INTRODUCCIN A LA INGENIERA Y DISEO

AEROESPACIAL







MATERIAL DIDCTICO
QUE PARA OBTENER EL TITULO DE INGENIERO AEROESPACIAL



DESARROLLA:
CARLOS EDUARDO SNCHEZ RAMREZ


DIRECTOR
M.C. ELOY MRQUEZ RODRGUEZ




Chihuahua, Chih. Mxico
Mayo 2014
2

NDICE
CAPITULO
I. INTRODUCCIN.3

II. BASE DE CONOCIMIENTOS APLICADOS PARA EL
DESARROLLO DEL TRABAJO4

A. LA CARRERA DE INGENIERO AEROESPACIAL DE LA
UNIVERSIDAD AUTNOMA DE CHIHUAHUA....4
B. UNA ASIGNATURA INTRODUCTORIA..5
1. Beneficios....6
2. Desafos...7
C. EXPERIENCIA DE LA IMPARTICIN DE LA CLASE8
1. Aspectos Positivos..8
2. Oportunidades de Mejora....9

III. DESARROLLO DEL TRABAJO..10
A. LECTURAS..11
B. TAREAS.171
C. EXMENES..184
D. PROYECTOS DE DISEO...202

IV. CONCLUSIONES Y RECOMENDACIONES...204
A. DE LA PARTE TERICA DE LA CLASE..204
B. DE LA PARTE PRACTICA DE LA CLASE204

V. APNDICES Y/O ANEXOS.205

VI. BIBLIOGRAFA...206


3

CAPITULO I

INTRODUCCIN

En este trabajo de material didctico se tiene como objetivo la incorporacin de una nueva
asignatura al plan de estudios de Ingeniera Aeroespacial de la Facultad de Ingeniera de la
Universidad Autnoma de Chihuahua. La asignatura tiene como objetivo que lleve el
nombre de Introduccin a la Ingeniera y Diseo Aeroespacial o una versin ms corta de
este nombre como Introduccin a la Ingeniera Aeroespacial. Este trabajo es
estrictamente una propuesta de que la asignatura sea creada y que su contenido aqu
presentado sea utilizado por algn instructor para su enseanza. Es responsabilidad del
Coordinador Acadmico y de la Academia de Ingeniera Aeroespacial su valoracin y voto
para que la asignatura se incorpore oficialmente al plan de estudios.
En el presente trabajo se definen las razones por las cuales la asignatura ha sido creada y
desarrollada, as como las experiencias que el autor de este trabajo ha tenido al impartir la
asignatura durante los pasados dos semestres correspondientes al periodo escolar 2013-
2014.
Adems el resto del trabajo contiene las diferentes partes en las cuales la asignatura fue
dividida y los contenidos temticos de cada parte. Tambin se incluyen ejemplos de tareas,
exmenes, y proyectos de diseo que alumnos realizaron en el semestre agosto-diciembre
de 2013. Cabe destacar que todos los contenidos temticos tambin han sido realizados en
una versin electrnica con el objetivo de diseminar el conocimiento de una manera ms
rpida entre los alumnos y maestros, y que dichos contenidos sean incorporados a la
Plataforma Virtual Moodle de la Facultad de Ingeniera para su fcil acceso.



4

CAPITULO II

BASE DE CONOCIMIENTOS APLICADOS PARA EL
DESARROLLO DEL TRABAJO

A. LA CARRERA DE INGENIERO AEROESPACIAL DE LA UNIVERSIDAD
AUTNOMA DE CHIHUAHUA
El programa de estudios de licenciatura en ingeniera aeroespacial de la Facultad de
Ingeniera de la Universidad Autnoma de Chihuahua (UACH) fue creado en 2007 con el
objetivo de incrementar la oferta de recursos humanos calificados para el sector
aeroespacial que se ha encontrado en crecimiento en el estado de Chihuahua desde hace
varios aos. Como una de las industrias de mayor contenido tecnolgico, la industria
aeroespacial requiere de ingenieros bien preparados en las reas tanto de la aeronutica
como espacial para llevar a cabo sus actividades. Y con el objetivo de acelerar el progreso
de la carrera, la Facultad de Ingeniera formo una alianza con el Departamento de
Ingeniera Mecnica y Aeroespacial de la Universidad Estatal de Nuevo Mxico (NMSU)
en Las Cruces, Nuevo Mxico, Estados Unidos, para tener un programa binacional de doble
titulacin entre ambas universidades. Este programa tendra como objetivo formar
estudiantes en la UACH por un periodo de seis semestres y los ltimos tres semestres serian
terminados en NMSU. Durante los primeros seis semestres los alumnos tomaran
asignaturas de ciencias bsicas, matemticas, ciencias de la ingeniera, ciencias sociales e
ingls. Y durante los ltimos tres semestres, los alumnos tomaran nicamente asignaturas
de ingeniera aeroespacial. Al final de los nueve semestres, ambas universidades validaran
el total de los crditos de ambas instituciones y otorgaran cada una un ttulo de Ingeniero
Aeroespacial.
Sin embargo, a partir de enero de 2012 la Facultad de Ingeniera decidi impartir las
asignaturas correspondientes a los ltimos tres semestres para ofrecer a un mayor nmero
de estudiantes la posibilidad de terminar el programa de Ingeniero Aeroespacial sin la
necesidad de transferirse a la Universidad Estatal de Nuevo Mxico. Estos ltimos tres
5

semestres contienen las asignaturas de ingeniera aeroespacial nicamente, similar al plan
binacional. La plantilla de profesores de las asignaturas de los ltimos tres semestres ha
sido conformada por maestros de tiempo completo y por ingenieros graduados del
programa binacional actualmente empleados en la industria aeroespacial de la ciudad de
Chihuahua.
El autor de este material didctico ha sido profesor de un total de cuatro asignaturas
aeroespaciales, incluyendo Aerodinmica I, Ingeniera de Sistemas Aeroespaciales,
Estructuras Aeroespaciales, e Ingls Tcnico. A la asignatura de Ingles Tcnico de sexto
semestre se le fue modificado su contenido temtico para ofrecer temas introductorios a las
dems asignaturas de ingeniera aeroespacial. Adems, dado que la asignatura de Ingles
Tcnico tiene sus contenidos en ingls, los temas introductorios se han ofrecido en ingls,
para reforzar las habilidades tcnicas en este idioma extranjero. Esta modificacin fue
hecha con el objetivo de que tanto los alumnos que a partir de sptimo semestre se vallan a
Nuevo Mxico como los que se quedan a terminar el programa de estudios en Chihuahua
tengan un entendimiento elemental de lo que las dems materias consistirn. Al haber
tomado una materia introductoria, se espera que los alumnos obtengan mejores resultados
de aprendizaje en las materias especializadas.

B. UNA ASIGNATURA INTRODUCTORIA
Desde que el autor de este material didctico tomo la asignatura de Ingles Tcnico se ha ido
pensando y analizando la mejor manera de presentar los temas de ingeniera aeroespacial a
un nivel introductorio para que los alumnos de sexto semestre, que para entonces ya
cuentan con conocimientos de matemticas y ciencias bsicas para ingeniera, puedan
comprender los principios fsicos que gobiernan reas como la aerodinmica y la dinmica
del vuelo. Se han investigado diversas universidades con programas en ingeniera
aeroespacial que imparten esta misma asignatura y bibliografa utilizada en la imparticin
de la misma.


6

1. Beneficios
Los beneficios de tomar una materia introductoria a las dems materias del programa de
ingeniera aeroespacial son el conocer los principios bsicos que gobiernan ecuaciones
fundamentales como por ejemplo las leyes de la conservacin de la masa, de la
conservacin del momento lineal, de termodinmica o de la conservacin de la energa para
la derivacin de ecuaciones utilizadas en aerodinmica como por ejemplo la ecuacin de
Bernoulli o las ecuaciones del flujo isentrpico. Dado que las materias de aeroespacial
impartidas en los ltimos semestres tienen un alto contenido tcnico y requieren
conocimientos solidos de fsica y matemticas para su entendimiento, el conocer los
principios bsicos y leyes fundamentales junto con problemas de aplicacin tiene como
premisa apoyar al estudiante a que comprenda ms profundamente los contenidos temticos
una vez que se encuentre tomando la asignatura.
Otro de los beneficios apreciables en la adicin de la nueva asignatura es que el alumno
conozca de cerca los temas y tipos de problemas que contiene la ingeniera aeroespacial en
general, y as tenga una mejor perspectiva respecto a continuar con el programa de estudios
o renunciar a l. Esto es importante ya que durante los primeros seis semestres no se
imparten temas directamente asociados a la ingeniera aeroespacial, y por lo tanto, el
alumno llega a conocer de qu se trata la carrera hasta que llega al sptimo semestre.
Desafortunadamente, esto podra provocar algn tipo de desnimo por parte del alumno con
su posterior renuncia a la continuacin del plan de estudios. As, al tomar esta nueva
asignatura durante el sexto semestre, o antes de preferencia, el alumno tendr una toma de
decisiones mejor fundamentada.
Esta asignatura fue tomada como ejemplo a partir del programa de estudios de nivel
licenciatura en Ingeniera Aeroespacial del Instituto Tecnolgico de Georgia (GaTech) y de
la Universidad de Maryland, ambos de Estados Unidos, ya que estas dos universidades se
encuentran dentro de los mejores programas de ingeniera aeroespacial de Estados Unidos
de acuerdo al ranking US News Best Graduate Schools. El Instituto Tecnolgico de Georgia
(GaTech) se encuentra en el lugar # 5 y la Universidad de Maryland en el lugar # 12.
Ambas universidades imparten la materia. La asignatura en el Instituto Tecnolgico de
Georgia es llamada AE 1350: Introduction to AE y en la Universidad de Maryland la
7

asignatura es llamada ENAE 283 Introduction to Aerospace Systems. En ambas materias el
contenido temtico es el mismo y la misma bibliografa es utilizada por los instructores.
Cabe resaltar que por ejemplo la asignatura de la Universidad de Maryland tiene como
objetivos de la asignatura ENAE 283 Introduction to Aerospace Systems lo siguiente:
Course Objectives/Student Learning Outcomes:

1. Know the basic principles on which the development of aerodynamics and other
principal subdisciplines of aerospace engineering are based.

2. Use and apply principles from mathematics, physics, and computational
methods to solve beginning level problems in aerodynamics, vehicle
performance, vehicle stability and control, 2-body orbit theory, and propulsion
systems.

Por lo tanto, se puede observar que los objetivos del curso en la Universidad de Maryland
tienen como fin apoyar al estudiante en las asignaturas posteriores que requerirn un mayor
rigor tcnico. Estos mismos objetivos se pretenden alcanzar con la adicin de esta nueva
asignatura. Tambin, ya que en estas dos importantes universidades a nivel internacional se
imparte esta materia, se toma como buena prctica y benchmarking el tomar como
referencia los temas y bibliografa utilizados por dichas instituciones. As, la adicin de esta
nueva asignatura ser clave en el desarrollo acadmico del estudiante y fortalecer el
programa de estudios.

2. Desafos
Uno de los desafos ms grandes en la adicin de una nueva asignatura es el
reconocimiento del personal acadmico y directivo. Para esto es de suma importancia que
tanto los maestros revisores de este material didctico como los dems pertenecientes a la
Academia de Ingeniera Aeroespacial conozcan los contenidos de la asignatura para su
discusin, adicin de contenidos, o en su defecto, la modificacin de los mismos.
8

Otro desafo a mediano y largo plazo es el impacto que tendr esta asignatura en el
aprendizaje de los estudiantes mientras y despus de haber cursado las asignaturas de
especialidad. Es importante que se hagan entrevistas a los estudiantes para recabar
retroalimentacin de la relevancia que esta materia les propino al tomar las dems
asignaturas. Todo esto con el fin de enriquecer el contenido de la asignatura y darle forma
de acuerdo a las necesidades tcnicas de los estudiantes y de las materias de especialidad.

C. EXPERIENCIA DE LA IMPARTICIN DE LA CLASE
Esta nueva asignatura ha sido impartida durante los ltimos dos semestres correspondientes
al ciclo escolar 2013-2014 y como prueba piloto hay algunos aspectos positivos a resaltar.
De igual manera se han identificado oportunidades de mejora que se pueden analizar e
implementar conforme la asignatura es impartida. Es importante sealar que de la
experiencia obtenida en la imparticin de esta asignatura se han obtenido estas
observaciones.
1. Aspectos Positivos
Uno de los aspectos que resaltan es la opinin general de los estudiantes del beneficio de
haber cursado una materia introductoria antes de las dems de especialidad. Su opinin
general es que hubiera sido mejor haber tomado algn tipo de materia introductoria antes
del sexto semestre ya que an no haban estudiado contenidos de ndole aeroespacial, y as
ir conociendo su carrera desde semestres iniciales.
Un aspecto positivo apreciado por el autor de este material es que la asignatura contiene
temas de los cursos ms importantes de la carrera de ingeniera aeroespacial como
aerodinmica terica y aplicada, rendimiento de vuelo, estabilidad, propulsin, astronutica
y diseo de aeronaves. Tal amplitud de contenidos temticos si bien no se estudian a
profundidad, cubre lo esencial de cada materia. Se han impartido un total de nueve
unidades ms una nueva correspondiente a los materiales aeroespaciales. Cada unidad
cubre aspectos histricos del tema, teora bsica, y problemas de aplicacin. Durante la
tercera evaluacin, se encarga un proyecto de diseo de aeronaves con la intencin de que
9

los alumnos apliquen los conceptos y las formulas estudiadas durante el semestre al diseo
de un avin de uso comercial o militar.
2. Oportunidades de Mejora
Un rea de oportunidad pedaggica importante radica en la inclusin de herramientas de
Tecnologas de la Informacin en la asignatura y de prcticas reales. Actualmente se utiliza
la programacin en MATLAB para la resolucin de algunos problemas, y el modelado en
NX para la realizacin de un proyecto de diseo de aeronaves. Sin embargo, el autor de este
material ha identificado el uso de software especializado en simulacin de fluidos como
una opcin de comprobacin de resultados a distintos problemas de aerodinmica, ya que
diferentes softwares comerciales de fluidos son utilizados en la industria aeroespacial hoy
en da. Tambin, se ha identificado la necesidad de llevar a cabo prcticas en tnel de
viento real con modelos diseados por los mismos estudiantes para obtener coeficientes
aerodinmicos y comparar sus resultados tericos con los obtenidos en la prctica. Se
espera que la inclusin de estos dos mtodos pedaggicos (el uso del software y las
prcticas con tnel), refuerce los contenidos tericos impartidos en clase. Para este fin, se
espera la construccin y puesta en operaciones del nuevo edificio de ingeniera
aeroespacial, prximamente en construccin.
Otra rea de oportunidad dentro del uso de tecnologas de la informacin es la inclusin del
material didctico a la plataforma virtual Moodle de la Facultad de Ingeniera. En este
trabajo de adicin de material didctico se han preparado para cada unidad lecturas en
formato PDF, presentaciones en Power Point, problemas de tarea y sus soluciones para que
el maestro haga uso de ellas. Adicionalmente se han incluido exmenes con sus respuestas
y ejemplos de proyectos de diseo de aeronaves que los alumnos han hecho. Todo este
material puede ser incluido en la plataforma virtual para que el maestro tenga ms control
del mismo y los alumnos accedan de una forma ms cmoda a los materiales en caso de no
poder asistir a la clase.
A manera de sugerencia, futuros maestros de esta clase podran en la plataforma virtual
crear pequeos exmenes de cada unidad para repasar los temas cubiertos y utilizar las
calificaciones como parte de sus calificaciones finales o parciales.
10



CAPITULO III

DESARROLLO DEL TRABAJO

El material didctico desarrollado est dividido en nueve unidades, cuyos detalles sern
mostrados a continuacin. Todas las unidades han sido impartidas en ingls. Las nueve
unidades impartidas son:
1. Historia de la Aeronutica e Ideas Fundamentales
2. La Atmosfera Estndar
3. Introduccin a la Aerodinmica
4. Alas y Perfiles
5. Introduccin a la Dinmica de Vuelo: Rendimiento de Vuelo
6. Introduccin a la Dinmica de Vuelo: Estabilidad y Control
7. Introduccin a la Astronutica
8. Introduccin a la Propulsin
9. Introduccin a los Materiales Aeroespaciales
10. Introduccin al Diseo de Aeronaves










11













A. LECTURAS












12

1. Historia de la Aeronutica e Ideas Fundamentales

1. The First Aeronautical Engineers

It is Kill Devil Hills, 4 miles south of Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, about 10:35 AM on
Thursday, December 17, 1903. Orville and Wilbur Wright are ready to make history. Near
the end of the starting rail, the machine lifts into the air. It is the most historic moment in
aviation history.

Above is a summary of the moment in which the Wright brothers accomplished what many
had failed before: to fly a heavier-than-air machine. It was the first genuine powered flight
of this kind. After this moment, the world of aviation took a whole new direction, since
many scientific and technical aspects of aviation were applied and controlled. However,
contrary to the common belief, the Wright brothers did not truly invent the airplane; rather,
they represent the milestone of a century of prior aeronautical research and development.

1.1 Very Early Developments

The desire to fly has always been an objective for man since history has a record. We can
witness the early Greek myth of Daedalus and his son Icarus. Imprisoned in the island of
Crete in the Mediterranean Sea, Daedalus is said to have made wings fastened with wax.
Using these wings they both flew and escaped from prison. However, Icarus, against his
fathers warnings, flew to close to the sun; the wax melted and Icarus fell to his death in the
sea.
There were also many ancient and medieval people who tried to fly by attaching wings into
their own arms, jumping from towers or roofs and flapping their arm-wings without success
and sometimes with fatal consequences.
The idea of flying took a slightly different path when people started to build wings that
flapped up and down by various mechanical mechanisms, powered by some type of human
arm, leg, or body movement. These machines are called ornithopters. Among these people
is Leonardo da Vinci, who designed many ornithopters and wrote about 500 sketches that
dealt with flight. However, human-powered flight by flapping wings was always doomed to
failure, and Da Vinci did not make important contributions to the technical advancement of
flight.
Human efforts to fly literally got off the ground on November 21, 1783, when a balloon
designed and built by the Montgolfiers in France, carrying Pilatre de Rozier and the
Marquis dArlandes, ascended into the air and drifted 5 miles across Paris. The balloon was
inflated by hot air from an open fire burning in a large wicker basket underneath. This
flight, which became the first one with human passengers rose into the air and lasted for 25
13

minutes. However, balloons made no real technical contributions to human heavier-than-air
flight. They were the only means of human flight for almost 100 years.
1.2 Cayley The True Inventor of the Airplane

The modern airplane has its origin in a design created by George Cayley in 1799. This
design included a fixed wing for generating lift, another separate mechanism for propulsion
(paddles), and a combined horizontal and vertical tail for stability. Cayley engraved his
design in a silver disc, and on the other side he drew a diagram of the lift and drag forces on
an inclined plane (the wing). On the past, people had been thinking that mechanical flight
had to do with flapping the wings of ornithopters, in which the flapping motion would
provide both lift and propulsion. However, Cayley is responsible for breaking with this line
of thought; he separated the concepts of lift from propulsion and started a new era of
aeronautical development that culminated with the Wright brothers success in 1903.
George Cayley is considered the father of modern aviation and the first true aeronautical
engineer.
After experimenting with model helicopters, Cayley engraved his revolutionary concept of
the fixed-wing concept. This was followed by an intense 10-year period of aerodynamic
investigation and development. He built a whirling arm apparatus for testing airfoils; this
was simply a lifting surface (airfoil) mounted on the end of a long rod, which was rotated at
some speed to generate a flow of air over the airfoil. In Cayleys time, the whirling arm was
an important development, which allowed the measurement of aerodynamic forces and the
center of pressure of a lifting surface. However, these measurements were not very
accurate, because after a number of revolutions of the arm, the surrounding air would begin
to rotate with the device. In 1804, Cayley designed, built, and flew a small model glider.
This model glider represents the first modern-configuration airplane of history, with a fixed
wing, and a horizontal and vertical tail that could be adjusted.
Cayleys first outpouring of aeronautical results was documented in his triple paper of
1809-1810 called On Aerial Navigation, which was published in the November 1809,
February 1810, and March 1810 issues of Nicholsons Journal of Natural Philosophy. This
document is one of the most important aeronautical works in history. Cayley documented
many aspects of aerodynamics in his triple paper. It was the first published document on
theoretical and applied aerodynamics in history. In it, Cayley elaborates on his principle of
separation of lift and propulsion and his use of a fixed-wing to generate lift. He states that
the basic aspect of a flying machine is to make a surface support a given weight by the
application of power to the resistance of air He notes that a surface inclined at some
angle to the direction of motion will generate lift and that a cambered surface will do this
more efficiently than a flat surface. He also states that lift is generated by a region of low
pressure on the upper surface of the wing. His triple paper also discussed flight control and
the role of horizontal and vertical tail planes in airplane stability. In 1849, he built and
14

tested a full-sized airplane called the boy carrier, which was a human-carrying glider that
lifted several meters off the ground when gliding down a hill. In 1852, in the Mechanics
Magazine, Cayley published the design of a large human-carrying glider which incorporated:

1. A main wing at an angle of incidence for lift, with a dihedral for lateral stability.
2. An adjustable cruciform tail for longitudinal and directional stability.
3. A pilot-operated elevator and rudder.
4. A fuselage in the form of a car, with a pilots seat and a three-wheel undercarriage.
5. A tabular beam and box beam construction.

