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Biyani's Think Tank
Concept based notes
Analog Communication
(B.Tech Vth Sem, EC)


Mukul Sharma
Asst. Professor (EC)
Deptt. of Engineering
Biyani International Institute of Engineering and Technology




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Published by :
Think Tanks
Biyani Group of Colleges


Concept & Copyright :
Biyani Shikshan Samiti
Sector-3, Vidhyadhar Nagar,
Jaipur-302 023 (Rajasthan)
Ph : 0141-2338371, 2338591-95 Fax : 0141-2338007
E-mail : acad@biyanicolleges.org
Website :www.gurukpo.com; www.biyanicolleges.org

Edition : 2011







Leaser Type Setted by:
Biyani College Printing Department
While every effort is taken to avoid errors or omissions in this Publication, any mistake or
omission that may have crept in is not intentional. It may be taken note of that neither the
publisher nor the author will be responsible for any damage or loss of any kind arising to
anyone in any manner on account of such errors and omissions.
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Preface

I am glad to present this book, especially designed to serve the needs of the students. The
book has been written keeping in mind the general weakness in understanding the fundamental
concepts of the topics. The book is self-explanatory and adopts the Teach Yourself style. It is
based on question-answer pattern. The language of book is quite easy and understandable
based on scientific approach.
Any further improvement in the contents of the book by making corrections, omission and
inclusion is keen to be achieved based on suggestions from the readers for which the author
shall be obliged.
I acknowledge special thanks to Mr. Rajeev Biyani, Chairman & Dr. Sanjay Biyani, Director
(Acad.) Biyani Group of Colleges, who are the backbones and main concept provider and also
have been constant source of motivation throughout this Endeavour. They played an active role
in coordinating the various stages of this Endeavour and spearheaded the publishing work.
I look forward to receiving valuable suggestions from professors of various educational
institutions, other faculty members and students for improvement of the quality of the book. The
reader may feel free to send in their comments and suggestions to the under mentioned
address.
Mukul Sharma



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Content


S.No Name of Topic
1 Amplitude Modulation
2 Frequency Modulation
3 Noise
4 Noise in AM, FM
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Amplitude Modulation

Q.1 Definite of Communication:-
Ans. It is the Basic process of exchange information the communication process
essentially consists of three basic building blocks.



Transmitter:- A transmitter is physical system that transmit information.
Receiver:- It is physical system that receiver the information.
Channel:- I is the medium through which information takes place depending
upon the type of channel used for information exchange, there are two types of
communication.
a> Line or Wire Communication:- In this type of communication a physical
channel is created between transmitter and receiver through copper wires,
coaxial cables, optical fiber cable etc. before the information exchange can
take place.
Ex.:- basic telephone system, telegraphy etc.
b> Radio or Wireless Communication:- In this type of communication, there
is no physical connection between transmitter & receiver, the space is used
as a channel for information exchange.
Ex.:- Mobile Communication
Satellite Communication
Wireless phone
Broad Casting
Transmitter Channel Receiver
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Modulation:-
Modulation is process of super imposing the information contents of a baseband
modulating signed on a high freq carried signed by altering its chartn. Ex.:-
amplitude, phase, freq.
C (t) = Phase = WCt

Amplitude Freq
Modulation process translates a low freq. Baseband signal into a high freq.
Band pass signed.

Q.2 Explain Need of modulation:-
Ans. (1) Avoid mixing of signal



-3 0 3 KH
z
f


0 3 kH
Z


997 1003 1004 1110
Grass
Band

A
C
W
C
t
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0 3kH
Z
The modulation process translates different baseband signals at different carries
frequency so that spectrum overlap does not take place & mixing of signal can be
avoided.
Allow multiplexing of signal:-
Multiplexing means transmission of two or more signal simultaneously over
same channel once the different baseband signal are translate at different
frequency now they can be simultaneously transmitted over the same channel
without any loss of information.
Reduce height of Antenna:-
(i) = c/
Practice antenna height = /4
1 = 15 KHz
= = 20,000 m
= = 5 km
(ii) = 15 MHz
= = 20 m
= 5 m
the high of antenna required for transmission & reception of Radio wave in
Radio transmission is a fusi of frequency used the min. height of antenna is given
a /4 from the above two examples it is clear that the signal should be
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transmitted at highest frequency to achieve practical height of antenna

Increase Range of Communication:-
At low frequency, the radiation is poor & signal gets highly attenuated directly
and distance modulation effectively increase the frequency of signal to be
radiated and thus increase the distance over which signal can be transmitted
faithfully
Improves Quality of Reception:-
The signal communication using modulation techniques such as FM & PCM
reduces the effect of noise to great extent. Reduction in noise improves quality of
Reception.

