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EUROPEAN CONFERENCE FOR AERONAUTICS AND SPACE SCIENCES (EUCASS)
Copyright 2013 by P. Leyland, T.McIntyre, R. Morgan et al. Published by the EUCASS association with permission.
kADIA1ICN-A8LA1ICN CCULING ICk CASULL kLLN1k
nLA1ING VIA SIMULA1ICN and LkANSICN 1U8L
INVLS1IGA1ICNS


. Leyland*, 1.!. MclnLyre**, 8. Morgan**, . !acobs **, l. Zander**, u. Shelkh**, 1. Llchmann**, L.
lahy*
,
**, C. !oshl *, C. uuffa ***, u. oLLer****, n. 8aner[l*, !. Mora-MonLeros*, v. MargueL*


* lotetJlsclpllooty AetoJyoomlcs Ctoop, Ck-5cl-lAC, lll, cn-1015 loosoooe 5wltzetlooJ,
**ceotte of nypetsoolcs, uolvetslty OoeeoslooJ, 8tlsbooe, Aosttollo,
***C. uoffo, l-8J Coteoolt, ltooce
**** ulk, Cottloqeo, Cetmooy

Abstract
A capsule enLerlng a planeLary aLmosphere aL hypersonlc speeds experlences hlgh levels of radlaLlve
heaLlng. lurLhermore, coupllng beLween Lhe ablaLlon producLs from Lhe surface of Lhe vehlcle and
Lhe hlgh LemperaLure gas can have a ma[or effecL on Lhe head load experlenced by Lhe vehlcle. 1hls
paper dlscusses a collaboraLlve pro[ecL almed aL beLLer characLerlslng Lhe flow processes lnvolved. A
ground-based expanslon Lube faclllLy ls descrlbed ln whlch radlaLlon-ablaLlon coupllng ls achleved
Lhrough Lhe use of a pre-heaLed model placed ln a hlgh LemperaLure flow. ln parallel, slmulaLlon
Lechnlques are belng developed Lo model Lhe complex chemlcal processes occurrlng ln Lhe flow.

1. Introduct|on
Capsule reLurn mlsslons are amongsL Lhe oldesL space LransporLaLlon mlsslons daLlng from Lhe Lunar exploraLlon
and subsequenL reLurn Lo LarLh Lhrough Lo more recenL exploraLlons of Mars, 1lLan, !uplLer and venus. Cne of Lhe
maln feaLures of Lhe aLmospherlc enLry ls Lhe exLreme surface heaLlng of Lhe body whlch conslsLs of conLrlbuLlons
from convecLlve and dlffuslve aeroLhermodynamlc heaLlng and from radlaLlve heaLlng. 1he deslgn of Lhe 1hermal
roLecLlon SysLem (1S) of Lhe capsule, and ln parLlcular Lhe forebody, ls hlghly dependenL on an undersLandlng of
Lhese heaL loads. 1he lmporLance of Lhls analysls cannoL be underesLlmaLed - Lhese mlsslons generally aLLempL Lo
reLrleve lmporLanL sclenLlflc daLa or, ln Lhe case of lSS or Lunar mlsslons, lnvolve Lhe reLurn of humans Lo LarLh.

1here are several compeLlng phllosophles for Lhe deslgn of Lhe 1S. Cne opLlon ls Lo use an ablaLlve maLerlal as Lhe
heaL shleld on Lhe surface of Lhe forebody. Such deslgns are obllgaLory for hyperbollc reLurns, such as cerLaln lunar
reLurn Lra[ecLorles or small experlmenLal capsules such as Lhe recenL SLardusL (2006) or Payabusa (2010) mlsslons.
1he heaLlng raLes assoclaLed wlLh Lhese mlsslons were so hlgh LhaL Lhe exposed surface LemperaLures requlred
could noL be susLalned conLlnuously by any sulLable exlsLlng maLerlals, and surface eroslon forms an lnLegral parL of
Lhe Lhermal proLecLlon mechanlsms lnvolved. Powever, Lhe ablaLlon and pyrolyslng processes e[ecLs new specles
lnLo Lhe reacLlng boundary layer, some of whlch are hlghly radlaLlve, whlch can enhance or block Lhe radlaLlon heaL
flux.

8eproduclng such Lra[ecLorles and, ln parLlcular, Lhe peak heaLlng condlLlons (radlaLlve and convecLlve) ln ground
faclllLles ls a challenglng Lask. A hlgh LemperaLure flow of gas wlLh sufflclenL denslLy can generally only be creaLed
for a shorL perlod and hence such faclllLles are lmpulslve ln naLure wlLh shorL LesL Llmes. 1he operaLlng condlLlons
for Lhe faclllLles are almed Lo be relevanL Lo acLual mlsslons (pasL, presenL and fuLure) ranglng from Apollo-Lype Lo
sample reLurn from Mars or Moon to small capsule missions such as Stardust, Hayabusa and ESAs recent
prospecLlve pro[ecL hoebus. ConLlnuously runnlng faclllLles such as plasma wlnd Lunnels (W1s) can achleve Lhe
P. Leyland, T .McIntyre, R. Morgan et al.

2
Llme dependanL heaL loads experlenced ln such mlsslons buL cannoL reproduce slmulLaneously Lhe fllghL condlLlons
of pressure, denslLy and enLhalpy.

Cne Lype of faclllLy LhaL ls capable of generaLlng Lhe flow condlLlons experlenced durlng aLmospherlc enLry ls Lhe
super-orblLal expanslon Lube. lllghL condlLlons are creaLed ln Lhe LesL secLlon of Lhe faclllLy maLchlng flow speeds,
pressures, enLhalples and convecLlve fluxes, buL only for shorL LesL Llmes of Lhe order of 30-300 mlcroseconds. 1hls
lmplles LhaL Lhe LemperaLure of Lhe surface of a model placed wlLhln Lhe oncomlng flow ln Lhe expanslon Lube does
noL reach a slgnlflcanL LemperaLure as compared Lo fllghL, where Lhe surface heaLs up progresslvely along Lhe
Lra[ecLory paLh reachlng values of over 3000 k. Powever, Lhls drawback of shorL LesLlng Llmes can be clrcumvenLed
by Lhe use of ln-slLu pre-heaLlng by an elecLrlcal arc wlLhln Lhe maLerlal [1], as long as Lhe elecLrlcal conducLlvlLy of
Lhe maLerlal ls compaLlble, [2]. 1hls ls Lhe case, aL leasL for carbon composlLes such as 8CC and also carbon
phenollcs. lmporLanL lnformaLlon abouL Lhe mechanlsms lnvolved ln Lhe ablaLlon can be obLalned by placlng probes
wlLhln Lhe sample, and by Lhe use of non-lnLruslve hlgh-speed lmaglng and specLroscopy.

