FIFTY YEARS OF INDIAN DEMOCRACY: AN ASSESSMENT

Author(s): M. V. Naidu
Source: Peace Research, Vol. 30, No. 3 (August 1998), pp. 1-14
Published by: Canadian Mennonite University
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FIFTY YEARS OF INDIAN DEMOCRACY: AN
ASSESSMENT
M. V. Naidu
Political
Science,
Brandon
University
Brandon, Manitoba,
Canada
Introduction
India has
many extraordinary
features: 950 million
people,
spread
over 3.3 million
sq. km;
the world's most
multiracial,
multireligious, multilingual society;
a
past
that includes 150
years
of
imperialistic victimization;
an
origin
in the world's first nonviolent
revolution;
and so on.
India has
enjoyed
50
years
of democratization without civil
wars,
coups, dictatorship
and national
disintegration.
Her sister states
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar
and Sri
Lankathough
much
smaller,
have not.
Most of the countries of
Asia, Africa,
the Middle
East,
Latin
America,
the former Soviet
Union,
and eastern and southern
Europe
have suffered authoritarian
regimes
of one kind or another
during
the
last five decades. Out of the 185 states in the world
today,
India
remains one of the dozen stable democracies.
Defining Democracy
In the
simplest sense, democracy
is a
government of, by
and for
the
people;
it is built
upon
the fundamental values of
equality, liberty
and
fraternity.
The ideal
typology
of
democracy1
consists of the
following
basic elements:
1.
Eligibility:
Citizens'
eligibility
for
legislative,
executive and
judicial
roles on the basis of
equality
and non-discrimination.
2. Elections:
Implies
universal adult
franchise,
free and fair
elections at
regular
intervals
(2-5 years),
the non-nullification
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of
elections,
and at least 50
years
of
continuity
within an
electoral
system.
3.
Accountability:
Government accountable to the
legislature,
to
the
courts,
to the
press
and to the
people.
4. Freedom: Personal
freedomsright
to
life, security,
move
ment, speech, thought,
association and
assembly.
Economic
rightsto food, land, housing, employment
and decent income.
Political
rightsto vote,
to
candidacy,
to
political parties,
to
protest
or election
campaigns,
and to a free
press.
5. Rule
of
Law:
Non-arbitrary administration;
independent
and
approachable judiciary.
6. Civilian
Supremacy: Non-politicization
of the
military
and its
subordination to the civil
authority;
absence of civil
war;
avoidance of
military coups.
7. Rationalism and Pluralism:2 State and
political policies
of
secularism, multiculturalism,
and mutual tolerance.
8. Nonviolence: Avoidance of
violencephysical,
structural and
cultural; peaceful
settlement of
disputes
in
politics,
in the
community
and in the
family.
9. Stabilized
democracy:
A minimum of 50
years
of
uninterrup
ted and stabilized
political system
based on the above factors.
Threats to
Democracy
The most common
negative
forces that threaten a nation's
territorial
integrity
and
democracy
are the
following:
1. Mass
hunger
and
abject poverty
7.
Ethnic-linguistic
rivalries
2.
Exploitative
feudalism 8.
Separatist
violence
3. Crises of industrialization 9. Communist terrorism
4. Militarization and militarism 10. Fascist authoritarianism
5.
Religious bigotry
11. Politicization of the
militaiy
6. Racial/caste hatreds 12.
Foreign
interventioncold war
and
proxy
war
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Indian
Democracy
"Democracy"
has been one of the most misused terms. Even anti
democratic communist and fascist
systems
have called themselves
democracies. The Soviet Union called itself a
proletarian democracy.
Communist East
European
states were labeled
Peoples'
Democracies.
Mao named his Chinese
dictatorship
"The New
Democracy."
Dictator
Sukarno of Indonesia called his
regime "guided democracy."
Gen.
Ayub
Khan tried to hide his
military regime
under the cloak of "Basic
Democracy."
The Zionist
theocracy
of Israel claims to be a true
democracy.
The South African
apartheid system
called itself a
Christian
democracy.
Until
1975, Portugal
under
Salazar,
and until
1978, Spain
under
Franco,
were fascist
dictatorships. Democracy
was
imposed
on
Germany, Italy
and
Japan
after their defeat in 1945. Greece became a
republic
in 1975.