Q. 3 Specify three Basic Properties:-
Ans. Three basic operation are performed on a signal
x (t)
1


1 0 3 E
X (E) 1 : - 1 << t << 3
0 : otherwise
(i) Time Shifting:-
Y (t) = x (t + )

a> Time delay:-
If < 0
y (t) = x (t -3)


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1

2 6 t
b> Time advance:-
if > 0
y (t) = x ( t + 4)
1

-5 -1 0
(ii) Time Reversal:-
y (t) = x (t)
y (t)


-3 1
(iii) Time Sealing:-
y (t) = x ( t)
a> Time compression:- > 1
y (t) = x (2 t)


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- 3/2 t


b> Time expansion:-

0 < < 1
y (t) = x (t/2)



-1 3



-2 6
Unit impulse Signal:- [S (t)]
S (t) = 1 ; t = 0
0 : t 0

1


t =0 t



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Q.4 Explain three Properties of impulse:-
Ans.
1> Sealing Property:-
S ( =
S (t)
2> Product Property:-

x (t) (t) = x (o). (t)

x (t). (t-to) = x (to). (t-to)

x (t)
x (o)


0 to




t = 0 t = t
3> Shifting Property:-

= x (t)
cos ot [ ( + ]
Cos t = +
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j t
e
2 ( - )
2 ( - )
(


Q. 5 Explain Amplitude Modulation and derive equation for A.M
Ans. In A.M. the amplit6ude of high frequency carries signal is varied in accordance
with instananes value of Base band modulating signal keeping frequency &
phase carst.

Edn. for A.M.:-
m (t) = any modulating signal with max. Frequency n
C (t) = Ac os t
XAM
(t)
= A os t
A = (Ac + M (E))
XAM
(E)
= [Ac + M (E)] os t modulated signal
XAM
(E)
= Ac os t + m(t) os t
Let m (t) = Am os t
C (t) = Ac os t
A = Ac + Am os nt
XAM
(t)
= [Ac + Am os t
= Ac os c [ 1 + os nt]



XAM
(t)
= Ac os ct + MAc os ct os nt
[ 2 os A os B = os (A+B) + os (A-B)]
= m = modulation index
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XAM
(t)
= Ac os ct + os ( c+ n) + os ( c n)

Carries USB LSB




Q.6 Explain time domain and frequency domain representation of A.M

Ans. Time domain Representation for AM:-



Am

m (t) t

- Am


Ac
C (t)
-Ac



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Frequency Domain Representation:-
XAM
(E)
= AC os t + m (t) os t
XAM
( )
= Ac [ ( - c) + ( + )]
+ [M ( ) + ( + c)]
[ os t = [ ( - ) + ( + )]


Convolution in time domain equal multiplication in frequency domain
x (t) y (t) x ( ) Y ( )
x (t) y (t) [X, ( ) * Y( )] (t)
Unit impulse signal:- 1
(t) = 1 : t = 0
0 : otherwise
t = 0
Properties of impulse funn.:-
1> Scaling Property:-
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(t) =

ii> Product Property:-
x (t) , (t) = x (0) . (t)
x (t) . (t-t) = x (t) (t t)
x (t) x (t)
x (0)

x (0)

iii) Shifting Property:-

x (t). (t) dt = x (t

x (t). (t-t) dt = x (t
M ( )





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- om m





- ( c+ n) - c -( c- n)
the transmitted AM signal contains three components that is correct, USB, LSB.
the intimation simultaneously by upper and lower side band, the caries does
not contain any information.
the transmission between of Am signal is m in red/see


Q. 7 Derive equation for Power Relation and current in Am
Ans.

Pt = + +
= +
Pc =
PSB = = - = PC
Pt = PC +



Current Relation in AM:-
P
t
= P
C

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P = IR
Pn = I
Pt = It ; PC = It
It = IC (




Transmission Efficiency (modulation efficiency):-
It gives the % of useful power in the total transmitted power & given by ratio of
total S.B. power to the total TA power.
= x 100%
=


Concept of modulation index:-
- It gives the depth to which modulation has
occurred.
- For m=0 of represent no modulation.
- For m=1 maximum modulation has occurred.
- For m>1 overlapping of envelop take place
which results in envelop distortion this condition is known as over
modulation & should always be avoided.

m = 1 ; Am = Ac
I
t
= I
C

= z 100%
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Amin ; Am Ac = 0

m = 1


t

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M > 1

t


(i) Pt = Pc
For m = 1

(ii) = x 100%
= = 33.33%
Simultaneous modulation by several line work:-
M1 (t) = Am1 s m1t
M2 (t) = Am2 m2t
m (t) = m1 (t) + m2(t)
M (t) = Am1 s m1t + Am2 s m1t
C (t) = Ac s m1t
A = Ac + Am1 s m1t + Am2 m2t

