;1 2or E7AC;15 and AC//. ?ach is
stranded 3ith a co-#ination of alu-iniu- allo$ 3ires for conductivit$ and reinforced #$ core
3ires of steel. 7he steel core 3ires are coated to prevent corrosion #et3een the steel and
alu-iniu-. 7he properties of the various allo$s and te-pers of alu-iniu- and the si-ilarl$
various t$pes of high strength steel core 3ires are co-pared in 7a#les * and %. "or e<a-ple
7AC;1 is -anufactured 3ith la$ers of 7AL alu-iniu- allo$ 3ires over an ;nvar steel core and
AC// is availa#le in #oth round 3ire and trape4oidal 3ire constructions 3ith standard strength
or high strength core 3ires.
An$ of the four t$pes of conductor is capa#le of operating continuousl$ at te-peratures of at
least 15!BC. /o-e of the conductors can #e operated as high as 25!BC 3ithout significant
changes in their -echanical and electrical properties. ?ach conductor t$pe has certain
advantages and disadvantages 3hich are discussed #riefl$ in this #rochure.
2.3.2.1 Con"uctor materials./0EC 1222- on 3irconium aluminium4/Cenelec ACSS4/AS&.4
7hese conductors designed for high te-perature operation consist of various co-#inations of
the alu-iniu- and steel 3ire -aterials listed in 7a#les * and %.
Einc&5Q Alu-iniu- ,isch-etal coated steel 3ire is capa#le of operation at higher
te-peratures than nor-al galvanised steel 3ire 2i.e. 25!BC instead of 2!!BC5. ;nvar steel 3ire
has a nota#l$ lo3er rate of ther-al e<pansion 3hen co-pared to ordinar$ galvanised steel core
3ire #ut has so-e3hat lo3er tensile strength and -odulus.
7$pe of Alu-iniu- Conductivit$
2Q;AC/5
,in. 7ensile
/trength
2,+a5
Allo3a#le Operating
7e-perature2BC5
Continuous ?-ergenc$X
9ard 6ra3n 1*5!&91G
29AL5
D1.2 15G & 2!! G! 12!
7her-al 1esistant
Iiec D2!!%J
7AL D! 15G & 1ND 15! 1L!
?<tra 7her-al
1esistantI'J
E7AL D! 15G & 1ND 21! 2%!
"ull$ Annealed
ICenelec 5!5%!J
1*5!&! D* 5G O GN 2!! O 25!XX 25!XX
Ta&le ' - Characteristics of luminium and High Temperature
luminium llo. <ires.
*Emergency operating temperature is not well defined but it is generally agreed that the
emergency temperature should not apply for more than 10 hours per year.
**Fully annealed aluminium strands can operate at temperatures in excess of 250
o
C but are
2N
normally limited to lower temperatures because of concerns about connectors and steel
core wire coatings.
7AL and E7AL alu-iniu- 3ires have essentiall$ the sa-e conductivit$ and tensile strength as
ordinar$ electrical conductor grade alu-iniu- 3ire #ut can operate continuousl$ at
te-peratures up to 15!BC and 21!BC respectivel$ 3ithout an$ loss of tensile strength over
ti-e. "ull$ annealed alu-iniu- 3ires are che-icall$ identical to ordinar$ hard dra3n
alu-iniu- have -uch reduced tensile strength and can operate indefinitel$ at te-peratures
even higher than 25!BC 3ithout an$ change in -echanical or electrical properties.
"or the purpose of this #rochure 3here a conductor construction referred to could #e -ade up
using either the E7AL or the 7AL allo$ it is descri#ed as 2E57AL.
,in. 7ensile
/trength 2,+a5
,odulus of
?lasticit$ 2G+a5
Coef. of Linear
?<pansion
2<1!
&D
5
Galv. /teel 9/
Galv. /teel ?9/
12*!&1*2!
1ND5
2!D 11.5
Alu-. Clad 2AC5
2!.*Q ;.A.C./.
11!*&1*%% 1D2 1*.!
Einc&5QAl.
,isch-etal
/tandard
9/
1*L!&1%5!
152!&1D2!
2!D2;nitial5
1LD2"inal5
11.5
Galv. ;nvar
Allo$
1!*!&1!L! 1D2 2.L&*.D
Ta&le + -Characteristics of (teel Core <ires for use in o"erhead
conductor.
2.3.2.2 %igh temperature con"uctor constructions.
7AC/1 and 2E57AC;1 are stranded in the sa-e fashion as ordinar$ AC/1. 7heir electrical and
-echanical properties are si-pl$ the result of their co-posite alu-iniu- and steel 3ire
properties.
AC// can #e stranded using either round or trape4oidal shaped alu-iniu- 3ires. ;n either
design the conductor depends pri-aril$ on the steel core 3ires for -echanical strength.
7he uniKue installed properties of G2E57AC/1 are the result of #oth its 3ire properties and its
construction. 7he inner-ost la$er of 2E57AL 3ires is trape4oidal and a s-all gap to the core is
left to allo3 installation 3ith tension applied to the steel core onl$.
2.'.' pplication of high temperature conductors.
7he advantages and disadvantages of each of the high te-perature conductor designs are
su--arised in the follo3ing section. A co-parison of their sag #ehaviour as a function of
operating te-perature is also presented. 7he co-parison is not e<haustive #ut rather presented
in order to clarif$ the 3a$ in 3hich each conductor co-#ines -aterial and construction
innovations to allo3 operation at high te-perature 3ithin the confines of adeKuate electrical
clearance.
2L
2.3.3.1 (3!&ACS
2E57AC/1 has the sa-e construction as conventional AC/1 3ith galvanised steel 3ires for
the core and 2E57AL 3ires 2ther-al&resistant alu-iniu- allo$ 3ires 3ith 4irconiu- added5
surrounding the-. 7a#le * sho3s #asic characteristics of 2E57AL 3ires.
2E57AC/1 conductor is in al-ost all respects identical to conventional AC/1 conductors. 7he
alu-iniu- allo$ used in 2E57AC/1 has a slightl$ higher electrical resistivit$ than standard
hard&dra3n alu-iniu- #ut in all other respects the t3o conductors are al-ost identical. Unlike
the conductors descri#ed #elo3 2E57AC/1 is not #$ design a lo3&sag conductor. ;t has the
sa-e ther-al elongation #ehavior as AC/1. 7he -ain advantage of 2E57AC/1 is that its
alu-iniu- allo$ 3ires do not anneal at te-peratures up to 15!
o
C for 7AL and 21!
o
C for E7AL
27e-peratures a#ove 1!!
o
C 3ould cause annealing of the alu-iniu- strands in standard AC/1.
2E57AC/1 can therefore #e used to uprate e<isting lines 3here so-e additional clearance is
availa#le. /teel&cored conductors 2and other non&ho-ogeneous conductors5 have 3hat is
kno3n as a 'knee&point.( 7his is a te-perature a#ove 3hich the higher ther-al e<pansion rate
of alu-iniu- causes all the stress of the conductor to #e #orne #$ the steel core. Be$ond this
knee&point te-perature therefore the conductor e<periences a sag increase due to the
e<pansion of steel alone. 7his ne3 e<pansion coefficient 3ill #e lo3er than that for the
conductor at lo3er te-peratures resulting in relativel$ lo3 sag increases 3hen operated at high
te-perature. /tandard AC/1 e<hi#its this propert$ #ut usuall$ at a te-perature #e$ond the
annealing li-it. 7he 7AL allo$ of 7AC/1 allo3s this #ehavior to #e e<ploited. At present
7AC/1 is currentl$ used in place of conventional AC/1 in -ore than N!Q of the trans-ission
lines in 8apan.
2.3.3.2 5(3!&ACS
Gap&t$pe conductor I*GJ has a uniKue construction. 7here is s-all gap #et3een steel core and
inner-ost shaped alu-iniu- la$er in order to allo3 the conductor to #e tensioned on the steel
core onl$. 7his effectivel$ fi<es the conductorMs knee&point to the erection te-perature
allo3ing the lo3&sag properties of the steel core to #e e<ploited over a greater te-perature
range. 7he gap is filled 3ith heat&resistant grease 2filler5 to reduce friction #et3een steel core
and alu-iniu- la$er and to prevent 3ater penetration.
2G