Turkey
has
periodically experienced military
rule
during
the last five decades.
Pakistan, Bangladesh
and
Myanmar
have
had
military coups
and
military regimes.
Pakistan broke
up through
civil
war;
civil war in Sri Lanka
may
lead to the same result.
In
contrast, India,
since its
independence
in
1947,
did not
generate
civil
wars, military coups, military regimes
or territorial
disintegration.
Rule of law has been maintained
through
non
discriminatory legislation
and
administration,
and
through guarantees
like habeas
corpus, justiciable rights,
etc.
Lapses
in this are under
constant
scrutiny
of the
independent
and activist
judiciary,
the
vigilant
free
press
and the unhindered
opposition parties.
The Indian secular
state
guarantees
to its citizens freedom of
religion
without
imposing
and
sponsoring
one
particular religion.3 Linguistic rights
have been
protected through
constitutional and
political provisions.
India was
the first
country
in modern times to
provide
in the constitution
special
provisions,
which we have now come to call affirmative action
programs,
with
respect
to the so-called backward
classes,
scheduled
castes and tribes.4 The
special provisions
include reservation of seats
in the
legislatures,
in the educational
institutions,
in
employment
opportunities
and
training,
and so on. A constitutional amendment
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now under
contemplation
will
guarantee
women 30% of the seats in
the
legislatures.
In
spite
of
strong opposition,
within and without the
country,
the
Indian Constituent
Assembly adopted
universal adult
franchise,
which
is now available at the
age
of 18
years.
The electorate now consists of
600 million voters. All kinds of restrictions on
voting
and
candidacy,
based on
race, religion, language, sex, class, caste,
education and
wealth,
that were
promulgated
in the Western democracies at different
times,
were
completely rejected
in India
right
from the
beginning.
Elections held at
regular
intervals have been free and fair.
During
the
last 50
years,
12 national
elections,
some 300
state/regional elections,
and 250
by-elections
have been held. On an
average
there has been
one election
every
six months.5 In the recent
February
1998 national
elections,
some 400 million citizen voted to choose 543 MPs out of
6,000
candidates
put up by
443
political parties
and some
independents.6
Elected
governments
have been answerable to the
legislatures
(resigning upon
no-confidence
motion),
to the electorate
(by seeking
a
regular mandate),
to the courts
(that pronounce
on electoral results
and officials' conduct and exercise
judicial
review of the executive
actions and the
legislative enactments, etc.),
and to the
public
at
large
(responding
to
protests, petitions
and the
press).
Challenges
to Indian
Democracy
Most states in the world have faced the
challenges
listed
above,
and
many
have succumbed to them. These factors are
life-threatening
to
democracy.
India has also faced these
challenges,
but has
managed
to overcome them. How?
1.
Poverty:
When the British left India after 150
years
of colonial
exploitation,
the
country
was in a shambles
politically
and
economically.
At
independence
India's national income was $26
billion.7 After 40
years
of
independence
the national income went
up
almost 40 times to $773 billion.8
During
1900-46 the national income
rose
by
0.8%.9 Between 1950 and 1990 India achieved an annual
growth
rate of 3.9%.10
During
1947-50 Indian food
production
was
only
50 million tons.11
By 1990,
it rose to 170 million tons.12
By
1984
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Indian became a net
exporter
of food. All this economic
growth
was
achieved
peacefully
within the framework of
democracy.
2. Feudalism: Violent revolutions to end
feudalism,
and counter
revolutions to defend
it,
constitute the bloodiest
chapter
of human
history.
India has the
unique
distinction of
being
the
only country
in
the world that has abolished a centuries-old feudal
system through
democratic methods without bloodshed. The three factors that
helped
the
peaceful
end of feudalism
were(a) Bhoodan; (b) legislation;
and
(c) voting right.
Vinoba
Bhave,
a
disciple
of
Gandhi, through
the
Bhoodan
Movement,
or
land-gift movement,
collected five million
acres of land from
100,000
donors
by appealing
to the conscience and
morality
of the landowners.13 Bhoodan
prepared
the
society
psychologically; thereupon
the
legislatures
introduced land reforms
politically,
and transferred millions of acres to the landless
peasantry.