These combined features were not seen until the Wright brothers designs in the 20th
century. George Cayley died in 1857. During his almost 84 years of life, he laid the basis
for all practical aviation. Unfortunately, the name of George Cayley retreated to the
background after his death. Many subsequent inventors did not make the effort to examine
the literature before forging ahead on their own ideas (This is a problem for engineers
today).

The French aviation historian wrote: The aeroplane is a British invention: it was
conceivedby George Cayleythe greatest genus of aviationhe realized that the
problem of aviation had to be divided between theoretical researchand practical
tests

1.3 Lilienthal The Glider

In 1891 was the year in which a human literally jumped into the air and flew with wings in
any type of controlled fashion. This person was Otto Lilienthal. He designed and flew the
first successful controlled gliders in history. Being a mechanical engineer, Lilienthal went
on to work on designing machinery in his own factory. From early childhood he was
interested in flight and performed some youthful experiments on ornithopters of his own
design. Toward the late 1880s he became interested in fixed-wing gliders.

In 1889, Lilienthal published the book Der Vogelflug als Grundlage der Fliegekunst
(Bird Flight as the Basis of Aviation). This is a classic in aeronautical engineering because
he studied the structure and types of birds wings and he applied the resulting aerodynamic
information to the design of mechanical flight. In 1889 Lilienthal came to the philosophical
conclusion that to learn practical aerodynamics, he had to get up in the air and experience it
himself. He wrote One can get a proper insight into the practice of flying only by actual
flying experiments
15


Lilienthal used cambered airfoil shapes on the wing and incorporated vertical and
horizontal tail planes in the back for stability. Lilienthal made over 2500 successful glider
flights. The aerodynamic data he obtained were published in papers circulated around the
world. Such widespread dissemination of his results inspired other pioneers in aviation,
including the Wright brothers.

Lilienthal died after a temporary gust of wind brought Lilienthal monoplane glider to a
standstill; he stalled and crashed to the ground.

1.4 The Wright Brothers Inventors of the First Practical Airplane

The Wright brothers drew on an existing heritage that is part of every aerospace engineer
today. The Wright brothers had mechanical talents and set up a shop in which they started
fixing bicycles, and then designing and constructing their own.

Wilbur and Orville had been following Lilienthals progress intently since Lilienthals
gliders were shown in flight by photographs distributed around the world. His progress and
articles quickly made Wilbur Wright to be interested in human flight. Like several flight
thinkers before him, Wilbur approached mechanical flight by the study of bird flight. He
concluded that birds regain their lateral balance when partly overturned by a gust of
wind, by a torsion of the tips of the wings. With this, it emerged one of the most
important developments in aviation history: the use of wind twist to control airplanes in
lateral (rolling) motion. Ailerons are used on modern airplanes for this purpose. This lateral
motion was called wing warping.

Wilbur wrote to the Smithsonian Institution in 1899 to request books and materials in
aeronautics since he wanted to test his concept of wing warping. He received a vast set of
materials written by earlier pioneers of aviation. Both Wilbur and Orville digested all the
aeronautical literature, which led to the design of a biplane kite. This machine was designed
to test the concept of wing warping, which was accomplished by means of four controlling
strings from the ground. The concept worked!

The Wright brothers thought that by flying they could actually get a better feel of the air
and what needed to be done in order to design their airplanes more efficiently, with the goal
of building a heavier-than-air machine that could actually fly and be controlled. They found
an ideal spot in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, where there were strong and constant winds.
They designed and built two gliders which were used to test the wing warping concept.
However, they started to doubt the science behind the literature they received from the
16

Smithsonian, and decided to embark in their own aeronautical research program. They built
a wind tunnel and tested over 200 different airfoil shapes. They designed a force balance to
measure accurately lift and drag. This period of aeronautical research and development led
the Wrights to design their glider No. 3, which was flown in 1902. It was so successful that
Orville wrote that our tables of air pressure which we made in our wind tunnel would
enable us to calculate in advance the performance of a machine. The glider No. 3 was
designed with a vertical rudder behind the wings. This rudder was movable, and when
connected to move in unison with the wing warping, it enabled the glider to make a
smooth, banked turn. This combined use of rudder with wing warping (ailerons) was
another major contribution of the Wright brothers to flight control and aeronautics. Using
this glider the Wright brothers made over 1000 perfect flights and became highly skilled
pilots. Powered flight was the next step, and they were very close to achieve it. However,
they faced the problem of propulsion. There was no commercial engine available for this
purpose, so they designed their own engine and propeller.

With all the major obstacles behind them, they designed and built their Wright Flyer 1
during the summer of 1903. It was similar to the glider No. 3, but included a double rudder
behind the wings and a double elevator in front of the wings. And there was the gasoline-
fueled engine, driving two pusher propellers by means of bicycle-type chains.

The Wrights transported the Wright Flier 1 to Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina. On
December 17, 1903, Orville Wright was ready at the controls. A camera was adjusted to
take a picture of the machine as it reached the end of the rail. The engine was put on full
throttle, the holding rope was released, and the machine began to move. The rest is history.
On this date, the world of successful aeronautical engineering was born.

By their persistent efforts, their detailed research, and their superb engineering, the Wrights
had made the worlds first successful heavier-than-air flight, satisfying all the necessary
criteria laid down by aviation historians.







17

2. Fundamental Physical Quantities of a Flowing Gas

The flow of air over the surface of an airplane is the basic source of the lifting force that
allows a heavier-than-air machine to fly. The shape of an airplane is designed to encourage
the airflow over the surface to produce a lifting force in the most efficient manner possible.
The science that deals with the flow of air is aerodynamics. Aerodynamics is applied in
aircraft design, the design of rocket and jet engines, propellers, vehicles entering planetary
atmospheres from space, wind tunnels, and rocket and projectile configurations. Four
fundamental quantities in aerodynamics are pressure, density, temperature, and velocity.

2.1 Pressure

When you are inside a car in motion, if you take out your hand you can feel the air that
strikes your palm. What is happening is that air molecules are transferring some of their
momentum to the surface of your hand.

Pressure is the normal force per unit area exerted on a surface due to the time rate of
change of momentum of the gas molecules impacting on that surface.

Pressure is defined at a point in the gas or a point on a surface and can vary from one point
to another. Let
dA = an incremental area around B
dF = force on one side of dA due to pressure

The pressure P is the limiting form of the force per unit area where the area of interest has
shrunk to zero around the point B.



18

2.2 Density

The density of a substance (including a gas) is the mass per unit volume.

Density () is a point property and can be defined as follows. Let

dv = an elemental volume around B

dm = the mass of gas inside dv

2.3 Temperature

Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in the gas. If KE is
the mean molecular kinetic energy, then temperature if given by KE = 3/2 kT, where k is
the Boltzmann constant.

We can visualize a high temperature gas as one in which the particles are moving randomly
at high speeds, and a low-temperature gas as one in which the motion of its particles is
relatively low.
2.4 Flow Velocity and Streamlines

Velocity is a vector quantity and has direction and speed. For a flowing gas we can note
that each region of the gas does not necessarily have the same velocity. Therefore, velocity,
like pressure, density, and temperature, is a point property.

We can imagine an infinitesimally small particle of flow and tracing its path as it moves
with time. This traced path is called s streamline of the flow.

2.5 The Source of All Aerodynamic Forces

The previously defined aerodynamic flow quantities will help to define a flow field.
Knowledge of P, , T, and V at each point of a flow fully defines the flow field.
19

How can these four quantities that define a flow field can help in the design of a new
airplane or the shape of a rocket engine? This is defined as follows.

The most practical consequence of the flow of air on an object such as an airplane is that it
exerts an aerodynamic force composed of two sources:

1. Pressure distribution on the surface
2. Shear stress (friction) on the surface
The force exerted by pressure on the surface acts normal to the surface, and the force
exerted by the shear stress acts tangentially to the surface and is due to the frictional effect
of the flow rubbing against the surface as it moves around the body.

A primary function of aerodynamics is to predict and measure the aerodynamic forces on a
body, which includes prediction and measurement of P and w (w means wing).
2.6 Equation of State for a Perfect Gas

In the regular flight of subsonic and supersonic airplanes the air in the atmosphere behaves
very much like a perfect gas. Looking closely at the molecular level, a gas is a collection
of particles in random motion, where each particle is separated a long distance away from
its neighboring particles. Each molecule has an intermolecular force field, which comes
from the complex interactions of the electromagnetic properties of the electrons and
nucleus. The intermolecular force field of a particle extends a long distance and
changes from a strong repulsive force at close range to a weak attractive force at long
range. If the molecules are close (high densities), their motion can be greatly affected by
the intermolecular force field. If they are separated a long distance, the neighboring
particles only feel the tail of the weak attractive force. Therefore,

A perfect gas is one in which intermolecular forces are negligible.
The particles of air in a room are separated an average of 10 molecular diameters from any
other. The same applies to the air around ordinary subsonic and supersonic vehicles.
The equation of state is P = *R*T
Where R is the specific gas constant and its value varies from one type of gas to another.
For normal air it is R = 287 J/kg*K

To measure the deviation of an actual gas in nature from perfect gas behavior the modified
Berthelot equation of state is used:
20


Where a and b are constants of the gas. Therefore, the deviation from a perfect gas behavior
becomes smaller when pressure decreases and temperature increases. If pressure is high, the
intermolecular forces become important and the gas behaves less like a perfect gas.
However, if the temperature increases, the molecules move faster and their distance from
each other is larger, which make the gas behave more like a perfect gas. Furthermore, if air
is heated to above 2500K, oxygen begins to dissociate into oxygen atoms; if it is heated to
above 4000K, nitrogen begins to dissociate and air becomes a chemically reacting gas,
where its chemical composition becomes a function of pressure and temperature. In such a
case, the specific gas constant R becomes a variable, R = R(P, T). The equation of state is
still valid, but it is no longer a constant. This behavior occurs in very high speed flight such
as atmospheric reentry.
2.7 Units

For units it will be used both the SI system and the English system. However, the majority
of the problems in homework and exams will be in SI units.
Unit SI System English System


P


N/m
2


kg/m
3

lb/ft
2


slugs/ft
3


1 atm = 2116 lb/ft
2


T

K

R


R (for air)

287 J/kg*K

1716 ft*lb/slug*R




2.8 Specific Volume

Specific volume is the inverse of density. It is volume per unit mass. By definition,
v = 1/
From the equation of state,

P = *R*T = (1/v)*R*T

Units for specific volume are m
3
/kg and ft
3
/slug.


21

2. La Atmosfera Estndar

1. Altitude
Aerospace vehicles can be divided into two basic categories: atmospheric vehicles such as
airplanes and helicopters, and space vehicles such as satellites and deep space probes,
which operate outside the atmosphere. During the design and performance of any aerospace
vehicle, the properties of the atmosphere must be taken into account.
The atmosphere is always in a state of flux. Pressure and temperature depend on altitude,
location on the globe, time of day, season, etc. It is impractical to take all of these variables
into account when designing an aerospace system. Therefore, a standard atmosphere with
average values can be used for validation of flight tests, wind-tunnel results, and general
airplane design and performance analysis.
In this section, six different altitudes will be defined: absolute, geometric, geopotential,
pressure, temperature, and density.
The altitude above the sea is the geometric altitude (h
G
). The altitude from the center of the
earth to a distance above sea level is called absolute altitude (h
a
).
If r is the radius of the earth, then h
a
= r + h
G
. Absolute altitude is important for space flight
since gravity varies with altitude. From Newtons law of gravitation, we can calculate the
local value of gravity as a function of altitude,

2. The Hydrostatic Equation
The hydrostatic equation is the basic of a model to obtain values of pressure, density, and
temperature as functions of altitude. The hydrostatic equation can be thought of as a force
balance on an element of fluid at rest.

22

As it can be seen in the diagram above, the cube represents a particle of air suspended in
the atmosphere.
On the bottom face the pressure P is felt and exerts a force of P*1*1 = P.
The top face is slightly higher, and it will have a pressure P+dP, since pressure varies with
altitude. This pressure will exert a force of P+dP *1*1 = P+dP on the fluid element.
The volume of the fluid particle would be dh
G
*1*1 = dh
G
.
If gravity is g, then the weight of the element is gdh
G
.
To keep the element in equilibrium, all forces should be zero,
P = (P+dP) + gdh
G
Therefore,

This is the hydrostatic equation, and it applies to any fluid of density . This equation states
that for any infinitesimal change in altitude, it corresponds an infinitesimal change in
pressure. To simplify the integration of pressure, the assumption that gravity is constant and
has sea level value can be made to obtain the variation of pressure with altitude. Therefore,

3. Relation Between Geopotential and Geometric Altitudes
We need to relate the pressure with geometric altitude. Dividing dp = -g
0
dh by
dP = -gdh
G
, we obtain,
1 = (g
0/
g)*(dh/dh
G
) or dh = (g/g
0
)*dh
G
Therefore,

. Integrating we have,

)
)
(

23

where h is the geopotential altitude and

the geometric altitude. For low altitudes, there is

little difference between h and

. Only at altitudes above 65 km the difference is above 1

percent.
4. Definition of the Standard Atmosphere
We can now obtain values of pressure, temperature, and density as functions of altitude for
the standard atmosphere. The figure below shows the results of temperature as a function of
altitude. The vertical parts of the diagram are called isothermal and the inclined parts are
called gradient regions. To obtain formulas for pressure and density as functions of altitude
we can follow the hydrostatic equation,

If we divide by the equation of state,

For the isothermal part shown below, we can obtain the pressure at any value of altitude by
integrating the above equation,

)
Taking the e function on both sides,

)(

)

From the equation of state,

Therefore,

)(

)


24

These two equations give the variation of pressure and density as functions of geopotential
altitude for isothermal layers of the standard atmosphere.

Now we consider the gradient layers as shown below. The temperature variation is linear
and is given by,

Where a is the lapse rate for the gradient layers and it is a specified constant for each layer.

If we substitute a into

Integrating from

to h, it yields,

Therefore,

25



From the equation of state,

The equation for the variation of pressure obtained above becomes

)
(

)

Or,

)
[(

)]


The variation of temperature is linear with altitude and is given by,

)
This equation gives temperature as a function of altitude for the gradient regions and can be
used along with the above squared values to obtain pressure and density. At sea level, the
values of temperature, pressure, and density are given by,

26

These are the base values for the first gradient region until T = 216.66 at h = 11 km. Then,
starting at h = 11 km, the values of pressure and density can be calculated using the
isothermal formulas computed earlier until h = 25 km, and so on. With these calculations
and following the figure of the isothermal and gradient regions of altitude vs temperature,
the values of the standard atmosphere can be tabulated.
5. Pressure, Temperature, and Density Altitudes
With the values of the standard atmosphere we can now define three new altitudes:
pressure, temperature, and density altitudes. The pressure altitude is the altitude that
corresponds to any given value of pressure of the air. For example, imagine you are in an
airplane flying at a given altitude. Then you measure the outside pressure and you find that
it is 6.16x10
4
N/m
2
. From Appendix A, you find that the standard altitude that corresponds
to a pressure of 6.16x10
4
N/m
2
is 4 km. Therefore, you are flying at a pressure altitude of 4
km. Then if you measure the outside air temperature and find that it is 265.4 K, then in
Appendix A you can find that the value of altitude that corresponds to 265.4 K is 3.5 km.
The density altitude can be calculated in a similar way.














27

3. Introduccin a la Aerodinmica

Aerodynamics has many applications in aeronautics and space technology. Among the most
important are:
- Determination of lift and drag on an airplane, missile, etc.
- Determination of the flow velocity and pressure at the nozzle exit of a propulsion
system.

1. The Continuity Equation (COM) Conservation of Mass
Mass can be neither created nor destroyed

- The mass that flows through the cross section at point 1 must be the same as the
mass that flows through the cross section at point 2.
- After an infinitesimal time dt the fluid elements move a distance V
1
dt, and have
swept out a volume A
1
V
1
dt.
- From the density equation, m = V --- dm =
1
*(A
1
V
1
dt)
- The mass flow rate through area A is the mass crossing A per unit time.
- Therefore,

- Since mass is conserved,
-

28



2. Incompressible and Compressible Flow

All matter is compressible, but to various degrees. For solids and liquids, compressibility
plays a minor role, since their molecular arrangements permit a low variation of their
volume as a force is applied to them. Therefore, their densities are relatively constant. On
the other hand, for gases, compressibility plays a major role, since their volume can be
decreased considerably by the application of a force. For the study of gases in
aerodynamics, compressible flows are very important in high-speed subsonic aircraft, all
supersonic aircraft, and rocket nozzles. Therefore,
Compressible flows are those in which the density of the fluid elements can changefrom
point to point. For incompressible flows, we can assume density remains constant.

