They and How Do They Work? Chapter Overview Questions What is ecology? What basic processes keep us and other organisms alive? What are the major components of an ecosystem? What happens to energy in an ecosystem? What are soils and how are they formed? What happens to matter in an ecosystem? How do scientists study ecosystems? Updates Online The latest references for topics covered in this section can be found at the book companion website. Log in to the books e-resources page at www.thomsonedu.com to access InfoTrac articles.
InfoTrac: Rescuers race to save Central American frogs. Blade (Toledo, OH), August 6, 2006. InfoTrac: Climate change puts national parks at risk. Philadelphia Inquirer, July 13, 2006. InfoTrac: Deep-Spied Fish: Atlantic Expeditions Uncover Secret Sex Life of Deep-Sea Nomads. Ascribe Higher Education News Service, Feb 21, 2006. Environmental Tipping Points NatureServe: Ecosystem Mapping U.S. Bureau of Land Management: Soil Biological Communities Core Case Study: Have You Thanked the Insects Today? Many plant species depend on insects for pollination. Insect can control other pest insects by eating them Figure 3-1 Core Case Study: Have You Thanked the Insects Today? if all insects disappeared, humanity probably could not last more than a few months [E.O. Wilson, Biodiversity expert]. Insects role in nature is part of the larger biological community in which they live. THE NATURE OF ECOLOGY Ecology is a study of connections in nature. How organisms interact with one another and with their nonliving environment. Figure 3-2 Fig. 3-2, p. 51 Communities Subatomic Particles Atoms Molecules Protoplasm Cells Tissues Organs Organ systems Organisms Populations Populations Communities Ecosystems Biosphere Earth Planets Solar systems Galaxies Universe Organisms Realm of ecology Ecosystems Biosphere Organisms and Species Organisms, the different forms of life on earth, can be classified into different species based on certain characteristics. Figure 3-3 Fig. 3-3, p. 52 Insects 751,000 Other animals 281,000 Fungi 69,000 Prokaryotes 4,800 Plants 248,400 Protists 57,700 Known species 1,412,000 Case Study: Which Species Run the World? Multitudes of tiny microbes such as bacteria, protozoa, fungi, and yeast help keep us alive. Harmful microbes are the minority. Soil bacteria convert nitrogen gas to a usable form for plants. They help produce foods (bread, cheese, yogurt, beer, wine). 90% of all living mass. Helps purify water, provide oxygen, breakdown waste. Lives beneficially in your body (intestines, nose). Populations, Communities, and Ecosystems Members of a species interact in groups called populations. Populations of different species living and interacting in an area form a community. A community interacting with its physical environment of matter and energy is an ecosystem. Populations A population is a group of interacting individuals of the same species occupying a specific area. The space an individual or population normally occupies is its habitat. Figure 3-4 Populations Genetic diversity In most natural populations individuals vary slightly in their genetic makeup.
Figure 3-5 THE EARTHS LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEMS The biosphere consists of several physical layers that contain: Air Water Soil Minerals Life Figure 3-6 Fig. 3-6, p. 54 Lithosphere (crust, top of upper mantle) Rock Soil Vegetation and animals Atmosphere Oceanic Crust Continental Crust Lithosphere Upper mantle Asthenosphere Lower mantle Mantle Core Biosphere Crust Crust (soil and rock) Biosphere (living and dead organisms) Hydrosphere (water) Atmosphere (air) Biosphere Atmosphere Membrane of air around the planet. Stratosphere Lower portion contains ozone to filter out most of the suns harmful UV radiation. Hydrosphere All the earths water: liquid, ice, water vapor Lithosphere The earths crust and upper mantle. What Sustains Life on Earth? Solar energy, the cycling of matter, and gravity sustain the earths life. Figure 3-7 Fig. 3-7, p. 55 Nitrogen cycle Biosphere Heat in the environment Heat Heat Heat Phosphorus cycle Carbon cycle Oxygen cycle Water cycle What Happens to Solar Energy Reaching the Earth? Solar energy flowing through the biosphere warms the atmosphere, evaporates and recycles water, generates winds and supports plant growth. Figure 3-8 Fig. 3-8, p. 55 Absorbed by ozone Visible Light Absorbed by the earth Greenhouse effect UV radiation Solar radiation Energy in = Energy out Reflected by atmosphere (34% ) Radiated by atmosphere as heat (66%) Heat radiated by the earth Heat Troposphere Lower Stratosphere (ozone layer) ECOSYSTEM COMPONENTS Life exists on land systems called biomes and in freshwater and ocean aquatic life zones. Figure 3-9 Fig. 3-9, p. 56 100125 cm (4050 in.) Coastal mountain ranges Sierra Nevada Mountains Great American Desert Coastal chaparral and scrub Coniferous forest Desert Coniferous forest Prairie grassland Deciduous forest 1,500 m (5,000 ft.) 3,000 m (10,000 ft.) 4,600 m (15,000 ft.) Average annual precipitation Mississippi River Valley Appalachian