Exercising
franchise,
the
peasant quickly
realized the
power
of the
vote.
Equipped
with economic and
political power,
the communist
guerrillas
abandoned violence and became
participants
in
democracy.
3. Industrialization: Industrialization
everywhere
has been the
product
of the
following
factors that cause
suffering
and that are
antithetical to
democracy: exploitative colonialism;
dehumanized
science-technology;
militarization; wars; thought control; ideologies
based on
race, religion
or
jingoism;
and authoritarian state.14 In the
West
full-fledged
democratization15 came after 100-150
years
of
industrialization,
while industrialized communist and fascist states
only
democratized in name.
India is the first
country
to combine
full-fledged democracy
with
industrialization
right
from the
beginning.
So far this
unique
experiment
has
proven
successful. Under British
rule,
the industrial
base of India was
only
5% of the
GNP; by
1980 industries were
contributing
29% of the GNP.16 The
growth
rate of industrial
production during
the 1950s was
6.7%;17 by
1990 the
growth
rate had
reached 8 .5%.18 Within 50
years
India has become one of the 20 most
industrialized countries in the
world,
without
sacrificing democracy.
4. Militarization: In the
developed
countries industrialization and
militarization have
gone
hand in hand. Militarization is rationalized
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through
militarism
(jingoism),
and vice versa.19 Both lead to wars
domestic and
foreignand
authoritarian
regimes.
Soon after its
formation,
Pakistan invoked
militarism,
resorted to
militarization,
established dictatorial
regimes, joined
American
military alliances,20
and then
waged
three wars on India21 and
intervened in the civil war of
Afghanistan.22
In
spite
of
being
drawn into four
wars,
India refused to
join
military alliances,
or to introduce
conscription,
or to
sponsor
war
hysteria
or to
give big
boosts to its
military budgets. During
1947-61
Indian
military expenditures
declined. After the Chinese
invasion,
the
defence
budget averaged
3-4% of the
GNP,
which was then half of
the world
average
of 7%.23 In 1987 the defence
budget
was 3.9% of
the
GNP,
while the world
average
was 5.1%.24
Overemphasis
on militarization and militarism are
always
antithetical to
democracy,
as vindicated
by
Pakistan.
Avoiding
such
emphasis,
India has been able to maintain its
democracy
for the last
50
years.
5.
Religious Bigotry: Religious bigotry
has been
responsible
for the
highest
bloodshed in human
history. Religionism
combined with
militarization and
jingoism generates
an authoritarian theocratic
state,
which
is, by definition,
anti-democratic.
India has chosen to set
up
a secular state that builds a wall
between state and
religion.25
Pakistan created the theocratic state.
While Islamic Pakistan had four
military coups26
and a number of
unelected
governments
or authoritarian
regimes,
and it broke down
into two
pieces,
secular India has maintained its territorial
integrity
and its
democracy,
even
though
its Muslim
population
is the second
biggest
in the world after Indonesia. Periodic
appearances
of
religious
fundamentalist
groups
and
religious
riots have not
impaired
Indian
secularism.
6. Racial/Caste Hatreds: Like
religionism,
racism has
always
left
behind it a trail of atrocities and
inhumanity.
As a
country composed
of all the
major
races of the
world,
India never had had the
problem
of
racism as
prevalent
in South
Africa, Britain, Australia,
New Zealand
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and the United States.
However, sharing
certain features of
racism,
casteism, especially
in the form of
untouchability,
has had a
tragic
impact
on the Indian
society.
The Indian Constitution has abolished
untouchability.27
Gandhi
and Nehru
campaigned against
it for 30
years.
Public
education, legal
protection,
a free
press
and affirmative action
programs
have
improved
the situation of
women,
and the lower castes and the tribal
groups.28 Though
its social and cultural
stigmas
have
greatly
atrophied,
the caste now stands
politicized
in terms of
vote,
candidacy, party
and elections.
7.
Ethnic-Linguistic
Rivalries: While racism is based on
physiologi
cal
features,
ethnicism is based on
cultural, religious
and
linguistic
loyalties.
The
contemporary
world is saturated with ethnic conflicts.
