Radio-frequency identification:

Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is the wireless non-contact use of radio-

frequencyelectromagnetic fields to transfer data, for the purposes of automatically identifying
and tracking tags attached to objects. he tags contain electronically stored information. !ome
tags are powered by and read at short ranges (a few meters) "ia magnetic fields (electromagnetic
induction). #thers use a local power source such as a battery, or else ha"e no battery but collect
energy from the interrogating $% field, and then act as a passi"e transponder to emit
microwa"es or &'( radio wa"es (i.e., electromagnetic radiation at high frequencies). )attery
powered tags may operate at hundreds of meters. &nlike a bar code, the tag does not necessarily
need to be within line of sight of the reader, and may be embedded in the tracked object.
R(*+ tags are used in many industries. ,n R(*+ tag attached to an automobile during production
can be used to track its progress through the assembly line. -harmaceuticals can be tracked
through warehouses. .i"estock and pets may ha"e tags injected, allowing positi"e identification
of the animal.
!ince R(*+ tags can be attached to cash, clothing, e"eryday possessions, or e"en implanted
within people, the possibility of reading personally-linked information without consent has raised
serious pri"acy concerns
!mall R(*+ chip, here compared to a grain of rice, is incorporated in consumer products, and
implanted in pets, for identification purposes
History
*n /012 .3on heremin in"ented an espionage tool for the !o"iet &nion which retransmitted
incident radio wa"es with audio information. !ound wa"es "ibrated adiaphragm which slightly
altered the shape of the resonator, which modulated the reflected radio frequency. $"en though
this de"ice was a co"ert listening de"ice, not an identification tag, it is considered to be a
predecessor of R(*+ technology, because it was likewise passi"e, being energi4ed and acti"ated
by wa"es from an outside source.
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!imilar technology, such as the *(( transponder, was routinely used by the allies and 8ermany
in 9orld 9ar ** to identify aircraft as friend or foe. ransponders are still used by most powered
aircraft to this day. ,nother early work e:ploring R(*+ is the landmark /01; paper by 'arry
!tockman, titled <=ommunication by %eans of Reflected -ower< (-roceedings of the *R$, pp
//0>?/6@1, #ctober /01;). !tockman predicted that <... considerable research and de"elopment
work has to be done before the remaining basic problems in reflected-power communication are
sol"ed, and before the field of useful applications is e:plored.<
%ario =ardulloAs de"ice, patented on Banuary 6C, /0DC, was the first true ancestor
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of modern
R(*+, as it was a passi"e radio transponder with memory.
517
he initial de"ice was passi"e,
powered by the interrogating signal, and was demonstrated in /0D/ to the Eew Fork -ort
,uthority and other potential users and consisted of a transponder with /> bit memory for use as
a toll de"ice. he basic =ardullo patent co"ers the use of R(, sound and light as transmission
media. he original business plan presented to in"estors in /0>0 showed uses in transportation
(automoti"e "ehicle identification, automatic toll system, electronic license plate, electronic
manifest, "ehicle routing, "ehicle performance monitoring), banking (electronic check book,
electronic credit card), security (personnel identification, automatic gates, sur"eillance) and
medical (identification, patient history).
,n early demonstration of reflected power (modulated backscatter) R(*+ tags, both passi"e and
semi-passi"e, was performed by !te"en +epp, ,lfred Goelle, and Robert (reyman at the .os
,lamos Eational .aboratory in /0DC.
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he portable system operated at 0/2 %'4 and used /6-
bit tags. his technique is used by the majority of todayAs &'(*+ and microwa"e R(*+ tags.
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he first patent to be associated with the abbre"iation R(*+ was granted to =harles 9alton in
/0;C.
Design
Tags
, radio-frequency identification system uses tags, or labels attached to the objects to be
identified. wo-way radio transmitter-recei"ers called interrogators or readers send a signal to
the tag and read its response.