Thermal-resistant aluminum allo. wire
)al"ani6ed (teel wire
Figure + - Cross-section of TC(R Conductor
Figure C - Cross-section of )TC(R conductor
7a#le D co-pares the properties of 'Ee#ra( AC/1 3ith %%! --
2
G2E57AC/1. When
co-pared for a given ther-al rating the G2E57AC/1 3ill #e a#le to reduce the sag as
co-pared 3ith the conventional AC/1.
6uring installation of G2E57AC/1 the alu-iniu- la$ers of conductor -ust #e de&stranded
e<posing the steel core 3hich can then #e gripped #$ a co-e&along cla-p. 7he conductor is
then sagged on the steel core and after co-pression of a steel cla-p the alu-iniu- la$ers are
re&stranded and tri--ed and alu-iniu- #od$ of the dead&end cla-p co-pressed. Although
this special erection techniKue is different fro- that e-plo$ed 3ith conductors of standard
construction the co-pression splices and #olted suspension cla-ps are si-ilar. ;n addition in
order to assure proper perfor-ance of this conductor a special t$pe of suspension cla-p
hard3are -ust #e installed ever$ three suspension spans.
2.3.3.3 (3!&AC0
As 3ith 2E57AC/1 2E57AC;1 I%!J has a conventional stranded construction 2identical to
AC/15 -aking use of -aterial innovations to give properties allo3ing the conductor to #e
operated at high te-peratures. ;n place of the steel strands of 2E57AC/1 it has galvanised or
alu-iniu-&clad invar allo$ steel 3ires for the core and 2E57AL 3ires surrounding the-. 7a#le
* sho3s #asic characteristics of 7AL and E7AL 3ires. E7AL resists annealing up to a
continuous te-perature of 21!BC.
;nvar is an iron&nickel allo$ 2"eY*DQ)i5 3ith a ver$ s-all coefficient of ther-al e<pansion.
7he t$pical properties of invar 3ire are sho3n in 7a#le %. 7he coefficient of ther-al e<pansion
of invar 3ire is around one third that of galvanised or alu-iniu-&clad steel 3ire.
7he installation -ethods and accessories for the conductor are virtuall$ the sa-e as those used
for conventional AC/1. A slight lengthening of co-pression t$pe accessories is reKuired onl$
to satisf$ increased current carr$ing reKuire-ents.
*!

>!%tra? Thermal-resistant aluminum allo. allo.
Dinc-coated in"ar allo. or
luminum Clad In"ar llo.
Figure E - Cross-section of >D?TCIR conductor.
2.3.3.- ACSS an" ACSS6&( (7riginally "esignate" SSAC!
Alu-iniu- Conductor /teel /upported 2AC//5 is descri#ed in I%1J and /haped 27rape4oidal5&
Wire Alu-iniu- Conductor /teel /upported 2AC//F7W5 is descri#ed in I%2J. AC// consists
of full$ annealed strands of alu-iniu- 21*5!&!5 concentric&la$&stranded a#out a stranded steel
core. AC// is not availa#le in conductors 3ith a single strand steel core.
7he coated steel core 3ires -a$ either #e alu-inised galvanised 4inc&5Qalu-iniu-
,isch-etal coated or alu-iniu- clad. 7he steel core is availa#le in either standard strength or
high strength steel. 7he 'high strength( steel has a tensile strength a#out 1!Q greater than
standard steel core 3ire. ;n appearance AC// conductors are essentiall$ identical to standard
AC/1 conductors. AC// is t$picall$ availa#le in three different designs. '/tandard 1ound
/trand AC//( or 3ith '7rape4oidal Alu-iniu- Wire( in constructions 3ith eKual area or
eKual dia-eter to conventional round 3ire constructions. /pecial high strength constructions
are also availa#le.
Figure F - Cross-section of C((GT< conductor.
;n all designs the use of annealed alu-iniu- strands $ields -uch higher -echanical self&
da-ping than standard AC/1 of the sa-e stranding ratio.
Because the tensile strength of annealed alu-iniu- is lo3er than 1*5!&91G the rated strength
of AC// I%*J is reduced #$ an a-ount dependent on the stranding 2e.g. *5Q for %5FN 1LQ for
2DFN 1!Q for *!FN5 co-pared to si-ilar constructions of AC/1. ;n fact a %5FN AC//
conductor 3ith standard strength steel core 3ire has a#out the sa-e rated #reaking strength as
a conventional all alu-iniu- conductors -ade 3ith hard dra3n alu-iniu- 3ire. 7he reduced
strength of AC// can #e offset #$ using e<tra&high strength steel core 3ires #$ using a higher
steel core area or #$ doing #oth.
/ince the tension in the annealed alu-iniu- 3ires is so lo3 the ther-al elongation of AC// is
essentiall$ that of the steel core alone. /i-ilarl$ given the lo3 tension in the alu-iniu-
strands AC// does not creep under ever$da$ tension loading. AC//F7W constructions #ehave
in the sa-e -anner as AC// #ut have the added advantages I%%J of reduced ice and 3ind
loading and reduced 3ind drag per unit alu-iniu- area.
RAdd ne3er t$pes of co-posite 97L/T
*1
/teel Core
Annealed
Alu-iniu-