XAM
(t)
= [Ac + Am1 s m1t + Am2 s m1t] s ct
XAM
(t)
= Ac
M1 = , m2 =
XAM
(t)
= Ac s ct + M1 Ac s ct. s mt + m2 Ac s ct + s mt
P
t
= 1.5 P
c

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XAM
(t)
= Ac s ct + s ( c + m1)t

causes USB
+ s ( c - m1)t s ( c + m)t

LSB USB

s ( c - m)t

LSB
Generalized Result-
When a high frequency signal is simultaneously modulated by several line
waves of maximum frequency m1, m, m3
then
a> for each addition of modulating signal a pair of sideband getting added in
the resultant A.M. signal that is why amplitude modulation in also known
as linear modulation.
b> The transmission between for resu.. A.M signed given by
B.W. = 2 max [ m1, m, m3 ..]
Power Relation:-
Pt = + + + +
Pt = + +
Pc =
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Ps.B1 = = Pc.
Ps.B2 = = Pc.
Pt = Pc


DSB-SC (Double side band suppress carries)
Transmission of full A.M signal is not advisable because
a> Since carries { } also transmitted that does not contain any information.
b> For m=1, 2/3 power appears in the carries which is complete wastage
So instead of transmitting full A.M signal the carries is suppressed before
transmission such type of modulation known as DSB-SC modulation.

m (t) y (t)


c (t)
y (t) = m (t). C (t)
= m (t). Ac os ct
y ( ) = [M ( - c) + M ( + c)]

P
t
= P
c
M
r
= +
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1 M ( )

- m 0 m



- ( c + m) - c - ( c- m) c- m c c+ m
Ring Modulated:-
Diagram:-
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(i) Positive half cycle
During positive half cycle of carries signed D1 & D2 are on and D3 D4 are ON and
D1 & D2 are off but in any case the Net O/P is zero because currents are in opp
direction




(ii) Negative half cycle
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During positive half cycle of carries signed D3& D4are on and D3 D4 are ON and
D1 & D2 are off but in any case the Net O/P is zero because currents are in opp
direction



m (t) c (t) O/P
+ ve +Ve +Ve D1 & D2 ON
+ ve -Ve - Ve D3 & D4 ON
- ve +Ve -Ve D1 & D2 ON
- ve -Ve +Ve D3 & D4 ON
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Power saving in DSB-SC modulation :=>

Total power saved = Pc
%age power saving =
= x 100%

X 100% = 66.67%
X 100% = 88.88%
SSB-SC (Single Side Band Suppress Carries):-
In case of DSB-SC modulation, both the side bands are transmitted which
contains same information so DSB-SC transmission is further redundant. Instead
of transmitting both the SB we can suppress one SB as well to achieve maximum
efficiency. Such type of modulation in which are

Q.8 Describe DSB-SC (Double Side Band Suppress Carries) and method to
modulate and demodulate it
Ans. In case of DSB-SC modulation both the sidebands are transmitted which contains
same information so DSB-SC transmission is further redundant.
Instead of transmitting both the SB we can suppress one SB as well to achieve
maximum efficiency. Such type of modulation in which either upper or lower
sideband is transmitted is known as SSB-SC modulation.
There are two methods for generation of SSB-SC signal

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(i) Frequency Discrimination method:-
It is also known as fitted method
m (t) DSB-SC SSB-SC

Signal Signal

a(t) = Ac os ct




- ( c+ m - c - ( c- m) c- m c c + n

Disadvantage of frequency discrimination methods:
In case of frequency discrimination method the band pass filled should be as
ideal as possible but ideal filters are not practically possible because they are
unstable system so this method can only be used when upper & lower S.B do not
meet at caries frequency such as voice signal.
(ii) Phase Discrimination method:-
m (t) y1 (t)

s ct
M (t) O/P

M (t)

BPF
Hilbert
Transformations
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M (t)

Sin ct
XSSB (t) = m (t) s ct (t) sin ct
m (t) = mt
(t) = sin mt

XSSB (t) = os ct mt sin ct. mt
= os ( c- m)t
= os ( c- m)t




Disadvantage of phase Discrimination method:-
- The phase discrimination method is based upon 90 phase shift of the
modulating signal but for higher modulation frequency. It is very difficult to
generate a phase shift of exact 90 this method can be used only for low
modulation frequency up to flow kHz.

