The following are all the definitions youll need when studying for your Physics A-Level

Exam:
Measurement:
Random errors are errors of measurements in which the measured quantities differ from
the mean value with different magnitudes and directions
!ystematic errors are errors of measurements in which the measured quantities are
dis"laced from the true value #y fixed magnitude and in the same direction
Accuracy is a measure of how close the results of an ex"eriment agree with the true
value
Precision is a measure of how close the results of an ex"eriment agree with each other
Thermal Physics:
The internal energy is a function of state and the total microsco"ic $inetic and "otential
energies of the "articles com"osing the system
The s"ecific latent heat of fusion% Lf % is defined as the amount of heat required "er unit
mass to change a su#stance from the solid "hase to the liquid "hase without any change
in tem"erature
The s"ecific latent heat of va"ori&ation% Lv% is defined as the amount of heat required "er
unit mass to change a su#stance from the liquid "hase to the va"or "hase without any
change in tem"erature
'irst law of thermodynamics state that internal energy is a function of state and the
increase in internal energy is equal to the sum of the heat su""lied to system and wor$
done on system
Kinematics:
!"eed is the rate of change of distance traveled with res"ect to time
(elocity is the rate of change of its dis"lacement with res"ect to time
Acceleration of an o#)ect is the rate of change of its velocity with res"ect to time
Forces And Dynamics:
*ormal contact force is a force "er"endicular to the surface ex"erienced #y a #ody when
it is in "hysical contact with something else
+oo$es Law states that within the limit of "ro"ortionality% the extension "roduced in a
material is directly "ro"ortional to the load a""lied
The "rinci"le of moments states that% when an o#)ect is in equili#rium% the sum of
anticloc$wise moments a#out any "oint equals the sum of cloc$wise moments a#out the
same "oint
The moment of a force is the "roduct of the force and the "er"endicular distance #etween
the axis of rotation and the line of action of the force
A cou"le is a "air of forces% equal in magnitude #ut o""osite in direction% whose lines of
motion do not coincide
,entre of gravity is the "oint on an o#)ect through which the entire weight of the o#)ect
may #e considered to act
!ta#ility of an o#)ect refers to its a#ility to return to its original "osition after it has #een
dis"laced from that "osition
Pressure is force acting "er unit area
-"thrust.#uoyancy force is an u"ward force on a #ody "roduced #y the surrounding fluid
/ie% a liquid or a gas0 in which it is fully or "artially immersed% due to the "ressure
difference of the fluid #etween the to" and #ottom of the o#)ect
Archimedes Princi"le states that the u"thrust ex"erienced #y an o#)ect "artially or
entirely immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid dis"laced #y the o#)ect
*ewtons first law of motion states that a #ody will continue in its state of rest or uniform
motion in a straight line unless an external resultant force acts on it
*ewtons second law states that the rate of change of momentum of a #ody is
"ro"ortional to the resultant force acting on it and the change ta$es "lace in the direction
of the force
*ewtons third law states that: 1f #ody A exerts a force on #ody 2% then #ody 2 exerts a
force of equal magnitude #ut in the o""osite direction on #ody A
The "rinci"al of conservation of momentum states that the total momentum of a system
of o#)ects remains constant "rovided no resultant external force acts on the system
Work, Energy And Power
3or$ is the mechanical transfer of energy to a system or from a system #y an external
force on it
+eat is the non-mechanical transfer of energy from the environment to the system or
from the system to the environment #ecause of a tem"erature difference #etween the two
The Princi"le of conservation of energy states that energy cannot #e created nor
destroyed in any "rocess
4ravitational Potential Energy is defined as the amount of wor$ done in order to raise the
#ody to the height h from a reference level
Power is defined as the rate of wor$ done or energy converted with res"ect to time
Circular Motion:
Angular dis"lacement% 5 is the angle su#tended at centre of a circle #y an arc of equal
length to the radius
Angular velocity% 5 is the rate of change of angular dis"lacement with res"ect to time
The "eriod T of an o#)ect in circular motion is the time ta$en for the o#)ect to ma$e one
com"lete revolution
The frequency f of an o#)ect in circular motion is the num#er of com"lete revolutions
made #y the o#)ect "er unit time