Heat-resistant aluminum allo.
wire
)al"ani6ed (teel wire
2.'.+ Comparison of high temperature low-sag conductors H:eed to emphasi6e the
importance of tension limits appropriate to codes and conductor t.pe. )reatest
weaIness in 2++ is lacI of clear installed tension limit reasons;J
7he essential advantage of reconductoring e<isting lines 3ith high te-perature conductors is
that the lineMs ther-al rating can #e increased 3ith -ini-al -odification of e<isting
trans-ission line structures I%5J. &o limit the nee" for structural mo"ification+ these high
temperature replacement con"uctors must operate at much higher temperature than
or"inary *are o8erhea" con"uctor )ithout e$cee"ing the original ma$imum sags an"
)ithout causing a large increase in the original ma$imum tension an" ice or )in" structure
loa"s. ;ncreased sag 3ould reKuire raising the e<isting structures. ;ncreased structure loads
3ould reKuire replace-ent or reinforce-ent of dead&end and angle structures and perhaps even
tangent structures.
Clearl$ replace-ent conductors that have the follo3ing characteristics 2relative to the original
conductor5 are attractive.
a lo3 ther-al elongation rate
can #e installed 3ith less ever$da$ sag
the sa-e or lo3er outside dia-eter
the sa-e or lo3er resistance
;t is less clear 3hat replace-ent conductor characteristics #est avoid increasing the -a<i-u-
structure tension loads 3hile -aintaining an accepta#le level of safet$ 3ith regard to
conductor tensile failure under heav$ loads. Also 3hile certain replace-ent conductor
characteristics -a$ #e attractive it is not o#vious that such characteristics are 'cost&effective(
2i.e. that the additional cost of the special conductor is >ustified #$ the increase in line rating5.
;n an$ event the choice of replace-ent conductor is largel$ influenced #$ the e<isting
conductor t$pe and line design conditions.
7he preceding co--ents indicate the co-ple<it$ inherent in choosing a replace-ent conductor
for an e<isting line. ;n a docu-ent such as this it is not possi#le to identif$ all possi#le
engineering issues. )or can the cost of replace-ent conductors and the cost of structure
reinforce-ent andFor replace-ent #e defined for all line uprating situations. 9o3ever 3e can
co-pare the use of co--erciall$ availa#le high te-perature replace-ent conductors for three
t$pical #ut uniKue Case /tudies.
2.3.-.1 9efinition of line recon"uctoring case stu"ies.
RAre there other cases that should #e addedS Are these three the -ost interesting and
illustrativeS Use 7B 7B2G% 7B%25 7B*5* as sources for test casesST
;n the three Case /tudies 3hich follo3.
7he original conductors are assu-ed to #e AC/1 2#ut 3ith different steel core si4es5.
7he ruling 2i.e. 'effective(5 span length ranges fro- 2N5 to *5! -eters.
7he original conductor tension li-its are 2!Q 1B/ unloaded final at 1D
o
C 2ever$da$
li-it5 and D!Q 1B/ under -a<i-u- loading conditions.
7he sag '#uffer( 2or 'e<cess( clearance5 at -a<i-u- operating te-perature varies
fro- ! to 2 -eters.
*2
Also in order to avoid e<tensive reconstruction of the e<isting line structures the replace-ent
conductors for the three case studies are li-ited as follo3s.
7he outside dia-eter of the replace-ent conductor can #e no -ore than 5Q greater
than the original conductor.
7he -a<i-u- replace-ent conductor tension under ice and 3ind loading cannot #e
-ore than 1!Q greater than the original -a<i-u- tension.
7he final unloaded sag of the replace-ent conductor at its -a<i-u- allo3a#le
conductor te-perature cannot e<ceed the original -a<i-u- conductor sag #$ -ore
than the sag #uffer 2! to 2 -eters5 in each case stud$.
A list of the ke$ para-eters for each of the three case studies is sho3n in 7a#le 5.
.
econ"uctor
9esign Case :
'oa"ing
Con"ition
Span
-m-
7riginal
Con"uctor
Stran"ing an"
Aluminium Area
.a$imum Allo)e"
0ncrease in Sag
Clearance 'imit
1
,ediu- *5! 5%FN %2L.G --
2
Ee#ra at N5PC plus
2 -eters
2
Light *5! %5FN %!2.L --
2
7ern at 1!!PC 3ith no
e<cess
*
9eav$ 2N5 *!FN 2D%.% --
2
Bear at 1!!PC plus
1 -eter
Ta&le C - 1e. parameters of Reconductor Design Cases
7o avoid uncertainties in the #ehaviour of the special alu-iniu- allo$ 3ires at e-ergenc$
te-peratures the -anufacturerMs reco--endation for continuous operation is applied. 21!
o
C
for E7AL in GE7AC/1 and E7AC;1 2!!
o
C for annealed alu-iniu- in AC// and AC//F7W
conductors 3ith heat&resistant steel 3ire coatings and 15!
o
C for 7AL in G7AC/1 and 7AC;1.
!"C#$ and !"C#$ are assumed to ha%e the same mechanical and electrical properties. !he
only distinction is that !"C#$ can be operated continuously at 210
o
C whereas !"C#$ can
only be operated continuously at 150
o
C &"lso' the higher temperature alloy is li(ely to cost
more). " similar obser%ation applies to *!"C+$ and *!"C+$.
"or the three reconductoring case studies the original conductor sag&tension design calculations
are descri#ed in the follo3ing. )ote that the calculations consider per-anent elongation due to
high&tension events and ever$da$ creep at 1D
o
C for 1! $ears. 7he 'final( values sho3n include
this elongation. ;ce is assu-ed to #e gla4e ice 3ith a densit$ of G1* kg per -
*
. 7he stress&
strain data is derived fro- e<peri-ental curves.
**
Case (tud. K1 - 7riginal Conductor De&ra C(R and
@oderate Ice and <ind $oading
ALUMINIUM COMPANY OF AMERICA SAG AND TENSION DATA

Case 1 - Medium loading !"#$ "%&mm' ()e*+a, ACSR
' me-e+s .e/0ess1 sag

Condu0-o+ )E2RA ACSR#2+i-is3

A+ea4 "%'5&6'7 S85 mm Dia4'%5!$! mm 9-41!5%$% N#m R2S4 17766' N

S:an4 7!656 m
Design Poin-s Final Ini-ial;;;;;;5
Tem: I0e 9ind < 9eig3- Sag Tension RTS Sag Tension RTS
C mm N#m
'
N#m N#m m N = m N =
-165 >5'! 1&656 566 '757"> %5&$ 7&&%75 7651 %5"6 "'>&!5 7'51
-1%5 566 56 566 1!5%$% $5%6 71'>!5 '75! >5&" 7!11>5 '>5"
1>5 566 56 566 1!5%$% &51$ '>>665 '656? %517 '&&&>5 ''5>
!65 566 56 566 1!5%$% 165"$ '777%5 1$5! &57" '>1765 1&5>
$!5 566 56 566 1!5%$% 1157> '1!1%5 1>5' 165'1 '7&115 1%56
1665 566 56 566 1!5%$% 1'5'1 '667%5 1!51 1156> ''6&"5 1>5>
? Design Condi-ion
R1eferring to 7B *2% the sag&tension data should sho3 co-ponent tensions to illustrate that
these conductors can onl$ #e -odelled 3ith a sophisticated sag&tension -odelT
7he -a<i-u- final unloaded sag at N5
o
C is 11.*D-. 7he rating of the original Ee#ra AC/1 at
N5BC is L!5 a-peres 2see section 2.*.%.*5. Assu-ing that the original line clearance 3as
generous this -a<i-u- can #e increased #$ up to 2 -eters in reconductoring so the sag of the
replace-ent conductor -a$ not e<ceed 1*.*D-.
7he original -a<i-u- conductor tension is %2 DG5 ) so the -a<i-u- tension of the
replace-ent conductor -a$ not e<ceed %D GD5 ) 21!Q higher5 and the dia-eter of the original
Ee#ra AC/1 is 2L.5N5-- so the outside dia-eter of the replace-ent conductor cannot e<ceed
*!.!!-- 25Q greater5.
Case (tud. K2- 7riginal Conductor Tern C(R and 0$ight
<ind $oading2>the wind pressure is +'3 :Gm
2
?
;n this case the original line clearance #uffer is s-all. 7he -a<i-u- final sag of 7ern AC/1
at 1!!
o
C & 1*.* -eters & cannot #e increased at all. 7herefore the -a<i-u- final sag of the
replace-ent conductor -a$ not e<ceed 1*.*-. 7he rating of 7ern at 1!!BC is 1!*! a-peres
2see section 2.*.%.*5.
7he -a<i-u- tension of the original design is 2G DGG ) so the replace-ent conductor
-a<i-u- tension -a$ not e<ceed *2 DN! ) 21!Q higher5. 7he dia-eter of the replace-ent
conductor -ust not e<ceed 2L.% --.
*%