1esLlng of Lhls Lype can be used Lo measure Lhe level of radlaLlve heaL Lransfer from Lhe hoL radlaLlng plasma Lo Lhe
surface Lhe model. AL hlgh enLry speeds Lhls heaLlng mechanlsm represenLs a slgnlflcanL conLrlbuLlon Lo Lhe overall
heaL load. lor a non-ablaLlng surface, modelllng of Lhe flow chemlsLry can be used Lo lnfer heaL flux levels. 1he
presence of ablaLlon slgnlflcanLly compllcaLes Lhe slLuaLlon. PeaL shleld made from modern llghLwelghL carbon
phenollcs ln[ecL hlghly radlaLlng specles such as Cn lnLo Lhe hoL boundary layer as well as oLher reacLlng specles
such as C3, C2, CC, CP, CP2, CP3, P20 and Lhe radlcals of C2P. Carbon derlvaLlves such as CC2, CC, Cn, C and C3
are mosLly lmporLanL for surface ablaLlon of carbonaceous maLerlals, whereas P, P2, CC, PCn, C2P and C3P are
lmporLanL for pyrolysls ln Lhe case of quasl sLeady-sLaLe ablaLlon. CP3, CP4, C2P2, C2P6, P2C, P2, CC2 and CC are
slgnlflcanL specles for lower wall LemperaLures, especlally for hlghly porous maLerlals (wlLh shorL Llme resldence of
gases ln Lhe maLerlal).

1he ablaLlve producLs lnLeracL wlLh Lhe radlaLlng specles of Lhe flowfleld, creaLlng new radlaLlng specles and, ln
parLlcular, Lhe emlsslon of producLs such as C3, C2, PCn, Cn, CP2 and CP3 ln Lhe boundary layer enhance Lhe
radlaLlve heaL flux assoclaLed wlLh such producLs and modlfy Lhe LransporL and dlffuslon fluxes. 8adlaLlon blockage
or a radlaLlon enhancemenL can occur dependlng on wheLher Lhe ablaLlon and pyrolysls producLs are sLrongly
absorblng or emlLLlng. 1he whole procedure leads Lo a complex radlaLlon-ablaLlon coupllng.

lllghL daLa on hyperveloclLy enLry lnLo planeLary aLmospheres ls exLremely llmlLed, especlally wlLh ablaLlve
coupllng. ln Lhe case of LarLh reLurn, Lhe maln fllghL daLa sLlll ln use are from Lhe Apollo era, lncludlng Lhe ll8L ll
experlmenLs and Lhe Apollo mlsslons Lhemselves. 1he ll8L ll experlmenL of Lhe 60s was unlque ln Lhe predlcLlon-
valldaLlon of heaL flux levels and serves as a sLandard valldaLlon LesL case for lnLernaLlonal Workshops such as Lhe
LSA-CnLS 8P1W, 8adlaLlon Worklng Croup and AblaLlon Worklng Croup. lor Apollo 4, an AvcoaL3026-39C maLerlal
was used whlch was a slllca flbre/epoxy resln/phenollc mlcroballons/slllca mlcroballons, conLalnlng also Al2C3, CaC
and 82C3, and hence rendered ablaLlve producLs slmllar Lo modern ablaLlve maLerlals. ln such maLerlal Lhe carbon
deposlLlon by pyrolysls of gases ls lmporLanL. Avallable daLa abouL Lhls klnd of maLerlal ls llmlLed and hence
deLalled calculaLlon of pyrolysls and permeaLlon of gases ls dlfflculL. [4].

8ecenLly, small slze reLurn capsule mlsslons have been performed. 8oLh Lhe SLardusL and Lhe Payabusa mlsslons
lnvolved super-orblLal re-enLry Lra[ecLorles wlLh peak values aL Lra[ecLory polnLs correspondlng Lo alLlLudes of 30-38
km, renderlng daLa from exLernal fllghL paLh observaLlons. lL should be noLed LhaL radlaLlve heaL fluxes were
approxlmaLely 10 of Lhe LoLal heaL flux for Lhese small slzed capsules, whereas radlaLlve fluxes are esLlmaLed Lo
be over 40 of Lhe LoLal heaLlng for cerLaln Lra[ecLory polnLs of ll8L ll. neverLheless, deLalled measuremenLs were
made Lo evaluaLe Lhe radlaLlon over a large specLral range. 1heoreLlcal modelllng of Lhe mlsslons agreed well wlLh
measuremenLs buL lndlcaLed LhaL Lhere was a slgnlflcanL conLrlbuLlon Lo Lhe radlaLlon from Lhe vacuum ulLravloleL
(vuv) reglon of Lhe specLrum whlch was ouLslde Lhe measuremenL capablllLy of boLh Lhe ground- and fllghL-LesLlng
Leams.

Cur consorLlum ls conducLlng a pro[ecL Lo evaluaLe Lhe vuv conLrlbuLlon ln Lhese condlLlons [9]. Cround-based
faclllLles lncludlng Lhe super-orblLal expanslon Lubes are belng used Lo generaLe Lhe fllghL condlLlons wlLh
observaLlons uslng vuv deLecLlon sysLems. ln parallel, numerlcal modelllng ls belng conducLed Lo compare wlLh Lhe
measuremenLs. 1hls paper dlscusses progress ln Lhls pro[ecL lncludlng Lhe evaluaLlon of radlaLlon and radlaLlon-
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EUROPEAN CONFERENCE FOR AERONAUTICS AND SPACE SCIENCES (EUCASS)