Indian
democracy
faced and solved the
ethnic-linguistic
crises
through political,
electoral and constitutional accommodations. The
most dramatic measure was the wholesale
redrawings
of the
map
of
India to create states on
ethnic-linguistic
lines.29 India now has 25
such states.
Out of the 1652
languages
of
India,
the constitution
recognizes
15
major languages,30
while
maintaining
Hindi and
English
as the two
official
languages.31
Six million
refugees
entered Indian from
Pakistan,
10 million
from East
Pakistan,32 100,000
from
Tibet,
thousands from
Myanmar,
Nepal,
Sri
Lanka, Uganda, Fiji,
etc. These
refugees, along
with the
people
of the 562 Indian
princely
states that were
integrated
into
India,33 represented
various
religious,
ethnic and
linguistic groups.
They
were
peacefully
absorbed into Indian
society
without
causing
any disruption.
On the other
hand,
the Indian Muslims who
migrated
to Pakistan in 1947 are still called
muhajirs (refugees)
and are still
being
treated as such.
Minority representatives
and women have held
important
positions
in Indiaas
presidents, prime ministers,
chief
ministers,
cabinet
ministers, mayors
and so on. Out of ten
presidents
of India
elected until
1996,
three were
Muslims,
and one
Sikh;34
the
present
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president,
K.R.
Narayanan,
comes from the
Harijan (untouchable)
class. Sikhs constitute
only 2%,
Muslims
only
11% and
Harijans
25%
of the Indian
population.
8.
Separatist
Violence:
Separatism
or secessionism has caused
territorial
disintegration
and human deaths in
many
states in the
world. The most violent
examples
of
separatism
have occurred in
Katanga, Biafra, Eritrea, Sudan,
Northern
Ireland,
the former
Yugoslavia, Chechnya,
Sri
Lanka,
East
Pakistan,
and so on.
India also faced
separatist
movements in the
south,
the
northeast,
the
Punjab
and Kashmir.35 But
through
constitutional
changes,
political
accommodations and electoral
settlement, separatism
has
been defeated or
atrophied,
even
though China, Pakistan,
and some
Christian missionaries have not
stopped aiding
and
abetting
the
separatists.
While India as a subcontinent has remained
united,
the
much smaller state of Pakistan has broken
up
and the little island of
Sri Lanka is
facing
a similar fate.
9. Communist Terrorism: Communists were successful in
exploiting
peasant
frustrations and workers'
poverty,
and in
launching guerrilla
movements and civil wars in
many
Third World countries like
China,
Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Indonesia, Ethiopia, Angola, Cuba,
Nicaragua,
and so on.
Indian communists tried to raise Maoist
types
of
peasant
guerrilla
movements in Indiain the districts of
Telangana
in the
1950s,
and in Naxalbari in the 1970s. But these movements fizzled
out. Distribution of land
among
the landless and the award of
voting
rights
to all have led the
peasantry
to an abandonment of the
communist
guerrilla
movements.
10. Fascist Authoritarianism: Fascism rises on the foundations of
irrationalism, dogmatism, intolerance,
hate and militarism. Fascist
parties
and leaders in
Germany, Italy, Japan, Spain
and
Portugal
established authoritarianism in the name of
anti-communism,
anti
liberalism, religionism,
racism or
jingoism.
While Fascist
type groups
and leaders have
played key
roles in Pakistan and
Bangladesh,
the
Indian
political parties
under
Gandhi,
Nehru and others never
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espoused authoritarianism, racism, religionism
or
jingoism.
So far the
Indian democratic environment has remained antithetical to fascism.
11. Politicization
of
the
Military:
A
political
movement
may
involve
the
military
in a revolution or a
counter-revolution,
or it
may stage
a
coup
d'tat. The armed forces become
politicized
when
they usurp
political policy-making,
the administration of
courts, bureaucracy,
the
economy
and
diplomacy,
and conduct elections. Such
politicization
is
destined to create a
dictatorshipmilitary
or civilian. Once
bullets,
tanks and soldiers become the instruments of
politics
or social
change,
neither
political stability
nor
genuine democracy
can
survive,
as has
been shown in the cases of
Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar,
Sri
Lanka,
and all other
dictatorships
around the world.