Case ' - Lig3- loading "!#$ "16mm' (Te+n, ACSR
Sag 0lea+an0e limi-ed no e/0ess sag *u@@e+

Condu0-o+ TERN "76 mm
'
"!# $ S-+anding ACSR

A+ea4 "765!$&% mm
'
Dia4'$5666 mm 9-41756$7 N#m R2S4 &%76> N
S:an4 7!656 m
Design Poin-s Final Ini-ial;;;;55
C mm N#m
'
N#m N#m m N = m N =
65 566 "7656 566 1$5"%" 1656! '>$">5 '$5' &56! '&>&&5 765'
65 566 56 566 1756$7 &5!$ '166%5 '15" %57! '"6"%5 '"5!
1>5 566 56 566 1756$7 165'7 1&>>15 '656? &561 '''%&5 ''5$
!65 566 56 566 1756$7 115!! 1$"'$5 1$5$ 1657% 1&7>$5 1&5$
$!5 566 56 566 1756$7 1'5"$ 1>1>%5 1>5" 1157! 1$$"75 1%56
1665 566 56 566 1756$7 17577 1!17!5 1!5" 1'5'> 1>"7'5 1>5$
? Design Condi-ion
Case (tud. K'- 7riginal Conductor #ear C(R and 0Hea".2
Ice 8 <ind $oading
7he original line clearance #uffer 3as -oderate. 7he -a<i-u- final sag of the original Bear
AC/1 conductor at its -a<i-u- allo3a#le te-perature of 1!!
o
C 2D.D5-5 can #e increased to
N.D5- 3ith the replace-ent conductor. 7he rating of Bear AC/1 at 1!!
o
C is L15 a-peres2see
section 2.*.%.*5.
7he -a<i-u- conductor tension of the original Bear AC/1 is 5*.NQ of its 1B/. 7he
-a<i-u- tension of the original design 3ith the relativel$ strong Bear AC/1 is D2*!N ) so the
replace-ent conductor -a<i-u- tension -a$ not e<ceed DL 5%! ) 21!Q higher5. 7he
dia-eter of the replace-ent conductor -ust not e<ceed 2%.N --.

Case 7 - AeaBC loading 76#$ '>"5"mm' ACSR 2ea+
Ma/ Sag Di-3 1 me-e+ *u@@e+

Condu0-o+ 2EAR ACSR#2+i-is3

A+ea4 7'>5!%66 mm
'
Dia4'75"$6 mm 9-4115&!' N#m RTS4 11>6&& N
S:an4 '$!56 m
Design Poin-s Final Ini-ial;;;;;;5
C mm N#m
'
N#m N#m m N = m N =
-'65 '!566 56 566 ">56!1 $561 >'76$5 !75$ $561 >'76$5 !75$
-'65 1'5!6 1&656 566 '>5'$1 !5"& "!76&5 7&56 !56% "%&'&5 "'51
-765 566 56 566 115&!' 75"1 77'675 '%5> '5$& "6"&15 7"5&
1>5 566 56 566 115&!' "5%$ '7''65 '656? 75$7 7677%5 '>51
!65 566 56 566 115&!' !5%' 1&""&5 1>5% "5>7 '""7&5 '156
$!5 566 56 566 115&!' >5'" 1%1>75 1!5> !57! '11!15 1%5'
1665 566 56 566 115&!' >5>! 1$6765 1"5$ >56% 1%>'75 1>56
? Design Condi-ion
*5
2.3.-.2 &hermal rating con"itions for recon"uctoring "esign case stu"ies.
7her-al rating calculations for all three cases are -ade 3ith the C;G1? -ethod using the sa-e
3eather and conductor assu-ptions.
!.D1 -Fs 3ind perpendicular to the conductor.
air te-perature *5
o
C.
/olar heating for *5 degrees north latitude at noon in su--erV.
?-issivit$ Z !.N.
A#sorptivit$ Z !.G.
1esistance #ased on cross&sectional area of alu-iniu- and steel 3ires accounting for.
stranding effectsV
using -ini-u- average conductivit$V
ignoring steel core -agnetisationV
using generall$ accepted te-perature coefficients of resistance.
2.3.-.3 Comparison of recon"uctoring alternati8es for Case Stu"y :1.
,ote - !he following chart and table only indicate possible reconductoring alternati%es. #t is
unli(ely that all of the high temperature replacement conductors would ma(e economic sense
nor that the increase in line rating afforded by each is necessary from a system %iewpoint.
,onetheless' the comparison described is technically %alid and illustrates some of the
ad%antages of the %arious high temperature replacement conductors.
Conductor AC/1 GE7AC/1 7AC;1 AC//F7W
)a-e Ee#ra %%! %*! /u3annee
7otal Area 2--
2
5 %L%.5 %G1.G %L%.5 5D5.*
Alu- Area 2--
2
5 %2L.G %*G.1 %2L.G %LD.*
Outside 6ia-eter
2--5
2L.D2 2L.5
2&!.%Q5
2L.D2
2!Q5
2L.1
2&1.GQ5
1ated 7ensile
/trength 2k)5
1*1.G 1%D.L
2U11.*Q5
121.G
2&N.DQ5
1%N.2
2U11.DQ5
7ension [,a< Load
k)
%2.N %%.!
2U*Q5
*D.N
2&1%Q5
%N.1
2U1!Q5
6C 1esistance [
25PC 2\]F-5
DL.N N!.!
2U1.GQ5
DG.G
2U1.NQ5
5L.D
2&15Q5
Conductor ,ass per
unit length 2kgF-5
1.D21 1.D5L
2U2.*Q5
1.D**
2U!.NQ5
1.GD!
2U2!.GQ5
"inal 9F3 at
1D
o
C2-5
1D5G 1NGN 1522 1N2!
Cont. Operation
,a<. 7e-p 2
o
C5
1!! 21! 15! 2!!
1ating 2a-ps5 X L!5
[N5
o
C
1LG!
[21!
o
C
12L!
[12!
o
C
1LG5
[2!!
o
C
Ta&le E - Characteristics and Thermal Ratings of Replacement Conductors
for Case (tud. K1.
X & Conductor te-perature li-it due to #oth sag and -anufacturerMs continuous operating
te-perature reco--endation.
*D
Figure = - (ag Lariation with Temperature for 7riginal De&ra C(R and
C((GT</ TCIR/ and )DTC(R Replacement Conductors for Case (tud.
K1.
Reconductoring Calculations for Case (tud. K1 - Comments
7he original Ee#ra AC/1 conductor $ielded a final sag of 11.% -eters in the *5! -eter 'ruling(
or 'effective( span at the design te-perature of N5
o
C. 7here is a generous sag '#uffer( in the
original design and it is assu-ed that the -a<i-u- allo3a#le sag can #e increased to 1*.%
-eters 3hen reconductoring.
As sho3n in figure L the AC//F7W and GE7AC/1 replace-ent conductors can #e operated at
their -a<i-u- reco--ended continuous operating te-peratures of 2!!
o
C and 21!
o
C
respectivel$ 3ithout e<ceeding the sag li-it of 1*.% -eters. 7he 7AC;1 replace-ent
conductor 2capa#le of continuous operation at 15!
o
C5 is li-ited to operation at 12!
o
C 3here it
reaches the reconductoring sag li-it.
7he ever$da$ sag of GE7AC/1 and to a lesser e<tent that of AC//F7W is less than that of the
original Ee#ra AC/1. 7his reflects the higher self&da-ping of these designs. ;n contrast the
ever$da$ sag of the 7AC;1 conductor is greater than the original that reflects the lo3er tensile
strength of its ;nvar steel core.
Other si4es and conductor designs -a$ 3ell give different results.
*N
Case 1 ! /inal -ag vs Conductor Temperature
8000
/000
10000
11000
12000
13000
14000
15000
0 50 100 150 200 250
Conductor Temp ! deg C
/
i
n
a
l