Power Saving in SSB-SC:-
Pt =
Pt =
Total power served =
% power saving = X 100%
= X 100%
For m =1
= 5/3 x 100% = 83.33%
Demodulation of A.M. Signal-
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The recovery of the baseband signal, a process which is referred to as
demodulation or detection there are two method for detection
i. Synchronous detection:-
In this method a local carries is generated at the receiving and where
phase is exactly synchronize with the transmitted carries phase the
received signal is multiplied by locally generated carries signal & the
product is passes through a low pass filter to detect

Original baseband
y1 (t) y (t)


os ct
i. Detection of A.M. signal:-
XAM
(t)
= [AC + m (t) ] os ct
y1 (t) = [AC + m (t)] os ct
y1 (t) = [AC + m (t)]
y1 (t) = + + + os ct
y (t) = (AC + m (t))


1 M ( )


- m m


LPF

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(2 c+ n) -2 c -(2 c- m) - m m 2 c- m 2 c 2 c+ c

H
LPF
( )

1


- m m
When the phases of transmitted locally generated carries are not synchronies we
always obtain a distorted signal at O/P of detector & it = 90 y (t) = 0 this
condition is known as Quardature null effect.
(ii) A synchronous detection:-
It is also known as envelop detector or diode detector.
RD
D
A.M C R V0(t) => To LPF





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AC


Lets initially assume that the O/P of fixed amplitude. The capacitor
charges to the peak positive voltage of carries.
- Detection of DSB-SC Signal-
XDSB
(t)
= Ac m(t) os ct
y1
(t)
= Ac m(t) os ct
=
y1
(t)
= +
y (t) =
Detection of SSB-SC signal:-
XSSB
(t)
= m (t) os ct (t) sin ct
Y1 (t) = m (t) s (t) sin s ct
y1(t) = [1 + s2 ct] (t) sin2 ct
y (t) =
y (t) y (t)

LPF
c = m
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os ( ct+ )
XDSB
(t)
= Ac m (t) s ct
y1(t) = Ac m (t) s ct + s( ct + )
y1(t) = [ s ct + ) + os ]
y (t) = os
if = /2 y(t) = 0
- It is necessary to include the resistor R so that the capacitor may
discharge
- If RC is very-very high






SSB-SC (Single Side Band Suppress Carries):-
In case of DSB-SC modulation both the side bands are transmitted
which contains same information so DSB-SC transmission is further
redundant
Instead of transmitting both the SB we can suppress one SB as well to
achieve maximum efficiency such type of modulation in which either
upper or lower sideband is transmitted is known as SSB-SC signal.
i. Frequency Discrimination Method:-
It is also known as fitted method.
m (t) DSB-SC SSB-SC

BPF

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Signal Signal
c (t) = Ac s ct






- ( c+ m - c - ( c- m) c- m c c+ m
HBPF
( )


- ( c+ m) - c c c+ m



- c - ( c+ m) c- m c

XSSB
(

- ( c+ m) - c c c+ m
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XSSB
(

- ( c+ m) - c- m






c- m c c+ m

USB



Q.9 Explain VSB (Vestigial Side Band) Modulation and its advantage over SSB
Ans. SSB modulation is well suited for transmission of voice because of frequency gap
that exist in the spectrum of voice signals between O & few hundred Hz when
the baseband signal contains significant components at extremely low frequency
as in case of T.V. picture signal, the upper & lower side band meet at carries
frequency this means that use of SSB modulation is in appropriate for
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transmission of such base band signals. Due to difficulty of isolating one
sideband




In VSB modulation one sideband is passed almost completely whereas just a
trace or vestige of unwanted sideband is retained specifically the vestige part of
unwanted sideband components for the part removed from the desired side
band.
DSB-SC
M (t) s (t)
Signal

C (t) = s ct
Y (t)
S (t) y (t)

s ct
XDSB
(t)
= m (t) s ct
S (t) = [m(t) s ct ] * h (t)
S ( ) = [S ( - c) + ( + c)] h ( )
Y1 (t) = S (t) s ct
Y1 ( ) = [S ( - c) + ( + c)]
Y1 ( ) = [M ( - c c) + M ( - c + c) H ( - c)
DSB
Bitta
LPF
= n

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+ [M ( + c c) + M ( + c + c) H ( + c)
Y ( ) = [M ( ) [H ( - c) + H ( - c)]
H ( - c) + H ( + c) = const.

In T.V. transmission the picture signal is VSB modulated & the sound
signal is frequency modulated & the total transmission B.W. 7 MHz
*+(5.75 MHz for picture signal and 0.25 MHz for sound signal)




A.M. Receiver

Q.10 Explain different Function of Receiver
To collect the electromagnetic waves transmitted by the transmitters.
To select desired signal & reject all other, this is known as selectivity of the
Receiver.
To amplify the selected modulated signal this is known as sensitivity of the
receiver.
To defect baseband modulating signal from the modulated R.F. signal.
To amplify the modulated signal as to operate the loud speaker.
AM Band 540-1650 KHz
fm : 5 KHz
B.W. : 10 KHz
I.F. : 455 KHz

ANGLE MODULATION
In angle modulation the phase angle of high frequency carries signal is varied in
accordance with instantaneous value of modulating signal keeping amplitude
const.