R(*+ tags can be either passi"e, acti"e or battery-assisted passi"e. ,n acti"e tag has an on-board
battery and periodically transmits its *+ signal. , battery-assisted passi"e (),-) has a small
battery on board and is acti"ated when in the presence of an R(*+ reader. , passi"e tag is
cheaper and smaller because it has no battery. 'owe"er, to start operation of passi"e tags, they
must be illuminated with a power le"el roughly three magnitudes stronger than for signal
transmission. hat makes a difference in interference and in e:posure to radiation.
ags may either be read-only, ha"ing a factory-assigned serial number that is used as a key into a
database, or may be readHwrite, where object-specific data can be written into the tag by the
system user. (ield programmable tags may be write-once, read-multipleI <blank< tags may be
written with an electronic product code by the user. , tag with no inherent identity is always
threatened to get manipulated.
R(*+ tags contain at least two parts: an integrated circuit for storing and processing
information, modulating and demodulating a radio-frequency (R() signal, collecting += power
from the incident reader signal, and other speciali4ed functionsI and an antenna for recei"ing and
transmitting the signal. he tag information is stored in a non-"olatile memory. he R(*+ tag
includes either a chip-wired logic or a programmed or programmable data processor for
processing the transmission and sensor data, respecti"ely.
,n R(*+ reader transmits an encoded radio signal to interrogate the tag. he R(*+ tag recei"es
the message and then responds with its identification and other information. his may be only a
unique tag serial number, or may be product-related information such as a stock number, lot or
batch number, production date, or other specific information.
Readers
R(*+ systems can be classified by the type of tag and reader. , Passive Reader Active
Tag (PRAT) system has a passi"e reader which only recei"es radio signals from acti"e tags
(battery operated, transmit only). he reception range of a -R, system reader can be adjusted
from /?6,@@@ feet (@.C@?>@0.>@ m)
5citation needed7
, allowing fle:ibility in applications such as asset
protection and super"ision.
,n Active Reader Passive Tag (ARPT) system has an acti"e reader, which transmits
interrogator signals and also recei"es authentication replies from passi"e tags.
,n Active Reader Active Tag (ARAT) system uses acti"e tags awoken with an interrogator
signal from the acti"e reader. , "ariation of this system could also use a )attery-,ssisted -assi"e
(),-) tag which acts like a passi"e tag but has a small battery to power the tagAs return reporting
signal.
(i:ed readers are set up to create a specific interrogation 4one which can be tightly controlled.
his allows a highly defined reading area for when tags go in and out of the interrogation 4one.
%obile readers may be hand-held or mounted on carts or "ehicles.
Signaling
!ignaling between the reader and the tag is done in se"eral different incompatible ways,
depending on the frequency band used by the tag. ags operating on .( and '( bands are, in
terms of radio wa"elength, "ery close to the reader antenna because they are only a small
percentage of a wa"elength away. *n this near field region, the tag is closely coupled electrically
with the transmitter in the reader. he tag can modulate the field produced by the reader by
changing the electrical loading the tag represents. )y switching between lower and higher
relati"e loads, the tag produces a change that the reader can detect. ,t &'( and higher
frequencies, the tag is more than one radio wa"elength away from the reader, requiring a
different approach. he tag can backscatter a signal. ,cti"e tags may contain functionally
separated transmitters and recei"ers, and the tag need not respond on a frequency related to the
readerAs interrogation signal.
,n $lectronic -roduct =ode ($-=) is one common type of data stored in a tag. 9hen written
into the tag by an R(*+ printer, the tag contains a 0>-bit string of data. he first eight bits are a
header which identifies the "ersion of the protocol. he ne:t 6; bits identify the organi4ation that
manages the data for this tagI the organi4ation number is assigned by the $-=8lobal consortium.
he ne:t 61 bits are an object class, identifying the kind of productI the last C> bits are a unique
serial number for a particular tag. hese last two fields are set by the organi4ation that issued the
tag. Rather like a &R., the total electronic product code number can be used as a key into a
global database to uniquely identify a particular product.
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#ften more than one tag will respond to a tag reader, for e:ample, many indi"idual products with
tags may be shipped in a common bo: or on a common pallet. =ollision detection is important to
allow reading of data. wo different types of protocols are used to <singulate<a particular tag,
allowing its data to be read in the midst of many similar tags. *n a slotted ,loha system, the
reader broadcasts an initiali4ation command and a parameter that the tags indi"idually use to
pseudo-randomly delay their responses. 9hen using an <adapti"e binary tree< protocol, the
reader sends an initiali4ation symbol and then transmits one bit of *+ data at a timeI only tags
with matching bits respond, and e"entually only one tag matches the complete *+ string.