Waes:
6is"lacement is the distance moved #y the "article from its equili#rium "osition
The am"litude of a wave is the maximum dis"lacement of the "article from its
equili#rium "osition
The wavelength is the distance #etween 7 successive "oints on a wave which are in "hase
with one another
The "eriod is the time ta$en for a "article on the wave to com"lete one oscillation
The frequency of a wave is the num#er of com"lete oscillations that "ass through a given
"oint in 8 second /-nits: +ert&/+&0 or s
-8
0
A com"ression is a region where "articles are close to one another /+igh "ressure0
A rarefaction is a region where the "articles are further a"art /Low "ressure0
Phase 6ifference /50 #etween two "articles or two waves tells us how much a "article /or
wave0 is in front or #ehind another "article /or wave0
1ntensity of a wave is the rate of transfer of energy "er unit area "er"endicular to the
direction of travel of the wave
!scillations:
Periodic motion is the regular% re"etitive motion of a #ody which continually retraces its
"ath at regular intervals
Period T of a "eriodic motion is the time to ma$e one com"lete cycle
'requency f of a "eriodic motion is the num#er of cycles "er unit time
Angular frequency of a "eriodic motion is the rate of change of angular dis"lacement
with res"ect to time
6is"lacement of an o#)ect is the distance of the oscillating "article from its equili#rium
"osition at any instant
Am"litude of a "eriodic motion is the magnitude of the maximum dis"lacement of the
oscillating "article from the equili#rium "osition
!im"le +armonic 9otion /!+90 is defined as the oscillatory motion of a "article whose
acceleration a is always directed towards a fixed "oint and is directly "ro"ortional to its
dis"lacement x from that fixed "oint #ut in the o""osite direction to the dis"lacement
6am"ing is the "rocess where#y energy is ta$en from the oscillating system
*atural frequency of the system is the frequency at which it will vi#rate freely
"u#er#osition:
6iffraction refers to the #ending or s"reading out of waves when they travel through a
small o"ening or when they "ass round a small o#stacle
The Princi"le :f !u"er"osition states that when two waves of the same $ind meet at a
"oint in s"ace% the resultant dis"lacement at that "oint is the vector sum of the
dis"lacements that the two waves would se"arately "roduce at that "oint
1nterference refers to the su"er"osing of two or more coherent waves to "roduce regions
of maxima and minima in s"ace% according to the "rinci"le of su"er"osition
$raitation:
*ewtons Law :f -niversal 4ravitation states that every "article in the -niverse attracts
every other "article with a force that is directly "ro"ortional to the "roduct of their
masses and inversely "ro"ortional to the square of the distance #etween them
4ravitational field strength at a "oint is defined as the gravitational force "er unit mass
acting on a mass "laced at that "oint
4ravitational "otential energy% - of a "oint mass m% in a gravitational field% is the wor$
done #y an external force in #ringing that "oint mass from infinity to that "oint
4ravitational "otential at a "oint in a gravitational field is the wor$ done "er unit mass%
#y an external force% in #ringing the mass from infinity to that "oint
Esca"e s"eed is the minimum s"eed with which a mass should #e "ro)ected from the
Earths surface in order to esca"e Earths gravitation field
Electric Field
The coulom#s law states that the electrostatic force #etween two "oint charges is
"ro"ortional to the "roduct of their charges and inversely inversely "ro"ortional to the
square of the distance #etween them
The Electric field strength at a "oint in an electric field is the electrostatic force "er unit
charge ex"erienced #y a small "ositive test charge "laced at that "oint
Electric Potential at a "oint in an electric field is the wor$ done "er unit charge #y an
external agent in #ringing a "ositive test charge from infinity to that "articular "oint
without acceleration
Electric "otential energy of a charge in an electric field is defined as the wor$ done #y an
external force in #ringing the charge from infinity to that "oint a distance r away
The electron volt is defined as energy that an electron /or "roton0 gains /or loses0 when it
is accelerated/or decelerated0 through a "otential difference of 8 volt
Current !% Electricity
Electric ,urrent is the rate of flow of charge through a "articular cross sectional area with
res"ect to time
The "otential difference #etween two "oints in an electrical circuit is the electrical energy
converted into other forms of energy "er unit charge "assing from one "oint to the other