3. The Momentum Equation (COLM) Conservation of Linear Momentum
The continuity equation does not explain the effect of pressure in air molecules. Differences
in pressure from one point to another create forces that move the fluid elements from one
point to another. We start by Newtons second law,
Force = mass x acceleration
F = ma
29


Consider an infinitesimally small particle of fluid P above along a streamline with velocity
V along the x-axis. The force on this element is a combination of:
- Pressure acting in a normal direction on all faces.
- Frictional shear acting tangentially on all faces.
- Gravity acting on the mass of the element.
For this example, we can ignore the frictional forces and gravity, and assume the only force
acting on the element is pressure. Therefore,
- The pressure on the left face is P
- The area of the left face is dydz
- The force on the left face is P(dydz)
- The change in pressure per unit length is dp/dx
- Therefore, if we move away from the left face by a distance dx along the x-axis, the
change in pressure is (dp/dx)dx.
- Consequently, the pressure on the right face is [P + (dp/dx)dx]*(dp/dx)
- Therefore, the force F in the x-direction is,

(

) or

()

- Moreover, the mass of the fluid element is,

m = *(dx*dy*dz)

- And the acceleration is a = dV/dt. Since V = dx/dt, therefore,
30

- Combining the above three equations into Newtons second law, we can write,

() ()

Eulers Equation

Eulers equation relates the change of momentum to the force. It relates a small change in
pressure for every small change in velocity. Thats why is called the momentum equation,
or conservation of linear momentum. This equation applies for inviscid flow (frictionless
and neglecting gravity), and steady (invariant with respect to time).
To obtain the value of pressure in Eulers equation, we should integrate between points 1
and 2 along a streamline. For compressible flow, density is a variable. For incompressible
flow, density is a constant.

For the case of incompressible flow,

Integrating, we obtain,

) (

Bernoullis Equation
31

There should be noted that:
- The equation above holds for inviscid, incompressible flow, not compressible flow.
- It holds for different points along a streamline. If all the streamlines have the same
density and velocity, then Bernoullis equation can be used anywhere in the flow.
- It is Newtons second law applied to fluid dynamics.
There should be noted that the equation of state relates P,T, and to each other at the same
point, and the continuity and Bernoullis equations relate and V and P and V at one point
in the flow to the same quantities an another point in the flow.
4. Review of Thermodynamics
In high speed flows there is an important relation between compressibility and big energy
changes. To study compressible flows, we should first review some fundamentals of
thermodynamics. The pillar of thermodynamics is the first law, and it is an observation of
natural phenomena. Consider a fixed mass of gas (a unit of mass) contained within a
flexible boundary as shown in the figure below. The mass of gas is called the system, and
everything outside the boundary is the surroundings. These gas molecules move with
random motion, and their summed energy is called the internal energy e of the system. The
only ways the internal energy of the system can be increased or decreased is:
- Heat added or taken away from the system.
- Work done on or by the system.
Therefore, it can be stated that,

The equation above is the first law of thermodynamics: the change in internal energy is
equal to the sum of the heat added to and work done on the system.

Lets now obtain a useful formula for so we can use it for aerodynamics calculations.
Consider a small area dA in the system shown below. Let a pressure P be applied on this
area and being pushed a distance s. By definition, work done on this system is,
()()
32

Therefore, the total sum of the work done on the whole system is,
()



If P is constant so there is thermodynamic equilibrium, then,

Since work done on the system (the gas) decreases volume because it is being pushed in,
then the volume is,

Therefore,

If substituted into , then
Alternative form of the first law
Now, well define enthalpy to be,
Differentiating,
Therefore, ( )

The way by which changes of the thermodynamic variables take place is called a process.
33

Specific heat is heat added per unit change in temperature

1.-Specific heat at constant volume:

2.-Specific heat at constant pressure:

Lets now take a look at each of those two processes:

1. - Consider a constant-volume process in which,
Therefore,

And,

is constant for air at normal conditions

If if we integrate

for a perfect gas

2. - Consider a pressure-constant process,

Then, if . If we integrate,

For a perfect gas

Therefore,

Relation of internal energy
and enthalpy to
temperature
34

5. Isentropic Flow
The concept that bridges thermodynamics and compressible aerodynamics is isentropic
flow.
1. Adiabatic process No heat added / removed
2. Reversible process No friction on dissipative forces
3. Isentropic process adiabatic and reversible
Flow of fluid elements through wind-tunnel nozzles and docket engines are isentropic.
For compressible flows, temperature may not be constant. As the flow moves to
lower or higher density regions volume changes, because work is done, and the
internal energy changes, so temperature changes.
For incompressible flows, density is constant, no work done no dT.

For isentropic process,

Likewise,

If we divide,

Or

For compressible flows,

. For air at normal conditions c

v
and c
p
are constants, and
for air.

Therefore,

Integrating,

35

Since

Isentropic flow

From

Isentropic flow

And

Isentropic flow

6. The Energy Equation
Fundamental principle: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can only change in
form 1
st
law of thermodynamics.
From the 1
st
law, . Also,
For adiabatic flows,
From Eulers equation,
Therefore, since

Integrating between two points along the streamline, we obtain:
36

) (

) (

Energy equation for frictionless, adiabatic flow.
If

7. Summary of Equations

1. For steady, incompressible flow of a frictionless fluid.

Continuity (density is constant)

Bernoullis equation
2. For steady isentropic compressible flow.

Continuity

Isentropic relations

Energy
Equation of state





37

8. The Speed of Sound

Sound waves travel through the air at a definite speed: The speed of sound.
Stagnant gas.




The sound wave is a thin region of disturbance in the air across which the pressure,
temperature, and density change slightly.
The change in pressure activates your eardrum to hear the sound wave.
If you imagine you ride on the wave, the air in front appears to be coming at you with
velocity a. It looks like:




The air behind you (at 2) is going away from you and its properties change slightly:
and the wave velocity also changes da. The velocity behind the wave is

Objective: to obtain an equation for a.
With the continuity equation:

Or

( )

( )

Blast
Source of
sound wave
Ahead of
wave
Behind the wave
1 2
38

The Area of the stream tube through the wave is constant

Therefore:

( )( )
Or

The product is very small and can be ignored.

We apply the momentum equation, in Eulers formula/
.
.
.

Therefore

The flow through a sound wave is isentropic (no heat addition) and no frictional forces.
Therefore,
(

Moreover for isentropic flow,

or

Therefore, the ratio

is constant in an isentropic flow.

And (

) =

Therefore (

39

Therefore

but for a perfect gas,

.
.
.
The propagation of a sound wave through a gas takes place via molecular collisions. When
something explodes, some of its energy is transferred to the neighboring molecules, thus
increasing their kinetic energy. These molecules then transfer some extra energy to the
other molecules. Therefore, the energy of a sound wave is transmitted through air by
molecules which collide with each other.
Temperature is a measure of the mean kinetic energy; hence of the mean molecular velocity
and temperature is also a measure of velocity.
A mean average velocity can be defined for the whole gas. Therefore, the energy of sound
waves will be transmitted at this velocity.
The Mach number at a point in the gas is the velocity of the speed of sound.

Ratio of velocity to the speed of sound

The regimens in aerodunamics are:
1. the flow is subsonic
2. the flow is sonic
3. the flow is super sonic
4. If M , it is transonic flow
5. If , it is hypersonic flow





The speed of sound in a perfect gas depends only
on the temperature of the gas.

40

9. Low Speed Subsonic Wind Tunnels
Wind tunnels - They are ground-based experimental facilities designed to produce flows of
air, which simulate natural flows. Simulation of flows for airplanes, missiles, and space
vehicles are carried out in wind tunnels.




Airflow with pressure

enters the nozzle at a velocity

where the area is . The nozzle

converges to a smaller area

at the test section. Since the flow is incompressible, the

velocity u the test section is:

After flowing over an aerodynamic model, the air passes through a diverging duck called a
diffuser, where the area increases to

and

can be found by:

The pressure is related to the velocity through Bernoullis equation

From Bernoullis equation, as v increases p decreases(

).
In many subsonic wind tunnels all or part of the test section is open; therefore, the test
section pressure

In the diffuser, the pressure increases as velocity decreases

. If

1
then

and

.
41

In real wind tunnels, the flow that passes through the model loses some momentum.
Therefore

is slightly less than

.
In practical operation the test section velocity is governed by the pressure difference

and the area of ratio

.

.
.
.

, and, if

, then

) (

Solving for V
2
we have,

)
[ (

]

10. Measurement of Airspeed

If the flow is not constant over a given cross-section or if the flow in the middle of the
test section is higher than near the walls, then

obtained earlier is only a mean value.

Therefore, we need a point measurement at a given location in the flow. This can be
done by the Pitot-static tube.
Static pressure at a given point is the pressure we would feel if we were moving along
with the flow at that point. They are molecules moving about with random motion and
transferring their momentum to a across surfaces.
Total pressure at a given point in a flow is that pressure that would exist if the flow
were slowed down isentropically to zero velocity.

total pressure
Total pressure

is a property of the gas flow at a given point. Therefore there are 2

pressures we can consider at a given point in the flow: static and total pressure, where

.
For the case of a gas that is not moving,

. Examples are a gas confined in a

cylinder or stagnant air in the room.

Where

variable to control in a wind tunnel

42

The Pitot tube measures total pressure. It consists of a tube placed parallel to the flow
and open to the floor at one end (A). The other end of the tube is closed (B). As the
flow gets into the tube, the gas will pile up inside the tube.
After a few moments, there will be no motion inside the tube, and the gas will stagnate.
Therefore, any flow molecule at point (C) will stop at point (A). Since theres no
friction or heat exchanged, the process will be isentropic.
Therefore, a fluid element moving along streamline (C) will be isentropically brought to
rest at point (A). So the pressure at point (A) is the total pressure

.
Any point where is called a stagnation point.

A uniform flow with velocity

flows parallel to the surface.

The pressure at point A is the static pressure
At point (B), the total pressure

is measured.
The differential pressure gauge will measure the difference

, which gives a
measure of the flow velocity V
1
.
However, the way to obtain

differs depending on whether the flow is

incompressible, high-speed subsonic, or supersonic.


10.1. Incompressible Flow

Consider the diagram above. At point (A) the pressure is and the velocity

. At
point (B) the pressure is

and the velocity zero.

Applying Bernoullis equation

Dynamic pressure: its applied from incompressible aerodynamics to

hypersonic.

State
pressure
Dynamic
pressure
Total
pressure
43

Therefore Incompressible flows only


Therefore

To obtain the correct value of

the engineer must decide what value of to

use. If is the true value of density measured in the air around the airplane, then,

However, the measurement of the atmospheric air density at the airplanes location is
difficult. For practical reasons, the value of used is the sea-level value

and

are different by the factor (

)


At near sea-level, this difference is small.

10.2. Subsonic Compressible Flow

Flight regime of Boeing and Airbus commercial and military aircraft.
Flight velocities greater than 0.3 Mach but less than .

If ,

If we divide
by Cp, then
.
.
.

Therefore, the equivalent airspeed is,

44

Therefore

Equation for a perfect gas with constant specific heats.

When the flow in a Pitot tube is brought to zero velocity isentropically, its pressure
and temperature are

.

Using the energy equation applied to the incoming flow and the stagnation point at
the Pitot tube,

If we substitute the value of

in the equation, we have,

[ ( ) ]

If the value of the speed of sound is given by

Then

then

This equation holds between the freestream and the stagnation point.

If

)
()
then

)
()




Now, to obtain the measurement of airspeed, we use the pressure ratio, and solve for
the Mach number,

[(

]
Important for
compressible,
isentropic flow.

45


Therefore,

[(

[(

]

If standard-sea-level values for

and

are used then,

[(

)
()

]

10.3. Supersonic Flow

For supersonic flows, , the airspeed measurement is different.
A shock wave will form ahead of the Pitot-tube.
Shockwaves are very thin regions of flow (

) across which very severe

changes in the flow properties take place.







How do the shock waves form?

For flows where , molecules that collide with the probe set up a disturbance
which is communicated to other regions of the flow at the local speed of sound.

True values of static
temperature in the air
surrounding the airplane is
difficult to measure.
Used to obtain true
speed.

As a fluid element flows through a shock
wave:
1. The Mach number decreases
2. The static pressure increases
3. The static temperature increases
4. The flow velocity decreases
5. The total pressure

decreases
6. The total temperature To stays the
same for a perfect gas.

46

For flows where , the molecules that collide with the probe cannot move away
and pile up at a finite distance from the probe.

In supersonic flows, air molecules dont have the time to move away and pile up
forming a shockwave.

Shove waves are made visible by means of a Schlieren system.

To calibrate a Mach meter for supersonic flow,

(
( )

( )
)

It relates

measured behind the shock wave and value of the freestream static
pressure obtained by an orifice somewhere in the surface of the airplane.

11. Supersonic Wind Tunnels and Rocket Engines

The main aerodynamic interest in supersonic flows occurred after World War II with
the advent of jet aircraft and rocket-propelled guides missiles.

The flow through rocket engine nozzles is an example of the application of the
fundamental laws of aerodynamics.

Consider isentropic flow in a stream tube,

From the continuity equation,


Or ()
Differentiating, we obtain

Rayleigh
pitot tube
formula
47

In the momentum equation, we obtain,

Substituting, we obtain

Since the flow is isentropic

Therefore,

Rearranging, we obtain,

Or

Area velocity relation

Associated phenomena

1) When the flow is subsonic( ), the area must converge for the velocity to
increase.

2) If the flow is supersonic, the area must diverge for the velocity to increase.

3) If the flow is sonic ( ), then

Looks like infinity
48

1 2 3
3) The only way for

to be finite is to have

, so

Finite number

If

, the streamtube has a minimum area at .This minimum area is called

the throat.

In order to expand a gas to supersonic speeds starting with a stagnant gas in a reservoir,
a duct of sufficiently converging diverging shape must be used.

For both supersonic wind tunnels nozzles and rocket engine nozzles the flow starts out
with a very low velocity in the reservoir, expands to high subsonic speeds in the
convergent section, reaches at the throat, and then goes supersonic in the
diverging section.

Smooth uniform flow is designed; C-D nozzles are long.



Flow quality is not so important, but the weight of the nozzle is a concern.

The real flow through nozzles is closely approximated by isentropic flow because
almost no heat is added or taken away and its almost frictionless.

Therefore, the static temperature density and pressure(

) can be found if M is
known.
From differential
calculus theory
49

( )

( )

()

( )

()

Also the variation of Mach number through the nozzle is a function of the ratio of
the cross-sectional area to the throat area,

)]
()
()

50

4. Alas y Perfiles

1. Airfoil Nomenclature
An airfoil is the cross sectional shape obtained by the intersection of the wing with the
perpendicular plane.

The mean cumber line is the locus of points halfway between the upper and lower
surfaces.

The camber is the maximum distance between the mean camber line and the chord line.
The camber shape controls the lift and moment characteristics of the airfoil.


The angle of attack () is the angle between the relative wind and the chord line.

(R) is the resultant force by pressure and shear stress distributions.

(D) Component of R parallel to the relative wind.

51

Lift is the component of R perpendicular to the relative wind.

Surface pressure and shear stress distributions create a moment M which tends to rotate
the wing.

Will create a moment which will tend to rotate the airfoil.

Lift, drag and moments will change as changes.

Aerodynamic center is the point about which moments dont vary with .

The moment about the aerodynamic center is

{
For subsonic low-speed aircraft, the ac is located at about the quarter-chard point.

2. Lift, Drag, and Moment Coefficients

Coefficients are dimensions less quantities that simplify our aerodynamics calculations.

For an airfoil of given shape the dimension less lift, drag, and moments coefficients are
defined as,

The moment coefficient differs because M has dimensions of a force-length product.

All the physical complexity of the flow field around an aerodynamic body is implicitly
burred in

To obtain lift, drag, and moment forces on a body, we should first obtain the respective
coefficients.
52

3. Airfoil Data

A goal of theoretical aerodynamics is to predict the values of

from
basic equations.

The practical aerodynamicist has to rely upon direct experimental measurements of

The NACA measured lift, drag, and moment coefficients of many airfoils in low speed,
subsonic wind tunnels.

The experimental data were obtained for infinite wings.

Appendix D lists these airfoil graphs.

The slope of the linear portion of the lift is the lift slope.

The lift curve for a symmetric airfoil goes through the origin






53

As is increased beyond the maximum value for

the lift coefficient drops

rapidly. This angle is the stall angle.

Stall is caused by flow separation on the upper surface of the airfoil.




Example 5.1
A model wing of constant chord length is placed in a low-speed subsonic wind tunnel,
spanning the test section. The wing has a NACA 2412 airfoil and a chord length of 1.3 m.
the flow in the test section is at a velocity of 50 m/s at standard sea-level conditions. If the
wing is at a 4 angle of attack calculate
a)

b) The lift, drag, and moments about the quarter chord, per unit span.
SOLUTION
a) From Appendix D, for a NACA 2412 at a 4 angle of attack

To obtain

we must first check the value of the Reynolds number:

)( )( )

()()

For this value of Re and for

from Appendix D
54

b) Since the chord is 1.3 , and we want the aerodynamic forces and moments per unit
span (a unit length along the wing, perpendicular to the flow), then ()
()

Also

()()

From Eq. (5.20)

()()
Since 1 N=0.2248 lb, then also
( )( )

()()
()
Note: The radio of lift to drag, which is an important aerodynamic quantity, is

()()
Example 5.2
The same wing in the same flow as in example 5.1 is pitched to an angle of attack such that
the lift per unit span is 700 N (157 lb).
a) What is the angle of attack?
b) To what angle of attack must the wing be pitched to obtain zero lift?
SOLUTION
a) From the previous example,

Thus

()

55

From appendix D for the NACA 2412 the angle of attack corresponding to

is

b) Also from Appendix D, for zero lift, that is,

4. Infinite vs Finite Wings

The data obtained in Appendix D were measured in low-speed subsonic wind tunnels
where the model wing spanned the test section.

The flow about this wing is two-dimensional.




All real airplanes wings are finite,


The wing span b is the distance between the 2 wingtips.
Infinite wings
2-D flow
The area of the wing on the
platinum view (top) is S
The flow field about a finite
wing is three-dimensional
For finite wings, use C
L
, C
D
,
and C
M
.
56

5. Pressure Coefficient

The pressure coefficient is defined as

is positive at the leading edge. (

)

As the flow expands around the top surface, decreases rapidly,

is negative.
The distribution of

over the airfoil surface leads directly to

Considerations of

lead directly to the calculation of the effect of

on the lift
coefficient.



At M > 0.3, Cp increases dramatically.
An approximation of this relation is

Prandtl-Glauert rule
Cp is constant for M<0.3
57

value at point of an airfoil of fixed shape and angle of attack. Good for

Example 5.3
The pressure at a point on the wing of an airplane is

the airplane is flying

with a velocity of at conditions associated with a standard altitude of 2000 m.
Calculate the pressure coefficient at this point on the wing.
SOLUTION
For a standard altitude of 2000 m,

Thus

()()

From eq. (5.23),

( )

Example 5.4
Consider an airfoil mounted in a low-speed subsonic wind tunnel. The flow velocity in the
test section is 100 ft/s, and the conditions are standard sea level. If the pressure at a point on
the airfoil is 2102 lb/f

, what is the pressure coefficient?

SOLUTION

)( )

Form eq. (5.23),

58

Example 5.5
In the example 5.4, if the flow velocity is increased such that the freestream Mach number
is 0.6, what is the pressure coefficient at the same point on the airfoil?
SOLUTION
First of all, what is the Mach number of the flow in Example 5.4? At standard sea level,

Hence,

()()
Thus, in example 5.4,

a very low value. Hence, the

flow in Example 5.4 is essentially incompressible, and the pressure coefficient is a low-
speed value, that is,

thus, if the flow Mach number is increased to 0.6, from

the Prandtl-Glauert rule, Eq. (5.24),

6. Obtaining Lift Coefficient from Cp

If the distribution of

over the top and bottom surfaces of an airfoil is given,

can be
calculated easily.


The aerodynamic force due pressure is () which is normal.


LE
59

Its component in the lift direction is ( ) Therefore, the contribution to lift of
the pressure is

To obtain the contribution from LE to TE we integrate,

} Lift due to pressure distribution on the upper surface

A similar integral can be obtained on the lower surface. Therefore, the total lift can be
found by,

adding and substating

we get,

(

)
(

()

Then,

Therefore,

The lift coefficient can be obtained by integrating

over the airfoil surface.