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ablaLlng coupllng ln expanslon Lubes, and Lhe correspondlng modelllng lssues relaLed Lo hyperveloclLy reLurn of
capsules equlpped wlLh lCA-llke maLerlals.
2. Lxpans|on tubes at U and App||cat|on to superorb|ta| exper|ments
8esearchers aL Lhe unlverslLy of Cueensland have developed a serles of super-orblLal expanslon Lubes capable of
slmulaLlng aLmospherlc enLry. SchemaLlcs of Lhe x2 and x3 free-plsLon drlven faclllLles, wlLh ma[or dlmenslons, can
be seen ln llgure 1. 1he x2 faclllLy ls approxlmaLely 23 meLres ln lengLh wlLh a 200 mm dlameLer exlL flow whereas
Lhe larger x3 faclllLy ls abouL 63 meLres long wlLh a LesL flow dlameLer of around 600 mm. 1he prlnclples and
schemaLlc of Lhe operaLlon of Lhe expanslon Lubes ls lndlcaLed ln Lhe x-L dlagram also shown ln llgure 1.



llqote 1. xpoosloo tobe opetotloo ptloclples olooqslJe scbemotlc of \2 (mlJ), ooJ Jlmeosloos of \J (below)

1he faclllLles can operaLe ln elLher non-reflecLed shock Lube mode n81, or ln expanslon Lube mode as seen ln
llgures 2 and 3. 1he flrsL mode slmulaLes condlLlons lmmedlaLely behlnd Lhe bow shock on a vehlcle and
reproduces exacLly Lhe free-sLream flow speed and pressure. 1hls allows deLalled analysls of Lhe radlaLlon of Lhe
hoL plasma and coupllng wlLh gas ln Lhe shock layer. 1he x2 faclllLy ln n81 mode has been used aL pressures down
Lo 4 a, malnLalnlng a measurable separaLlon beLween Lhe shock and drlver gas and measuremenLs have been
made uslng hlgh-speed phoLography, plLoL probes and specLromeLry. ln expanslon Lube mode, experlmenLs can be
performed on subscale models of blunL shapes such as aeroshells or maLerlal samples. 1he flow condlLlons requlre
approprlaLe scallng Lo malnLaln slmllarlLy beLween Lhe experlmenL and Lhe Lrue fllghL condlLlons. When Lhe free-
sLream denslLy mulLlplled by an approprlaLe lengLh scale (so called blnary scallng) ls enforced as for LesLlng ln x2,
Lhere ls a slmllarlLy for vlscous effecLs and some aeroLhermodynamlc processes such as chemlcal dlssoclaLlon.
P. Leyland, T .McIntyre, R. Morgan et al.

4
Powever, radlaLlve energy exchange scales dlfferenLly and ls noL fully reproduced. neverLheless LesLlng wlLh
expanslon Lube mode allows for a good represenLaLlon of Lhe non-equlllbrlum flow and vlscous shock layer up Lo
Lhe surface, wlLh reasonable LesLlng Llmes from a few hundred mlcroseconds for x2 and a few mllllseconds for x3.
ln Lhe fuLure we expecL LhaL Lhe dlmenslons of Lhe larger x3 nozzles wlll poLenLlally allow for LesLlng of Lhe smaller
fllghL vehlcles llke Payabusa and SLardusL Lo be conducLed aL full scale, beLLer reproduclng Lhe Lrue flow condlLlons.


llqote 2. Opetotloo of expoosloo tobes \2 ooJ \J fot toJlotloq ooJ oblotloq flows (top) lo expoosloo tobe moJe,
ooJ fot toJlotloo stoJles of tbe sbock loyet lo Noo-keflectloq-5bock tobe moJe (below).




llqote J. close op of tbe zooe of opetotloo of expoosloo tobes \2 ooJ \J fot toJlotloq ooJ oblotloq flows lo
expoosloo tobe moJe (left), ooJ fot toJlotloo stoJles of tbe sbock loyet lo Noo-keflectloq-5bock tobe moJe (tlqbt).

3. kad|at|on-I|owf|e|d ] kad|at|on-Ab|at|on Coup||ng
1he hoL plasma creaLed by Lhe Lhermal non-equlllbrlum dlssoclaLlon levels behlnd Lhe shock wave of hyperveloclLy
(re)-enLry can be characLerlsed by Lhe presence of hlghly radlaLlng specles wlLh exLenslve LranslLlons beLween Lhelr
non-equlllbrlum sLaLes LhaL radlaLe. A schema of Lhe non-equlllbrlum processes lnvolved ls glven ln Lhe llgure 4,
[6]. 1o Lhls ls added Lhe lnfluence of Lhe gas-surface lnLeracLlons whlch depends on Lhe maLerlal composlLlon and
posslble ablaLlon, leadlng Lo dlffuslon and enLralnmenL of Lhe ablaLlve producLs lnLo Lhe shock layer. Some of Lhese
specles are ln Lurn hlghly emlLLlng so, ln addlLlon Lo chemlcal lnLeracLlon beLween Lhe shock layer and Lhe ablaLlve
producLs, Lhls radlaLlon-ablaLlon coupllng resulLs ln a complex exchange process.

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lL ls consldered as a rule of Lhumb LhaL Lhls radlaLlon-flow-fleld coupllng ls lmporLanL lf local radlaLlon energy source
Lerms from emlsslon and absorpLlon are slgnlflcanL when compared wlLh Lhe flows LoLal energy flux Lhrough a
parameLer known as Lhe Coulard number, I,

)
`

I

3
2
1
/ 2 ~ V q
r



1hls parameLer represenLs Lhe raLlo beLween Lhe radlaLlve flux of Lhe shock layer Lo Lhe free sLream energy. lf I ls
greaLer Lhan approxlmaLely 0.01, lL ls llkely LhaL radlaLlon coupllng wlll be slgnlflcanL, and change Lhe free sLream
condlLlons along a sLreamllne. 1hls raLlo ls also hlghly dependenL on Lhe Lra[ecLory paLh of Lhe (re)-enLry vehlcle,
whlch ln Lurn deflnes Lhe relaLlve re-enLry speeds aL glven alLlLudes/laLlLudes. ln llgure 3, Lhe fllghL proflles of
Lyplcal re-enLry such as ShuLLle, Apollo or Mars reLurn are represenLed. 1ra[ecLorles of large scaled vehlcles such as
Lhe ShuLLle, or Lhe lSS do noL generally presenL condlLlons of hlgh levels of radlaLlve heaL fluxes, whereas reLurn
Lra[ecLorles from lunar mlsslons (Apollo, ll8L ll), Mars sample reLurn or far solar sysLem reLurn presenL Lra[ecLory
paLhs lncurrlng hyperveloclLy Lra[ecLorles wlLh hlgh levels of radlaLlve surface heaL flux. Also, Lhe mass-speclflc
enLhalpy of fasL reLurn small capsules wlLh a hyperbollc re-enLry Lra[ecLory, such as Lhe Payabusa ls double LhaL of
LLC enLrles as Lhe space shuLLle. lor Lhese mlsslons Lhe hlgh levels of heaL flux requlre ablaLlve heaL shlelds Lo
proLecL Lhe lnLernal componenLs from Lhe correspondlng hlgh surface heaL loads.



llqote 4 . 1betmol ooo-epolllbtlom excbooqes fot byetveloclty eotty sltootloos leoJloq to lmpottoot toJlotloo
(emlssloo ooJ obsotptloo) , ooJ qos sotfoce lotetoctloos , ftom j6].

