The document discusses various ways that cap screws can fail when used to join assemblies. It identifies two key factors for avoiding failure: 1) using a cap screw strong enough for the load, and 2) tightening the cap screw to produce a clamping force greater than the load. It then describes specific failure modes from inadequate fasteners, insufficient tightening, shear loading, and high temperatures. Proper selection and tightening of cap screws is necessary to generate sufficient clamping force to resist loads and prevent failure.
The document discusses various ways that cap screws can fail when used to join assemblies. It identifies two key factors for avoiding failure: 1) using a cap screw strong enough for the load, and 2) tightening the cap screw to produce a clamping force greater than the load. It then describes specific failure modes from inadequate fasteners, insufficient tightening, shear loading, and high temperatures. Proper selection and tightening of cap screws is necessary to generate sufficient clamping force to resist loads and prevent failure.
The document discusses various ways that cap screws can fail when used to join assemblies. It identifies two key factors for avoiding failure: 1) using a cap screw strong enough for the load, and 2) tightening the cap screw to produce a clamping force greater than the load. It then describes specific failure modes from inadequate fasteners, insufficient tightening, shear loading, and high temperatures. Proper selection and tightening of cap screws is necessary to generate sufficient clamping force to resist loads and prevent failure.
4: Performance and Failure: Avoiding Cap Screw Failure 28
3: Avoiding Cap Screw Failure
Two Factors Are Critical to Avoid Failure of the Fastener: 1. The cap screw must ultimately be strong enough for the load it must carry. 2. The cap screw must be tightened to produce a clamping force greater than the force that is generated by the load. A. It is crucial to use a fastener that is strong enough for the load that is to be carried (See Figure 4.3.1). If the old cap screw was an SAE Grade 5, then the replacement fastener should be an SAE Grade 5. If the old cap screw was an SAE Grade 8, then the replacement fastener should be an SAE Grade 8. A higher grade fastener may be used in place of a lower grade without causing performance problems, but a lower grade fastener should never be substituted for a higher grade. B. The clamping force generated in the cap screw during installation must be greater than any external load that will be placed on the assembly in service. If the fastener is not tightened to produce sufcient clamp force, failure will occur. It is interesting to note that, even if the fastener has the ultimate strength to carry a specic load, unless it is tightened enough to generate sufcient clamp load, it will fail just as a fastener that did not have enough strength in the rst place will fail. Figure 4.3.1 Depicts cap screw failures resulting from use of inadequate fasteners for loads. Examples use a 3/8 UNC Grade 5 cap screw with a 9500 lb. Tensile Strength and a 6500 lb. Yield Strength. 8000 lb. load 8000 lb. load 1. Load is in excess of the cap screws yield strength. As a result, the clamped assembly will result in fastener failure. 2. The cap screw stretches plastically, reducing the diameter. Failure does not occur since the load did not exceed the tensile strength of the cap screw. 3. With the load removed, the assembled pieces can move back together. If the nut is re-tightened and the load reapplied, additional stretching or failure will occur. Stretching or failure will now occur at lower loads than before, as the cap screw strength is decreased by its reduced diameter. In these failures, a fracture or break is characterized by jagged lines in the break area, almost always occuring through two or more threads. This type of failure can also be caused by over-torquing the fastener during installation, or torquing the fastener to dry torque specications when a lubricant is present on the threads. Both cases result in over-torquing and stretching the cap screw into the plastic range. Failure Resulting from Insufcient Tightening of the Fastener If the cap screw is not tightened sufciently to produce a clamping force greater than the load that will be applied to it, the fastener will fail. These failures are most frequently encountered in dynamic assemblies where maximum loading does not occur during installation, but later when the equipment has been placed into service. The mechanics of this type of failure are very similar to what is observed when a cap screw of inadequate strength is used. If an inadequate strength fastener is used it will not be able to produce enough clamping force to hold the load that will be applied. The same is true of a cap screw which, although it has sufcient ultimate strength, has not been properly tightened it will not produce enough clamp force to hold the load. It has the strength ultimately available, but the strength is not being properly utilized. The way to eliminate these types of fatigue and failure problems is to properly tighten the cap screw to produce a clamping load in excess of the work load that is applied to the assembly. This will keep the assembly rigid, and metal fatigue and failure will not occur. The under-tightened cap screw is subject to shock loading. The initial load that is applied may be well within the means of the cap screw to hold. However, as the assembled pieces have some play between them, the stress placed on the fastener when the components bottom out will place additional strain on the fastener. In this case, the work force is acting on the cap screw instead of the cap screws clamp force working on the assembly. Each successive load, or shock, causes the cap screw to stretch. While the tensile strength of the cap screw prevents immediate failure, each successive stretch fatigues the metal further. Failure becomes imminent. This type of failure occurs even though the total work force placed on the fastener is below its tensile strength. 4: Performance and Failure: Avoiding Cap Screw Failure 29 Figure 4.3.2 Depicts cap screw failure resulting from insufcient tightening of the fasteners. Point of Fracture Beach Marks Cap screw failure due to metal fatigue. Metal fatigue starts deep within the cap screw where it cannot be seen. As cyclic stressing of the fastener occurs, tiny cracks form at the highest stress point. As vibration, movement shock and bending continue, more cracks form. These tiny cracks, which occur progressively as stress takes place, form the denitive lines across the face of the break. These lines are called Beach Marks. As fatigue continues it progresses across the entire cross-section of the cap screw. The fastener becomes weaker and weaker, until it can no longer support the load. At that point the fastener will fail, losing tension and/or breaking apart. The way to eliminate these types of fatigue and failure problems is to properly tighten the screw cap to produce a clamping load in excess of the work load this is applied to the assembly. This will keep the assembly rigid, and metal fatigue and failure will not occur. 