:ne volt is the "otential difference #etween two "oints in an electrical circuit when one
)oule of electrical energy is converted to other form of energy as one coulom# of charge
"asses from one "oint to the other
:hms Law states that the ratio of the "otential difference across a conductor to the
current flowing through it% is a constant% "rovided that its "hysical conditions% such as
tem"erature% remain constant
The electromotive force / 0 of a source is the
energy converted from other forms to electrical "er unit charge delivered round a
com"lete circuit
1nternal resistance /r0 of any real source is the resistance that charge moving through the
material of the source encounters
DC Circuits
;irchhoffs 'irst Law states that the total current entering a )unction is equal to the total
current leaving the )unction :R The alge#raic sum of currents at a )unction is &ero
;irchhoffs second law states that the net electromotive force around a closed circuit loo"
is equal to the sum of "otential dro"s around the loo" :R The alge#raic sum of the
changes in "otential encountered in a com"lete traversal of a closed circuit loo" must #e
&ero
Electromagnetism
9agnetic flux density /20 is defined as the force acting "er unit current "er unit length on
a wire "laced at right angles to the magnetic field
8 Tesla is defined as the magnetic flux density of a uniform magnetic field when a wire of
length 8m % carrying a current of 8A% "laced "er"endicular to the field% ex"eriences a
force of 8* in a direction at right angles to #oth the field and the current
Electromagnetic &nduction
9agnetic flux through a "lane surface is the "roduct of the magnetic flux density normal
to the surface 2* and the area A of the surface
The we#er is defined as the magnetic flux through a surface if a magnetic field of flux
density 8 T exists "er"endicularly to an area of 8 m
7

9agnetic 'lux Lin$age is defined as the "roduct of the num#er of turns * of the coil and
the magnetic flux lin$ing each turn
'aradays Law states that the induced emf is directly "ro"ortional to the rate of change
of magnetic flux lin$age or rate of cutting of magnetic flux lin$age
Len&s Law states that the induced emf will #e directed such that the current which it
causes to flow o""oses the change that is "roducing it
Alternating Current
The root-mean-square /rms0 value of an alternating current is equivalent to the steady
direct current that converts electrical energy to other forms of energy at the same average
rate as the alternating current in a given resistance
Rectification is the "rocess in which an alternating current is forced to only flow in one
direction
"emiconductors
2and ga" is the energy difference #etween to" of valence #and and #ottom of conduction
#and 1t is also a range of energy in a solid where no electron states exist
An intrinsic semiconductor is a "ure semiconductor crystal containing only one element
or one com"ound
Extrinsic semiconductors do"ed with donor im"urities are called n-ty"e semiconductors
#ecause they donate an excess of negative charge carriers
'uantum Physics ( )asers
Photoelectric Effect is the emission of electrons from metal #y electromagnetic radiation
Photoelectron is used to indicate that the electron has #een emitted when light falls on the
surface of a metal
The wor$ function of a material is defined as the minimum amount of the wor$ necessary
to remove a free electron from the surface of the material
Threshold frequency is the minimum frequency of an incident radiation required to )ust
remove an electron from the surface of a metal
The scanning tunnelling microso"e /!T90 is a non-o"tical microsco"e which uses the
conce"t of quantum tunnelling #y electrons to study surfaces of conductors or semi-
conducors at the atomic scale of a#out 7 < or =7 nm
*uclear Physics
The mass defect of a nucleus is defined as the difference #etween the mass of the
se"arated nucleons and the com#ined mass of the nucleus
*uclear fission is the disintegration of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei of
a""roximately equal masses
*uclear fusion is the com#ining of the two light nuclei to "roduce a heavier nucleus
Radioactive decay is the s"ontaneous disintegration of the nucleus of an atom which
results in the emission of "articles
2ac$ground radiation refers to ioni&ing radiation emitted from a variety of natural and
artificial radiation sources
The activity of a radioactive su#stance is defined as the average num#er of atoms
disintegrating "er unit time
The decay constant 5 of a nucleus is defined as its "ro#a#ility of decay "er unit time
+alf-life is defined as the time ta$en for half the original num#er of radioactive nuclei to
decay
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