In
spite
of all kinds of
challenges,
India has remained steadfast
against
the
politicization
of the armed forces. Civilian
supremacy,
the
cornerstone of
democracy,
has remained
supreme
in the Indian
polity.
12.
Foreign
Interventions:
Foreign
interventions
through weapons,
armed
forces, military alliances, military
and economic
aid,
ideologies, propaganda
and
diplomatic intrigues,
have
constantly
disrupted democracies,
have
encouraged dictatorships,
and have
sponsored
civil wars and
neighborhood
wars. In the
postwar
era the
two most
disruptive foreign
interventions were in the forms of the
Cold War and the
"proxy
war."36
Joining
the
American-sponsored military
alliances of CENTO
and
SEATO,
Pakistan received American
military aid,
succumbed to
military coups
and
waged
civil wars.
Refusing
to
join
the Cold
War,
India enunciated its own
policy
of
nonalignment
which both the blocs
attacked,
both
ideologically
and
militarily.37
John Dulles called
nonalignment
a "sin
against
God"
;
communists called Gandhi and
Nehru "the
lap dogs
of
imperialism."
Communist China
aggressed
on
India in
1962,
while Pakistan invaded India three
times,
and also
acted as the
proxy
for the American attack on
nonalignment. Aligned
with the
West,
Pakistan suffered national
disintegration
and set
up
a
series of
dictatorships,
both
military
and civilian.
Adhering
to
nonalignment,
India reinforced its territorial
integrity
and its
democracy.
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Conclusion
How can one assess the overall success of Indian
democracy,
which is now 50
years
old?
Irrespective
of all its
accomplishments
discussed
above,
one
may
point
out that
unemployment
and
poverty
have been reduced but not
eliminated.
Religious riots,
however
occasional,
still
challenge
India's
commitment to secularism. The
separatism
of Muslim fundamentalists
in Kashmir has not been removed
altogether.
Administrative and
political corruption
continue to slow down socio-economic
progress.
The
deep-seated
hatred of Pakistan
against
India has not been
neutralized. China's
aggressive designs
have not been vacated.
But how much more could have been
accomplished
within 50
years by
a multicultural
society
of 950 million
people,
and without
abandoning democracy
and without
military coups
or
dictatorships?
In terms of
population,
India is
equivalent
to three
Europes
or 36
Caadas. In terms of
territory
India is about the size of
Europe.
But in
terms of
races, religions, languages,
cultures and
history,
India is
much more
pluralistic
and
complicated
than either Canada or
Europe.
The
management
of such a
gigantic entity,
without
military
conflicts
and territorial
breakups,
is a Herculean task. To
organize,
run and
maintain such a
gigantic democracy
is
nothing
short of a miracle.
Among
the Afro-Asian countries that became
independent
at the
same time as
India,
India remains
unique
in its adherence to
democracy. Further,
a historical
survey
of the United
States, France,
the Soviet Union and Communist China shows that the
promises
of
democracy
that their
respective
revolutions made were
totally
abandoned in favor of
"reign
of terror"
during
the first 50
years
of
their
post-revolution phase.38
Through
its nonviolent revolution and
democratization,
India has
made a
unique
contribution to human
history,
however
unrecognized
this contribution has remained!
10
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NOTES
1. For a
concept
of the ideal
democracy
see M.V.
Naidu,
"The
Eight
Fundamentals of
Democracy:
A Gandhian
Analysis,"
in
Legacy
and
Future
of
Nonviolence,
eds. Mahendra Kumar and Peter Low
(New
Delhi:
Gandhi Peace
Foundation, 1996), p.
31-87.
2.
By
rationalism I mean
seeking knowledge
and truth
through
the use of
the
thinking faculty
that involves the use of the five senses
plus reasoning,
logic
and facts. Thus rational truths are not
theological
or
mystical
beliefs
based on blind faith. See M.V.
Naidu,
Dimensions
of
Peace
(Oakville,
Ontario: M.I.T.A.
Press, 1996), p.
65-67.
Pluralism,
as
opposed
to
monism, acknowledges many approaches
to
and
concepts
of truth. Pluralism
implies
human
equality,
freedom of
thought
and mutual toleration. Multiculturalism is one reflection of
pluralism.
3. The Preamble of the Indian Constitution
promises
"to secure to all its
citizens. . . .