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,n e:ample of a binary tree method of identifying an R(*+ tag
)oth methods ha"e drawbacks when used with many tags or with multiple o"erlapping
readers. )ulk reading is a strategy for interrogating multiple tags at the same time, but lacks
sufficient precision for in"entory control.
Miniaturization
R(*+s are easy to conceal or incorporate in other items. (or e:ample, in 6@@0 researchers
at )ristol &ni"ersity successfully glued R(*+ micro-transponders to li"e ants in order to study
their beha"ior.
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his trend towards increasingly miniaturi4ed R(*+s is likely to continue as
technology ad"ances.
'itachi holds the record for the smallest R(*+ chip, at @.@2mm J @.@2mm. his is /H>1th the si4e
of the pre"ious record holder, the mu-chip.
5/17
%anufacture is enabled by using the silicon-on-
insulator (!#*) process. hese dust-si4ed chips can store C;-digit numbers using /6;-bit Read
#nly %emory (R#%). , major challenge is the attachment of antennas, thus limiting read range
to only millimeters.
Uses
he R(*+ tag can be affi:ed to an object and used to track and manage in"entory, assets, people,
etc. (or e:ample, it can be affi:ed to cars, computer equipment, books, mobile phones, etc.
R(*+ offers ad"antages o"er manual systems or use of bar codes. he tag can be read if passed
near a reader, e"en if it is co"ered by the object or not "isible. he tag can be read inside a case,
carton, bo: or other container, and unlike barcodes, R(*+ tags can be read hundreds at a time.
)ar codes can only be read one at a time using current de"ices.
*n 6@//, the cost of passi"e tags started at &!K@.@0 eachI special tags, meant to be mounted on
metal or withstand gamma sterili4ation, can go up to &!K2. ,cti"e tags for tracking containers,
medical assets, or monitoring en"ironmental conditions in data centers start at &!K2@ and can go
up o"er &!K/@@ each. )attery-,ssisted -assi"e (),-) tags are in the &!KC?/@ range and also
ha"e sensor capability like temperature and humidity.
5citation needed7
R(*+ can be used in a "ariety of applications,
5/>75/D7
such as:
,ccess management
racking of goods
racking of persons and animals
oll collection and contactless payment
%achine readable tra"el documents
!martdust (for massi"ely distributed sensor networks)
racking sports memorabilia to "erify authenticity
,irport baggage tracking logistics
5/;7
*n 6@/@ three key factors dro"e a significant increase in R(*+ usage: decreased cost of
equipment and tags, increased performance to a reliability of 00.0L and a stable international
standard around &'( passi"e R(*+. he adoption of these standards were dri"en by $-=global,
a joint "enture between 8!/ and 8!/ &!, which were responsible for dri"ing global adoption of
the barcode in the /0D@s and /0;@s. he $-=global Eetwork was de"eloped by the ,uto-*+
=enter, an academic research project headquartered at the %assachusetts *nstitute of echnology
(%*) with labs at fi"e leading research uni"ersities around the globe: =ambridge, ,delaide,
Geio, !hanghai, (udan, !t. 8allen.
5/07
,t R(*+ Bournal .i"e 6@/@ in #rlando, ,irbus detailed />
acti"e projects, *)% andMmost recently added to the teamM=!=. he two other areas of
significant use are financial ser"ices for * asset tracking and healthcare. R(*+ is becoming
increasingly pre"alent as the price of the technology decreases.
Payment by mobile phones
!ince summer 6@@0, two credit card companies ha"e been working with +allas, e:as-based
+e"ice(idelity to de"elop speciali4edmicro!+ cards. 9hen inserted into a mobile phone, the
micro!+ card can be both a passi"e tag and an R(*+ reader.
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,fter inserting the micro!+, a
userAs phone can be linked to bank accounts and used in mobile payment.
+airy Nueen in conjunction with Oi"otech has also begun using R(*+s on mobile phones as part
of their new loyalty and rewards program.
56C7
-atrons can ask to recei"e an R(*+ tag to place on
their phone. ,fter acti"ation, the phone can recei"e promotions and coupons, which can be read
by OiO#techAs speciali4ed Eear (ield =ommunication (E(=) de"ices.
