NAVIGATION- ADF

References:

Objective:


NDB (Nondirectional Radio Beacon) - is a low or medium frequency (L/MF)
radio beacon transmits a nondirectional amplified modulated (AM) signals with an
audible Morse Code identifier whereby the pilot of an aircraft properly equipped can
determine bearings and home on the station. The ADF needle points to the station
relative to the nose of the airplane. A fixed-card ADF indicator always displays 0
degrees at the top of the azimuth card and the needle points to the relative bearing to the
station. To fly to the NDB using the homing procedure simply turn to toward the ADF
needle, then keep the head of the ADF needle on the aircrafts nose (0 degrees on a fixed
card).

The ADF is a low/medium frequency radio receiver, compatible with signals in the 200
1600 kHz. The 540-1650 kHz range contains the commercial AM broadcast stations, so
when the flight conditions permit, the ADF can be used to listen to news, music etc. The
190 535 kHz frequency range is assigned to the NDB radio beacons. The AM stations
transmit a continuous carrier with either 400 or 1020 Hz modulation. Since they do not
identify themselves frequently enough they are illegal to fly IFR. Commercial broadcast
stations are excellent as VFR homing devices and can often be used hundreds of miles
away. AM stations are often found on aeronautical charts. NDBs may also carry voice
transmissions (TWEBS - weather etc.) which override the identifying code.

The NDB signals are not limited to line-of-sight reception, as are VHF signals. If the
transmitting power is high enough, the NDB signal is usable at low altitudes and great
distances from the station. The ADF system provides reliable navigation at lower
altitudes than VOR equipment.


Airborne Equipment ADF equipment in the aircraft permits L/MF signals to
be received through the antenna, relayed to the ADF receiver where they are processed,
and then sent to the ADF bearing indicator. They are similar in appearance so check with
POH. The antennas use the directional properties of low frequency radio waves to
determine the direction to the selected stations.

ADF Antennas There are two: Directional (or loop) and Sense.
1. Directional (or loop) Antenna is a flat device about the size of your
hand, containing loops of wire that receive radio signals more
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efficiently in one direction than in others. Usually mounted on the
bottom of the aircraft in an all in one unit.
2. Sense Antenna receives signals with equal efficiency in all
directions. By analyzing the signals from both the directional and
sense antenna, the ADF receiver determines the direction to the
transmitting station.

ADF Receiver Normally, you tune and identify the station with the ANT
mode provides max. sensitivity to radio signals. Enter the charted NDB/station
frequency into the receiver, positively identify the station by listening to the Morse Code
Identifier. You may also use the ANT mode to monitor voice transmissions such as
weather broadcasts. The needle of the ADF bearing indicator does not function in this
mode. It must be in the ADF mode. The needle on the bearing indicator will start to
move as it searches for the stations relative position. Once a strong signal from the
station is found, the needle will stop searching and steady itself. If you are in doubt
about the quality of your ADF navigational signal, switch to the ANT mode and then
back to the ADF mode.


NDBs are Grouped in Four Classes:

1. HH Class - beacons transmit with at least 2000 watts of power and have a
range of at least 75 miles. They are normally used for long over water.
2. H Class beacons have a power output of from 50 to 1999 watts and a range
up to 50 miles.
3. MH Class beacons are the most common in the continental US; they have a
power output of less than 50 watts, and a range of 25 miles. Voice
transmissions (TWEB) are made on radio beacons unless the letter W
Without Voice is included in the class designator (MHW).
4. Compass Locator has a power output of less than 25 watts and a range of
15 miles. Compass locators are a part of the Instrument Landing System and
are usually collocated with the outer marker. The class designator is LOM
(Locator Outer Marker) and is the first two letters of the ILS identifier.
EX IJ FK, the LOM identifier will be J F. Compass Locators at the Middle
marker are known as Locator Middle Markers (LMM). Their identifiers are
the last two letters of the localizer identification- FK. All radio beacons except
the compass locators transmit a continuous 3-letter identification in code
except during voice transmissions.