Liberty
of
thought, expression, belief,
faith and
worship.
. . ."
See Constitution
of
India
(Lucknow,
India: Easter Book
Co., 1981), p. 1,
9-10.
4. The Indian
Constitution,
under Part XV
(Articles 330-342),
makes
"Special
Provisions
Relating
to certain classes" like
Harijans,
"Backward
Classes,"
"Scheduled Castes and Tribes" and
"Anglo-Indians."
See
Constitution
of India, op. cit, p.
116-121.
5. Tarun
Basu, "Frequent
elections a boon to
democracy,"
India Abroad
(Weekly),
Canadian
edition,
6
April 1996, p. 6,
and 12
April 1996, p.
9.
6. See India Abroad
(Weekly),
Canadian
edition,
13
February 1998, p. 1,
3-4.
7. See India 1965
(New
Delhi:
Ministry
of Information and
Broadcasting,
Government of
India, 1965), p.
145.
8. See India 1990
(New
Delhi:
Ministry
of Information and
Broadcasting,
Government of
India, 1990) p.
304.
9. See Subrata K. Mitra in Gabriel Almond and
Bingham Powell,
Comparative
Politics
Today (New
York:
Harper Collins, 1996), p.
715
718.
10. See Robert L.
Hardgrave
and
Stanley Kochanek,
India: Government
and Politics in a
Developing
Nation
(U.S.A.:
Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich,
1986), p.
383.
11
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11. See Subrata
Mitra, op.
cit.
12.
Hardgrave
and
Kochanek, op. cit., p.
376.
13. See Mark
Shepard,
Gandhi
Today (Arcato,
Calif.:
Simple Productions,
1987), p.
21.
14. SeeM.V.
Naidu,
Dimensions
of
Peace,
op. cit., p.
217-235.
15.
By full-fledged democracy
I mean universal adult
franchise;
universal
eligibility
for
government offices; government answerability
to the
legislature,
the
judiciary,
the
press
and the
people;
full freedoms for
individuals, courts, political parties
and the
press.
16. See Subrata
Mitra, op.
cit.
17.
Hardgrave
and
Kochanek, op. cit., p.
381.
18.
Ibid., p.
382.
19. While militarization refers to the measures and the
processes
of
building up military
forces and
power,
militarism
represents
the value
system
and the
psychology
that believes that
military power
and war are
the
necessary
and the best instruments for
settling
all
disputes.
Militarism
and militarization feed on each other. See M.V.
Naidu, War,
Security,
Peace
(Oakville,
Ontario. M.I.T.A.
Press, 1996), p.
113-122.
20. In 1954 Pakistan
joined
the Southeast Asia
Treaty Organization
(SEATO),
and 1955 it
joined
the
Baghdad Pact,
later renamed the Central
Treaty Organization (CENTO),
both
sponsored by
the United States as
anti-Communist alliances. See M.V.
Naidu, War,
Security,
Peace,
op.
cit.,
p. 172-177, p.
201-208.
21. Pakistan
aggressed
on Kashmir in
1949;
it attacked the Rann of Kutch
on the Indian west
coast;
it launched a
blitzkrieg
on western India in 1972
in order to distract world attention from its
genocide
in East Pakistan.
22. Pakistan became a
proxy
for
fighting
the American anti-Communist
war in
Afghanistan. Recently
Pakistan
trained,
armed and directed the
Muslim fundamentalist Taliban
movement,
which is still
engaged
as a
party
in the
Afghan
civil war.
23. See Subrata
Mitra, op.
cit.
24. See Ruth
Sivard,
World
Military
and Social
Expenditures
1991
(Washington,
D.C.: World
Priorities, 1991), p.
54.
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25.
Declaring
a secular
democracy
in
India,
the Preamble of the Indian
Constitution
promises
"to secure to all its citizens. . . .
Liberty
of
thought,
expression, belief,
faith and
worship.
. . ." See Constitution
of
India,
op.
cit., p. 1,
9-10.
26. The four
military coups wereby
Gen. Iskander Mirza
(1958); by
Gen.
Ayub
Khan
(1958);
Gen.
Yahya
Khan
(1969);
and Gen.
Ziaul-Haq (1977).