!imilarly, D-$le"en has been working alongside %aster=ard to promote a new touch-free
payment system. hose joining the trial are gi"en a complimentary Eokia C66@ cell phone ? after
acti"ation, it can be used as an R(*+-capable %aster=ard credit card at any of D-$le"enAs
worldwide chains.
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EokiaAs 6@@; de"ice, the >6/6, has R(*+ capabilities also. =redit card information can be stored,
and bank accounts can be directly accessed using the enabled handset. he phone, if used as a
"ector for mobile payment, has added security in that users would be required to enter a passcode
or -*E before payment is authori4ed.
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Asset management
R(*+ combined with mobile computing and 9eb technologies pro"ide a way for organi4ations
to identify and manage their assets. %obile computers, with integrated R(*+ readers, can now
deli"er a complete set of tools that eliminate paperwork, gi"e proof of identification and
attendance. his approach eliminates manual data entry.
9eb based management tools allow organi4ations to monitor their assets and make management
decisions from anywhere in the world. 9eb based applications now mean that third parties, such
as manufacturers and contractors can be granted access to update asset data, including for
e:ample, inspection history and transfer documentation online ensuring that the end user always
has accurate, real-time data. #rgani4ations are already using R(*+ tags combined with a mobile
asset management solution to record and monitor the location of their assets, their current status,
and whether they ha"e been maintained.
R(*+ is being adopted for item-le"el retail uses. ,side from efficiency and product a"ailability
gains, the system offers a superior form ofelectronic article sur"eillance ($,!), and a
superior self checkout process for consumers.
6@@0 witnessed the beginning of wide-scale asset tracking with passi"e R(*+. 9ells (argo and
)ank of ,merica made announcements that they would track e"ery item in their data centers
using passi"e R(*+. %ost of the leading banks ha"e since followed suit. he(inancial !er"ices
echnology =onsortium ((!=) set a technical standard for tagging * assets
56>7
and other
industries ha"e used that standard as a guideline. (or instance the &! !tate +epartment is now
tagging * assets with passi"e R(*+ using the *!#H*$= /;@@@-> standard.
Inventory systems
,n ad"anced automatic identification technology based on R(*+ technology has significant
"alue for in"entory systems. he system can pro"ide accurate knowledge of the current
in"entory. *n an academic study
56;7
performed at 9al-%art, R(*+ reduced #ut-of-!tocks by C@
percent for products selling between @./ and /2 units a day. he R(*+ can also help the company
to ensure the security of the in"entory. 9ith the just in time tracking of in"entory through R(*+,
the computer data can show whether the in"entory stored in the warehouse is correct with
quantity currently. #ther benefits of using R(*+ include the reduction of labor costs, the
simplification of business processes, and the reduction of in"entory inaccuracies.
*n 6@@1, )oeing integrated the use of R(*+ technology to help reduce maintenance and
in"entory costs on the )oeing D;D +reamliner. 9ith the high costs of aircraft parts, R(*+
technology allowed )oeing to keep track of in"entory despite the unique si4es, shapes and
en"ironmental concerns. +uring the first si: months after integration, the company was able to
sa"e K60,@@@ in labor.
5607
,irbus began an R(*+ program in 6@@> that recei"ed the 6@@; )est
R(*+ +eployment award at the R(*+ Bournal .i"e e"ent.
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*n 6@@D, Recall =orporation integrated the use of R(*+ to help organi4ations track and audit
their records, to support compliance with regulations such as the !arbanes-#:ley ,ct and '*-,,
Product tracking
*n 6@@2, the 9ynn =asino, .as Oegas, began placing indi"idual R(*+ tags on high "alue chips.
hese tags allowed casinos the ability to detect counterfeit chips, track betting habits of
indi"idual players, speed up chip tallies, and determine counting mistakes of dealers. *n 6@/@,
the )ellagio casino was robbed of K/.2@ million in chips. he R(*+ tags of these chips were
immediately in"alidated, thus making the cash "alue of these chips K@.
5C67
R(*+ can also be used for supply chain management in the fashion industry. he R(*+ label is
attached to the garment at production, can be readHtraced throughout the entire supply chain and
is remo"ed at the point of sale (-#!).
Access contro
R(*+ tags are widely used in identification badges, replacing earlier magnetic stripe cards. hese
badges need only be held within a certain distance of the reader to authenticate the holder. ags
can also be placed on "ehicles, which can be read at a distance, to allow entrance to controlled
areas without ha"ing to stop the "ehicle and present a card or enter an access code.