1he e[ecLlon ln Lhe boundary layer of ablaLlon and pyrolysls producLs, such as hydrocarbons, hydrogen producLs
and waLer lnclude several hlghly radlaLlng specles LhaL can lnLeracL wlLh Lhe already radlaLlng flowfleld plasma. 1he
radlaLlve fluxes can Lhus be enhanced by exLra emlsslon, or blocked by subsequenL absorpLlon. ln Lurn, energy
LransporL wlLhln Lhe flowfleld can be modlfled by Lhe presence of slgnlflcanL radlaLlve conLrlbuLlons, leadlng Lo
enhancemenL or reducLlon of convecLlve fluxes. noL only flowfleld-radlaLlon coupllng occurs buL also radlaLlon-
ablaLlon coupllng.

1he level of Lhe Coulard number ls also hlghly dependenL on Lhe aLmosphere composlLlon and relaLlve enLhalples
raLher Lhan Lhe enLry speeds alone. Pence, enLrles lnLo Lhe 1lLan aLmosphere such as the Huygens probe, although
aL a relaLlvely lower veloclLy Lhan lunar reLurn, (6.4 km/s), presenL hlgher radlaLlon levels. !uplLer enLry (Callleo)
corresponds Lo speeds of abouL 48 km/s and posL shock LemperaLures around 60,000 k also generaLlng slgnlflcanL
radlaLlon. Apollo 4 Lra[ecLory condlLlons aL an alLlLude of 120 km corresponds Lo a speed of 10.23km/s, a radlaLlve
lnLenslLy (over a wavelengLh range 0.2-4m) of 23 Wcm
-2
sr
-1
wlLh a wall LemperaLure of Lhe order of 2300k. 1he
recenL SLardusL (2006) and Payabusa mlsslons are small experlmenLal half-angle sphere cone super-orblLal reLurn
capsules. Payabusa had an enLry mass of 18kg, a peak convecLlve flux abouL 10MW/m
2
and a peak radlaLlve flux of
1.83 MW/m
2
.

P. Leyland, T .McIntyre, R. Morgan et al.

6
1yplcal values of Lhe Coulard number for Lhese mlsslons are approxlmaLely (aL peak radlaLlon):
Mooo tetoto/ llk ll 0.01
noyoboso 0.01J
Iopltet eotty 0.1
1ltoo eotty 0.4

ln LoLal, radlaLlve heaL fluxes are approxlmaLely 10 of LoLal heaL flux for Lhe small slzed capsule llke SLardusL and
Payabusa, compared Lo more Lhan 20 for Lhe llre ll mlsslons, 1he roles of Lhe dlfferenL Lypes of radlaLlon,
LhroughouL Lhe whole specLrum from vuv, uv Lo even far l8 range are all lmporLanL conLrlbuLors.

llqote 5. ottb ke-eotty potbs os veloclty/oltltoJe qtopbs, sbowloq tbe lofloeoce of tbe ttojectotles oo tbe telotlve
moss speclflc eotbolples/totol ptessotes of eotty. 5bottle type ttojectotles eotet ot blqb oltltoJes (low ptessotes)
wltb moJetote speeJs compoteJ to looot ot somple tetoto. 1be beotflox levels ftom coovectloo, Jlffosloo,
cooJoctloo ooJ toJlotloo leoJ to Jlffeteot tepoltemeots of 1betmol ltotectloo 5ystems (1l5) fot tbe cottespooJloq
mlssloos,(oJopteJ ftom j7]).

4. kad|at|on and kad|at|on-Ab|at|on Coup||ng eva|uat|ons |n Lxpans|on 1ube
1est|ng
Lmlsslon specLroscopy has been successfully lmplemenLed across Lhe ulLravloleL, vlslble and near lnfra-red parLs of
Lhe specLrum ln Lhe x2 faclllLy aL Lhe unlverslLy of Cueensland. 1hls has been achleved uslng Lwo specLrally
senslLlve camera sysLems each an lnLenslfled CCu camera coupled Lo a specLromeLer. 1he currenL sysLems are
opLlmlsed for deLecLlon over Lhe range 220 300 nm and 300 830 nm. 8ecenLly, a vuv specLroscopy sysLem has
been lmplemenLed [8][9]. numerlcal slmulaLlons lndlcaLe LhaL hlgh levels of radlaLlon can be expecLed ln Lhls reglon
for super-orblLal re-enLry wlLh specles such as C and n conLrlbuLlng Lo Lhe recorded specLra along wlLh Cn, CC, C
and assoclaLed specles ln Lhe case of surface lnLeracLlons. llgure 3 shows Lhe experlmenLal arrangemenL used Lo
record specLra from Lhe shock layer elLher ln fronL of a model ln expanslon Lube mode or behlnd an lncldenL shock
ln n81 mode. 1esLlng has been compleLed ln boLh conflguraLlons uslng x2.