C (t) = Ac s ct
c (t) = ct
=
=
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UNIT 2
Q.11 Explain Frequency Modulation and phase modulation and derive equation for
it.
Ans. In F.M. the frequency of high frequency carries signal is varied in accordance
with instantaneous value of modulating signal keeping amplitude const. phase is
varied indirectly.
Phase Modulation :=>
In P.M. the phase is varied directly in accordance with instateous value of
modulating signal keeping amplitude const. frequency is varied indirectly.

F.M.
n (t) = any arbitrary modulating signal
with maximum frequency m
c (t) = Ac s ct
c (t)= ct
c (t) = Ac s c (t0



i = c + Kf m (t)
i (t) =
i (t) =
i (t) = ct + Kf
AFM
(t)
= Ac s ( ct + Kf
P.M.
m (t) = any arbitrary modulating
signal
c (t) = Ac s ct
c (t) = ct
C (t) = Ac s c (t)
XPM
(t)
= Ac s i (t)
i (t) = c (t) KP m (t)
XPM(t) = Ac s [ ct) + KP m (t)
XPM(t) = Ac s [ ct + KP m (t)]





X
FM
(t) = A
c
s i (t)
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Q.12 Derive Relation between FM & PM signal:-
Ans.
XFM(t) = Ac s [ ct + Kf
XPM(t) = Ac s [ ct + KP m (t)]
m (t) m (t) PM

Ac Ac s ( ct + Kf
Ac s [ ct + KP m (t)]

m (t) FM


Ac s ( ct + Kf
Sinusoidal FM
m (t) = Am s nt
c (t) = Ac s ct
c (t) = ct
XFM(t) = Ac s i (t)
i (t) = c + s mt
i (t) =
i (t) = s mt]dt
i (t) = ct +


i
(t)
= ct + FM
sin mt

XFM
(t)
= Ac s ( ct + FM
sin mt

Sinusoidal PM
m (t) = Am s nt
c (t) = Ac s ct
c (t) = ct
XPM(t) = Ac s i (t)
XPM
(t)
= Ac s ( ct + PM
sin mt



FM

PM
Modulation Index = =
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Q.13 Different between FM and PM
FM = i (t) = ct + sin

mt
= ct +
i (t) = = c + Kf AM s mt


PM = i (t)PM = ct + KP AM s mt
i (t) = = c KP AM m sin mt
/PM = KP AM m

PM = = KP AM
Types of Frequency Modulation:-
Depending upon value of , there are two types of frequency modulation.
i. Narrowband F.M.:-
When is very small
os = 1
0
Sin =
0
/
FM
= K
f
A
m
m

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XFM
(t)
= Ac os ( ct + sin mt)
= Ac [ os ct ( sin mt) sin ct sin ( sin mt)
os ( sin mt) = 1
0
Sin ( sin mt) = sin mt
0
XNBFM
(t)
= Ac [ os ct - sin ct sin mt]
= Ac os ct - [ os ( c- m)t os ( c- m)t]
= Ac os ct - os ( c- m)t + os ( c- m)t
Ac

c- m
c c + m




Q.14 Explain Wide Band FM derive equation for wide band FM
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When the value of modulation index FM is large than a large number of
sidebands are produced hence the B.W of FM is large.
XFM
(t)
= A s ( ct + FM sin mt)
This equation may be considered as Real part of exponential phases.
FM
(T)
= A.e
j ( ct + FM sin mt)

= A.e
j ( ct
e
j FM sin mt

The coefficient Xn is given by
Xn = FM SinX-nx)dx

n
th
order Bessel function
Xn = Jn (mf)
Since the changing in frequency causes the time required to complete one half
of a cycle to differ from time required to complete next half cycle, so the actual
wave is a disturbed sinusoidal oscillation.
The higher mathematical analysis using Bessel function shows that the putting
the value of Xn in equation (1)
e
j t sin mt
=
J
n ( t)e
jn mt
XFM
(t)
= Ae
j ct

J
n ( t)e
jn mt
= A
J
n ( t)e
j ( mt )
t
Real part provide FM signal
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XFM
(t)
= A
J
n ( t) os ( mt )
Bessel functions amp. Properties
i.
J
n ( t) =
J
n ( t) for even n
J
n ( t) = -
J
n ( t) for odd n
Making use of property
XFM
(t)
= A J0 ( f (t) os ct + AJ1 ( f) [ os ( c + m)t
- os ( c - m)t] + AJ2 ( f) [ os ( c + m)t
+ os ( c - m)t] + AJ3 ( f) [ os ( c + m)t
- os ( c - m)t] + AJ3 ( f) [ os ( c + m)t
Since the spectrum of wideband F.M
The higher sideband are neglected, it does not affect the quality of transmission
so the practical transmission B.W for wideband FM & wideband PM signals is
given by Carsons Rule.
Rad/sec
Hz


Observations:-
- In F.M. the total transmitted power is the carries power & is always
remain const.