Social media
*n 6@/@ Oail Resorts began the $pic%i: program to allow skiers to earn "irtual badges, compete
for "ertical feet skied and other milestones using &'( -assi"e R(*+ tags in ski passes. he
$pic%i: system not only allowed automated social sharing and capturing of ski data but also
streamlined the "erification process which used to be performed by using a bar code and line-of-
sight scanner. !oon other brands began adopting this method and in 6@/C it has become a
growing area of use for R(*+. (acebook is using R(*+ cards at most of their li"e e"ents to allow
guests to automatically capture and post photos. he automoti"e brands ha"e adopted R(*+ for
social media product placement more quickly than other industries. %ercedes was an early
adopted in 6@// at the -8, 8olf =hampionships,
5CC7
and by the 6@/C 8ene"a %otor !how many
of the larger brands were using R(*+ for social media marketing.
Promotion tracking
o pre"ent retailers di"erting products, manufacturers are e:ploring the use of R(*+ tags on
promoted merchandise so that they can track e:actly which product has sold through the supply
chain at fully discounted prices.
Transortation and logistics
.ogistics and transportation are major areas of implementation for R(*+ technology. Fard
management, shipping and freight and distribution centers use R(*+ tracking technology. *n
the railroad industry, R(*+ tags mounted on locomoti"es and rolling stock identify the owner,
identification number and type of equipment and its characteristics. his can be used with a
database to identify the lading, origin, destination, etc. of the commodities being carried.
5C>7
*n commercial a"iation, R(*+ technology is being incorporated to support maintenance on
commercial aircraft. R(*+ tags are used to identify baggage and cargo at se"eral airports and
airlines.
5CD75C;7
!ome countries are using R(*+ technology for "ehicle registration and enforcement.
5C07
R(*+ can
help detect and retrie"e stolen cars.
Pu!lic transort
R(*+ cards are used for access control to public transport.
*n .ondon tra"ellers use #yster =ards on the tube, buses and ferries. *t identifies the tra"eller at
each turnstile and so the system can calculate the fare.
Infrastructure "anage"ent and rotection
Passorts
he first R(*+ passports (<$-passport<) were issued by %alaysia in /00;. *n addition to
information also contained on the "isual data page of the passport, %alaysian e-passports record
the tra"el history (time, date, and place) of entries and e:its from the country.
#ther countries that insert R(*+ in passports include Eorway (6@@2),
51C7
Bapan (%arch /, 6@@>),
most $& countries (around 6@@>), ,ustralia, 'ong Gong, the &nited !tates (6@@D), *ndia (Bune
6@@;), !erbia (Buly 6@@;), Republic of Gorea (,ugust 6@@;), aiwan (+ecember 6@@;), ,lbania
(Banuary 6@@0), he -hilippines (,ugust 6@@0), Republic of %acedonia (6@/@), and =anada
(6@/C).
!tandards for R(*+ passports are determined by the *nternational =i"il ,"iation
#rgani4ation (*=,#), and are contained in *=,# +ocument 0C@C, -art /, Oolumes / and 6 (>th
edition, 6@@>). *=,# refers to the *!#H*$= /111C R(*+ chips in e-passports as <contactless
integrated circuits<. *=,# standards pro"ide for e-passports to be identifiable by a standard e-
passport logo on the front co"er.
!ince 6@@>, R(*+ tags included in new &! passports will store the same information that is
printed within the passport and also include a digital picture of the owner.
5117
he &! !tate
+epartment initially stated the chips could only be read from a distance of /@ centimetres
(C.0 in), but after widespread criticism and a clear demonstration that special equipment can read
the test passports from /@ metres (CC ft) away,
5127
the passports were designed to incorporate a
thin metal lining to make it more difficult for unauthori4ed readers to <skim< information when
the passport is closed. he department will also implement )asic ,ccess =ontrol (),=), which
functions as a -ersonal *dentification Eumber (-*E) in the form of characters printed on the
passport data page. )efore a passportAs tag can be read, this -*E must be entered into an R(*+
reader. he ),= also enables the encryption of any communication between the chip and
interrogator.