BFO (Beat frequency Oscillator) mode is used for tuning and identifying CW
(Continuous Wave) signals, which are unmodulated compared to normal NDB signals
and AM signals. Within the contiguous U.S., the BFO system usually is not required for
station identification.


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ADF BEARING INDICATORS

Bearing is the horizontal direction from one point to another. It can be measured
clockwise in degrees from any reference point.
Bearing Indicator gives you the horizontal direction, or angle, between your aircraft
and the L/MF station.


3 Types of Bearing Indicators:

1 Fixed-Card The number zero is always at the top, and the numbers around
the 360 degree azimuth card correspond to a stations bearing relative to the
nose of the airplane. Measures Relative Bearing- the angular difference
between the airplanes longitudinal axis and a straight line drawn from the
airplane to the station. This value is measured clockwise from the airplanes
nose.
If you wish to fly to the station, you must add your Magnetic Heading to your Relative
Bearing to determine your Magnetic Bearing to the station.
(Magnetic Heading (MH) + Relative Bearing (RB) = Magnetic Bearing (MB) to the
station. If the total is more than 360 degrees, you will need to subtract 360 degree to find
magnetic bearing to the station.

2. Movable-Card You can rotate the movable-card, so that the airplane
heading is under the top index.

When you set your magnetic heading value under the top index of a movable-card
indicator, the head of the ADF needle will directly indicate magnetic bearing to a station.
The number under the tail of the needle indicates magnetic bearing from the station. To
determine Relative Bearing, turn the knob so 0 degrees is at the top, or subtract the
Magnetic Heading from the Magnetic Bearing to the station. The movable card reduces
your workload since it odes not require you to use the ADF formula to find the Magnetic
Heading.

3. RMI (Radio Magnetic Indicator) Similar to the movable-card indicator
except that it automatically adjusts itself to the present aircraft heading.

Combines a heading indicator with two bearing needles. The RMI usually has a single-
bar and a double-bar needle superimposed over a rotating compass card which is
referenced to Magnetic North. The single-bar usually points to a VOR and the double-
bar points to a L/MF station, on many RMIs each needle can be set to either VOR or an
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L/MF facility. In other words, the RMI as a movable-card ADF on which the card
automatically adjusts itself to the present heading and the head of the needle points to
your Magnetic Bearing to the station.



NAVIGATION PROCEDURES FOR THE ADF WITH A FIXED CARD

Homing A procedure during which you always keep the nose of the aircraft pointing
directly to the station. Simply turn the position of the head of the ADF needle to the
aircrafts nose (0 degrees on a fixed-card indicator).

In a NO-Wind Situation a constant Magnetic Heading will keep the ADF needle
positioned at 0 degrees on the fixed card indicator as you fly inbound to the station.
In a Cross-Wind Situation the wind will cause your aircraft to drift off course, and
you must adjust the Magnetic Heading to keep the nose of the aircraft pointing toward the
station.

Tracking It involves turning a few degrees into the wind to compensate for its effect on
your path over the ground. You determine the exact wind correction angle through
bracketing, and hold the required heading to track the desired bearing to the station.
Once you are established on an inbound course with the proper wind correction, the head
of the ADF needle indicates the wind correction angle and points in the opposite direction
as the correction. The best way to fly TO or FROM a station is in a straight line, which
requires tracking if any crosswind is present. The tracking procedure for an ADF is
similar to the VOR tracking.

Wind Correction Angle (WCA) should equal the number of degrees the ADF needle
points left or right of the aircrafts nose when you are on course and tracking to the
station.

As you pass over the station, the needle tends to fluctuate. Do not chase the needle, since
indications may be erroneous close to the station. When the needle stabilizes at or near
the 180 degree position, you have passed the station. If you do not pass directly over the
facility, station passage occurs when the needle is steady and points to either wingtip
position. While tracking outbound, the wind correction angle should be exactly equal to
the number of degrees the station is located to the left or right of the aircrafts tail. The
tail of the aircraft is the 180 degree position on the fixed-card indicator.