(B.W)
FM
= 2 ( + m)
= 2 ( + m)
= 2 (2 ( + 1)
m

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C (t) = Ac os ct
XFM
(t)
= Ac os ct + sin mt)
- The modulation index determine how many sideband component
hence signification amplitude.
- The co-efficient occasionally have negative value signaling a 180 phase
for that pair of side band
Q.15 Explain different Generation method of F.M. wave
Ans. There are two methods for generation of F.M. waves.
i. Direct method:- The basic concept of F.M. is c in accordance with
modulating signal m () the carries is generated by an LC Oscr. In an LC
Oscr. The frequency of Oscr is
CV = Voltage Variable capacities (Varicap)
Co = Fixed capacities
Semiconductor diodes when operated in R.B. have chat suitable to
permit their use as voltage variable capacitor the modulating signal.
Voltage across CV the capacitance of CV changes and causes
corresponding change in frequency.
Any oscr. Whose frequency is controlled by the modulating signal
voltage is called a voltage controlled oscr or VCO
FET and PIN can also used in place of VCO.
Disadvantage of Direct Method:-
Most LC oscr are not stable enough to provide a carries signal the
carries frequency usually vary due to temp. Variation, humidity, ageing
of component etc. so instead of using LC oscr, a crystal oscr must be
used but since they provide highly stable carries frequency so only a
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very small frequency. Deviation is possible that is why indirect method
of FM generation is used.







Indirect method (Armstrong method):-
NBFM

m (t) NBFM





A Balance modulator is employed to generate the DSB-SC signal using sin ct
as the carries as the carries of the modulator this carries is than shifted in phase
by 90 and when added to the balance modulator output thereby forms an
NBFM signal
Ac s ct

NBFM
Ac sin ct


Integrator NBFM Frequency
Multiplies
Crystal
Oscr
90 Phase shift
Crystal
Oscr

Addu.
Balance
Modular
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Ac sin ct sin mt
y (t) = x
n
(t)
y (t) = x
n
(t)
x (t) = Ac os ( ct + sin mt)
y (t) = Ac os ( ct + sin mt)
= [1+ os ct + sin mt)]



Detection of F.M. Wave:-
FM demodulator is basically a frequency to amplitude convertor. It is expected
to convert the frequency variations in FM wave at its input into amplitude
variations at its output to recover the original modulating signal.
Q.16 Explain different FM Demodulation technique
Ans. The process of expecting signal from FM modulator wave is called FM
Demodulation
- In FM change in carries frequency shows change in amplitude of message
signal.
- Frequency Discriminator senses rising amplitude of message signal by
sensing the changes of carries frequency.
- O/P of frequency Discriminator is fed to AM detector that expects the
message signal from AM.
Frequency
c n c
n
n m
n
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c
+



c
-
Voltage
An -Am



i
=
c
+ K m (t)

FM frequency Amp m (t)
In variation modulation


Disadvantage of Slope detector:-
i. The ckt is non-liner so harmonies are generated
ii. The discriminator also respond for amplitude variation of i/p
signal

Balanced Slope Detector:-


+
FM in m (t)
-

Frequency
Selective N/W

Envelop
detector
Slope
Ckt 1
Envelop
detector
Slope
Ckt 2

Envelop
detector


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Voltage




c -
c +





Useful range

Working:-
This ckt is also known as triple tuned ckt as three tuned ckt are used. The
i/p tuned ckt is tuned at carries frequency c T1 is tuned at c + & T2 is
tuned at c -
When fin = c than gain provided by T1 & T2 will be same hence the O/P due
to T1 is same as due to T2 but in phase opposition so net O/P voltage is zero.
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Phase Locked Loop:-
The Phase Lock Loop (PLL) is a f/b system which may be used to extract a
baseband signal from a frequency modulated carries. The basic component
building blocks of a Phase Locked Loop are-
i. Phase detector
ii. Low pass filter
iii. Voltage Control Oscr (VCO)