-
a
g

!

m
4301G2+3C"R 43012+3CIR 2e4ra13C"R 4/013C""(+)
Maximum -ag
2 meter a#
increae
2.3.-.- Comparison of recon"uctoring alternati8es for Case Stu"y :2
ad%antages of the %arious high temperature replacement conductors.
Reconductoring Calculations for Case (tud. K2
Conductor
AC/1 GE7AC/1 E7AC;1 AC//
)a-e 7ern %1! %!! %L!
2Cardinal5
AC//F7W
7otal Area 2--
2
5 %*!.D %%*.D %*!.D 5%5.G
Alu- Area 2--
2
5 %!2.L %11.G %!2.L %L*.%
Outside 6ia-eter
2--5
2N.! 2D.5
2&1.GQ5
2N.!
2!.!Q5
2N.5
2U1.GQ5
1ated 7ensile
/trength 2k)5
GL.* 121.1
2U2*.2Q5
L5.G
2&12.DQ5
12%.D
2U2D.NQ5
7ension [,a<
Load 2k)5
2G.N 2G.1
2&*Q5
22.L
2&2*Q5
*2.D
2UG.LQ5
6C 1esistance [
25PC2\]F-5
N*.1 N%.N
2U2.2Q5
N%.L
2U2.*Q5
5G.%
2&21Q5
Conductor -ass
per unit length
2kgF-5
1.**% 1.%!L
2U5.DQ5
1.*%1
2U!.DQ5
1.L2N
2U*NQ5
9F3 [1DC 2-5 1D25 1D1! 1*!N 1%N!
Cont. Operation
,a<. 7e-p 2
o
C5
1!! 21! 21! 2!!
1ating 2a-ps5X 1!*!
[1!!
o
C
1L!!
[21!
o
C
D15
[D5
o
C
11D5
[1!!
o
C
X & Conductor te-perature li-it due to #oth sag and -anufacturerMs continuous reco--endation.
Ta&le F - Characteristics and Thermal Ratings of Replacement Conductors for
Case (tud. K2.
*L
Figure M - (ag Lariation with Temperature for 7riginal Tern C(R and C((/
C((GT</ TCIR/ and )DTC(R Replacement Conductors in Test Case K2.
Reconductoring Calculations for Design Case (tud. K2 - Comments
7he GE7AC/1 conductor can #e operated to its continuous operating li-it of 21!
o
C 3hile
-eeting the sag clearance li-it. 7he AC//F7W replace-ent conductor is li-ited to a
-a<i-u- te-perature of onl$ 1!!
o
C 3here it reaches the lineMs ruling span sag li-it of 1*.* -.
7he 7AC;1 replace-ent conductor is not useful in this case since it cannot #e operated at a
te-perature in e<cess of D5
o
C.
)ote the relativel$ high knee point for the AC// conductor due to the light environ-ental
loading conditions. 7his indicates that pre&stressing the AC// conductors -ight result in
higher -a<i-u- operating te-perature and higher ratings.
7he ever$da$ sag of GE7AC/1 is less than the original 7ern AC/1. 7his reflects the higher
self&da-ping of this conductor design. ;n contrast the ever$da$ sag of the 7AC;1 is greater
than the original. 7his reflects the lo3er tensile strength of its ;nvar steel core. ;n this case the
ever$da$ sag of the AC//F7W replace-ent conductor -ust #e slightl$ greater than that of the
original 7ern in order not to e<ceed the -a<i-u- tension li-it of *2 DDL ) 21!Q a#ove the
original5.
Other conductor si4es and designs are likel$ to give different results.
*G
Case . ! /inal -ag vs Conductor Temp
/000
10000
11000
12000
13000
14000
15000
1.000
17000
18000
1/000
0 50 100 150 200 250
Conductor Temp ! deg C
/
i
n
a
l

-
a
g

!