On the

plots of upper and lower surfaces, the

is equal to the area between both

curbes, divided by the chord length C.

This equation is valid only for and small values of





Cp Cp
60


Example 5.6
Consider an airfoil with chord length c and the running distance x measured along the
chord. The leading edge is located at and the trailing edge at The
pressure-coefficient variations over the upper and lower surfaces are given respectively as

Calculate the lift coefficient.
SOLUTION
From eq. (5.30)

) (

) (

) [ (

) (

61

It is interesting to note that, when

and

are plotted on the same graph versus

)

7. Compressibility Correction for Lift Coefficient

The pressure coefficient can be replaced by the compressibility correction,

The subscript denotes low-speed incompressible flow.

Now, since

Therefore,

Example 5.7
Consider a NACA 4412 airfoil at an angle of attack of 4, if the freestream Mach number is
0.7, what is the lift coefficient?
SOLUTION
From Appendix D, for

However, the data in Appendix D were obtained

at low speeds, hence the lift coefficient value obtained above, namely 0.83, is really


62

For high Mach number, this must be corrected according to Eq. (5.32):

8. Critical Mach Number and Critical Pressure Coefficient

Consider the flow of air over an airfoil. As the gas expands around the top surface near
the leading edge, the velocity and Mach number increase.

There are regions on the airfoil surface where the local Mach number is greater
than

.


The freestream Mach number at which sonic flow is first obtained somewhere on the
airfoil surface is the critical Mach number.

At some freestream Mach number above

, the drag will increase.
63





On the thin airfoil:
The flow is more streamlined and slightly perturbed.
The pressure on the top surface decreases a small amount

can be increased to a large subsonic valve before sonic flow is encountered

on the airfoil

On the medium-thickness airfoil:
Flow expansion over leading edge sill be stronger
The specific value of Cp
that corresponds to sonic
flow is the critical pressure
coefficient, Cp,cr
The specific value of Cp
that corresponds to sonic
flow is the critical pressure
coefficient, Cp1cr
64

Velocity will increase on the top surface
Pressure will decrease to lower valves

will be more negative

Because flow expansion is stronger, sonic conditions will happen sooner.

The same for the thick airfoil

Therefore, thin airfoils are desirable to expand the

, and are used on all high-speed

airplanes.

Derivation of the critical pressure coefficient and Mach number

)

From dynamic pressure

)

If

therefore,

= Equation A.

Now, for isentropic flow,

()

And,

()

Now, dividing both equation, we get,

( )

( )

()

Substituting with equation A, we obtain for

[(

( )

( )

) ]
65

[(

( )

( )

) ]
Relation of local value of Cp to a local M at any given point, on the surface of the airfoil




If , then

, and we get:

[(
( )

()

)

As

increases,

decreases.
Example 5.8
Given a specific airfoil, how can you estimate its critical Mach number?
SOLUTION
There are several steps to this process, as follows:
a) Obtain a plot of

versus M from Eq. (5.37).This is illustrated by curve A in

Figure 5.18 this is a fixed universal curve, which you can keep for all such
problems.
66

b) From measurement or theory for low-speed flow, obtain the minimum pressure
coefficient on the top surface of the airfoil. This is

shown as point Bin Figure

5.18.
c) Using Eq. (5.24), plot the variation of this minimum pressure coefficient versus

.This is illustrated by curve C.

d) When curve C intersects curve A, then the minimum pressure coefficient on the top
surface o the airfoil is equal to the critical pressure coefficient, and the
corresponding

is the critical Mach number. Hence, point D is the solution for

9. Drag Divergence Mach Number

At low Mach numbers, less than

is almost constant and is equal to the low-

speed valve in Appendix D. a



If

is increased slightly above

a bubble of supersonic flow will occur

surrounding the minimum pressure point b.

will still be reasonably low.

If

is still increased, a sudden increase in the drag coefficient will take place, and
shock waves appear.

The increase in pressure creates a strong pressure gradient, and the flow separates from
the surface, which increases the drag.

The freestream Mach number at which

increases rapidly is the drag-divergence

Mach number.

67


This behavior is called transonic and is characterized when

Supercritical airfoils have been designed to increase the drag-divergence Mach number.
They discourage the formation of shock-waves.




10. Wave Drag at Supersonic Speeds

Shock waves in supersonic flow create wave drag.


Beeper emits a sound wave at speed (a) and moves at Velocity V, where V<a.

At time t, the sound wave will have moved outward by a distance at.

Since V<a, the beeper will always stay inside the sound wave.

If the beeper is constantly emitting sound waves as it moves along, these waves will
constantly move outward.

As long as V<a, the beeper will always be inside the envelope formed by the sound
waves.

Supercritical airfoil
68



Now the beeper is moving at supersonic speed V>a. at time t the sound wave will have
moved a distance at.

After the same time t, the beeper will have moved a distance Vt.

If the beeper is constantly emitting sound waves as it moves along, the waves will pile
up inside an envelope from point S tangent to the sound wave circle.

The tangent line from S is called Mach wave.

The pilling up of pressure waves in supersonic flight can create sharply defined waves.

The Mach wave makes an angle with direction of movement of the beeper. This angle
is called Mach angle.

Objects such as needle will create a very weak disturbance in the flow, limited to a
Mach wave.


M
SUPERSONIC
69

If a thicker object like a wedge is moving at supersonic speeds, it will create a strong
disturbance, shock waves. The SW will be inclined at a oblique angle , where > .



Across the SW, pressure increases and creates wave drag.

In order to minimize the strength of the shockwave, all supersonic airfoils are thin, with
relatively sharp leading edges.
Approximation of thin supersonic airfoil by a flat plate


An Expansion Wave (EW) is fan-shaped region through which the pressure decreases.

The air is turned away with the EW and turned back with the SW, which increases
pressure, which creates lift.

70

From this pressure, wave drag is also created.

As

increases, both lift and drag increase.

Example 5.9
Consider a thin supersonic airfoil with chord length c=5 ft in Mach 3 freestream at a
standard altitude of 20,000 ft. the airfoil is at an angle of attack of 5.
a) Calculate the lift and wave drag coefficients and the lift and wave drag per unit
span.
b) Compare these results with the same airfoil at the same conditions, exep at Mach 2.
SOLUTION
a) In Eqs. (5.39) and (5.40) the angle of attack must be in radians. Hence

Also

()

()

At 20,000 ft,

Hence

()()

()

)()

Useful for thin airfoils at small to
moderate angles of attack in
supersonic flow
71

( )

()()

( )

()()
b)

()

()

Note: at Mach 2,

are higher than at Mach 3. This is general result; both

decrease with increasing Mach number, as clearly seen from Eqs. (5.39)
and (5.40) . Does this mean that L and

also decrease with increasing Mach number?

Intuitively this does not seem correct. Let us find out.

()

)()

( )

()()

( )

()()
Hence, there is no conflict with our intuition. As the supersonic Mach numbers
increase, L and

also increase although the lift and drag coefficients decrease.

11. Finite Wings



72

Higher-pressure air at the bottom leaks toward lower-pressure regions, creating a
circulator motion called a vortex.

Vortices include a small downward component of air velocity called downwash w.

Consequences of this local relative wind:
1. The angle of attack is reduced in comparison to the angle of attack of the wing
referenced to

2. There is an increase in drag, called induced drag.
Interpretations of induced drag
1. The wing tips alter the flow field and create drag.
2. The lift vector is tilted back and creates a drag component.
3. The vortices contain rotational kinetic energy which comes from the aircraft
propulsion system, where extra power has to be added to overcome the extra
increment in drag due to induced drag.

12. Calculation of Induced Drag

73

Geometric angle of attack.- angle between the mean chord of the sing and the direction of

(relative wind).

The local flow is deflected downward by the angle

blc of downwash.
Induced angle of attack.- difference between beat flow direction and freestream direction.
Effective angle of attack.-

The actual of the airfoil.

The lift vector remains perpendicular to the relative wind and is tilted back through the
angle

The tilted lift vector contributes induced drag

Values of

are generally small, so

Therefore,

and

must be in radians.

for a given section of a finite wing depends on the distribution of downwash along
the span.

The downwash depends on the distribution of lift over the span.

The downwash depends on the distribution of lift over the span.

The lift per unit span may vary as a function of distance along the wing because:

1. The chord may vary in length along the wing.
2. The wing may be twisted so each airfoil section is at different geom. Angle of
attack
3. The op shape of the airfoil may change along the span


74

is the lift coefficient of the finite wing

AR= aspect ratio =

Since

Induced drag coefficient

For elliptical lift distributions, which would have elliptical

. wing planforms.

For all wings in general, a span efficiency factor is defined so that,

For elliptical platforms, e=1, otherwise e>1.

and induced drag are a minimum in elliptical distribution.

For subsonic e is from 0.85 0.95

As AR is increased, induced drag is decreased. (Lockheed 0-2)

Total Drag for finite wings at subsonic speeds:

75




Keep in mind that

can be obtained from Appendix D.

vs

in drag polar


Essential for aircraft design.

Example 5.10
Consider the Northrop F-5 fighter airplane, which has a wing area of 170

The wing is
generation 18,000 lb of lift, For a flight velocity of 250 mi / h at standard sea level,
calculate the lift coefficient.
SOLUTION
The velocity in consistent units is

()()

Total
drag
Profile
drag
induced
drag
Profile
drag
Drag due
to skin
friction
Drag due to
sepatation
C
D

Drag
polar
C
L

76

Hence

()()




Example 5.11
The wingspan of the Northrop F-5 is 25.25 ft. Calculate the induced drag coefficient and
the induced drag itself for the conditions of Example 5.10. Assume
SOLUTION
The aspect is

()

Since

from Example
5.10, then from Eq. (5.46)

()

()()

From Example 5.10

Hence

()()()
Example 5.12
Consider a flying wing (such as the Northrop YB-49 of the early 1950s) with a wing area of
206

an aspect ratio of 10, a span effectiveness factor of 0.95, and a NACA 4412 airfoil.
The weight of the airplane is

If the density altitude is 3 km and the flight

velocity is 100 m/s, calculate the total drag on the aircraft.
SOLUTION
First, obtain the lift coefficient. At a density altitude of 3 km=3000m

(from Appendix A)

()()

()

77

Note: this is rather high lift coefficient, but the velocity is low-near the landing speed-hence
the airplane is pitched to a rather high angle of attack to generate enough lift to keep the
airplane flying.
Next, obtain the induced drag coefficient:

()()

The profile drag coefficient must ve estimated form the aerodynamic data in Appendix D.
Assume that

is given by the highest Reynolds number data shown for the NACA 4412
airfoil in Appendix D, and furthermore, assume that it is in the drag bucket. Hence, from
Appendix D.

Thus, from Eq. (5.47), the total drag coefficient is

Note that the induced drag is about 3.5 times larger than profile drag for this case, thus
underscoring the importance of induced drag.
Therefore, the total drag is

()()

13. Change in the Lift Slope

Main differences between finite and infinite wing data.
Addition of induced drag in finite wings
Smaller slope of finite wings lift curve

What the airfoil sees
78

For elliptical platforms

For any other wing

e and e, are theoretically different but in practice approximately the same.

If

is in degrees, then

Flow over a finite wing at an angle is the same as the flow over an infinite wing at an
angle of attack

If

the line is stretched out more.

A is less inclined than

The effect of a finite wing is to reduce the lift curve slope.

If lift is zero, then

so

In radians
New span affectiveress factor
79



is the same for finite and infinite wings.

can be obtained from Appendix D for finite wings.

If we know

how do we find ?

If

by integrating we have,

) Substituting

we have

) , solving for

weve

Differentiating

with respect to , we have

Example 5.13
Consider a wing with an aspect ratio of 10 and a NACA 23012 airfoil section. Assume

The span efficiency factor is

If the wing is at a 4 angle of

attack, calculate

and

SOLUTION
Since we are dealing with a finite wing but have airfoil data (Appendix D) for infinite
wings only, the fist job is to obtain the slope of this lift curve for the finite wing, modifying
the data from Appendix D.
The infinite wing lift slope can be obtained from any two points on the linear vurve.
For the NACA 23012 airfoil, for example (from Appendix D),

80

Hence

Also for Appendix D,

The lift slope for the finite wing can now be obtained from Eq. (5.53).

() ()()

At

)
[ ()]
()

The total drag coefficient is given by Eq. (5.47):

()()




14. Swept Wings

Modern high-speed aircraft have swept-back wings.

slightly above

creates drag, so

should be increased the most.

,
81

The airfoil section still sees the flow normal to the leading edge.

By sweeping the wings of subsonic aircraft, drag divergence is delayed to higher
Mach numbers.

Sweep wing in supersonic flight

If the Mach cone is inside the leading edge, the component of the Mach number normal
to the leading edge is supersonic.

An oblique shock wave will be created by the wing and wave drag.

If the leading edge is inside the Mach cone, the component of the Mach number normal
to the leading edge is subsonic, and the wave drag is less.
30
82



Sweeping the wings of subsonic aircraft reduce

ratio.





83

5. Introduccin a la Dinmica de Vuelo: Rendimiento de Vuelo

1. Equations of Motion

Four physical forces:
1. - Lift (perp. to Flight path).
2. - Drag (parallel to F. path).
3.- Weight
4. - Thrust, inclined at

The flight path is generally curved with a radius of curvature equal to the absolute
altitude h.

Consider Newtons second law:

All forces parallel to flight path

Newtons

law perpendicular to the flight path is:

Where

is the acceleration onormal to a curved path with radius of curvature

From the figure

parallel forces

And

perpendicular forces

Therefore,

And

equation of motion in translational flight.

In this chapter, acceleration is zero. unaccelarated

Well consider static performance Level
84

most conventional airplanes

Equation of motion for level unaccelerated flight

This chapter is about:
-How fast
-How far can an airplane fly
-How long
-How high

2. Thrust Required for Level, Unaccelerated Flight

Consider an airplane is steady level flight at a given altitude and velocity. Power
plants can be: a turbojet or engine-prop combination.

Then,

Dividing,

Therefore,

Thrust required for level unaccelerated flight

To calculate a point:

1.- chose a value of

2.- Calculate

Obtained form
altitude
Obtained form
airplane
85


3.- Calculate drag coefficient,

4. Form he ratio

5. - Calculate thrust required

Minimum thrust will be obtained when

is maximum.

is aerodynamic efficiency

is a function of
Usually

is maximum when =2-5 for subsonic airplanes.

Example 6.1
For all the examples given in this chapter, two types of airplanes will be considered:
a) Alight, single-engine, propeller-driven, private airplane, approximately modeled
after the CessnaSkylane shown in figure 6.6. For convenience, we will designate
our hypothetical airplane as the CP-1, having the following characteristics:

Wingspan = 35.8 ft
Wing area = 174 ft
2
Normal gross weight =2950 lb
Normal capacity: 65 gallons of aviation gasoline
Power plant: one-piston engine of 230 hp at sea level
Specific fuel consumption=0.45 lb/(hp)(h)
86

Parasite drag coefficient = C
D,0
= 0.025
Oswald efficiency factor = e =0.8
Propeller efficiency=0.8


b) A jet-powered executive aircraft, approximately modeled after the Cessna Citation 3
shown in figure 6.7. For convince, we will designate our hypothetical jet as the CJ-
1, having the following characteristics:

Wingspan = 53.3 ft
Wing area = 318 ft
2
Normal gross weight =19,815 lb
Normal capacity: 1119 gallons of kerosene
Power plant: two turbofan engines of 3650 lb of thrust each at sea level
Specific fuel consumption=0.6 lb of fuel/(lb thrust)(h)
Parasite drag coefficient = C
D,0
= 0.02
Oswald efficiency factor = e =0.81


87

By the end of this chapter, all the examples taken together will represent a basic
performance analysis of these two aircraft.

In this example, only the thrust required is considered. Calculate T
R
curves at sea level for
both the CP-1 and the CJ-1.
SOLUTION
a) For the CP-1 assume

From eq. (6.16),

()()

()

The aspect ratio is

()

Thus, from Eq. (6.1c),

()

()()


Hence

Finally, from Eq. (6.15),

To obtain the thrust-required curve, the above calculation is repeated for many different
values of

some sample results are tabulated below.

C
L
C
D
L/D T
R
, lb
100 1.43 0.135 10.6 279
150 0.634 0.047 13.6 217
250 0.228 0.028 8.21 359
300 0.159 0.026 6.01 491
350 0.116 0.026 4.53 652

88


The above tabulation is given so that the reader can try such calculations and compare the
results. Such tabulation will be given throughout this chapter. They are taken from a
computer calculation where 100 different velocities are used to generate the data. The T
R

curve obtained from these calculations is given in Figure 6.2.
b) For the CJ-1 assume

From Eq. (6.16),

()()

()


The aspect ratio is

()

Thus, from Eq. (6.1c)

()

()()


Hence

Finally, from Eq. (6.15)
89

A tabulation for a few different velocities follows.






Thrust Available and Maximum Velocity

Thrust available is the propulsive thrust provided by an engine-propeller
combination, turbojet, a rocket, etc.

Close to sonic speeds, the blades encounter compressibility effects and T
A

decreases.

Consider an airplane with velocity V
1
. The pilot has adjusted the throttle so that
enough thrust is applied, T
A
=T
R

C
L
C
D
L/D T
R
, lb
300 0.583 0.035 16.7 1188
600 0.146 0.021 6.96 2848
700 0.107 0.021 5.96 3797
850 0.073 0.020 3.59 5525
1000 0.052 0.020 2.61 7605

90

If the pilot accelerates to point 2 where the throttle is in full position, then
maximum T
A
will be produced by the engine

Therefore, the velocity will increase until Max T
R
=Max T
A
. And the airplane cannot
accelerate any further.

Therefore, the intersection of the T
R
curve (dependent on the airplane) and the
maximum T
A
curve (depend on the engine) defines the maximum velocity Vmax of
the airplane at the given altitude.

Example 6.2
Calculate the maximum velocity of the CJ-1 at sea level (see Example 6.1).
SOLUTION
The information given in Example 6.1 states that the power plant for the CJ-1 consist of
two turbofan engines of 3650 lb of thrust each at sea level. Hence,

()
Examining the result of Example 6.1, we see

occurs when

(see Figure 6.8). Hence

It is interesting to note that, since the sea-level speed of sound is 1117 ft / s, the maximum
sea-level Mach number is

In the present examples, C
D,0
is assumed constant; hence, the drag polar does not include
drag-divergence effects, as discussed in Chap. 5. Because the drag-divergence Mach
number for this type of airplane is normally on the order of 0.82 to 0.85, the above
calculation indicates that M
max
is above drag divergence, and our assumption of constant
C
D,0
becomes inaccurate at this high a Mach number.

T
A
and T
A
are more appropriate for jet-powered aircraft.

Power considerations are more convincing for both jet and prop-driven aircraft.

91


3. Power Required for Level, Unaccelerated Flight

Power is defined as

From the block,
(

)
Velocity
In an airplane in level, unaccelerated flight, the power required is,

T
R
is a fore

is constant velocity

Therefore,

Force, velovity
and power
92

Power varies inversely as

Example 6.3
Calculate the power-required curves for (a) the CP-1 at sea level and for (b) the CJ-1 at the
altitude of 22,000 ft.
SOLUTION
(a) For Cp-1 the value of

at sea level hace already been tabulated and graphed in

example 6.1 Hence from Eq (6.23).

we obtain the following tabulation :
V, ft/s T
R
, lb P
R
, ft
.
lb/s
100 279 27,860
150 217 32,580
250 359 89,860
300 491 147,200
350 652 228,100
93


The power-required curve is given in Figure 6.11
(b) For the CJ-1 at 22,000 ft,

The calculation of

is done with the

same method as given in Example 6.1 and

is obtained from Eq. (6.31). Some

tabulated below.