4: Performance and Failure: Avoiding Cap Screw Failure 30 Figure 4.3.3 Depicts the three breaking points for fatigue breaks. Fatigue breaks occur in one of three points along a cap screw: 1. At the llet where it joins the head. 2. Where the bolt meets the mating surface. 3. At the inner face of the nut on the assembly. These stress concentration points exist in all fastener assemblies. The breaks will occur across one thread only, at and relatively smooth excepting the tension-broken portion. 1. 2. 3. Figure 4.3.4 Depicts cap screw tightened to produce a clamping load greater than the work load, preventing metal fatigue and related fastener failure. * Bolt Tension * Work Load Clamping Force Torque Torque Failure Resulting from Shear Loading A shear load occurs when a pulling or pushing force is applied at a 90 angle to the axis of a bolted joint. Cap screws, loaded in this manner, will shear if that load exceeds the shear strength of the fasteners. Two methods are available for determining the shear strength of a fastener. The rst is to use an accurate calculated value using measured empirical data. The second is to use the common rule of thumb. With this commonly accepted approximate value rule, the shear strength is taken to be 2/3 the actual tensile strength of the cap screw. Three factors come into play in shear related failures. The major factor is the fastener being insufciently tightened to produce enough clamping force to prevent the assembled parts from sliding against one another. The second factor would be insufcient strength of the fastener itself a higher strength fastener could apply a greater clamp force to eliminate the sliding. The third factor is the slip factor. The slip factor refers to the amount of force required to overcome both the natural friction of the contacting surfaces in the assembly, and the clamp force generated by the fastener. Rougher surfaces exhibit greater friction and have a natural tendency to resist sliding better than a comparative smooth surface. When cap screws are tightened to produce enough clamp force to prevent the assembled parts from moving transversely relative to one another, the fastener is stressed only by the initial tension created during the tightening. However, if the jointed area slips, the load placed on the cap screw will be added to by shearing stress. Each type of stress reduces the cap screws capacity to support the other. To eliminate shear related failures, the clamping force applied by the fastener must exceed both the load and the shear stress placed upon it. A higher strength cap screw can be tightened to a higher clamp load, which will greatly reduce slip and produce a stronger jointed assembly. 4: Performance and Failure: Avoiding Cap Screw Failure 31 1. Bolted Member 2. Stationary Member 3. Force (Slip Factor) 4. Shear Points 5. Bolt Fracture 1. 2. 3. 5. 4. 4. Figure 4.3.5 Depicts cap screw failure resulting from shear loading. The cap screw and stationary member of the assembly are held in rigid position. The bolted member can have a tendency to slide across the bolted surface. The force of this sliding stress can rupture, or shear, the cap screw at the point of contact. Failure Resulting from High Temperatures In all bolting applications, fasteners are tightened to produce a clamping load. In high temperature situations the bolt can exhibit a phenomenon known as creep, which will transform and lose some of the initial clamp force through relaxation of the stress force. If the cap screw relaxes sufciently it will no longer maintain a tight assembly and failure can occur similar to that of an insufciently tightened fastener. In general, low carbon steel can generally be used in high temperature applications up to about 1000F. Medium to high carbon steels, such as those used in Grade 5 and 8 cap screws are generally limited to temperatures below 600-800F. This is required to keep the fastener below its critical tempering temperature. At temperatures above these, the cap screw will begin to lose the strength acquired during heat treating. Stainless steels, such as type 316, can be used in temperatures up to 1200F. Other specialty alloys offer service at even higher temperature ranges. Failure Resulting from Excessive Screw Length It is important to have as many unused threads as possible between the clamped parts. As discussed previously, the weakest portion of the cap screw is in the threaded area. Since the threads are not as strong as the unthreaded shank, it is the threads that will be subjected to the maximum stress in clamping. Under shock and loading, the threads between the clamped components stretch. If there are only a few threads between the clamped components, they will have to bear all the stress. The more threads that are available, the greater the overall stretch they will be able to support without failing. According to the SAE, there should be a minimum of 6 unengaged threads between clamped parts. Failure Due to Sharp edges on the Bolt Hole A cap screw can fail if the head clamps down on a hole with a sharp edge. Cap screws have a llet (rounded edge) between the head and the shank to help distribute the load evenly. A sharp edge can gouge into the llet, causing the head to be cut off as the cap screw is tightened. The inside of the hole should either be chamfered or a at washer should be used. The inside diameter of a at washer is chamfered on one side. This chamfer provides a smooth mating surface for the llet of the cap screw to help maximize load distribution. The chamfered side of the at washer should always face the cap screw head. Failure Due to Hydrogen Embrittlement Hydrogen embrittlement is associated almost exclusively with high tensile strength materials over 160,000 PSI tensile strength. The problem begins when the fastener absorbs atomic hydrogen. This generally happens, if it happens at all, during electro-plating of the fastener. The hydrogen diffuses through the metal. When the part is loaded, the hydrogen collects in the area of maximum stress usually the llet between the head and shank. When the fastener is stressed, the collected hydrogen can literally cause the head of the cap screw to pop off. There is no simple way to detect the problem in advance. The most frequently used method of decreasing the possibility of failure is to bake the plated fastener for up to 24 hours. This drives off absorbed hydrogen. Such material related failures can be terribly damaging. One of the largest recalls in automotive history was caused by hydrogen related cracking. It is important to note that Kimball Midwest carries only SAE specied Grade 5 and Grade 8 cap screws. The tensile strength of these specications places it below the critical level for hydrogen related embrittlement. Engineering studies have shown there is not a problem with SAE Grade 8 materials. However, some of the high tensile strength private label cap screws can be affected by this problem. 4: Performance and Failure: Other Ways Cap Screws Can Fail 32 4: Other Ways Cap Screws Can Fail