m
410!01T"C-R 400!1T"C,R Tern!"C-R 420!"C--/T)
Maximum -ag
2.3.-.; Comparison of recon"uctoring alternati8es for Case Stu"y :3
ad%antages of the %arious high temperature replacement conductors..
Reconductoring Calculations for Case (tud. K'
Conductor AC/1 GE7AC/1 7AC;1 AC//F7W
)a-e Bear 2D! 2D! %!! 2/coterF7W5
7otal Area 2--
2
5 *2D.D *1N.D *2D.D *GN.%
Alu- Area 2--
2
5 2D%.% 2D1.* 2D%.% Area
Outside 6ia-eter
2--5
2*.5 22.D
2&!.%Q5
2*.5
2!Q5
2%.2
2*Q5
1ated 7ensile
/trength 2k)5
11D.1 12*.5
2U*.%Q5
GL.5
2&15.2Q5
1*2.1
2U1%Q5
7ension [,a< Load
2k)5
D2.* D2.* %G.*
2&21Q5
DN.L
2UL.LQ5
6C 1esistance [
25PC2\]F-5
1!G.* 115.*
2U*.%Q5
11*.*
2U1.DQ5
LG.L
2&1LQ5
Conductor -ass per
unit length 2kgF-5
1.21G 1.1LL
2&2.*Q5
1.22N
2U!.NQ5
1.%L
2U22Q5
9F3 [1DC 2-5 1G%* 1512 125! 22*N
Cont. Operation ,a<.
7e-p 2
o
C5
1!! 21! D5 1!!
1ating 2a-ps5 X L15
[1!!
o
C
12*!
[1G!
o
C
N!5
[L5
o
C
1%G!
[2!!
o
C
X & Conductor te-perature li-it due to #oth sag and -anufacturerMs continuous reco--endation.
Ta&le = - Characteristics and Thermal Ratings of Replacement Conductors for
Design Case (tud. K'
%!
Figure 13 - (ag Lariation with Temperature for 7riginal #ear C(R and C((/
C((GT</ DTCIR/ and )DTC(R Replacement Conductors in Design Case K'.
Reconductoring Calculations for Case (tud. K' - Comments
7here is Kuite a difference in the calculated sag versus te-perature variation for AC/1 Bear
according to calculation -ethod & 8apanese linear -ethod the traditional graphical -ethod and
the graphical -ethod including alu-iniu- co-pression. 7he calculated ruling span sag at
1!!
o
C differs #$ al-ost 1 -eter.
7he 8apanese linear -ethod 3hich $ields the largest sag is sho3n in "igure 1!.
Given the sag li-it of N.D -eters 2D.D U 1 -5 onl$ the AC//F7W replace-ent conductor is a#le
to operate at its -a<i-u- continuous te-perature li-it. 7he -a<i-u- operating te-perature
of all the other replace-ent conductors is deter-ined #$ sag.
7he GE7AC/1 conductor can #e operated to 1G!
o
C ho3ever 3hich is Kuite close to its
continuous operating li-it of 21!
o
C. 7he 7AC;1 conductor can onl$ reach L5
o
C ho3ever for
3hich its ther-al rating is less than the original Bear conductor.
)ote the relativel$ lo3 knee point te-perature for the AC//F7W and 7AC;1 conductors due to
the heav$ loading conditions that cause a relativel$ large a-ount of per-anent elongation in
the alu-iniu- strands.
As in the other three case studies the ever$da$ sag of GE7AC/1 is less than the original Bear
AC/1 2reflecting the higher self&da-ping of this conductor design5 and the ever$da$ sag of the
7AC;1 is greater 2reflecting the lo3er tensile strength of its ;nvar steel core5. 7he AC//F7W
conductor has the lo3est ever$da$ sag of all. 7he sag of the AC//F7W replace-ent conductor
is deter-ined #$ li-iting the initial unloaded tension at 1DPC to *5Q of 17/.
%1
Case $ ! /inal -ag vs Conductor Temp
3000
4000
5000
.000
7000
8000
/000
10000
0 50 100 150 200 250
Conductor Temperature ! deg C
/
i
n
a
l

-
a
g

!