A comprehenslve seL of shock Lube experlmenLs for a represenLaLlve Puygens enLry lnLo Lhe aLmosphere of 1lLan
(98 n2 & 2 CP4 by volume) over a pressure range of 2 Lo 1000 a and a veloclLy range of 4 Lo 10.3 km/s was
conducLed by 8randls [10] ln Lhe x2 faclllLy ln n81 mode. LxperlmenLal resulLs were compared wlLh slmulaLlons Lo
galn lnslghL on Lhe radlaLlon modelllng and slmulaLlon Lechnlques. AxlsymmeLrlc navlerSLokes slmulaLlons were
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made wlLh Lhe eilmer3 (formerly mbcns) sofLware developed aL Lhe unlverslLy of Cueensland, coupled Lo
radlaLlon modelllng sofLware. 1he Coken reduced chemlcal reacLlon scheme was used and a slmple slngle
LemperaLure assumpLlon for Lhe Lhermal non-equlllbrlum was made. 1he calculaLed radlaLlve lnLenslLy proflles are
shown ln llgure 6 along wlLh Lhe experlmenLally measured lnLenslLy proflle scaled Lo maLch Lhe order of magnlLude
of Lhe one LemperaLure slmulaLlons. 1he one dlmenslonal posL-shock relaxaLlon slmulaLlon Lool poshax ls
superlmposed. llgure 6 shows a calculaLed specLrum compared Lo Lhe measured specLrum, showlng Lhe dlsLlncL
domlnance of Cn bands aL 333nm, 383 nm and 413 nm. Cenerally good agreemenL ls seen LhroughouL.


llqote 6. 1 1ott 1ltoo cooJltloo lo \2. radlaLlve lnLenslLy beLween wavelengLhs 310 and 450 om ooJ compotlsoo
wltb ooe-Jlmeosloool ooJ oxlsymmettlc (ceottelloe, t = 1720 s) ptoflles


llqote 7. llLLed and measured specLra aL 1.16mm from Lhe shock fronL for shoL x2s619 [6, 11]

1he lmpulse faclllLy Llme scales are lnsufflclenL Lo slmulaLe Lhe effecLs of ablaLlon and surface chemlsLry on Lhe
flowfleld for models lnlLlally aL room LemperaLure, whlch requlre Llme scales of seconds for Lhermal energy Lo be
Lransferred lnLo Lhe surface and Lo esLabllsh represenLaLlve raLes of pyrolysls and mass flow whlch are an lnLegral
feaLure of Lhe Lhermal response of ablaLlve 1S ln fllghL. PoL wall LesLlng has been lmplemenLed ln expanslon Lube
mode uslng a new Lechnlque developed by Zander [1]. A reslsLlvely heaLed relnforced carbon-carbon (8CC) model
was broughL Lo LemperaLures of Lhe order of 2000 - 3000 k ln Lhe x2 LesL secLlon. 1he resln burns off durlng Lhe
pre-heaLlng sLage leavlng Lhe carbon Lo ablaLe durlng Lhe LesL. Plgh-speed lmaglng (1 MPz frame raLe) was used Lo
observe Lhe model as lL was exposed Lo a LesL flow. Small pleces of maLerlal can be seen ablaLlng off Lhe cyllndrlcal
model surface ln Lhe lmage sequence shown ln llg. 8. LxperlmenLs as parL of Lhe LSA-18-A8C pro[ecL Lo lnvesLlgaLe
Lhe radlaLlon-ablaLlon coupllng ln condlLlons close Lo Lhe Payabusa peak convecLlve and peak radlaLlon heaLlng
Lra[ecLory polnLs are belng conducLed presenLly. 1he goals for fuLure LesLlng lnclude developlng meLhods Lo ldenLlfy
surface chemlsLry from Lhe specLra, Lo deLermlne an experlmenLal mass flow raLe due Lo ablaLlon, and Lo exLend
Lhe LesLlng Lo carbon phenollc-Lype maLerlals ln order Lo achleve pyrolysls effecLs, as well as ablaLlon.
P. Leyland, T .McIntyre, R. Morgan et al.

8

llqote 8. lmoqes exttocteJ ftom tbe blqb-speeJ cometo footoqe of oo oblotloq moJel, 1Mnz ftome tote, 0.5 s
exposote, sbot x2s1758.j1]
S. kad|at|on and kad|at|on-Ab|at|on Coup||ng: mode|||ng
Mode|||ng Lquat|ons
1o sLudy Lhe modelllng of radlaLlon-flowfleld and radlaLlon-ablaLlon coupllng, Lhe example of superorblLal re-enLry
slmllar Lo Payabusa ls Laken as an underlylng example. 1he evoluLlon of Lhe aeroLhermodynamlcs of Lhe flowfleld ls
descrlbed by Lhe compresslble navler-SLokes equaLlons of conservaLlon of mass, momenLum and energy for a
reacLlve gas. 1he Lhermochermlcal non-equlllbrlum ls slmpllfled by uslng Lhe Lwo-LemperaLures gas model
formulaLed by ark [12], wlLh LranslaLlon-vlbraLlon exchange (Landau 1eller / MllllkanWhlLe / ark correcLlon) 1
Lv

and LranslaLlon-elecLron exchange 1
ve
.

lor slmulaLlng Lhe flowfleld, a cell-cenLred, flnlLe-volume approach Lo Lhe lnLegral form of Lhe sysLem of Lhe
compresslble navler-SLokes equaLlons, (2), ls consldered:


(2)
WlLh Lhe sLaLe vecLor u represenLlng mass, momenLum and LoLal energy, vlbraLlonal energy for mode m, elecLron-
elecLronlc energy and mass denslLy of specles s, wlLh denslLy : u = j, o, , e
vm
, e
e
, y
s
], Lhe fluxes are
separaLed lnLo lnvlscld, (F
i
) and vlscous, (F
v
) componenLs.

lor aeroshell geomeLrles as capsule forebodles, Lhe vlscous componenLs are calculaLed from Lhe axlsymmeLrlc
vlscous sLresses and vlscous heaL fluxes and Lhe source Lerms, C, ls a comblnaLlon of geomeLry, chemlsLry, Lhermal
energy exchange and radlaLlon Lerms. 1he flnlLe volume formulaLlon leads Lo Lhe resoluLlon of Lhe flux balance
wlLhln conLrol volumes v:


(3)
S represenLs Lhe boundlng surface and n Lhe ouLward-faclng normal of Lhe conLrol surface, A Lhe elemenLary cell
boundary. 1he vecLor of source Lerms Q ls separaLed lnLo geomeLrlc, chemlcal klneLlc, Lhermal energy exchange
and radlaLlon conLrlbuLlons:
Q = Qgeom. + Qchem. + Qtherm. + Qrad.