, ft/s C
L
C
D
L/D T
R
, lb P
R
, ft
.
lb/s
300 1.17 .081 14.6 1358 .041x10
7

500 .421 .028 15.2 1308 .065x10
7

600 .292 .024 12.3 1610 .097x10
7

800 .165 .021 7.76 2553 .204x10
7

1000 .105 .020 5.14 3857 .386x10
7


4. Power Available and Maximum Velocity
4.1. Propeller

P
R
is a characteristic of the aerodynamic design and weight of the aircraft

Power available P
A
is a characteristic of the power plant
A) Reciprocating Engine.- Propeller combination

94

Not all of P is available to drive the airplane.
R= propeller efficiency.

A piston engine burns fuel in cylinders and moves pistons, which deliver power to
the rotating crankshaft.

The power delivered to the propeller by the crankshaft is the shaft brake.

For the English system, units of power are ft lb/s

For the SI system, power is measured in watts. (N m/s)

The horsepower is the most commonly used unit

1 horsepower= 550 ft lb/s
1horsepower= 746 w

Using horsepower, therefore,

()()

Horse power available shaft brake horsepower

For our analysis, well convert hp into ft lb/s or watts.

4.2. Jet Engine

The jet engine derives its thrust by combustion heating an incoming stream of air
and then exhausting the hot air at high velocities through a nozzle.

The power available is

T
A
for a jet engine is almost constant

95

Maximum flight velocity is determined by the intersection of the maximum P
A
and
the P
R
curves.

Example 6.4
Calculate the maximum velocity for (a) the CP-1 at sea level and (b) the CJ-1 at 22,000ft.
SOLUTION
(a) For the CP-1 the information in example 6.1 gave the horsepower rating of the
power plant at sea level as 230 hp, Hence,

()() ()
The results of Example 6.3 for power required are replotted in Figure 6.17a in terms of
horsepower. The horsepower available is also shown, and V
max
is determined by
intersection


96

of the curves as

(b) For the CJ-1, again from the information given in Example 6.1, at sea-level static
thrust for each engine is 3650 lb. There are two engines, hence T
A
=2(3650)=7300
lb. From Eq (6.31), P
A
= T
A
V, and in terms of horsepower, where T
A
is in pounds
and

in ft/s.

Let hp
A.o
be the horsepower at sea level. As we will see in Chap.9, the thrust of a jet
engine is, to a first approximation, proportional to the air density. If we make this
approximation here, the thrust at altitude becomes

For the CJ-1 at 22,000 ft, where

()

The results of example 6.3 for power required are replotted in Figure 6.17b in terms of
horsepower. The horsepower available, obtained from the above equation, is also
shown, and V
max
is determined by the intersection of the curves as

97

5. Stall Speed

We can determine how slow we can fly in steady level flight. We want to determine
the stall speed, Vs fail.

How do we minimize V for a given airplane? By flying at C
i,max.

Example:
M = 300 kg

()
()()()

W = mg = 2943 N

P = 1.225 kg / m
3
(sea level)
S = 12.5 m
2

C
i,max
= 1.5

Maximum Speed on Airplane can fly
To determine the maximum speed of turbojet airplane we start with the equation of
motion:
T=D

The model of the thrust is

)

Drag of the airplane is found by:

Substitution, we have:

( )

98

We had defined total drag as

, where

We know already that

and

Substitution into the C
D
value, weve:

]
Substituting the value of C
D
into equation 1, weve:

)]
{

Multiplying both sides by V
2
, weve a quadratic equation.
[

)]

]
a b c
(

The equation to apply is

Therefore,

We select the positive root,

Therefore,

Example:
m = 300 kg
w = 2943 N
P = 0.6601 kg / m
3
(6,000 m altitude)
99

P
0
= 1.225 kg / m
3
(sea level)
S = 12.5 m
2

C
d
= 0.015 V
max
= 64.7 m / s
K = 0.020
T
max,0
= 500 N

6. Rate of Climb

No acceleration (steady)
Wings level
Climbing flight at an angle to Earths surface.
Thrust parallel to velocity

Flight path angle with respect to horizon (positive)

Summing forces parallel to the flight direction,
1

Summing forces perpendicular to the flight direction:
2

Rate of climb = ROC =

Multiply 1 by v / w, weve:

100

Where TV = P
A
= Power available
DV = P
R
= Power required

Therefore,

Example 6.6
Calculate the rate of climb vs. velocity at sea level for (a) the CP-1 and (b) the CJ-1.
SOLUTION
(a) For the CP-1 from Eq. (6.43)

With power in foot-pounds per second and W in pounds, for the CP-1, this equation
becomes

( )

In terms of feet per minute

()

This calculation can be repeated at different velocities, with the following results:

, ft/s R/C, ft/min

100 1492
130 1472
180 1189
220 729
260 32.6
101

These results are plotted in Figure 6.27
(b) For the CJ-1, from Eq. (6.43)

From the results and curves of Example 6.5, at

()

Again, a short tabulation for other velocities is given below for the reader to check.
102

, ft/s R/C, ft/min

200 3546
400 7031
600 8088
800 5792
950 1230
These results are plotted in Figure 6.28
Example
Calculate the rate of climb vs velocity at sea level for the aircraft CJ-1.
CJ-1
H = 53.3 ft
S = 318 ft
2

W = 19,815 lb
Fuel capacity = 1119 gallons of kerosene
Power plant = two turbofan engines of 3650 lb of thrust each at sea level
Specific fuel consumption= 0.6 lb of fuel / (lb thrust)(h)
C
D,0
= 0.02
e = 0.81

From the ROC equation

Example
Calculate the rate of climb of an airplane if the weight of the airplane is 19,815 lb, and the
P
A
= 6636 hp and P
R
= 1884 hp.
1 horsepower = 550 ft lb / s

()

(


)

103

7. Gliding Flight

In gliding, power is off. The only forces acting on the aircraft are lift, drag, and
weight, thrust is zero.

The glide flight path makes an angle below the horizontal.


Summing forces along the flight path, weve

Summing forces perpendicular to flight path, weve,

Therefore,

When (L/D) max of 13.6. Calculate the minimum glide angle and the maximum
range measured along the grand covered by the aircraft fx in a power-off glide that
starts at an altitude of 10,000 ft.

Minimum glide angle,

104

()()

8. Time to Climb

Used in military fighter to combat every forces.

Commercial aircraft use it to calculate the time it may take to climb to high altitudes
to minimize discomfort and risk of inclement weather.

The rate of climb was defied as the vertical velocity of the airplane. Velocity is just
the time rate of change of distance (in this case altitude), (h),

Therefore,

Therefore, the time to climb from h
1
to h
2
is,

( )

Calculate the time to climb to h2=10,000m

()

105

9. Range and Endurance
Range How far can we fly? Endurance- for low how can I fly?
Maximum endurance for a jet airplane occurs when the airplane is flying at minimum thrust
required.

Therefore maximum endurance for a jet airplane occurs when the airplane is flying at a
velocity such that Ce/Cd is Maximum.

Also, maximum range occurs when the airplane is spending the least pounds of fuel per
mile. (

()

()

()

Minimum pounds of fuel per mile correspond to minimum TR/V, which is the slope from
the origin to a point tangent to the TR vs

curve.

Range will be significantly affected by weight; Some definitions
Wo=weight of the airplane at start of cruise
Wf= of fuel at a specific point in time, and it varies throughout cruise (decreasing)
W1=weight of airplane at the end of cruise (empty weight)
W= weight of airplane at a specific porat in time and it varies during cruise.

Therefore, w=w1+wf

Altitude is being assumed to be constant, but it may or may not be constant.
106

Formulas

); Ct specific fuel consumption

)
Example
Calculate the maximum range and endurance for CS-1
We first plot Cl/Co and

()()()

Fuel capacity =1119 gal of kerosene

1 gal of kerosene = 6.67 lb

Therefore, ()()

Therefore
107


If we assume a crusing altitude of 22,000 ft,

Therefore,

()()
(

) ()[

) () (

108

6. Introduccin a la Dinmica de Vuelo: Estabilidad y Control

Static and Dynamic Stability
There are two types of stability: static and dynamic.
a) Statically stable system




b) Statically unstable system





c) Statically neutral system



If the forces and moments on the body caused by a disturbance tend initially to
return the body toward its equilibrium position, the body is statically stable. The
body has positive static stability. a
If the forces and moments are such that the body continues to move away from its
equilibrium position, after being disturbed, the body is statically unstable. The body
has negative static stability. b
If the body is disturbed to another location, the moments will still be zero, and it will
still be in equilibrium. Such a system in neutrally stable. c
109

Dynamic Stability
Dynamic stability deals with the time history of the vehicles motion after it initially
responds to its static stability.





This airplane is flying at angle of attack

and its moments about the center of

gravity are zero. Therefore, the aircraft is in equilibrium or its trimmed, and

is
the trim angle of attack.
If the aircraft is disturbed by a gust of air to a new angle of attack (() the aircraft
will has been pitched through a displacement

We can describe this motion by plotting the instantaneous displacement vs time.






If the airplane is stable, it will come back to its equilibrium position (a). Or, it can
first touch the equilibrium position and approach

after a series of oscillations.

In both cases the aircraft comes to its equilibrium position after some interval of
time.
Therefore a body is dynamically stable if, it eventually returns to and remains at its
equilibrium position over a period of time.
110










If the airplane oscillates with increasing amplitude, the equilibrium position is never
maintained for any period of time and the airplane is dynamically unstable.
Its theoretically possible for the airplane to pitch back and forth with constant
amplitude oscillations: this is an example of a dynamically neutral body.
Axes and moments of the airplane










The translational motion of the airplane is given by the velocity components u, v,
and w along the x, y, and z directions.
111

Rotational motion about x axis is called roll
Rotational motion about y axis is called pitch
Rotational motion about z axis is called yaw
Airplane controls












The functions of control surfaces are to change the airplane from one equilibrium
position to another and to produce no equilibrium accelerated motions such as
mane vers.
Moments on the airplane





112

Mac= moment about the
aerodynamic center,
usually at c/4 ac the
point about which the
moments are independent of angel of attack.
We need to define the pitching moment about the center of gravity of the airplane,
Meg.
Meg is created by (1) L, D, and Mac of the wing, (2) lift of the tail, (3) thrust, and (4)
aerodynamic forces and moments on other parts of the airplane such as fuselage
and engine nacelles.
The moment coefficient about the center of gravity is
Therefore, the airplane is in equilibrium when Mcg is zero;
the airplane is trimmed.


Absolute angle of attack

Chord at an angle of attack such that the lift is zero.
This angle of attacks is

Conventional cambered airfoils have slightly negative zero-lift angles.
If the wing is pitched to a geometric angle of attack then
Then

113


Criteria for longitudinal static stability
Longitudinal motion is the pitching motion about the axis.
Longitudinal stability is the most important static stability mode; in airplane design,
wind tunnel testing and flight research.
Test results between

and

for an aircraft.
The value of

when

its the equilibrium or trim angle of attack.

If

then

is negative, and it tends to pitch the nose downward, and

reach equilibrium.
114

If

, then

is positive and will tend to pitch up the nose, and reach

equilibrium.
In both cases we can reach static stability. Therefore an airplane which has a

vs

variation with a negative slope is statically stable.

For static stability

Statically unstable airplane
Since the aircraft always tends to
diverge form equilibrium when disturbed, its statically unstable.
An airplane moves through a range of angle of attack as it flies from Vstall (where

is the largest) to Vmax (where

is the smallest).

must fall within this

rage in order to be trimmed.
Therefore for longitudinal balance and static stability:
1.

must be positive
2.

must be negative
Cambered airfoils have negative

when they are at zero lift angle of attack.

Therefore, these wings are unbalanced. To rectify, a horizontal tail must be added
to help balance the wing.





115

The tail will provide a positive moment to overcome the negative

. Therefore

for the wing-tail combination will then be balanced.

Contribution of the wing to

= absolute angel of attack of the wing.

h and z are coordinates of the cg in fractions of chord length.
Moments about the center of gravity are:



Usually

is very small; therefore

and

)
Therefore,

116

Dividing by

, and since

weve:



For most airplanes, the cg is located close to the zero-lift line, so z=0 and the
product

is very small.
Therefore

Since

y C
Lw

M
M= dC
Lw
/

b x

= lift slope of the wing

Therefore

)
For wing-fuselage combinations (wing-body)

are the slope of the lift curve and absolute angle of attack.
Aerodynamic coefficients are obtained from wind-tunnel data.
117

Example: for a wing-body combination, the aerodynamic center is 0.05 chord
length ahead of the center of gravity.

When lift is zero

geometric= absolute AoA.

Example: wing-body model. Lift is zero when

Location of cg= 0.35c
Calculate the location of the a.c. and the value of

1. - calculate the lift slope;


2. - Evaluate

118

Solving the equations weve:



If h= 0.35, then

Therefore,





7.88 0.05

7.88









119

Contribution of the tail to the M
cg
Since the tail of an airplane is behind the wing, it feels the wake of the airflow over
the wing.
Therefore, tail aerodynamics is influenced by:
1. The airflow at the tail is deflected downward by the downwash due to the
finite wing.
2. Due to skin friction and pressure drag over the wing, the airflow reaching the
tail has been slowed. And the dynamic pressure in the tail is less than q
.


=downwash angle
=relative wind at the
tail
=absolute angle of
attack of the tail.



L
t
and D
t
are perpendicular and parallel to V.
The tail contribution to the total airplane lift is:
In many cases is very small and
Therefore, total lift of the airplane is found by adding tail, lift and wing-body
lift.





120

The wing body combination is at an absolute angle of attack
wb
.
The tail is twisted downward to provide a positive C
m,0
.
i
t
tail-setting angle is the angle between the zero lift lines of the wing and
tail.

t
is the absolute angle of attack between V

and V.
V

& V are inclined by the downwash angle.

The sum of moments about the center of gravity due to L
t
,D
t
, and M
act
of the
tail is.



For conventional airplanes, we can simplify:
Z
t
<< l
t

D
t
<<L
t

The angle
wb
- is small, hence sin(
wb
-)=0 and cos(
wb
-)=1.
M
act
is small in magnitude.


Therefore,
If

In terms of coefficients, weve:
Dividing by
For the wing weve:

The ratio of these two volumes is the tail volume ratio
Therefore

121




If and is the lift slope of the tail
Therefore

is obtained from experiment and is

0
= downwash angle when the wing-body combination is at zero lift.
Therefore


And,



Total Pitching Moment about the C.G.

For the whole airplane, total M
cg
is due the contributions of the wing-body and tail:


Therefore,


In terms of the angle of attack, weve:
Total contribution of the tail to
moments about the airplanes
C.G.
122


There is a difference between wing-body & complete airplane







For many conventional airplanes the difference is small. Therefore,
wb
=
a

C
L wb
=C
L,
a
wb
=a

Therefore


Example



Formula



123








Equations for Longitudinal Static Stability
If was defined that for longitudinal balance and static stability

must
be positive and

must be negative.


If

[(-

) -

(1 -

)] +

)
And, if we substitute

, then

)
Necessary for comerbalancing the
negative

1
124



If we take the derivative with respect to

, weve:

[(

)]

Formulas 1 & 2 allow us to check the static stability of a given
airplane, assuming weve the values of a

and .
Design tip
If the location of the center of gravity is dictated by payload,
then static stability can be obtained by designing

large
enough.
Then it can be designed to obtain the designed

or

.
Wing-body-tail model
Does this model have longitudinal static stability and balance?



If a= 0.08

Then,

[ (

) ( )]

The model is statically stable since the slope of the total moment coefficient is
negative.
Negative Positive value
2
125

Is the model longitudinally balanced?

is within a reasonable flight range, so its longitudinally balanced.

The location of of the center of gravity has a strong influence in stability.
There is one specific location of the center of gravity such that

.
The value of when we have this condition is the neutral point

.
When

the slope of the moment coefficient curve is zero.

0.06

126

If we set

and

then [

)]
Solving for

)
For a given airplane design,

is a fixed quantity, and its independent of the actual

location of the center of gravity.
Therefore, an alternative stability criteria is:
For longitudinal static stability, the position of the center of gravity must
allows be forward of the neutral point.

We defined the of the wing as that point about which moments are
independent of angle of attack.
If we take into account the whole airplane, when

is
independent of angle of attack.
Therefore, the neutral point might be considered the of the whole
airplane.
By proper selection of the tail parameters

can be located at will

by the designer.




LE
C.G
.
N.P
.
127

Calculate the neutral point location.
1. - formula:

) ( )

If

the C.G is forward of the

which makes the

airplane statically stable.
The static margin
We can solve for

)
Substituting into

[(

)]

[(

)] [(

)]

static margon

)
Static margin is a direct measure of longitudinal static stability
For static stability, the static margin must be positive.
The larger the static margin, the more stable is the aircraft.
128

Example: Airplane example model

) ()
per degree
















129

7. Introduccin a la Astronutica

Change of emphasis from aeronautics to space technology
Analysis of arbits and trajectories of space vehicles and an introduction to reentry
flight
Astronautics and space flight formally began in 1957 and has rapidly evolved to our
days.

Earth orbit. Earth-moon earth orbit with lifting reentry








Space vehicles are grouped into 3 main categories:
1. Earth satellites
-velocities of 26,000 ft./s or 7.9 km/s to place vehicle in orbit.
Orbits are elliptical
2. Lunar and interplanetary vehicles
-velocities of 36,000 ft/s or 11km/s are required to leave the earths
gravitational attraction, and go into space.
Orbits are parabolic or hyperbolic.
3. Space shuttles such as Soyuz which:
-Take-off from earth surface and perform a mission
-Return and land like an airplane

130

2.- Lagranges Equation
From mechanics we study Statics
Dynamics
F = ma (Newtons 2
nd
law) was used to derive the momentum equation and
equations of motion for an airplane.
Lagranges equation is a corollary to Newtons 2
nd
Law, and it simplifies the
analysis of space dynamics, such as the orbit equation.
No drag From N. 2
nd
Law:
Since the direction of positive X is upward
Then
Acceleration

, then



This result is a differential equation whose solution would be ()
Well consider another formulation, using the lag range equation.
Kinetic energy T is defined as:

()

= phi denotes potential energy of a body
Potential energy is the weight of the body times
The distance above the surface.

The lag rang ran function B is the difference between kinetic and potential energy.

()

The LaGranges equation is

) -

= 0
Therefore,

= m

= -mg
= -
131

Therefore () ( ) ()
= g

Lagranges equation and N. 2
nd
Law lead to the same equations of motion for a
mechanical system

Consider a body in 3D space described by the spatial coordinates q1, q2 and q3
Spherical
Rectangular

The kinetic energy of this system would be a function of T, which would depend on
position and velocity
(

)
The potential energy would depend on position:
(

)
And the lagrangran equation would be: B=T-
The three equations of motion, using the LaGranges equation would be:
For

) -

=0
For

) -

=0
For

) -

=0






132

The Orbit Equation
Space vehicles are launched from a planets surface by rocket boosters.
One rocket boosters are burned out, the satellite or probe is moving through space
under the influence of gravitational forces in a specific direction at a specific
velocity.

a) Force and energy
The law of universal gravitation, given by
newton, states that the gravitational force between two masses varies inversely as
the square of the distance between their centers


Lagranges equation can be applied to astronautics
For convenience, its established that potential energy is zero when the radius
between the 2 masses is infinity. Therefore, potential energy at a distance r is
defined as the work done in moving the mass M form infinity to the location r.
The work done is Fdr when the distance between M and m changes by a small
increment dr.