Vs Ve Ve
fc


fo Vo

if an input signal Vs of frequency fc is applied to the PLL the phase
detector compares the phase & frequency of incoming signal to that of the
O/P of VCO.
If the two signal differ in frequency and/or phase, an error voltage Ve is
generated the phase detector is basically a multiplies & produces as control
voltage Vc to VCO.
Vs (t) = A os [ ct + (t)]
(t) = 0
Vo (t) = B os ( 0t + )
Ve (t) = AB os ( ct. os ( 0t + )
Ve (t) = os ( c + o) t + os [( 5 - o) t 0]
Vc = os
Phase
detector
LPF
VCO
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= /2



The signal Vc shifts the signal frequency in a direction to reduce the
frequency difference between fs & f0. One this action start we say that the
signal is in capture range the VCO continue to change frequency till its o/p
frequency is exactly the same as the i/p signal frequency the ckt is then
said to be locked exact locking is achieved when the two signals are having
same frequency & phase difference of /2 between them.
- Let the input signal makes on abrupt change the abrupt frequency
change causes the phase (t) to begin to increase linearly with time.
- The phase different at the comparator i/p will generate a positive O/P V0
which increase the frequency of the VCO.
- Thus the O/P voltage is proportional to the frequency change as required
in an FM demodulates.


Pre-emphasis & De-emphasis:=>
FM Band ; 88 108 MHz
m ; 15 KHz
nex ; 75 KHz
B.W. ; 200 KHz
Guard Band ; 20 KHz
I.F. ; 10.7 MHz

Sn (f)

Y2



Vc = 0
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F

SX (f)




F
At higher modulating frequency the effect of noise is more pronounced as
compared to low frequency the power contents becomes very small as a
result it is desirable to increase the amplitude at higher modulating
frequency before modulation. This boosting of higher modulating
frequency in accordance with a pre arranged curve is known as pre-
emphasis.
At the receiving and after demodulation, the same level of higher
modulating signal frequency is maintained by using do emphasis.
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UNIT-3
NOISE
Q.17 What is noise and how noise can be classified
Noise may be defined as any unwanted form of energy tending to interfere with
propel & easy reception & reproduction of wanted signal.
- Depending upon whether noise is internal or external to the system
there are two types of noise.
i. External noise:- The noise which to the system is known as
extender noise
Ex.: atmosphere noise extraterrestrial noise
ii. Internal noise:- The noise which is generated within system is
known as internal noise. There are five types of internal noise
Thermal noise:- This type of noise arises due to constitutes and
electric current flow in the register, the direction current flow is
random & it has zero mean value.
- Noise power available from a register is directly proportional to its
absolute temp. In addition this power is also directly proportional to
the B.W. over which noise is measured.
P T
P B
P TB


K = Boltzmann const.
= 1.30 x 10
- 23
J/K
T = Absolute temp in K
Pn = KTB
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B = Bandwidth in Hz
Thermal noise is also known as Jhonsons noise

Thermal noise is a zero mean Gaussian random variable
- It is also known as white noise
- As white light contain equal
amount of all frequency within the visible band of electromagnetic
radiation. Similarly thermal noise has a uniform power spectral density
over useful range of common.

Sn (f)
/2 |=KT|


0 f


/2 x 2B = B

=Two sided PSD
- B 0 B F

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The auto ccerelation function of thermal noise is an impulse at T = 0
Rn ( )




= 0
Eqt ckt of Resistor as noise generator:-

RL = R

= Pn = KTB

V
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High frequency or transit time noise:-
In semiconductor devices, the is the transitive is the time taken by the
carriers to cross a junction, when the signal frequency is high periodic time
of signal becomes very small & hence may be comparable to transitive of
carriers in such situations some of the carriers may diffuse back to the
source the noise produce due to this condition is known as high frequency
or transit time noise.
Signal to noise ratio:-
It is defined as the ratio of signal power to the noise power & is given by -




Noise Figure (F):
PSi Psi
Pi P0
For better system performance the noise figure should be as low as
possible.
PSC PSO = GPsi
Pni = KTB PSO = GPni




System
Ampulation
C
PM

P
Ni
= P
ni
+ P
na

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Pno = FKTBG
= PNi = FKTB
Pni + Pna =FKTB
KTB + Pna = FKTB
Pni = FKTB KTB

Q.18 Derive Equivalent Noise Temp. for any amplifier
Ans. It is defined as temp. of the Ampr (system) at which the noise contribution by
Ampr becomes thermal noise power
Pna = (F-1) KTB
(F-1) KTB = KTeB


Cascading of Ampr.:-



Te = T (T-
1)
Ampler

Ampler

Ampler

+ .