An operaLor-spllLLlng approach [13 ] ls used Lo perform Lhe Llme-lnLegraLlon. 1hls approach decouples Lhe lnvlscld
and vlscous gas dynamlcs, Lhe Lhermal energy exchange and Lhe non-equlllbrlum chemlcal klneLlcs and Lhen
proceeds wlLh a loosely coupled lnLegraLlon ln Llme of Lhe ordlnary dlfferenLlal equaLlon (CuL) sysLem derlved from
(3). A full dlscusslon of Lhe flux vecLor and source Lerm formulaLlons, as well as soluLlon meLhods, ls provlded ln Lhe
eilmer3 user gulde [13].

5
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EUROPEAN CONFERENCE FOR AERONAUTICS AND SPACE SCIENCES (EUCASS)

9
AL Lhe wall boundarles, Lhe wall LemperaLure can be Laken as lsoLhermal as for example Lhe case of cold wall
meLalllc models ln expanslon Lubes LhaL do noL have Lhe Llme Lo heaL up due Lo shorL LesLlng Llmes, or based on Lhe
surface energy balance beLween Lhe modes of surface heaLlng and Lhermal response of Lhe maLerlal of Lhe wall.
1he heaL flux vecLor aL Lhe wall ls composed of Lhe componenLs of convecLlve and conducLlon heaLlng pcoov, Lhe
dlffuslon heaL flux of Lhe specles pJlff and Lhe LoLal radlaLlve heaL flux ptoJ

ptotol = pcoov + pJlff + ptoJ

1he lncldenL heaL flux ls made of a convecLlon componenL, a dlffuslon one, and Lhe radlaLlve heaL flux due Lo Lhe
radlaLlon of Lhe hoL plasma creaLed wlLhln Lhe shock layer, Lhe wall heaL flux ls composed of Lhe conducLlve heaL
flux, Lhe re-radlaLlon heaL-flux and Lhe conLrlbuLlons Lo Lhe surface energy balance from Lhe ablaLlon and pyrolysls
gases (see followlng paragraph on ablaLlon modelllng).

1hermal non-equlllbrlum can be descrlbed by a mulLl-LemperaLure model whereby Lhe quanLum sLaLes lnslde each
lndlvldual energy mode (LranslaLlonal, roLaLlonal, vlbraLlonal, elecLron-elecLronlc) are populaLed by a 8olLzmann
dlsLrlbuLlon aL a common LemperaLure for LhaL overall mode. Slngle LemperaLure (one LemperaLure for LranslaLlon,
roLaLlon, vlbraLlon and elecLron-elecLronlc energy modes) formulaLlons for hyperveloclLy condlLlons do noL capLure
Lhe dlfferences ln relaxaLlon Llmes behlnd Lhe shock wlLh enough deLall. 1wo-LemperaLure models are commonly
lmplemenLed, wlLh one LemperaLure descrlblng Lhe LranslaLlonal-roLaLlonal energy modes, and one LemperaLure Lo
descrlbe Lhe vlbraLlon-elecLron-elecLronlc energy modes. vlbraLlonal-LranslaLlonal energy exchange ls modelled by
Lhe Landau-1eller/Mllllkan and WhlLe emplrlcal correlaLlon, LranslaLlon-elecLron exchange can be adapLed from
AppleLon, [14] and non-preferenLlal chemlsLry-energy coupllng ls assumed.

llnlLe raLe non-equlllbrlum chemlsLry models descrlbe reacLlons for a represenLaLlon of Lhe specles LhaL compose
Lhe aLmosphere ln quesLlon, as well as Lhe ablaLlon producLs and pyrolysls gases LhaL are e[ecLed lnLo Lhe flowfleld
and lnLeracL wlLh Lhe flowfleld plasma when Lhe heaLshleld ls composed of an ablaLlve maLerlal.

lor Lhe superorblLal Payabusa Lype re-enLry Lra[ecLory, wlLh an ablaLlve heaLshleld, Lwo chemlsLry models are
selecLed. 1he flrsL one proposed by ark 2001 [13] uses 24 reacLlons for 20 specles: C, C, n, P, CC, C2, n2, Cn, nC,
C2, P2, C3, C2P, C+, C+, P+, n+, nC+, n2+, e-, and Lhe second one was proposed by Abe [16] of 26 specles, 30
reacLlons. A Lhlrd model by Clynlk [17] was also implemented, and the comparison with Parks model was reported
ln [2]. Parks model was derived from work of owars and kendall [19], for Lhe Apollo heaL shleld maLerlal. lL ls
glven ln Lhe 1able 1 and conslsLs of 24 reacLlons: 3 dlssoclaLlon reacLlons, 12 exchange reacLlons, 4 elecLron lmpacL
lonlsaLlon reacLlons, and 2 associative ionisation reactions. In this paper results will be presented using the Parks
model.

kad|at|on mode|||ng
8adlaLlon modelllng ls performed esLlmaLlng Lhe populaLlon of Lhe energy levels and Lhe absorpLlon and emlsslon
coefflclenLs and Lhen solvlng Lhe radlaLlve Lransfer equaLlon. 1wo dlfferenL elecLronlc level populaLlons models are
usually consldered: an equlllbrlum one (8olLzmann) and a non-equlllbrlum one (solved wlLh CSS: Cuasl SLeady
SLaLe). 8adlaLlon LransporL ls performed elLher uslng Lhe 1angenL slab, ulscreLe Lransfer/MonLe Carlo. As Lhe zone
behlnd Lhe shock ls ln Lhermal non-equlllbrlum Lhe 8olLzmann does noL provlde enough colllslons, hence a
Colllslonal 8adlaLlve (C8) model should be used, where all exclLed sLaLes are consldered as specles.

1he LangenL-slab approxlmaLlon, suppose LhaL Lhe radlaLlon ls along each llne-of-slghL normal Lo Lhe wall. 1hus Lhe
problem ls reduced Lo Lhe radlaLlon of an lnflnlLely Lhln parallel plane Lo Lhe surface. 1he ulscreLe Lransfer/MonLe
Carlo model ls based on numerlcal lnLegraLlon of Lhe radlanL energy fleld over dlrecLlon and space. [20, 21]

SpecLral radlaLlon models were composed from several daLabases, as for example Laklng Lhe llne-by-llne model for
aLomlc and dlaLomlc bound- bound LranslLlons, curve flLs and hydrogenlc approxlmaLlons for conLlnuum LranslLlons,
elecLronlc level and aLomlc llne daLa from nlS1, [22], dlaLomlc elecLronlc LranslLlon momenLs from Chauveau eL al
(2002)[23], deLalls can be found ln [11][24]. LlecLronlc level populaLlons for example for n2, n
+
2, C2, n and C can
be calculaLed by a colllslonal-radlaLlve model applled ln Lhe CSS llmlL.