m
#ear!"C-R 400!"C--/T) .60!01T"C-R .60!1T"C,R
Maximum -ag
1 meter sag
increase
Other conductor si4es and designs are likel$ to give different results.
2.+ (ummar. of Conductors for Increased Thermal Rating HPerhaps
we should add some more realistic reconductoring e%amplesJ
;ncreasing the ther-al rating of an e<isting line is a co-ple< design pro#le-. 7he initial
decision involves po3er s$ste- anal$sis #$ utilit$ planners. 7he result of the anal$sis is to
esta#lish the need for and the ti-ing and -agnitude of the needed increase in e<isting line
ther-al rating. 7his initial s$ste- stud$ should also provide the line designer 3ith guidance
concerning the freKuenc$ of occurrence of high current loads.
Given this infor-ation the line designer should perfor- a thorough ph$sical inspection and
anal$sis of the e<isting line. 7he first t3o sections of this #rochure descri#e -ost of the
activities reKuired and -an$ of the pitfalls involved in deter-ining the possi#ilit$ of increasing
the e<isting line ther-al rating #$ operating at a higher design te-perature.
;f this anal$sis leads the engineer to conclude that the ther-al rating of the e<isting line cannot
#e increased to -eet the s$ste- reKuire-ents 3hile continuing to assure the pu#lic safet$ then
replace-ent of the e<isting lineMs conductor is perhaps reKuired.
7he appropriate choice of replace-ent conductor t$pe and si4e depends on the follo3ing
para-eters.
1. Cost of electrical losses.
2. 7he freKuenc$ and -agnitude of high current loads.
*. +urchase and la#or costs of replacing the e<isting conductors.
%. 7he cost of structure reinforce-ent.
5. Availa#ilit$ of replace-ent conductor.
D. Likelihood of vi#ration fatigue pro#le-s.
N. /everit$ of ice and 3ind load conditions.
L. CostFBenefit ratio of increased capacit$.
G. Availa#ilit$ of additional right&of&3a$.
1eplacing the conductors of an e<isting line can onl$ #e atte-pted on a line that has
de-onstrated over a period of $ears that it has so-e reserve of strength to resist the 3eather&
related loads that have occurred. 7he relia#ilit$ of a line that has e<hi#ited freKuent structural
failures is unlikel$ to i-prove as a result of reconductoring.
;ncreasing the ther-al rating of an e<isting line #$ use of a replace-ent conductor larger than
the original 2having lo3er resistance5 3ill increase #oth transverse ice and 3ind loads and
tension loads on e<isting structures. A larger conventional conductor i-posing greater loads on
the e<isting structures -a$ reduce the relia#ilit$ of the e<isting line unless the structures are
reinforced.
;ncreasing the ther-al rating of an e<isting line #$ use of a replace-ent conductor having
nearl$ the sa-e dia-eter as the original conductor #ut capa#le of operation at higher
te-perature 23ithin e<isting sag clearance and loss&of&strength constraints5 -a$ avoid the need
for e<tensive reinforce-ent of suspension structures. 7he second section of this #rochure
considers several different t$pes of high te-perature lo3 sag conductors that can #e used to
%2
increase the ther-al rating of e<isting lines 3ith a -ini-u- of structural reinforce-ent.
AC// 2E57AC;1 and G2E57AC/1 are co--erciall$ availa#le high te-perature lo3 sag
conductors intended specificall$ for reconductoring e<isting lines. Co-parisons of these
conductors are presented for three t$pical #ut not e<haustive line designs. 7he various
conductors are all capa#le of operation at te-peratures up to and so-e3hat in e<cess of 2!!BC.
7he -ost attractive choice of replace-ent conductor depends on the design conditions of the
e<isting line. All are potentiall$ a solution 3hen the line ther-al rating is to #e increased #$
-ore than 5!Q.
%*
'. - Conclusion and Recommendations HPerhaps
this can reflect some of the practical e%periences
sited in <)+=;J
6e-and for electricit$ in -an$ developed countries is no longer gro3ing at the rates once
e<perienced. With lo3 gro3th rates >ustification for the construction of ne3 overhead line
routes is ver$ difficult as in theor$ at least the net3ork is having to acco--odate ver$ little
increased po3er flo3.
9o3ever 3hile de-and is changing relativel$ slo3l$ the -arkets for electricit$ are changing
ver$ rapidl$. A result of this rapidl$ changing econo-ic environ-ent is that the po3er flo3s
across trans-ission net3orks are also changing rapidl$ often due to changes in the
geographical location of generation. 7rans-ission lines that 3ere once reKuired to carr$ onl$
-oderate loads are no3 causing ther-al constraints on the s$ste- due to their ina#ilit$ to
handle the ne3 po3er flo3s. With ne3 lines #eco-ing increasingl$ difficult and costl$ to
#uild uprating has #eco-e an area of great i-portance to trans-ission co-panies.
/ince structural -odifications are e<pensive and it is difficult to o#tain approval for the- the
focus of uprating studies has #een on the conductor s$ste-. 7he AC/1 conductors t$picall$
used for the initial installation are #eing changed for ne3 high&perfor-ance conductors. 7his
#rochure is intended to provide the infor-ation necessar$ to aid decisions relating to conductor
replace-ent.
A nu-#er of conductors are covered ranging fro- the use of ho-ogeneous alu-iniu- allo$
conductors for relativel$ lo3 te-perature operation to steel&cored conductors utilising high&
te-perature 2'ther-al resistant(5 alu-iniu- allo$s that can resist annealing at te-peratures up
to 15! to 21! degrees Celsius. Constructions var$ greatl$ too fro- the standard stranding of
7AC/1 to co-pacted trape4oidal&strand conductors and the gap&t$pe conductor 3ith its
-echanicall$ separate core. Given the 3ide variet$ of replace-ent conductors the process of
selection can #e ver$ difficult. 7he suita#ilit$ of each option is dependent on -an$ factors
3hich 3ill var$ fro- pro>ect to pro>ect and it 3ould #e i-possi#le to account for all of the- in
this #rochure. 7herefore su--ar$ infor-ation onl$ is provided the intention #eing si-pl$ to
infor- the reader of the capa#ilities of each conductor. ;t is up to the reader to decide 3hich
conductor is #est suited to an individual application taking into account the reKuired
perfor-ance the design constraints and the cost i-plications in order to arrive at the opti-u-
solution.
As 3ell as the issues relating to conductor choice there are also several issues relating to the
use of conductors at high te-perature. ,an$ of the -odels used in the design process for
overhead lines 3ere developed around the use of AC/1 conductors at relativel$ lo3
te-peratures around 5! degrees Celsius or so. 7he effect of te-perature differences #et3een
strands the varia#ilit$ of elastic -odulus increased creep the potential inaccuracies of the
ruling span approach and the i-portance of a conductorMs 'knee point( are all covered in this
#rochure. While a detailed description of ho3 to design a line 3ith a high&te-perature
conductor is #e$ond the scope of this #rochure it is intended that the infor-ation provided is
%%
sufficient to alert the engineer to the possi#le design pitfalls for high te-perature conductors.
Overhead line conductor technolog$ is still developing. 7he conductors covered in this
#rochure are all readil$ availa#le and have #een in use for -an$ $ears. 9o3ever ne3
conductors such as those reinforced 3ith light3eight high strength co-posite -aterials are
#eing developed and readers should #e a3are that this #rochure is #$ no -eans e<haustive.