Libraries
.ibraries ha"e used R(*+ to replace the barcodes on library items. he tag can contain
identifying information or may just be a key into a database. ,n R(*+ system may replace or
supplement bar codes and may offer another method of in"entory management and self-ser"ice
checkout by patrons. *t can also act as a security de"ice, taking the place of the more
traditional electromagnetic security strip.
*t is estimated that o"er C@ million library items worldwide now contain R(*+ tags, including
some in the Oatican .ibrary in Rome.
!ince R(*+ tags can be read through an item, there is no need to open a book co"er or +O+ case
to scan an item, and a stack of books can be read simultaneously. )ook tags can be read while
books are in motion on a con"eyor belt, which reduces staff time. his can all be done by the
borrowers themsel"es, reducing the need for library staff assistance. 9ith portable readers,
in"entories could be done on a whole shelf of materials within seconds.
5>D7
'owe"er, as of 6@@;
this technology remains too costly for many smaller libraries, and the con"ersion period has been
estimated at // months for an a"erage-si4e library. , 6@@1 +utch estimate was that a library
which lends /@@,@@@ books per year should plan on a cost of P2@,@@@ (borrow- and return-
stations: /6,2@@ each, detection porches /@,@@@ eachI tags @.C> each). R(*+ taking a large
burden off staff could also mean that fewer staff will be needed, resulting in some of them
getting laid off,
5>>7
but that has so far not happened in Eorth ,merica where recent sur"eys ha"e
not returned a single library that cut staff because of adding R(*+. *n fact, library budgets are
being reduced for personnel and increased for infrastructure, making it necessary for libraries to
add automation to compensate for the reduced staff si4e. ,lso, the tasks that R(*+ takes o"er are
largely not the primary tasks of librarians. , finding in the Eetherlands is that borrowers are
pleased with the fact that staff are now more a"ailable for answering questions.
-ri"acy concerns ha"e been raised surrounding library use of R(*+. )ecause some R(*+ tags
can be read from up to /@@ metres (CC@ ft), there is some concern o"er whether sensiti"e
information could be collected from an unwilling source. 'owe"er, library R(*+ tags do not
contain any patron information,
5>;7
and the tags used in the majority of libraries use a frequency
only readable from appro:imately /@ feet (C.@ m).
5>27
(urther, another non-library agency could
potentially record the R(*+ tags of e"ery person lea"ing the library without the library
administratorAs knowledge or consent. #ne simple option is to let the book transmit a code that
has meaning only in conjunction with the libraryAs database. ,nother possible enhancement
would be to gi"e each book a new code e"ery time it is returned. *n future, should readers
become ubiquitous (and possibly networked), then stolen books could be traced e"en outside the
library. ag remo"al could be made difficult if the tags are so small that they fit in"isibly inside a
(random) page, possibly put there by the publisher.
Museums
R(*+ technologies are now also implemented in end-user applications in museums. ,n e:ample
was the custom-designed temporary research application, <eQspot,< at the $:ploratorium, a
science museum in !an (rancisco, =alifornia. , "isitor entering the museum recei"ed an R( ag
that could be carried as a card. he eQspot system enabled the "isitor to recei"e information
about specific e:hibits. ,side from the e:hibit information, the "isitor could take photographs of
themsel"es at the e:hibit. *t was also intended to allow the "isitor to take data for later analysis.
he collected information could be retrie"ed at home from a <personali4ed< website keyed to the
R(*+ tag.
Schools and universities
!chool authorities in the Bapanese city of #saka are now chipping childrenAs clothing, backpacks,
and student *+s in a primary school.
5D@75dead link7
, school in +oncaster, $ngland is piloting a
monitoring system designed to keep tabs on pupils by tracking radio chips in their uniforms.
5D/7
!t
=harles !i:th (orm =ollege in west .ondon, $ngland, started !eptember, 6@@;, is using an R(*+
card system to check in and out of the main gate, to both track attendance and pre"ent
unauthori4ed entrance. !imilarly, 9hitcliffe %ount !chool in =leckheaton, $ngland uses R(*+
to track pupils and staff in and out of the building "ia a specially designed card. *n the
-hilippines, some schools already use R(*+ in *+s for borrowing books and also gates in those
particular schools ha"e R(*+ *+ scanners for buying items at a school shop and canteen, library
and also to sign in and sign out for student and teacherAs attendance.