ADF ORIENTATION To locate your position on a chart using the ADF you need to
add 180 degrees to or subtract 180 degrees from the Magnetic Bearing to determine the
reciprocal bearing, which is the bearing from the station. EX: if your Magnetic Bearing
to the station is 90 degrees , the reciprocal bearing is 270 degrees (090 +180 =270). If
your Magnetic Bearing is 210 degrees, the reciprocal is 030 degrees (210 degrees 180
degrees =30 degrees)

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You will have to plot your azimuth with reference to grid lines since a chart depiction of
NDB does not have a compass rose. Grid Lines are referenced to true north so you need
to covert your Magnetic Bearing to a true bearing. When you convert magnetic values to
true values, you add Easterly variation and subtract Westerly variation. Plot your
position on the chart by placing the edge of your plotter on the NDB and rotation it until
the compass rose intersects a line of longitude at the same angle as your true bearing. By
drawing the corresponding line, you have narrowed your position down to some point on
that line. To find your exact location, you can use a second navaid.


INTERCEPTING A COURSE


NDB Approaches offer less course accuracy than other instrument approaches, many
have minimums of 500 foot ceiling and one mile visibility. Terrain clearance on a
straight-in NDB approaches is greater than on VOR approaches with the same structure.

ADF LIMITATION

NDB Reception range for L/MF facilities can vary greatly. Radio Beacons are subject to
disturbances that may result in erroneous bearing information.
1. Depending on transmitter power
2. Atmospheric conditions
Thunderstorm Effect can cause the ADF needle to point to the source
of the lightning flashes rather than the tuned NDB.
Precipitation Static is caused by a buildup of static electricity on an
aircraft flying in rain, snow, or clouds and can interfere with ADF
indications and cause the ADF needle to wander.
Terrain Effect can occur when mountains reflect the radio waves and
cause erroneous bearing indications. In mountainous areas, the signal can
be reflected by irregular terrain or magnetic deposits, which cause erratic
indications. A higher latitude or a stronger station are solutions to this
problem.
Shoreline Effect can refract low frequency radio waves when they cross
at small angles. You can minimize this phenomenon by using stations
where the signals cross the shorelines at angles greater than 30 degrees.
3. Time of Day Around sunrise and sunset, erratic ADF indications may be
noticed at long distances from the station. This is due to the signals being
reflected by the ionosphere. Night Effect is the NDB signal refracted by the
ionosphere and return to earth 30 to 60 miles or more from the station, leading
the ADF needle fluctuations. To minimize the effect, you can average the
fluctuations, fly at a higher altitude, or select a station transmitting on
frequencies lower than 350 kHz, since night effect has little impact on this
portion of the frequency range. At night, radio beacons are vulnerable to
interference from distant stations.
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4. Precession An accurate setting on the heading indicator is essential for
accurate ADF tracking. If the heading indicator precesses 10 degrees then all
your courses and intercepts will be off by that amount. The error will be small
when close to the station but when miles away this could be large distances.
5. Equipment Interference - Unless the alternator of an aircraft is properly
shielded, it may disable the ADF. Improperly installed strobe light systems
and bad ignition harnesses are other sources of ADF interference. A needle
that points to the alternator is not very informative on a tight approach! If you
suspect this, consider turning off the alternator for the few minutes the
approach is in process.


Nearly all the disturbances which affect the ADF bearing also affect the facilitys
identification. Voice, music or erroneous identification may be heard when a steady false
bearing is being displayed. ADFs do not have a flag to warn the pilot when erroneous
bearing information is being received, the pilot should monitor the NDBs identification.

The devices on the trailing edges are Static Dischargers, Static Wicks, or Charge
Dissipaters. They allow the static charge to leak away gradually, preventing large
accumulations and sudden discharges.
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