Therefore
Integrating from infinity to r, weve:
133

Potential energy of small mass M in the gravitational
field of large mass M at the distance r
For kinetic energy, only two coordinates will be used to designate the location of
mass M: well use polar coordinates.

= is the angular orientation of r
= velocity component parallel to r
The velocity component perpendicular to r is the product of r and the angular rote


Therefore, the kinetic energy of the vehicle is


b) The equation of motion
The Lagrangian function would be
The product GM would be denoted
134

as





If from the Lagranges equation,




Therefore, integrating weve


If linear momentum is mass x velocity, angular momentum is moment of inertia
times angular velocity: times
Therefore, angular momentum of the space vehicle is
=

For

And

Therefore
135


Therefore =

Well denote h= angular momentum per unit mass
h= constant since mass= constant


Multiplying and dividing by

weve:


mr - m

+ m

= 0

m r - m

+ m

= 0

are constants
The solution of this equation would be r= f (r)
Equation of motion for the space vehicle in the r direction.
We need an equation that can describe its position in terms of r= f (), so it can
provide the description of the path of the space vehicle.
If where u is just a dependent variable.

and

h equation1 So

136

Differentiating r weve:

Use of chain rule and h=

Getting the 2
nd
derivative of r, weve:

Use of chain rule to use

Therefore,

, so,
(

2 eq.

Substituting, 1 and 2 into the equation of motion in the r direction, weve:

If we divide by

weve

A solution of this differential equation would be,

A and C= constants of integration

Substituting into the solution, weve:
X

orbit equation

137

Equation of motion of the path (orbit or trajectory) of the space vehicle. This
equation is in the form (), and it gives the geometric coordinates and
for a given path.

, A, and C are constants fixed by conditions at the instant of burnout of the rocket
booster.








At burnout, the vehicle is at a distance r
b
, has velocity V
b
and direction B
b
with
respect to a perpendicular to r
b
.
The orbit equation applies to the trajectory of a space vehicle escaping from the
gravitational field of the earth and on artificial satellite orbiting the earth.
Space vehicle trajectories
From r =

we can rewrite it by
1+A (

) cos (-C)
Where

)
phase angle
eccentricity of the conic section
if , the path is a circle
if , the path is a ellipse
138

if , the path is a parabola
if , the path is a hyperbola






139

is arbitrarily chosen as zero at burnout.
The eccentricity is governed by the difference between kinetic and potential
energies of the vehicle.

T=

M [

+ (r

)
2
]
Differentiating

()
with respect to t weve
() [ ( )] [ ( ) ]
= [( )]

1+ ecos (-C)
= [resin (-C)]

1+ecos (-C)
Substituting into the kinetic energy equation, weve:



If

= h and

2
= h
2
r
4
, weve:








140

Therefore, T=

sin
2
(-C) +
2
(
2
) [ 1+ ecos (-C)]
2


4
[1 + ecos (-C)]
2

And, if

Then, T=

sin
2
(-C)+

e
2
[ 1- cos
2
(-C)]

T=

m e
2
cos
2
(-C) k
4
+

[ esin (-C) ]
2
+

T=

[ e
2
-e
2
cos
2
(-C) ] +

(x) =

x=

Factoring out

, weve: x=

. [ 1+ ecos(-C) ]
2
x= [ 1+ ecos (-C) ]
2
T=

e
2
(1-cos
2
(-C) + [ 1+ecos (-C)]
2

T=

e
2
-e
2
cos
2
(-C) + 1+2ecos (-C) + e
2
cos
2
(-C)





141

For potential energy:

Substituting

()
above, weve:


The difference between kinetic and potential energy is:

()

()

H= T -
H=

)

H= . Solving for e, weve



Equation of eccentricity as Function of the difference between kinetic and potential
energies.







142

We conclude that a space vehicle intended to escape the earth and travel into
deep space (parabolic or hyperbolic trajectory) must be launched such that its
kinetic energy at burnout is equal or greater than its potential energy.
Velocity for a circular orbit
For circles e= 0



For

()

So

If

Then

Velocity for escaping the earth
For parabolic trajectories, weve:

So parabolic velocity escape velocity
Example
A space vehicle has a burnout velocity of 9 km/s in a direction due north and 3
above the local horizontal. The altitude above sea level is 500mi.
Burnout point is located at the 27
th
parallel (27) above the equator. Calculate and
plot the trajectory of the space vehicle.
V= 11.2 km/s
143

hG= 500mi= 0.805x10
6
m
(Geometric altitude)
Burnout altitude is

And

(Angular
velocity)

Therefore,




The eccentricity of the orbits is

We need to find H/M

144

Therefore,

)

e=

e= elliptical orbit
Therefore


To find C (phase angle) we use the burnout location and = 0 at burnout.





Therefore:

145

Keplers laws
Most of the previous analysis holds in general for orbits and trajectories of any
mass in a central gravitational force field.
Planets rotate in orbits around the sun. Early observations of planetary motion
were made by the Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans.
By the 15
th
century Tycho Brahe made many accurate astronomical observations
and recorded the data.
Johannes Kepler improved these data and made pioneering conclusions about the
geometry of planetary motion. He published three laws, as a result.
Keplers 1
st
Law: A satellite describes an elliptical path around its center of
attraction.
Kepers 2
nd
Law: In equal times, the areas swept out by the radius vector of a
satellite are the same.

Angular momentum= M

The vector r is sweeping out a small
angle d, forming a triangle.
The area of the small triangle is
dA=

If dh= rd, dA=

Therefore,

Since

Therefore, in order for equal areas to be swept out in equal times, the satellite must
have a larger velocity when its near M, and a smaller velocity when its far from M.
146








The point of closest distance from mass M to the orbit is defined as perigee, and
the point of largest distance r is defined as apogee.






The distance from perigee to apogee is the mayor axis
Half of this distance is the semimajor axis a.
Half of the distance of the semiminor axis is defined as b.
From the orbit equation

()
rmax and rmin are

Therefore



147

From analytic geometry and (area of the
ellipse)
If we solve for
Therefore,
Now, from
The area of the ellipse can be found by integration. Its the area swept out by the
radius vector around the complete ellipse.
The time for a satellite to complete an orbit is T.
Therefore


Equating these two equations weve:


If

Therefore,
If we square both sides, weve:

And

Therefore, the square of the period is proportional to the cube of the semimajor
axis.
Therefore, the periods of any two satellites about the same planet are related to
their semimajor axes as.
Keplers third Law.
148

Example:
Period of revolution of the earth about the sun: 365.256 days. Semimajor axis of
the Earths orbit= 1.49527 x 10
11
M. For mars

= 2.2783x10
11
M. Calculate the
period of mars.

)
3/2

)
3/2

Introduction to Reentry
A space vehicle returning to earth will have velocities on the order of 36,000 ft/s
(Apollo).
It corresponds to flight Mach numbers of 30 or more.
Space vehicles fine retro-rockets to decrease velocity and point towards the Earth.
There are three types of reentry:
Ballistic
Skip
Glide reentry
Ballistic reentry: it falls through the atmosphere under the influence of drag and
gravity. The pilot has no control over the landing position. The impact point is
predetermined by the conditions at first entry to the atmosphere.
Skip reentry: the vehicle generates a value of L/D between 1 and 4.
It sips in and out of the atmosphere like a flat stone does on the waters
surface, until it lands.
Aerodynamic heating is very large
Not likely to be used ever.
Glide reentry:
The vehicle generates a L/D ratio of a 4 or larger
It enters the atmosphere at a high angle of attack (30 or more)
The pilot has control of the landing site.
149











In reentry, there are 2 primary concerns:
Max deceleration
Aerodynamic heating
For human safety, the max deceleration should not be more than 10gs.
Aerodynamic heating should be low enough to protect humans and equipment.
Space vehicles should be guarded to enter through the reentry corridor. They enter
the Earth with parabolic or hyperbolic trajectories.









150

The Orbital Elements
There are six orbital elements that are used to describe the characteristics of an
orbit. To define an orbit in the plane requires two parameters: eccentricity and
angular momentum. To locate a point on the orbit requires a third parameter, the
true anomaly (), which leads to the time since perigee. Furthermore, to describe
the orientation of an orbit in three dimensions requires three additional parameters
called the Euler angles, as shown below.



First, the intersection of the orbital plane with the equatorial XY plane is located.
This line is called node line, and it has a vector N. This vector extends from the
origin and crosses through the ascending node. The descending node is on the
other side of the node line (the dotted line crosses over it).

The angle between the positive X-axis and the node line is the first Euler angle, ,
the right ascension (RA) of the ascending node. This angle is positive and lies
between 0 and 360.

The angle between the orbital plane and the Earths equatorial plane is the
inclination i. This angle is also the angle between the positive Z-axis and the
normal to the orbital plane (h). This angle is positive and lies between 0 and 180.
This is the second Euler angle.

The third Euler angle is the argument of perigee (), which is the angle between
the node line vector (N) and the eccentricity vector (e). This angle is measured in
the plane of the orbit. This angle is positive and lies between 0 and 360.





151

Therefore, the six orbital elements are:

1. The specific angular momentum, h
2. The inclination i
3. The right ascension (RA) of the ascending node,
4. The eccentricity, e
5. The argument of perigee,
6. The true anomaly,

Moreover, the angular momentum h and the true anomaly sometimes are
replaced by the semimajor axis a and the mean anomaly, M.




















152

8. Introduccin a la Propulsin

Jet propulsion- the trust equation
The jet engine is a device which takes in air at essentially the freestream velocity

, heats
it by combustion of fuel inside the duct and then blast the hot mixture of air and
combustion products out the back end at a higher velocity

The jet engine creates a charge in momentum of the gas by taking a small mass of air and
giving it a large increase in velocity.
By Newton 3
rd
law, the equal and opposite reaction produces a thrust.

The fundamental source of the thrust of a jet engine is the net force produced by the
pressure and shear stress distributions exerted over the surface of the engine.

The distribution of pressure

over the internal surface of the engine duct, and of

, over
the external surface.
153

The thrust of the engine in the x direction is equal to the x component of

integrated over
the complete internal surface, plus that of

integrated over the complete external surface.

(

Since

is constant;
(

()

[(

)]

Therefore,
(

) (1)
If we have a gas bounded by
Its called control volume


Since the gas is exerting a pressure

on the duct, the duct exerts an equal and opposite

pressure

on the gs in the Control volume.

154

At the exit,

is the static pressure

Therefore,

(2)

From Newton 2
nd
law,
()

The force is equal to the time rate of change of momentum
The mass flow entering the duct is
air
and its momentum is
air

.
The mass flow leaving the duct is
air
+
fuel
and its momentum is (
air
+
fuel
)V
e
.
Therefore, the time rate of change of momentum of the airflow is the difference between
what comes out and what comes in.
Therefore, F=(
air
+
fuel
)V
e
-
air

So, (
air
+
fuel
)V
e
-
air

Solving for
(

Therefore, from (1)
(

)
(

Thrust equation for jet propulsion
The turbojet engine
Since the mass of fuel is usually small, the thrust equation can be simplified as

) (

Usually

155

Therefore, the function of a jet engine is to exhaust the gas out the back end faster than
it comes in through the front end.

A mass of air is induced through the inlet
The flow is reduced to a low subsonic Mach number (M0.2) in the diffuser.
In the diffusion process, the pressure is increased from

to

In the compressor, the flows pressure increases from

to

The compressor is a series of alternating and stationary blades.
Rotating blades are called rotors and stationary blades are stators.
Rotors and stators alternatively speed up and slow down the flow, thus increasing the total
pressure, of the flow.
After the compressor, fuel is injected into the airstream and burned at constant pressure in
the combustor.
The hot gases pass through the turbine which is a series of rotation blades which extract
work from the flowing gas.
The work is transmitted through a shaft to the compressor, and the pressure drops from

to

156

Then, the flow is expanded through a nozzle and is exhausted to the atmosphere at a high
velocity

and

If the engine is for subsonic applications, the nozzle is convergent and V
e
is subsonic, or
sonic.
If the engine is supersonic applications, the nozzle is C-D and V
e
is supersonic.

Pressure-specific volume diagram
In the real engine process, there will be frictional and heat losses.
The diffuser, compressor, turbine, and nozzle processes will not be exactly isentropic, the
combustion process will not be at constant pressure, and

will not be

Ideal turbojet
thermodynamic process.
Neglecting friction and heat
losses
157

Example:
Consider a turbojet- power airplane flying at a standard altitude of 30,000 ft at a velocity of
500 mi/h. the turbojet engine itself has inlet and exit areas of 7 ft
2
and 4.5 ft
2
respectively,
the velocity and pressure of the exhaust gas at the exit area 1600 ft/s and 640 lb/ft
2
,
respectively. Calculate the thrust of the turbojet.

Solution:
At a standard altitude of 30,000 ft, from appendix B,

lb/ft
2
and

slug/ft
3
. The freestream velocity is

thus the
mas flow through the engine is
Airplane with turbojet
Altitude of h=30,000 ft

500 mi/h

)()()
From equation (9.95)

) (

( ) ( )()











158

Ramjet
Ramjets are engines that dont have any rotating machinery inside.

Air is inducted through the inlet at velocity

and decelerated in the diffuser, burned in the

combustion chamber and blasted out the exhaust nozzle at a high velocity V
e
.
Used in some guided missiles and will be the choice for future hypersonic airplanes

)


The compression ratio is a
function of Mach number.


Disadvantages
In order to start and operate, the ramjet must be already in motion.
They must have a second engine of another type to develop enough flight speed to start the
ramjet.
159

9. Introduccin los Materiales Aeroespaciales

Composite Materials
The use of high-performance polymer-matrix fiber composites in aircraft structures has
grown steadily, although not as dramatically as predicted at that time. This is despite the
significant weight-saving and other advantages that these composites can provide.

The main reason for the slower-than-anticipated take-up is the high cost of aircraft
components made of composites compared with similar structures made from metal, mainly
aluminum, alloys. Other factors include the high cost of certification of new components
and their relatively low resistance to mechanical damage, low through-thickness strength,
and (compared with titanium alloys) temperature limitations. Thus, metals will continue to
be favored for many airframe applications.

The most important polymer-matrix fiber material is carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy
carbon/epoxy).

However, competition will be fierce with continuing developments in structural metals. In
aluminum alloys developments include improved toughness and corrosion resistance in
conventional alloys; new lightweight alloys (such as aluminum lithium); low-cost
aerospace-grade castings; mechanical alloying (high-temperature alloys); and super-plastic
forming. For titanium, they include use of powder preforms, casting, and super-plastic-
forming/diffusion bonding.

The growth in the use of composites in the airframes in selected aircraft is illustrated in
Figure 1. However, despite this growth, the reality is, as illustrated in Figure 2 for the U.S.
Navy F-18 fighter that airframes (and engines) will continue to be a mix of materials.



Figure 1. Growth of Use of Composite Materials in Airframe Structures
160



Figure 2. Schematic Diagram of Fighter Aircraft F-18 (E/F Model). Details of the Earlier
C/D Model are Included for Comparison


Drivers for Improved Airframe Materials
Weight saving through increased specific strength or stiffness is a major driver for the
development of materials for airframes. There are others also other incentives for the
introduction of a new material.

A crucial issue in changing to a new material is affordability. It includes procurement cost
and cost of ownership (maintenance and repair). Therefore, the benefits of weight savings
must be balanced against the costs. Also in choosing new materials for airframe
applications, it is essential that there are no compromises in the levels of safety achievable
with conventional alloys.

Wight Reduction Improved Performance
- Increased range - Smoother, more aerodynamic form
- Reduced fuel costs - Special aeroelastic properties
- Higher payload - Increased temperature capability
- Increased maneuverability - Improved damage tolerance
Reduced Acquisition Costs - Reduced detectability
- Reduced fabrication cost Reduced Through-Life Support Cost
- Reduced assembly costs - Resistance to fatigue and corrosion
- Resistance to mechanical damage

Table 1. Drivers for Improved Material for Aerospace Applications
161

Retention of high levels of residual strength in the presence of typical damage for the
particular material (damage tolerance) is a critical issue. Durability, the resistance to cyclic
stress or environmental degradation and damage, through the service life is also a major
factor in determining through-life support costs. The rate of damage growth and tolerance
to damage determine the frequency and cost of inspections and the need for repairs
throughout the life of the structure.

Applications in Aircraft

- Applications of Glass-Fiber Composites

Glass-fiber composites were first used during World War II, which was about 20 years
before carbon- and boron-fiber composites were used in aircraft structures. The earliest
composites were made of E-type glass fabric and polyester resin, and these were used in a
few niche components not subject to high loads, such as fuselage-lifting surface
attachments or wing and empennage tips. At the time, the aircraft industry was reluctant to
use glass-fiber composites more widely because of the low stiffness of glass-fibers and the
poor strength and toughness of polyester resins, particularly at elevated temperature. The
development of stronger, tougher, and more durable resins, such as epoxies, led to the
increased use of E-glass laminates in some aircraft. For example, virtually the entire
airframe, wings, and fuselage of modern gliders are built of glass/epoxy.

In the 1960s the development of S2-type glass, which has greater stiffness and strength than
E-glass, allowed a greater variety of aircraft structures and components to be made. S-glass
composites are often used as the face skins to ultra-light sandwich honeycomb panels, and
typical applications in commercial aircraft are wing-fuselage fairings, redder and elevator
surfaces, and the leading and trailing edges of wing panels. Glass/epoxy honeycomb
sandwich panels are also used in a variety of components on modem military aircraft, such
as the fixed trailing edge on the B-2 bomber. Another common use of composites with E-
glass or quartz fiber reinforcement is in radomes on commercial and fighter aircraft, in bay-
and wing-mounted radomes on supersonic aircraft and missiles, and in the large radar
domes on Airborne Early Warning and Control (AEW&C) military aircraft. This is because
of the excellent transparency of glass to radar signals. Glass/epoxy is widely used in
helicopter components, such as in the spars to the main and tail rotor blades, fuselage body
panels, and flooring.

Note: a radome is a dome that covers the radar in an aircraft.

- Applications in Civil Aircraft

The adoption of composite materials for aircraft structures has been slower than originally
foreseen, despite the weight-saving and corrosion and fatigue immunity offered by these
materials. The reasons for the restrained use include the high cost of certification and
higher materials and production costs for composite components. Composite structures
must not be significantly more costly to acquire 3 than those made of aluminum alloy and,
to maintain the advantage of weight saving, maintenance costs also, must not be greater.

162

Sensitivity to impact damage and low through-thickness strength are also inhibiting factors.
Other issues are the poor reliability in estimating development costs and difficulty in
accurately predicting structural failure.

After some years of stagnation, the use of composite materials in large aircraft structures
has increased over the past half-decade as manufacturers take advantage of the unique
properties of these materials and find solutions to lower the cost of production of composite
structures. As an example, Airbus Industry has continued to increase applications of
composite materials into its new aircraft programs, and in the A380 structure, composite
applications amount to approximately 16% of the total airframe weight. Theoretically, this
is equivalent to the replacement of about 20% of conventional aluminum structure by
composites. Large commercial transport aircraft designs had, in the past, tended to limit the
use of composite materials to secondary structures--ailerons, flaps, elevators and rudders--
although Boeing has used the material on the tailplane and floor beams of the B777 and
Airbus on the empennages of most of its fleet. More recently, several commercial airliner
manufacturers have been considering and choosing composite materials for other primary
structures.