P. Leyland, T .McIntyre, R. Morgan et al.

10

1oble 1.Chemical reactions for Parks model for air chemistry with ablation (2001)

Ab|at|on mode|||ng
1he severe Lhermochemlcal re-enLry condlLlons for probes such as Payabusa requlres Lhe use of ablaLlve maLerlals
such as a carbon-phenollc 1S. 1he hlgh heaL loads lnduce an lmporLanL lncrease ln LemperaLure lnslde Lhe maLerlal
whlch sLrongly modlfles Lhe ablaLor Lhrough essenLlally Lwo dlfferenL physlcal processes: pyrolysls and ablaLlon.
yrolysls ls Lhe hlgh LemperaLure lnduced reacLlon LhaL Lransforms Lhe pyrolyslng componenL of Lhe polymer maLrlx
lnLo gas. 1hls gas reaches Lhe fluld/solld lnLerface as lL ls free Lo move Loward Lhe porous sLrucLure and ls ln[ecLed
ln Lhe boundary layer dependlng on ln-depLh pressure and LemperaLure gradlenL. AblaLlon conslsLs ln Lhe
decomposlLlon of Lhe maLerlal sLrucLure due Lo heLerogeneous chemlcal reacLlons such as oxldaLlon and
nlLrldaLlon, phase changes such as subllmaLlon or mechanlcal eroslon llke spallaLlon. A scheme of 1S
decomposlLlon ls shown here:


llqote 9. ltocesses of Jecomposltloo of oo oblotot ooJet blqb beot looJs

Modelllng of ablaLlon and pyrolysls can be reduced Lo Lhe developmenL of equlvalenL boundary condlLlons
followlng Lhe conservaLlon of mass, momenLum and energy across Lhe surface, as deplcLed ln equaLlons and flgure
10.
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EUROPEAN CONFERENCE FOR AERONAUTICS AND SPACE SCIENCES (EUCASS)

11
(10)
llqote 10. pootloos of 5otfoce moss bolooce ooJ oetqy bolooce j18]

where Lhe mass blowlng raLe has Lwo componenLs:
c
due Lo Lhe char and
g
due Lo Lhe pyrolysls gases. e
l,r

corresponds Lo Lhe mass producLlon of specles l durlng surface reacLlon r. AL Lhe lnLerface, mass fluxes are flowlng
ouL from blowlng and chemlcal reacLlons (blue) whlle oLher mass fluxes are enLerlng Lhe solld domaln due Lo
dlffuslon, ln[ecLlon of ablaLlon specles and ln[ecLlon of pyrolysls gases. Cn Lhe rlghL hand equaLlon ln flgure 10 Lhe
energy flux balances beLween enLerlng and leavlng energy fluxes are glven. 8lowlng energles are compuLed by
mulLlplylng Lhe mass flow raLe
l
by Lhe enLhalpy h
l
.

1o descrlbe Lhe Lhermal response due Lo Lhe effecLs of heaL flux on Lhe maLerlal, heaLlng, pyrolysls of phenollc resln
and gas mlgraLlon Lhrough Lhe poroslLy up Lo the point where it blows lnLo boundary layer have Lo be consldered.
lor Lhls purpose a code named SAC8AM was developed uslng Lhe assumpLlon of chemlcal equlllbrlum beLween Lhe
pyrolysls gases and Lhe char gases. 1hls hypoLhesls ls llfLed aL surface where Lhe composlLlon of pyrolysls gases ls
done by mlnlmlsaLlon of Lhe free enLhalpy. 1hls code was verlfled by comparlson Lo avallable daLa of a generlc
carbon phenollc maLerlal 1ACC1 publlshed ln nASA ablaLlon workshop, [23]. 1he dlscreLlsaLlon on a movlng grld
allows Laklng lnLo accounL Lhe surface ablaLlon. 1hls code was coupled Lo Lhe Clu code ellmer3 by a parLlLloned
meLhod as deplcLed ln Lhe flgure 12, [18]

1he Lechnlque ln SAC8AM uses a CvlLM spaLlal dlscreLlsaLlon, wlLh a conLracLlng grld, and an lmpllclL Luler Llme
lnLegraLlon wlLh a newLon non-llnear solver, [26],[18].


llqote 11. NA5A Ablotloo wotksbop 1est cose 2 tesolts obtoloeJ osloq sacram. left. tempetotote blstotles fot oll
tbetmocooples JlsttlboteJ lo-Jeptb of tbe test slob. klqbt. blstotles fot sotfoce moss blowloq tote (left oxls, teJ
cotve), locotloo of pytolysls ftoot (vltqlo 98X, qteeo cotve) ooJ locotloo of cbotteJ motetlol ftoot (cbot 2X, otooqe
cotve).
P. Leyland, T .McIntyre, R. Morgan et al.

12

llqote 12. Ablotloo coJe llowflelJ oetocbemlstty cooplloq

kesu|ts

1he resulLs are presenLed for a prospecLlve LSA mlsslon hoebus whlch ls slmllar Lo Payabusa, and whose peak
heaLlng Lra[ecLory polnLs are slmllar. lL ls a passlve 43 deg sphere cone wlLh a base dlameLer of 310 mm and an
approxlmaLe mass of 23 kg, and enLers aL a sllghLly lower veloclLy Lhan Payabusa (10.3 km/s compared Lo
11.8km/s).

llqote 1J. lotm ooJ ulmeosloos of tbe lboebos copsole

lour Lra[ecLory polnLs are reLalned:
11 corresponds Lo a low pressure (hlgh alLlLude) aL sLagnaLlon polnL, 12 corresponds Lo Lhe maxlmum radlaLlve
heaL flux, 13 corresponds Lo Lhe maxlmum convecLlve heaL flux and 14 correspond Lo a hlgh pressure aL
sLagnaLlon polnL:


1oble 2. 1tojectoty polots fot bypetbollc eotty of o sopetotbltol ptobe ptoject lboebos.