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UNIT-4

Narrow Band Noise:-
/2 Sn ( f )





HBPF ( f )




fm 0 fm
(g+ (t))
Pre envelop:- the pre envelop of a band pass signal g (t) is given by
g+ (t) = g (t) + j (t)

g+ (t) = g (t) + j (t)
G+ ( ) = G ( ) + j (-jsgn ( ) G ( )
G+ ( ) = G ( ) + sgn ( ) G ( )

(t) = g+ (t) e jafct
G
+
(f fc)




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(f)


fm +fm

x (t) = os (2 fct + (-)) calculate
its pre envelop & complex envelop
Xf (t) = os (2 fct + (+ )) +j sin (2 fct + )
Xf (t) = e
j (2 fct + )
(t) = e
j (2 fct + ) j2
fct


S (t) = e
at
os [( c + ) t] u (t)
The Hilbert transform of a low part signal multiplies with s ct is equal
to same low pass signal multiplied by Hilbert transform of signal
S+ (t) = e
-at
u (t) [ os ( c + )t + j sin ( c + )


(t) = e
j (t)

S
+
= e
-at
u (t) e
j (
c + )t
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(t) = e
-at
u (t) e
j (
c + )t e
- j
ct
= e
-at
u (t) e
- j
ct


X ( )
1/2


- ( ct m) - c - ( c- m) c- m - c c m
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j




- j







c- m c c m
- ( ct m) - c - ( c- m)


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Given the power spectral density of noise wave form N (t), the power
spectral density n (t) os 2 fCt is carries at as follows-
Divide Sn (t) by 4 shifts the divided plot to the L.H.S. as well as to the
R.H.S. by fc & add the shifted plots.
Noise performance of continuous wave modulation :->
Si (t) Sd (t) S0 (t)

n (t) N0 (t)

os 2 fCt
i. Noise performance of SSB-SC system

Sd (t) = m (t). os ct
sin2 ct
m (t)
R
X
( ) os 2 r fc
[S
x
(f-fc) + S
X
(f + fc)]
BPF
LPF
fc=fm


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S
0
(f )

/2

- (f
C
+ f m) - f
C
f
C
f
C
+ m f

S
n0
(f)
/8


- fm 0 fm




=

P
SO
=
PSi
=
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Noise performance of DSB-SC system:-
Si (t) = Ac m (t) s ct


Sd (t) = AC m(t) os ct
s ct ]

Noise performance of full A.M. system:-
XAM
(t)
= [Ac + m (t)] s ct
] s ct
= Ac [ 1 + x (t) ] s ct


Sd (t) = AC [ 1 + x (t)] s ct
]





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- fm 0 fm


2

- fm 0 fm
f OM for SSB-SC = 1
f OM for DSB-SC = 1
FOM for full AM < 1
XAM
(t)
= [Ac + m (t)] s ct
= +

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= Ac [1 + x (t)] s ct
Let m (t) = AM s mt
XAM
(t)
= Ac [1 + m s mt] s ct
x (t) = m s ct




For 100% modulation
(FOM)AM
Figure of merit in F.M.:
*

Pre-emphasis & De-emphasis
FM Band : 88-108 MHz
fm : 15 KHz
fmex : 75 KHz
B.W : 200 KHz
Guard Band : 20 KHz
i.f. : 10.7 MHz


(FOM)
FM
=
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Sn (f)
/2


0 f

SX (f )



0 f
At higher modulating frequency the effect of noise
Pre-emphasis:
At the receiving and after demodulation, the same level of higher modulating
signal frequency is maintained by using de-emphasis.

m (t)

m (t)
Pre-
emphasis
FM
Detector De-
emphasis
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Vi (S) R1 R2 V0 (S)


R1 C = 75 H sec
= 2.122 KHz
Gain (dB)
20 dB/dec




If an input signal is subjected system whose frequency response H ( ) a phase
spectrum which is a non-linear fun of than the differ frequency components
present in the signal will be shifted in a mann that results in a change in their
relative phases when all these frequency component are aided we objective a
signal that may look considerable different from the I/p signal.
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H ( ) = e
j to
|H ( )|= |
< H ( ) = - t0

< H ( )





- t0


So for a system with frequency response H ( ) = |H( )| < ( )
Phase delay:- (Te) the delay provide
Group delay (tg):- the delay prove at group of frequency is known as group
delay & given by tg.

if ( ) varies linearly with frequency than group delay & phase delay not only
const. but are also equal.

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-

X =4 ; y = 0

4} = erfc (0) =






4
The noise is added to the system with a power spectral density Sn (f) the
sum of signal & noise forms the i/p of a filter with frequency response H (f)
calculate
a) SNR at the i/p of the signal


P = 2
f
dt
= 2
300



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b) The filter response is as shown below
H (f)
1


-2 0 2 f

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