Mountains Great Plains Rocky Mountains below 25 cm (010 in.) 2550 cm (1020 in.) 5075 cm (2030 in.) 75100 cm (3040 in.) Nonliving and Living Components of Ecosystems Ecosystems consist of nonliving (abiotic) and living (biotic) components. Figure 3-10 Fig. 3-10, p. 57 Sun Oxygen (O 2 ) Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) Secondary consumer (fox) Soil decomposers Primary consumer (rabbit) Precipitation Falling leaves and twigs Producer Producers Water Factors That Limit Population Growth Availability of matter and energy resources can limit the number of organisms in a population. Figure 3-11 Fig. 3-11, p. 58 Zone of intolerance Optimum range Zone of physiological stress Zone of physiological stress Zone of intolerance Temperature Low High No organisms Few organisms Upper limit of tolerance P o p u l a t i o n
s i z e
Abundance of organisms Few organisms No organisms Lower limit of tolerance Factors That Limit Population Growth The physical conditions of the environment can limit the distribution of a species. Figure 3-12 Fig. 3-12, p. 58 Sugar Maple Producers: Basic Source of All Food Most producers capture sunlight to produce carbohydrates by photosynthesis:
Producers: Basic Source of All Food Chemosynthesis: Some organisms such as deep ocean bacteria draw energy from hydrothermal vents and produce carbohydrates from hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S) gas . Photosynthesis: A Closer Look Chlorophyll molecules in the chloroplasts of plant cells absorb solar energy. This initiates a complex series of chemical reactions in which carbon dioxide and water are converted to sugars and oxygen. Figure 3-A Fig. 3-A, p. 59 Sun Chloroplast in leaf cell Light-dependent Reaction Light- independent reaction Chlorophyll Energy storage and release (ATP/ADP) Glucose H 2 O Sunlight O 2
CO 2
6CO 2 + 6 H 2 O C 6 H 12 O 6 +
6 O 2 Consumers: Eating and Recycling to Survive Consumers (heterotrophs) get their food by eating or breaking down all or parts of other organisms or their remains. Herbivores Primary consumers that eat producers Carnivores Primary consumers eat primary consumers Third and higher level consumers: carnivores that eat carnivores. Omnivores Feed on both plant and animals. Decomposers and Detrivores Decomposers: Recycle nutrients in ecosystems. Detrivores: Insects or other scavengers that feed on wastes or dead bodies. Figure 3-13 Fig. 3-13, p. 61 Scavengers Powder broken down by decomposers into plant nutrients in soil Bark beetle engraving Decomposers Long- horned beetle holes Carpenter ant galleries Termite and carpenter ant work Dry rot fungus Wood reduced to powder Mushroom Time progression Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration: Getting Energy for Survival Organisms break down carbohydrates and other organic compounds in their cells to obtain the energy they need. This is usually done through aerobic respiration. The opposite of photosynthesis Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration: Getting Energy for Survival Anaerobic respiration or fermentation: Some decomposers get energy by breaking down glucose (or other organic compounds) in the absence of oxygen. The end products vary based on the chemical reaction: Methane gas Ethyl alcohol Acetic acid Hydrogen sulfide Two Secrets of Survival: Energy Flow and Matter Recycle An ecosystem survives by a combination of energy flow and matter recycling. Figure 3-14 Fig. 3-14, p. 61 Abiotic chemicals (carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen, minerals) Heat Heat Heat Heat Heat Solar energy Consumers (herbivores, carnivores) Producers (plants) Decomposers (bacteria, fungi) BIODIVERSITY Figure 3-15 Biodiversity Loss and Species Extinction: Remember HIPPO H for habitat destruction and degradation I for invasive species P for pollution P for human population growth O for overexploitation Why Should We Care About Biodiversity? Biodiversity provides us with: Natural Resources (food water, wood, energy, and medicines) Natural Services (air and water purification, soil fertility, waste disposal, pest control) Aesthetic pleasure Solutions Goals, strategies and tactics for protecting biodiversity. Figure 3-16 Fig. 3-16, p. 63 The Ecosystem Approach Protect populations of species in their natural habitats Goal The Species Approach Goal Protect species from premature extinction Preserve sufficient areas of habitats in different biomes and aquatic systems Strategy Tactics Protect habitat areas through private purchase or government action Eliminate or reduce populations of nonnative species from protected areas Manage protected areas to sustain native species Restore degraded ecosystems Tactics Legally protect endangered species Manage habitat Propagate endangered species in captivity Reintroduce species into suitable habitats Strategies Identify endangered species Protect their critical habitats ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS Food chains and webs show how eaters, the eaten, and the decomposed are connected to one another in an ecosystem. Figure 3-17