Sorts
R(*+ for timing races began in the early /00@s with pigeon racing, introduced by the
company +eister $lectronics in 8ermany. R(*+ can pro"ide race start and end timings for
indi"iduals in large races where it is impossible to get accurate stopwatch readings for e"ery
entrant.
*n the race, the racers wear tags that are read by antennae placed alongside the track or on mats
across the track. &'( tags pro"ide accurate readings with specially designed antennas. Rush
error, lap count errors and accidents at start time are a"oided since anyone can start and finish
any time without being in a batch mode.
he design of chipRantenna controls the range from which it can be read. !hort range compact
chips are twist tied to the shoe or "elcro strapped the ankle. hese need to be about 1@@mm from
the mat and so gi"e "ery good temporal resolution. ,lternati"ely a chip plus a "ery large (a
/62mm square) antenna can be incorporated into the bib number worn on the athleteAs chest at
about /.62m height.
-assi"e and acti"e R(*+ systems are used in off-road e"ents such
as #rienteering, $nduroand 'are and 'ounds racing. Riders ha"e a transponder on their person,
normally on their arm. 9hen they complete a lap they swipe or touch the recei"er which is
connected to a computer and log their lap time.
R(*+ is being adapted by many recruitment agencies which ha"e a -$ (-hysical $ndurance
est) as their qualifying procedure especially in cases where the candidate "olumes may run into
millions (*ndian Railway Recruitment =ells, -olice and -ower sector).
#o"le"ent to !arcode
R(*+ tags are often a complement, but not a substitute, for &-= or $,E barcodes. hey may
ne"er completely replace barcodes, due in part to their higher cost and the ad"antage of multiple
data sources on the same object. ,lso, unlike R(*+ labels, barcodes can be generated and
distributed electronically, e.g. "ia e-mail or mobile phone, for printing or display by the recipient.
,n e:ample is airlineboarding passes. he new $-=, along with se"eral other schemes, is widely
a"ailable at reasonable cost.
he storage of data associated with tracking items will require many terabytes. (iltering and
categori4ing R(*+ data is needed to create useful information. *t is likely that goods will be
tracked by the pallet using R(*+ tags, and at package le"el with &ni"ersal -roduct =ode (&-=)
or $,E from unique barcodes.
he unique identity is a mandatory requirement for R(*+ tags, despite special choice of the
numbering scheme. R(*+ tag data capacity is large enough that each indi"idual tag will ha"e a
unique code, while current bar codes are limited to a single type code for a particular product.
he uniqueness of R(*+ tags means that a product may be tracked as it mo"es from location to
location, finally ending up in the consumerAs hands. his may help to combat theft and other
forms of product loss. he tracing of products is an important feature that gets well supported
with R(*+ tags containing a unique identity of the tag and also the serial number of the object.
his may help companies cope with quality deficiencies and resulting recall campaigns, but also
contributes to concern about tracking and profiling of consumers after the sale.
*t has also been proposed to use R(*+ for -#! store checkout to replace the cashier with an
automatic system which needs no barcode scanning. *n the past this was not possible due to the
higher cost of tags and e:isting -#! process technologies. 'owe"er, *ndustry !tandard, a
couture shop and recording studio in #hio has successfully implemented a -#! procedure that
allows faster transaction throughput.
,n (+,-nominated task force concluded, after studying the "arious technologies currently
commercially a"ailable, which of those technologies could meet the pedigree requirements.
,mongst all technologies studied including bar coding, R(*+ seemed to be the most promising
and the committee felt that the pedigree requirement could be met by easily le"eraging
something that is readily a"ailable.
Tele"etry
,cti"e R(*+ tags also ha"e the potential to function as low-cost remote sensors that
broadcast telemetry back to a base station. ,pplications of tagometry data could include sensing
of road conditions by implanted beacons, weather reports, and noise le"el monitoring.
5D>7
-assi"e R(*+ tags can also report sensor data. (or e:ample, the 9ireless *dentification and
!ensing -latform is a passi"e tag that reports temperature, acceleration and capacitance to
commercial 8en6 R(*+ readers.
*t is possible that acti"e or battery-assisted passi"e (),-) R(*+ tags, used with or in place of
barcodes, could broadcast a signal to an in-store recei"er to determine whether the R(*+ tag
(product) is in the store.