7he intention of this docu-ent is to serve as an aid to the decision&-aking process for uprating
overhead lines. 7he 7ask "orce hopes that it 3ill provide a useful infor-ation resource for
trans-ission line engineers ever$3here.
%5
+. - $ist of References H(ee newer references list
to &e added as appropriateJ
I1J '+ro#a#ilistic deter-ination of conductor current ratings.( /C22&12 ?lectra nu-#er 1D%
"e#ruar$ 1GGD page 1!*&11G.
I2J '7he Use of Weather +redictions for 7rans-ission Line 7her-al 1atings( WG22.12
?lectra )o. 1LD Octo#er 1GGG.
I*J C.". +rice @ 1.1. Gi##on '/tatistical Approach to 7her-al 1ating of Overhead Lines for
+o3er 7rans-ission and 6istri#ution( ;?? +roceedings =ol 1*! +t C )o 5 /epte-#er
1GL*.
I%J =.7. ,organ '+ro#a#ilit$ ,ethods for Calculating the Current Capacit$ of Overhead
7rans-ission Lines( +roc. ;nter. /$-p. on +ro#a#ilistic ,ethods Applied to ?lectric
+o3er /$ste-s 7oronto 8ul$ 1GLD 2+erga-on5 pp. 55G&5DD.
I5J ',ethods for real&ti-e ther-al -onitoring of conductor te-perature( ?lectra )P 1GN O
August 2!!1.
IDJ :. ,otlis 6.A. 6ouglass @ 7.O. /eppa. ';???Ms Approach for ;ncreasing 7rans-ission
Line 1atings in )orth A-erica( C;G1? 22&2!* +aris 2!!!.
INJ 6.A. 6ouglass @ A. ?dris. '"ield /tudies of 6$na-ic 7her-al 1ating ,ethods for
Overhead Lines( ;??? 7@6 Conference 1eport )e3 Orleans LA April N 1GGG.
ILJ 7.O. /eppa @ al. 'Use of On&Line 7ension ,onitoring for 1eal&ti-e 7her-al 1atings ;ce
Loads and Other ?nviron-ental ?ffects( C;G1? 22&1!2 +aris 1GGL.
IGJ ?lectra Article '7her-al Behaviour of overhead conductors( O Working Group 22.12
nu-#er 2!* August 2!!2 pp. N!&N* Ialso Brochure 2!NJ.
I1!J ^/afe design tensions 3ith respect to aeolian vi#rations. O +art ; O single unprotected
conductors^ ?lectra =ol 1LD Oct 1GGG.
I11J ^/afe design tensions 3ith respect to aeolian vi#rations. O +art ;; O 6a-ped single
conductors 3ith da-pers^ ?lectra =ol 1GL Oct 2!!1.
I12J 7. =arne$ 'AC/1 Graphic ,ethod for /ag&7ension Calculations( 1G2N.
I1*J Alu-iniu- Association hand#ook 2
nd
?dition 1GL1.
I1%J 8./. Barrett /. 6utta O. )igol 'A )e3 Co-puter ,odel of AC/1 Conductors( ;???
7rans. vol.+A/&1!2 no.* ,arch 1GL* pp.D1%&D21.
I15J )igol @ 8./. Barrett. 'Characteristics of AC/1 Conductors at 9igh 7e-peratures and
%D
/tresses( ;??? 7ranscat. =ol. +A/ 1! )o. 2 "e#ruar$ 1GL1 pp. %L5&%G*.
I1DJ C.B. 1a3lins. '/o-e ?ffects of ,ill +ractice on the /tress&/train Behaviour of AC/1(
;??? W+, 1GGL 7a-pa "L "e#. 1GGL.
I1NJ 6ouglass 6.A. '"ield /tudies of d$na-ic 7her-al 1ating ,ethods for Overhead Lines(
+roceedings of the ;??? 7@6 Conference )e3 Orleans LA April 1GGG.
I1LJ =.7. ,organ @ G.0. Gedde$. '7e-perature 6istri#ution 3ithin AC/1 Conductors(
C;G1? 22&1!1 +aris 1GG2.
I1GJ 6.A. 6ouglass. '1adial and A<ial 7e-perature Gradients in #are /tranded Conductors.(
;??? 7rans. On +o3er 6eliver$ =ol. +W16&1 )o. 2 April 1GLD pp N&15.
I2!J A.1. 1osenfield @ B.L. Aver#ach. '?ffects of /tress on the ?<pansion Coefficient(
.ournal of "pplied /hysics' =ol. 2N )o. 2 "e#ruar$ 1G5D.
I21J 8.1. 9arve$ @ 1.?. Larson. 'Creep ?Kuations of Conductors for /ag O 7ension
Calculations( ;??? C+ N2 1G!&2 )e3 :ork 1GN1.
I22J C;G1? WG 22.!5 2125 ^+er-anent ?longation of Conductors. +redictor ?Kuations and
?valuation ,ethods^ ?lectra )o. N5 pp. D*&GL ,arch 1GL1.
I2*J ?lectra Article 'Loss in /trength of Overhead ?lectrical Conductors Caused #$ ?levated
7e-perature Operation( nu-#er 1D2 Octo#er 1GG5 page 115&11N.(
I2%J ;??? WG on 7her-al Aspects of Overhead Conductors. 'Li-itations of the 1uling /pan
,ethod for Overhead Line Conductors at 9igh Operating 7e-peratures( ;??? +?&1GN&
+W16 O!&12&1GGN.
I25J ,.8. 7unstall et al. ',a<i-ising the 1atings of )ational GridMs ?<isting 7rans-ission
Lines Using 9igh 7e-perature Lo3 /ag Conductor( C;G1? 22&2!2 +aris August 2!!!.
I2DJ 6.O. Ash et al 'Conductor s$ste-s for overhead lines. so-e considerations in their
selection( +roceedings ;?? =ol. 12D no.% April 1GNG pp. ***&*%1.
I2NJ +.G. ,al#urg '/tructural selection of AC/1 for 7rans-ission Lines( A;?? 7ransactions
=olu-e ND +art ;;; pp. G1!&G1L 6ece-#er 1G5N.
I2LJ ';??? /tandard for Calculating the Current&7e-perature 1elationship of Bare Overhead
Conductors( ;??? /td N*L&1GG* L )ove-#er 1GG*.
I2GJ =.7. ,organ '?ffect of ?levated 7e-perature Operation on the 7ensile /trength of
Overhead Conductors( ;??? 7rans. on +o3er 6eliver$ =ol. 11 )o. 1 pp. *%5&*52
8anuar$ 1GGD.
I*!J WG22.12 '8oints on 7rans-ission Line Conductors. "ield 7esting and 1eplace-ent
Criteria( ?lectra )o. 2!5 6ece-#er 2!!2 Ialso Brochure 21DJ.
I*1J ,.8. 7unstall ';ncreasing the 1atings of )GCMs Lines in the U0( 2;??? /u--er +o3er
,eeting 8ul$ 1GGD 6enver Colorado.
%N
I*2J A.?. Livingston 'Alu-iniu- Allo$ Conductors for Overhead 7rans-ission and
6istri#ution Lines( C?A +aper presented ,arch 2% 1GD5 =ancouver B.C. Canada
I**J 7. /aito et al '/piral&?lliptic Conductor 3ith Lo3 6rag Coefficient( ;??? +o3er
?ngineering /ociet$ Winter ,eeting /ingapore 8anuar$ 2!!! =ol. % pp. 2*GN&2%!2.
I*%J ,. Gaudr$ ". Chore C. 9ard$ ?. Ghannou- ';ncreasing the A-pacit$ of Overhead
Lines Using 9o-ogeneous Co-pact Conductors( +aper 22&2!1 C;G1? /ession +aris
1GGL.
I*5J +. Couneson et al ';-proving the +erfor-ance of ?<isting 9igh&=oltage Overhead Lines
#$ Using Co-pact +hase and Ground Conductors( +aper 22&2!G C;G1? /ession +aris
1GGL
I*DJ A.?. Livingston '/elf&da-ping conductors for the control of aeolian vi#ration of
trans-ission lines( C?A +aper N!&71&225 presented Octo#er 1GDG Calgar$ Al#erta
Canada Octo#er 1GDG.
I*NJ A.1. ,cCulloch et al '7en :ears of +rogress 3ith /elf&6a-ping Conductor( ;???
7ransactions on +o3er Apparatus and /$ste-s =ol.+A/&GG no.* ,a$F8une 1GL!
pp.GGL&1!11.
I*LJ 8.B.1oche 6.A.6ouglass '72 Wind ,otion 1esistant Conductor^ ;??? +aper )o. L%
W, 2!*&5 7&+A/ =ol. +A/&1!% )o. 1! Octo#er 1GL5 pp. 2LNG&2LLN.
I*GJ 0otaka /. et al 'Applications of Gap&7$pe /-all&/ag Conductors for Overhead
7rans-ission Lines( /?; 7echnical 1evie3 )u-#er 5! 8une 2!!!.
I%!J /asaki /. et al 'E7AC;1&)e3 ?<tra&9eat 1esistant Galvani4ed ;nvar&1einforced
alu-iniu- allo$ conductor( /u-ito-o ?lectric 7echnical 1evie3 )u-#er 2% 8anuar$
1GL5.
I%1J A/7, BL5D&G5 '/tandard /pecification for Concentric&La$&/tranded Alu-iniu-
Conductors( Coated /teel /upported 2AC//5.
I%2J A/7, BL5N&G5 '/tandard /pecification for /haped Wire Co-pact Concentric&La$&
/tranded Alu-iniu- Conductors( Coated /teel /upported 2AC//F7W5.
I%*J Ada-s 9.W. ^/teel /upported Alu-inu- Conductors 2//AC5 for Overhead
7rans-ission Lines^ ;??? +aper 7 N% !5%&* +resented at the ;??? +?/ Winter +o3er
,eeting 1GN%.
I%%J 7hrash ".1. 'AC//F7W O An ;-proved Conductor for Upgrading ?<isting Lines or )e3
Construction( 1GGG ;??? 7@6 Conference )e3 Orleans LA April 11&1D 1GGG.
I%5J 9off-ann /.+. 7unstall ,.8. et al ',a<i-i4ing the 1atings of )ational GridMs ?<isting
7rans-ission Lines Using 9igh 7e-perature Lo3 /ag Conductor( +aper 22&2!2 C;G1?
/ession +aris August 2!!!.
I%DJ ". 8akl A. 8akl. ?ffect of ?levated 7e-peratures on ,echanical +roperties of Overhead
%L
Conductors under /tead$ /tate and /hort&Circuit Conditions ;??? 7ransactions on
+o3er 6eliver$ 2!!! =ol. 15 )o. 1 pp. 2%2&2%D.
I%NJ =. 7. ,organ. ?ffect of Alternating and 6irect Current +o3er "reKuenc$ 7e-perature
and 7ension on the ?lectrical +ara-eters of AC/1 Conductors ;??? 7ransactions on
+o3er 6eliver$ 2!!* =ol. 1L )o. * pp. L5G&LDD.
%G

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