27. Article 17 of the Indian Constitution abolished
"Untouchability."
Other
provisions
buttress Article 17 in various
guarantees
and affirmative action
steps
under Articles
15, 19, 25, 29, 46, 164, 244, 330, 332, 334, 335,
338
and the Fifth and Sixth Schedules. See India
1965,
op. cit., p.
118. Laws
have been
passed
to
operationalize
the constitutional
provisions, e.g.,
the
Untouchability (offenses)
Act of
1955,
amended in 1976 and retitled as
Protection of Civil
Rights
Act
(1955).
See India
1990, p.
234-235.
28. The Indian
Constitution,
under Part XV
(Articles 330-342),
makes
"Special
Provisions
Relating
to Certain Classes" like
Harijan,
"Backward
Classes,"
"Scheduled Castes and
Tribes,"
and
"Anglo-Indians."
See
Constitution
of India, op.
cit.,
p.
116-121.
29. See
Hardgrave
and
Kochanek, op.
cit.,
p.
123-133.
30.
Eighth
Schedule. See Constitution
of
India.,
op.
cit.
31. Article
343,
ibid.
32. See
Hardgrave
and
Kochanek, op.
cit.,
p. 51-52,
208.
33. See V.P.
Menon,
The
Study of
the
Integration of
the Indian States
(Bombay: Longman, 1956).
34. Zakir Hussain
(1967-69);
M.
Hidayatullah (1969);
Fakhruddin Ali
Ahmed
(1974-77);
Giani Zail
Singh (1982-87).
35. Most of the Sikh
separatist
terrorist forces in the
Punjab
have now been
brought
back into the electoral
processes.
See India
Today,
15
April 1996,
p.
42-44,
and 30
April
1996, p.
42.
Similarly, many
of the Muslim fundamentalist
separatists
in Kashmir
have also abandoned their terrorism and have
participated
in the
May
1996
and November 1998 elections. For statements of the leaders of Al-Fateh
and Muslim
Mujahideen,
see India
Abroad,
12
April 1996, p.
10.
36. Since 1945 there have been no direct wars between the Western
powers
or between the Cold War blocs.
However,
there have been 250 wars in
which 40 million
people
have been
killed,
all in the Third World. These
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wars were aided and abetted
by
the Western
capitalist
and the Communist
powers.
See Nicholl
Ball,
"Demilitarization of the Third
World,"
in World
Security,
eds. Michael Klare and Daniel Thomas
(New
York: St. Martin's
Press, 1994), p.
216-217.
37. Mao
Tse-tung (1949):
"One either leans to the side of
imperialism
or to
the side of socialism.
Neutrality
is a mere
camouflage
and a third
way
does
not exist." See A
Democracy History of
Chinese Communism
(Harvard
University Press, 1952), p.
453-454. John
Kennedy (1960):
the Cold War
is "a
struggle
for
supremacy
between
conflicting ideologies:
Freedom and
God versus ruthless
godless tyranny."
See Cold War and Counter
Revolution
(Baltimore,
Md.:
Penguin, 1972), p.
9.
38. See M.V.
Naidu,
"The Gandhian Revolution and the Indian
Democracy,"
a
paper presented
at the International
Symposium
on
Mahatma Gandhi held in
Calgary (Canada)
14-15 November 1997.
Radiation
Experiment
Case Settled
The
Quaker
Oats
company
and the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT)
have
agreed
to
pay
$1.85 million to 30 victims of
radiation
experiments they
conducted in the 1940s and '50s. About
130
developmentally
disabled
boys
who were wards of the state at the
Fernald School in
Waltham, MA, U.S.A.,
were
poisoned
with cereal
contaminated with radioactive iron and calcium "to
prove
that
nutrients in
Quaker
oatmeal" travel
throughout
the
body. Quaker
Oats
paid
for the
study
and donated the
cereal,
while MIT committed the
crimes. None of the scientists were named or indicted. MIT dared to
say
that the
boys' exposure
was "about
equal"
to the natural
background
radiation to which
people
are
exposed every year. [This
often heard
palliative
obscures the fact that
ingested
radiation doses
are far more harmful than external
doses.]
[New
York Times & The
Washington
Post,
January 1, 1998.]
14
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