Figure 3. Advanced Composite Materials Selected for the A380


An attraction for the smaller fabricators is the ability to produce aerodynamically smooth
surfaces with relatively low tooling costs, and many high-performance homebuilt aircraft
use composite materials almost exclusively. With the drive toward lower-cost carbon fiber,
promoted, in part, by the interest in the automotive industry, the use of these materials is
sure to expand further.





163

- Applications in Military Aircraft

Up to 70% of the airframe weights of some modern military airframes are manufactured
from composite materials. This is due in part to the pursuit of ultimate performance, with
less emphasis on cost, but also to the low radar signature obtainable through use of these
materials. Perhaps the most ambitious example of the use of composites is the USAF B-2
bomber, 4 which is an almost all-composite structure. The wing, which is almost as large as
that of a B-747, is mostly made of carbon/epoxy, with honeycomb skins and internal
structure. The fuselage makes extensive use of composites. However, this form of
construction is very costly and more recently, affordability is considered to be as important
as performance and is now a major design parameter.

The need for high stiffness to minimize the depth of wings and tail in high performance
military aircraft both for aeroelastic and stealth reasons ensures that all future aircraft will
have composite wing and empennage skins. The requirement for stealth as well as
minimum weight also ensures that most of the fuselage skin will be composite. For radar
absorption, leading edges will be made of honeycomb structure with outer composite skins
based on nonconducting fibers such as quartz rather than carbon in the rest of the structure.
This skin material allows the radar waves to penetrate into the honeycomb core coated with
radar-absorbing material, rather than being reflected back to the receiver.




Figure 4. Joint strike fighter showing extensive use of composite in the
skins of the aircraft but use of aluminum alloy for much of the substructure.
164

10. Introduccin al Diseo de Aeronaves

Proceso del Diseo



Pre-fase: Requerimientos
Cualquier proyecto de diseo de aeronaves requiere una definicin clara de
requerimientos.
Los requerimientos comienzan con el propsito final de la aeronave: transportar,
reconocer, combatir.
Para aeronaves civiles algunos requerimientos ms especficos pueden incluir:
Capacidad de carga
Alcance
Velocidad


Requerimientos
Fase I: Diseo
Conceptual
Fase II: Diseo
Preliminar
Fase III: Diseo
Detallado
Fabricacin

165

Para aeronaves militares, adems de los mencionados, algunos requerimientos bsicos
pueden incluir:
Letalidad
Maniobrabilidad
Calidad de manejo
Persistencia
Secreca
Resiliencia

Ejemplo: Letalidad
Es la capacidad destructora del armamento de la aeronave, el cual debe de ser fcil de
operar, fiable, y efectivo.


Ejemplo: Maniobrabilidad
Es la habilidad de una aeronave de cambiar rpidamente de posicin y velocidad para
obtener ventaja en combate areo o evadir ataques


166

Fase I: Diseo Conceptual
Se hacen estudios de comparacin de los requerimientos y de posibles diseos.
Se exploran alternativas de configuraciones de aeronaves.
Se selecciona el mejor diseo.


Una vez que se tiene la forma de la aeronave, se pasa al:
Primer dimensionamiento
Pesos Partes exteriores y subsistemas ms importantes
Aerodinmica Perfil alar, geometra del ala y empenaje, tipo de
tren de aterrizaje, forma de fuselaje.
Propulsin Motor, hlice, tipo de turbina, cantidad de empuje,
acomodo de motores.
Anlisis
Aerodinmica Anlisis de Dinmica de Fluidos Computacional
(CFD), optimizacin de perfil alar y geometra del ala.
Pesos Mxima reduccin de peso de acuerdo a los requerimientos.
Propulsin Integracin motor estructura de avin.
Estabilidad y control Estabilidad esttica, estabilidad dinmica.
Estructuras Anlisis de elemento finito
Costo



167

Pesos de la Aeronave
El primer paso en el dimensionamiento es la asignacin de pesos de la aeronave.

= peso de la aeronave al despegue.

puede incluir pasajeros.

es la estructura, motores, tren de aterrizaje, avinica, etc.

Aspectos de Aerodinmica
Perfil del ala
Se hacen pruebas de varios perfiles alares dependiendo el propsito de la aeronave.


Geometra del ala
La geometra del ala incluye:
El largo
El ancho
La relacin de aspecto
El ngulo de ala en flecha
Ubicacin del ala

168

Diseo del empenaje
Se toman en cuenta aspectos de:
Peso
Estabilidad

Pruebas y optimizacin
Se prueban modelos computacionales.
Tambin se construyen modelos completos y se prueban en tneles de viento de
varias velocidades.







Aspectos de Propulsin
Para una aeronave nueva, se puede usar un motor existente o disear uno nuevo solo
para la aeronave.
Se estima la cantidad de empuje requerido.

169

Aspectos Estructurales
La estructura es la proteccin del interior de la aeronave contra las fuerzas
aerodinmicas.
Los materiales compuestos son muy usados hoy en da para el desarrollo de las
aeronaves.







Aspectos de Estabilidad
La aeronave debe ser controlable y maniobrable.
Las aeronaves civiles normalmente son diseadas para ser estticamente estables.
Las aeronaves militares en ocasiones son diseadas para ser estticamente inestables
para aumentar su maniobrabilidad y su eficiencia en combate.





170

Aspectos de Rendimiento
Las aeronaves deben cumplir con ciertos requisitos de diseo como la tasa de
elevacin, la tasa de vuelta, la aceleracin, distancia de despegue y de aterrizaje, etc.


Fase III: Diseo Detallado
Incluye el diseo 3D de todas las partes de todos los subsistemas de la aeronave.
Se hacen planos de taller para la fabricacin.
Se disea el herramental que se usara para la fabricacin.
Incluye muchas pruebas estructurales, de sistemas de control, asientos, vuelos en
simuladores, etc.


171












B. TAREAS













172

1. Historia de la Aeronutica e Ideas Fundamentales

1. Read Lecture 1 and write a summary in your own words of the history of aeronautics in
one sheet of paper (both sides). Write by hand, please do not type.
2. Research the life of Glenn Curtis and write in your own words his early life, technical
accomplishments, and contributions to aeronautics. (1 sheet, both sides). You can use the
book Introduction to Flight by Anderson, books in the library, or online. On the last line
of the sheet, write the sources from which you obtain the information. Write by hand,
please do not type.
3. Research the history of aeronautics in Mexico from the dawn of the 20
th
Century until
2013 and write in your own words a summary of your findings. Include major technical
accomplishments, aircraft designed and built, and social phenomena that somehow stopped
the development of aviation in Mexico. Include information of national and international
companies that settled ground in Mexico, and the current state of affairs of aeronautics and
astronautics in Mexico. On the last line of the sheet, write the sources from which you
obtain the information. (3 sheets, both sides, by hand).
4. Research the history of rocket and missile technology from its beginnings in the 20
th

Century and write a summary in your own words of what you find. Include information of
Goddard, the V-2 rocket, ICBM (Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles), SLBM (Submarine
Launch Ballistic Missiles), the development of the Space Shuttle, and the Ariane family of
launch vehicles. On the last line of the sheet, write the sources from which you obtain the
information. (3 sheets, both sides, by hand).
5. Research the history of satellite technology and write a summary in your own words of
what you find. Include information of Sputnik and other major Russian satellites, Voyager,
Viking, GPS (Global Positioning System), the Mars rover missions, and the Mexican
satellite system (MEXSAT). On the last line of the sheet, write the sources from which you
obtain the information. (3 sheets, both sides, by hand).
. A Boeing 787 aircraft is flying from Mexico City to Los Angeles, CA. In an area on the
top of the fuselage, the temperature is 20 C. The density is constant and has a value of 2.13
kg/m
3
. Calculate the pressure in atm.
7. Consider a cylinder of radius r = 30 cm and length L = 70 cm inside a sphere of radius
= 1 m. The temperature of the air inside the cylinder and the sphere is 30 C, so there is
thermodynamic equilibrium. The pressure of the air inside the sphere is 10 atm and inside
the cylinder is 5 atm. Calculate the weight of the air of the sphere if the cylinder were
removed.
173

8. In a circular area of radius r = 0.1 cm of the tail of a flying Sukhoi military aircraft the
specific volume of the air is 1.12 m
3
/kg. The temperature is found to be -20 C. Calculate
the force of air applied on the area.
9. In a sphere of radius 2 m there is air that is being pumped in. The pressure varies at a rate
of 0.5 atm/s. At time t, the temperature of the air is 30 C, and is increasing at a rate of
5 C / hr. At this same instant, the pressure is 1.5 atm. Calculate the rate of change of mass
flowing inside the sphere.
10. A rocket propulsion system is being tested for a new launch from French Guiana. There
is an interest of the material properties of the rocket diffuser and the engineers decide to test
the material with the rocket thrust. They select a small flat rectangular area of the diffuser
for the test. The dimensions of the small area are 50 cm along the x direction and 60 cm
along the y direction. The pressure distribution is given by P(y) = 3y 400 and the shear-
stress distribution is given by

() . The thrust flow falls along the y axis from

top to bottom. Obtain the total aerodynamic force (pressure and shear stress).



60 cm

50 cm
2. La Atmosfera Estndar
1. Read in the textbook the history of the standard atmosphere and how it has evolved
throughout the 20
th
century. Include information about NACA, Toussaints temperature-
altitude formula, Diehls contribution, and the present tables we use today (Appendices A
and B in the textbook). Write in your own words by hand (1 page), please do not type.
2. Research the space environment in space-related books from the library and online, and
write 2 pages of information. Include information about the ionosphere, space debris,
atmospheric drag, and electrostatic charging. Write in your own words by hand (2
pages), please do not type.
3. Write two programs in MATLAB in which the values of the standard atmosphere given
in Appendices A and B of the textbook are calculated for both the SI and English units. Use
the formulas given in Chapter 3 and the slope values given in Figure 3.3. When you run the
program, you should be able to type any altitude and, after you press ENTER, the program
Thrust
174

should show its corresponding values of pressure, density, and temperature. Print the codes
showing the values at 11 km, 25 km, and 100 km for SI units, and 38,000 ft, 45,000 ft, and
147,000 ft for the English units.
4. Find the standard atmospheric values of pressure, density, and temperature at 52.5 km of
altitude, if you are given the values of pressure (P = 1.1147 x 10
2
N/m
2
), density (1.3739
kg/m
3
x10
-3
), and temperature (282.66 K) at 48 km of altitude.
5. A High Altitude Long Endurance (HALE) reconnaissance aircraft is flying at a given
altitude. The electronic systems measure outside values of temperature (281.03 K) and
pressure (1.3824 x 10
2
). Find the pressure and density altitudes in km.
6. An aircraft is flying at a density altitude of 143,000 ft and at a temperature altitude of
136,000 ft. Find the pressure in atm.
7. Find the value of the geometric altitude at which the difference h h
G
is 5% of the
altitude h.
8. Find the percent difference between the pressures at a geopotential altitude of 9.087 km
using the standard atmospheric values given in Appendix A and using the formula of
Toussaint.
9. The international community sent a rover to study the Martian atmosphere, which once it
landed on the surface, it sent a scientific balloon with measuring devices at 95,000 m of
altitude. The specific gas constant of the atmosphere of Mars is 0.18892 J/g K and its
gravity is 38% that of Earths. If we assume that it has an isothermal region of T = 140 K,
find the altitude above the balloons position where the pressure is one third the pressure
the balloon is measuring.
10. The Russian MiG-29 is said to hold the record for fastest rate of climb, which indicates
how much an aircraft is elevating. Suppose that from 3,000 m to 13,000 m high, the rate of
climb of the MiG is 330 m/s. At this altitude (13,000 m), calculate the time rate of change
of ambient pressure. Express your result in atm/min.
3. Introduccin a la Aerodinmica
1. Read the historical notes on Bernoulli and Euler, the Pitot tube, and the First Wind
Tunnels found on Chapter 4 of the textbook, and make a summary on what you read. Write
in your own words by hand (2 pages), please do not type.
2. Research the life of Osborne Reynolds, his famous number, and the life and work of
Prandtl and the boundary layer concept. Make sure you understand what the boundary layer
represents in aerodynamics At least cite and include information from 2 books (from the
library or internet). Write in your own words by hand (2 pages), please do not type.
175

3. Read the following historical notes in the book Fundamentals of Aerodynamics by
Anderson (found in the Library) and make a summary of all three readings. Write in your
own words by hand (2 pages), please do not type.
Early Airplane Design and the Role of Airfoil Thickness (Section 4.14)
Kutta, Joukowski, and the Circulation Theory of Lift (Section 4.15)
Ernst Mach A Biographical Sketch (Section 9.11)

4. Read the following applied aerodynamics sections in the book Fundamentals of
Aerodynamics by Anderson (found in the Library) and make a summary of both readings.
Write in your own words by hand and make sketches of the aircraft and polar graphs
(at least 2 pages each section), please do not type.

The Delta Wing (Section 5.6)
The Blended Wing Body (Section 11.11)

5. Derive an expression for the velocity at the exit of a C-D nozzle in terms of stagnation
temperature T
0
and stagnation-to-exit pressure P
0
/P
e
. Then make a program in MATLAB in
which you show the graph of P
0
/P
e
vs exit Mach number for three values of gamma. The
values of gamma are: 1.13, 1.4, and 1.67. Find the names of the gases that closely
correspond to these values of gamma. For the graph, P
0
/P
e
should be in the y-axis, and exit
Mach number on the x-axis. The range of Mach number should be from 1 to 5 with
increments of 0.5.

6. A new space vehicle is being designed to make trips to the Moon in 2020 and other
experiments around the Earth. Some values of altitude and Mach number at reentry from
space into the Earths atmosphere are estimated based on simulation and analysis. The
values are shown in the following table:
Altitude, km 65 55 45 35 25
Mach number 19 11.4 6.7 3.2 1.3
Dynamic pressure,

Derive an equation for dynamic pressure as a function of pressure and Mach number, and
then make a program in MATLAB in which you use the equation to find the values of
dynamic pressure for the table above, and plot altitude vs Mach number in one graph, and
dynamic pressure vs Mach number in another graph.

7. Assuming incompressible flow, at an altitude of 4,000 m, a missile is fired with a
velocity of 70 m/s. Calculate the pressure at a point of the tail if its velocity at that point is
80 m/s.

176

8. Assuming incompressible flow, at an altitude of 6,000 ft, a missile is fired with a
velocity of 150 mi/h. Calculate the velocity at a point of the tail if its pressure at that point
is 1600 lb/ft
2
.

9. There is a convergent-divergent nozzle (C-D nozzle), which is connected to a large
reservoir. In the reservoir, the density is 3.42 kg/m
3
, and the nozzle exit temperature is
10 C. calculate the reservoir temperature (in K) and pressure (in atm), if there is a sea level
pressure at the exit.

10. The mass flow of air through a supersonic nozzle is 2 lb
m
/s. The exit velocity is
1,800 ft/s, and the stagnation pressure and temperature are 8 atm and 1300 Find the area
of the nozzle exit. The value of C
p
for air is 000 ft-lb/slug*().

11. A medium-sized aircraft is flying at a velocity of 2000 mi/h at an altitude of 40,000 ft.
At one point close to the leading edge of the vertical stabilizer, the temperature is 843 .
Find the velocity and Mach number of the flow at that point, first. Also, the cross sectional
area of the inlet to the jet engines is 22ft
2
. Assume that the flow properties of the air
entering the inlet are those of the freestream ahead of the airplane. Fuel is injected inside
the engine at a rate of 0.07 lb of fuel for every pound of air flowing through the engine.
Find the mass flow (in slugs/s) that comes out of the engine exit.

12. Find the pressure measured by a Pitot tube which is mounted in the test section of a low
speed subsonic wind tunnel. The flow temperature in the test section is 70 F, its static
pressure is 1.5 atm, and its velocity is 180 mi/h.

13. The altimeter of an aircraft reads 9,000 ft. The Pitot tube mounted on the wingtip
measures a pressure of 1760 lb/ft
2
. Find the true velocity and the equivalent airspeed if the
outside temperature is 310 K.

14. A Pitot tube is mounted in the test section of a high-speed subsonic wing tunnel. The
temperature and pressure of the airflow are 300 K and 2.2 atm. If the velocity of the flow is
280 m/s, find the pressure measured by the Pitot tube.
15. A high-performance fighter aircraft is flying at Mach 0.95 at sea level. Find the
temperature of the air at the stagnation point at the leading edge of the wing.

16. An airplane is flying at a pressure altitude of 15 km with a velocity of 630 m/s. The
temperature of the air outside the aircraft is 200 K. Find the pressure measured by a Pitot
tube mounted on the nose of the aircraft.

17. There is a Mach 3 airstream at standard sea-level values. Find the total pressure of this
flow. Compare this result with a) the stagnation pressure that would exist at the nose of a
177

blunt body in the flow and b) the erroneous result given by the equation of Bernoulli, which
does not apply here.

18. There is a flow of air through a supersonic nozzle connected to a gas tank. The
temperature and pressure at the tank are 600 K and 6 atm. Find the exit density,
temperature, and pressure if the Mach number at the nozzle exit is 3.5.

19. There is a supersonic nozzle across which the pressure ratio is P
e
/P
0
= 0.4. Find the exit
area to throat area ratio.

20. There is an airflow which expands through a supersonic C-D nozzle connected to a gas
tank. The Mach number varies from zero in the tank to Mach 3 at the exit. Draw a graph of
the variation of the ratio of dynamic pressure to total pressure as a function of Mach
number. The graph should have q/P
0
in the y-axis and Mach number on the x-axis (the
Mach number should have increments of 0.2). On the graph, find the Mach number that
corresponds to the maximum value of q/P
0
.

4. Alas y Perfiles

1. ead the historical note Airfoils and Wings found on Chapter 5 of the textbook, and
make a summary on what you read. Write in your own words by hand (3 pages), please
do not type.
2. ead the historical notes The First Manned Supersonic Flight and The X-15 First
Manned Hypersonic Airplane and Stepping Stone to the Space Shuttle found on Chapter 5
of the textbook, and make a summary on what you read. Write in your own words by
hand (3 pages), please do not type.
3. ead the applied aerodynamics section The Flow over an Airfoil The eal Case
(Section 4.13) in the book Fundamentals of Aerodynamics by Anderson (found in the
Library) and make a summary of what you read. Write in your own words by hand and
make sketches of the airfoils and polar graphs (at least 3 pages), please do not type.

4. ead the applied aerodynamics section Airplane Lift and Drag (Section .7) in the
book Fundamentals of Aerodynamics by Anderson (found in the Library) and make a
summary of what you read. Write in your own words by hand and make sketches of the
airfoils and polar graphs (at least 3 pages), please do not type.

178

5. Write a program in MATLAB in which you plot the L/D graph of the NACA 2412
airfoil vs angle of attack. The range of angle of attack should be from 0 to 10 and must be
on the x-axis. Find the maximum L/D value and its corresponding angle of attack, and mark
them on the graph.

6. Consider an airfoil at a given angle of attack (). At low speed values, the minimum
pressure coefficient on the top surface of the airfoil is -0.90. Write a program in MATLAB
in which you plot C
p
vs Mach number and find the critical Mach number of the airfoil (the
graph should be similar to Figure 5.18 from the textbook).

7. An infinite wing has a NACA 1412 airfoil section and its chord measures 3 ft. The wing
is inclined at an angle of attack of 5 in an airfoil velocity of 100 ft/s at standard sea level
conditions. Find the lift, drag, and moment about the quarter chord per unit span.

8. Consider a rectangular wing mounted in a low-speed subsonic wing tunnel. The wing
model completely spans the test section so that the flow sees essentially an infinite wing.
If the wing has a NACA 23012 airfoil section and a chord of 0.35 m, calculate the lift, drag,
and moment about the quarter chord per unit span when the airflow pressure, temperature,
and velocity are 1 atm, 303 K, and 42 m/s. The angle of attack is 7.

9. A low-speed aircraft is flying at a velocity of 60 m/s. If the velocity at one point on the
fuselage is 72 m/s, what is the pressure coefficient at this point?
10. A wing in a high-speed wing tunnel is being tested. At a point on the wing, the velocity
is 900 ft/s. If the test section flow is at a velocity of 800 ft/s, with a temperature and
pressure of 510 and 1 atm, calculate the pressure coefficient at that point.

11. A supersonic missile is flying at Mach 3 at an altitude of 12 km. The angle of the shock
wave from the nose is approximated by the Mach angle. Find the distance from the nose of
the missile to the point where the shock wave would touch the ground.

12. The wing area of a supersonic fighter aircraft is about 220 ft
2
. If the aircraft weights
16,000 lbs and is flying in level flight at Mach 2.4 at an altitude of 36,000 ft, find the wave
drag on the wings.

13. A single engine regional aircraft has a wing area of 17.4 m
2
and an aspect ratio of 7.31.
Assume the span efficiency factor is 0.58. If the airplane is flying at standard sea-level
conditions with a velocity of 280 km/h, find the induced drag when the total weight is 9700
N.

179

14. An airplane has an aspect ratio of 5.5 and a wing area of 23.5 m
2
. The wing has a
NACA 65-210 airfoil, a span efficiency factor of 0.9, and a profile drag coefficient of
0.004. If the wing is at a angle of attack, calculate C
L
and C
D
.

15. During the first decades of the 20
th
century, the NACA obtained wind tunnel data on
different airfoils by testing finite wings with an aspect ratio of 6. These data were then
corrected to obtain infinite wing airfoil characteristics. Consider a finite wing with an
area and aspect ratio of 1.5 ft
2
and 6, mounted in a wind tunnel where the test section flow
velocity is 100 ft/s at standard sea level conditions. When the wing is pitched to = -2, the
lift is zero. When the wing is pitched to = 10, a lift of 17.9 lb is measured. Calculate the
lift slope for the airfoil (the infinite wing) if the span effectiveness factor is 0.95.

16. A finite wing of area 1.5 ft
2
and aspect ratio of is tested in a subsonic wind tunnel at a
velocity of 130 ft/s at standard sea level conditions. At an angle of attack of -1, the
measured lift and drag are 0 and 0.181 lb. At an angle of attack of 2, the lift and drag are
measured as 5.0 lb and 0.23 lb. Calculate the span efficiency factor and the infinite wing lift
slope.

17. Consider a rectangular wing with a NACA 0009 airfoil section spanning the test section
of a wind tunnel. The test section airflow conditions are standard sea level with a velocity
of 110 mi/h. The wing is at an angle of attack of 4, and the wind-tunnel force balance
measures a lift of 32.3 lb. Find the area of the wing.

18. Consider a NACA 1412 airfoil at an angle of attack of 4. If the freestream Mach
number is 0.79, find the lift coefficient.

19. A NACA 4415 airfoil is mounted in a high-speed subsonic wind tunnel. The lift
coefficient is measured as 0.85. If the test section Mach number is 0.72, find the angle of
attack of the airfoil.

20. Consider a uniform flow with a Mach number of 2.5. Find the angle that the Mach wave
makes with the flow direction.

5. Introduccin a la Dinmica de Vuelo: Rendimiento de Vuelo

1. ead section .21 in the textbook Early Predictions of Aircraft Performance and
make a summary of what you read. (1 page)

180

2. ead section .23 in the textbook Aircraft Design Evolution and evolution and
make a summary of what you read. (2 pages)

3. Solve Problem 6.4 and 6.6 in paper and then make a MATLAB program which
shows the approximate same results. Include graphs.

4. Problem 6.1 from the book (page 355)

5. Problem 6.2 from the book (page 355)

6. Problem 6.3 from the book (page 355)

7. Problem 6.5 from the book (page 356)

8. Problem 6.7 from the book (page 356)

9. Problem 6.9 from the book (page 356)

10. Problem 6.11 from the book (page 356)

6. Introduccin a la Dinmica de Vuelo: Estabilidad y Control

1. From the textbook Flight Stability and Automatic Control by Nelson (found in the
library), read section 2.1 Historical Perspective within Chapter 2: Static Stability and
Control, and write a summary in your own words by hand (2 pages).
2. From the textbook Introduction to Flight by Anderson, read Historical notes: The
Wright Brothers versus the European Philosophy on Stability and Control and The
Development of Flight Controls within Chapter 7, and write a summary in your own
words by hand (2 pages).
3. Problem 7.1 from the textbook.
4. Problem 7.2 from the textbook.
5. Problem 7.3 from the textbook.
6. Problem 7.4 from the textbook.
7. Problem 7.5 from the textbook.
8. Problem 7.6 from the textbook.
181

7. Introduccin a la Astronutica

1. Read the historical notes from the textbook, and make a concise summary:
Kepler
Newton & the Law of Gravitation
Lagrange
Unmanned Space Flight
Manned Space Flight
2. Problem 8.1 from the textbook
3. Problem 8.2 from the textbook
4. Problem 8.3 from the textbook
5. Problem 8.4 from the textbook
6. Problem 8.5 from the textbook
7. Problem 8.6 from the textbook
8. Problem 8.7 from the textbook
8. Introduccin a la Propulsin

1. Read sections 9.11, 9.12, and 9.13 and make a summary of 2 pages by hand.

2. Do problem 9.3 from the textbook.

3. Do problem 9.4 from the textbook.

4. Do problem 9.5 from the textbook.

5. Do problem 9.6 from the textbook.

6. Do problem 9.7 from the textbook.

7. Do problem 9.8 from the textbook.

8. Do problem 9.9 from the textbook.
182


9. Do problem 9.10 from the textbook.

10. Do problem 9.11 from the textbook.


9. Introduccin a los Materiales Aeroespaciales
No tarea asignada, solo lectura y discusin del tema.

10. Introduccin al Diseo de Aeronaves

Design Project Guidelines

1. Objective

The objective of this project is to apply the fundamental concepts learned in the class
Introduction to Aerospace Engineering to the design of aerospace vehicles.

2. The Aerospace Vehicle

The aerospace vehicle to be designed can be a civil, military aircraft, or a UAV. Innovation
will be a factor in the grading of the project. The student will model the vehicle in NX and
perform an initial analysis of aerodynamics and flight performance estimation. Each student
will design his/her own aircraft and will turn in a report.

3. The report

A professional and structured printed report will be made by the student showing his work.
The degree of knowledge of applied aerospace engineering into conceptual design as well
as creativity will be determinant factors of the final grade. The report should contain:

183

A Title page: Title, class, author, date, university.

Abstract: 100-150 word summary of entire document.

Introduction: State precise scope of project and concept(s) (half a page).

Concept Development: The different initial concepts, ideas, sketches. (at least three
concepts)

Feasibility Assessment: Comparison of potential design solutions. (at least three concepts)

CAD Design: Your final solution (CAD Model in NX or CATIA V5, assembliesD
drawings)

Analysis: Aerodynamics and flight performance estimation of the aerospace vehicle. This
can be programmed in MATLAB or another similar program with plotting capabilities.

Conclusions: Summarize work, state any conclusions about feasibility of concept, and
whether future work should continue on your concept.

Appendix: References, figures, graphs, plots, text quotes. All information must be
referenced.

Acknowledgements: People that helped you.

4. Grading scale:

Understanding of the type of aerospace vehicle considered 20%

Creativity & Innovation 30%

Analysis 30%
Justification of concept selection among many options
Justification of vehicle size and weight
Justification of airfoil, wing, engine, arrangement, wing span, etc.
Predicted performance (cruise speed, range, endurance, max velocity, R/C, L/D, C
D
,
C
L
)

Report quality and completeness 20%

5. Report and CD delivery

Each student will turn in a printed report (engargolado) and a CD with all the work, CAD
models, and documents that were created, in separate and named folders.


184











C. EXAMENES














185

PRIMER EXAMEN PARCIAL
Historical Development of Aerospace Engineering (10 points)
1. Which aeronautical engineer wrote One can get a proper insight into the practice of
flying only by actual flying experiments?
Lilienthal
2. What was the main reason airplanes designed by Curtiss were more popular with other
pilots than the airplanes designed by the Wright brothers?
Airplanes designed by Curtiss were statically stable and were easier and safer to fly.
3. What was the main contribution of Diehl to the development of the standard atmosphere?
He provided the first practical tables of standard atmospheric properties in both metric and
English units.
4. Who developed the use of wind twist to control airplanes in lateral motion?
The Wrights
5. Mention two contributions of Prandtl to the development of theoretical aerodynamics.
The boundary layer theory and wing lift and drag theory.
6. Write the Kutta-Joukowski theorem.

7. Name the two design features that the BWB incorporates.
Supercritical airfoils and area rule.
8. What can happen when an aircrafts flight velocity surpasses the thermal barrier?
Structural failure can occur.
9. What are the two figures of merit that are primarily used to judge the quality of a given
airfoil?
The lift-to-drag ratio and the maximum lift coefficient, c
l,max
.
10. Which artifact would produce more lift if tested in a subsonic wind tunnel: a wing or a
wing-body combination?
None. They both will produce about the same lift.
186

Theoretical Principles (30 points)
1. Derive Bernoullis equation for a flow around the airfoil shown below, and state if the
equation holds for inviscid and incompressible flow or for viscous and compressible flow.
(15 points)

( )
If we know that
Then, ( )
Also,

Therfore, from Newtons law,

( ) ( )

Eulers equation,



We integrate Eulers from 1 to 2 apng
the streamline,

187

2. Derive the area velocity relation for an isentropic flow in a stream tube, and prove that
the Mach number is unity at the throat of a supersonic wind tunnel (15 points). Hint: You
will need Eulers equation.

From com

()
Taking the derivate, weve
1.-

Using Eulers equation,

Substituting into 1, weve:

Now, the flow is isentropic, then:

()

Therefore,

Solving for

, weve:

Or:

If we test the equation then M=1

If weve

(not changing),

Finite number
Therefore, if

, the streamtube has a

minimum area at M=1


188

Application Problems (60 points)
1. A hypothetical sixth generation fighter aircraft is being developed to elevate from an
absolute altitude of 41.7 km at point 1 to an absolute altitude h (point 2), where the
temperature is -14.9 C. If the ambient pressure is given by the function P(t) = (3 2t) N/m
2
,
find the time rate of change of temperature from point 1 to point 2. Express your result in
K/s. (20 points)

For convinence

Derivative:

1.-

Substituting b into 1 weve:

ha=6416.76km,

At

At point 2:

() ( )

Lapse rate

)()

()()()

[]

189

2. (20 points) A supersonic aircrafts turbine has an exit velocity of 2,200 ft/s. The
stagnation temperature and pressure are 1350 and 10 atm. If the exit area is measured to
be 0.007 ft
2
, calculate:

a) The mass flow rate at the exit (in lb
m
/s)
b) The ratio of every pound of fuel per pound of incoming air if the mass flow rate of
the inlet is 1.72 lb
m
/s.

Note: The value of C
p
for air is 000 ft-lb/slug*().








Data:

1350R

6000 ft-lb/slug( R)
From the equation of state:

()()
()()

a).- From COM:

From COE:

()

From the isentropic equation:

() (

()()()

)(

)


190


b).-

Therefore,

191

3. (20 points) The wing area of a supersonic aircraft is about 220 ft
2
and it has a chord
length of 6 ft. If the aircraft weights 16,000 lbs, has a span efficiency factor of 0.7, and is
flying in level flight at Mach 2.4 at an altitude of 36,000 ft, find:
a) The wave drag on the wings
b) The induced drag force







Data:

a).- At 36000 ft:

()()()

()()

) ()

Since the aircraft flies at supersonic
speed:

192

()

()

()()(

)

b).-

()

()()

()()(

Formulas

()

1 slug = 32.2 lb
m


M = V/a

)
()

194

SEGUNDO EXAMEN PARCIAL
PART I: HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF AEROSPACE ENGINEERING
(10 POINTS)
1. Aircraft design has advanced in three notable periods since Cayley to our days. Mention
those three periods and the two aerodynamic parameters used as figures of merit to
compare the aircraft designs in those periods.
Periods: Strut-and-wire biplanes, Monoplane configuration, and jet engine.
Parameters: Zero lift- drag coefficient C
D,0
and lift-to-drag ratio

2. Explain how the zero lift drag coefficient and the lift to drag ratio relate to the
performance of a given aircraft.
C
D,0
has a strong effect on V
Max
because at V
Max
, and induced drag are small. The
lower the C
D,0
, the faster the airplane.

Affects flight charecteristics such as endurance and range.

3. Name and explain one advantage of static instability. Also, mention the two
interference effects that influence tail aerodynamics.
One advantage is the increased maneuverability.
Interference effects:
1 The airflow at the tail is deflected downward by the downwash due to the finite wing.
2 Due to skin friction and pressure drag over the wing, the airflow reaching the tail has
been slowed.
4. Explain non-mathematically the Laws of Kepler.
1
st
Law: A satellite describes an elliptical path around its center of attraction.
2
nd
Law: In equal times, the areas swept out by the radius vector of a satellite are the
same .
3
rd
Law: The periods of any two satellites about the same planet are related to their
semi major axes.


195

5. What was the Vangard program? Please explain.
A program launched by the United States to design and launch a satellite that could
orbit the earth as Sputnik 1.

PART II: THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES (30 POINTS)
1. using the equations of kinetic and potential energy, derive the equation of the eccentricity
as a function of the difference between kinetic and potential energies.

[ ( )

[ ( )]

[ ( )

[ ( )]

( )

( )

196

PART III: APPLICATION PROBLEMS (60 POINTS)
1. An aerospace system consisting of a space shuttle and a satellite is launched from a
spaceport located in Yucatan. The space shuttle has the shape of an aircraft and upon
releasing the satellite into space, it returns and lands as a regular airplane.
The satellite is released at 0.700 x 10
6
m above the surface and starts orbiting the Earth with
a burnout velocity of 15 km/s in a direction due north and above the local horizontal. The
burnout point is located at the 20
th
parallel above the equator. Calculate:
a) The function of the trajectory of the vehicle
b) The distance from the center of the Earth to a position = 30 from the burnout point

a)

)()( )

197

)(

)
(

b)

( )

()

( )

( )

)(

)
(

198

When the space shuttle returns back to Earth it flies with a velocity of 600 km/h, which
corresponds to the velocity at maximum lift over drag, its wing has a surface area of 40 m
2
,
an aspect ratio of 7, and an Oswald efficiency factor of 0.88. The mass of the space shuttle
is about 35,204.08163 kg and a parasite drag coefficient of 0.045. Additionally, it is
equipped by two engines of 75,000 N of thrust each at sea level. Calculate:
a) Power required when the velocity is 550 km/h
b) Total drag at maximum lift over drag
c) Rate of climb at sea level if excess power is 15x10
6
W
d) Maximum lift over drag
e) The range it will fly if it starts preparing for landing at an altitude of 2000 m above
sea level


a)

()()

()()

( )

( )()

()()

()()



199

b)
At (

()()

( )()

( )

( )()


At (

, there is minimum trust required and

( )

()()( )


c)


d)
(

()()()
()


e)
(

()()

()()( )

(

( )()( )
( )


(

()()


200

The model of this space shuttle had been designed to have a lift slope of the wing of
0.08/degree, the location of the aerodynamic center to be 0.025, the moment coefficient
about the aerodynamic center to be -.0035, a tail volume ratio of 0.596, a lift slope of the
tail of 0.41. From experimental measurements,

and

and a tail setting

angle of 2.2. Solve the following:
a) Does the aircraft have static stability?
b) Is it longitudinally balanced?
c) Find the trimmed angle

a) For an airplane to be static stable

has to be negative. Differentiating

[(

)]

) With respect

,
we obtain:

[(

)]

() [( )
()
()
( )]

The airplane has static stability since

is negative

b)
For an airplane to be longitudinally balanced

must be positive.

()( )

The airplane is longitudinally balanced since

is positive

The airplane has static stability since

is negative

The airplane is longitudinally balanced since

is positive


201

c)

FORMULAS
r
earth
= 6.4 x 10
6
m
G = 6.67x10
-11
m
3
/(kg)s
2

M = 5.98x10
24
kg
h = r
2

T = mV
2

( )

[(

)]

202

D. EJEMPLOS DE PROYECTOS DE DISEO
A continuacin se muestran algunos diseos de los alumnos del semestre agosto-diciembre
2013. Cabe resaltar que cada avin ha sido diseado por un solo alumno.





203








204

CAPITULO IV

CONCLUSIONES Y RECOMENDACIONES

A. DE LA PARTE TERICA DE LA CLASE
La parte terica de la clase comprende los principios ms importantes cubiertos en las
materias de especialidad de ingeniera aeroespacial. Dado al tiempo de un semestre, la
materia puede ser recortada para cubrir los temas ms importantes que el maestro
considere.
Es recomendable el uso de distintos mtodos de imparticin de la instruccin como el uso
de presentaciones, la explicacin directa de los temas, la derivacin de frmulas paso a
paso, o hacer ejemplos en clase, hacer uso de las lecturas de cada clase para que sean ledas
y repasadas antes de cada clase.
B. DE LA PARTE PRACTICA DE LA CLASE
El proyecto de diseo de aeronaves tiene como objetivo aplicar los conceptos aprendidos en
las primeras dos terceras partes del semestre con especial nfasis en la aerodinmica
aplicada y el rendimiento de vuelo una vez completado el avin. Es un proyecto de
integracin de los temas y se hace uso de herramientas anteriormente aprendidas como el
modelado 3D en NX y la codificacin de frmulas y graficas en MATLAB.
Este es un primer paso hacia proyectos de mayor integracin y contenido tcnico. Sin
embargo, podra agregarse a esta prctica visitas al tnel de viento (dependiendo de la
disponibilidad), simulaciones bsicas de dinmica de fluidos computacional (CFD) en
software especializado para simulacin, o el uso de software para dinmica de vuelo y
estabilidad. Adems se podra impartir el uso de software de diseo de aeronaves completas
a nivel preliminar.









205

CAPITULO V

APNDICES Y/O ANEXOS

Todo el material didctico en su forma electrnica est incluido en un CD para los revisores
de este trabajo.



























206

CAPITULO VI

BIBLIOGRAFA

1. Introduction to Flight by Anderson, 3
rd
Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1989
2. Fundamentals of Aerodynamics by Anderson, 3
rd
Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2001
3. Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach by Raymer, 2
nd
Edition, AAIA Educaction
Series, 1992
4. Orbital Mechanics for Engineering Students by Howard Curtis, 1
st
Edition, Elsevier
Butterworth-Heinemann, 2005
5. Composite Materials for Aircraft Structures by Baker, Dutton, and Kelly, 2
nd
Edition,
AIAA Education Series