llow slmulaLlons are sLeady-sLaLe calculaLlons aL mulLlple polnLs of Lhe dlscreLlsed Lra[ecLory, whlle Lhe maLerlal
response ls Llme-accuraLe for Lhe whole Lra[ecLory Llme. lor Lhls reason, boundary condlLlons LhaL are lmposed Lo
SAC8AM musL be lnLerpolaLed beLween Lwo successlve Lra[ecLory polnLs. Slnce Lhe maLerlal response code ls 1u,
SAC8AM ls run for each polnL of Lhe capsule surface and surface LemperaLure 1w and pyrolysls ln[ecLlon raLes g
are obLalned. yrolysls gas ls assumed Lo be ln chemlcal equlllbrlum and lLs composlLlon aL surface LemperaLure ls
calculaLed by an ln-house chemlcal reacLlon Lool LhaL mlnlmlses the Gibbs free energy; this step can alternatively
be replaced by uslng CLA for example. 1hls allows Lo esLlmaLe Lhe specles concenLraLlon aL Lhe wall, g,l. 1he flnlLe
raLe chemlsLry ablaLlon boundary condlLlon ls used Lo calculaLe
c
and Lhe consequenL sLaLe of Lhe boundary layer
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EUROPEAN CONFERENCE FOR AERONAUTICS AND SPACE SCIENCES (EUCASS)

13
and Lhe lncldenL heaL fluxes on Lhe wall. 1he new geomeLry and mesh ls updaLed and Lhe compuLaLlonal cycle
repeaLed. 1he whole procedure ls lLeraLlve.

1he model of ark of 20 specles and 24 reacLlons (1able 1) conLalns
10 alr specles: C, n, n
2
, nC, C
2
, C+, n+, nC+, n
2
+, e-
10 ablaLlon specles: C, P, P
2
, C
2
P, CC, C
2
, Cn, C
3
, C+, P+

1he mesh ls opLlmlsed and hlghly reflned mesh close Lo wall, and Lhe calculaLlons were performed ln 2u
axlsymmeLrlc mode. 1he maLerlal properLles from nASA 1ACC1 LesL case whlch descrlbes a generlc carbon phenollc
resln (C
6
P
3
CP). 1hls reacLs wlLh Lhe Lhermal non-equlllbrlum alr of whlch some maln heLerogeneous reacLlons are
- CxldaLlon by monoaLomlc oxygen: C(g) + C(s) ) CC(g),
- CxldaLlon by dlaLomlc oxygen: C2(g) + 2C(s) ) 2CC(g),
- nlLraLlon by dlssoclaLed nlLrogen: n(g) + C(s) ) Cn(g)
- SubllmaLlon/deposlLlon: 3C(s) C3(g).

As for example ln Lhe llgure 14, where a more compleLe model of lCA ls presenLed:

llqote 14. 1yplcol woll composltloo fot o cotboo-teslo composlte lo tbetmoJyoomlc epolllbtlom j27]

1he radlaLlon was also accounLed for uslng a LangenL slab approxlmaLlon was used Lo esLlmaLe Lhe radlaLlve fluxes,
uslng a deLalled specLroscoplc daLabase beLween 30 and 2000 nm LhaL ls a mlxLure of exlsLlng daLa and
lmplemenLed as a llbrary ln eilmer3.

llqote 15! composltloo of ooo-Jlmeosloool moss blowloq totes ot stoqootloo polot fot tbe lboebos te-eotty
ttojectoty.(1l1 to 1l4) , 1be compooeots of tbe totol moss blowloq tote ote sotfoce oblotloo ptoJocts blowloq totes
(oxlJotloo, olttlJotloo ooJ sobllmotloo) colcoloteJ by flolte cbemlstty teoctloos ot tbe sotfoce j29] ooJ pytolysls qos
lojectloo.
P. Leyland, T .McIntyre, R. Morgan et al.

14

llgure 13 glves Lhe parL of each phenomenon ln Lhe creaLlon of specles aL wall. 1he oxldaLlon ls Lhe domlnanL effecL
glvlng abundanL CC. 1hen Lhe subllmaLlon ls Lhe second ablaLlng phenomenon resulLlng ln Lhe presence of C
(malnly) and C
3
. 1he lasL effecL ls due Lo pyrolysls wlLh Lhe presence of molecular and aLomlc hydrogen. 1he non-
dlmenslonal blowlng raLe glves an lndlcaLlon of Lhe lmporLance of Lhe mass ln[ecLlon aL Lhe wall wlLh respecL Lo Lhe
free sLream condlLlons.

1he coupled calculaLlons allow Lo obLaln Lhe specles presenL ln Lhe flow (flgure 9.10). 1he resulLs are presenLed for
Lhe peak convecLlve heaLlng Lra[ecLory polnL 13: Lhe facL of only conslderlng Lhe pyrolysls gas mass flow raLe, Lhe
concenLraLlons of ablaLlve specles aL Lhe wall are low as compared Lo Lhe more compleLe model ln llgure 14 above.

llqote 16. coopleJ slmolotloos tesolts. 1lJ moss ftoctloos of olt (left) ooJ oblotlve specles (tlqbt) olooq tbe
stagnation streamline using Parks 20 species 24 reactions moJel.

1he raLe of dlssoclaLlon of n2 and C2 molecules lowers durlng Lhe re-enLry, up Lo Lhe polnL LhaL n2 amounLs Lo 17
of Lhe flow gases with Parks model. MonoaLomlc n recomblnes almosL compleLely lnLo n2 aL Lhe wall.
LvoluLlon of ablaLlve specles are also presenLed on Lhe rlghL hand slde of llgure 16: As Lhe capsule descends and
Lhe denslLy of Lhe ouLer flow lncreases, pyrolysls and ablaLlon gases flnd a greaLer reslsLance Lo peneLraLe lnLo Lhe
boundary layer, wlLh Lhe slgnlflcanL dlffuslon golng from over 1.3mm from Lhe wall of 11 Lo a llLLle over 1mm of
14.


llgure 17: PeaLlng along Lhe capsule aL maxlmum convecLlve heaLlng 1ra[ecLory olnL 13

ln llgure 17 Lhe heaLlng along Lhe capsule body from sLagnaLlon Lo Lhe shoulder ls presenLed showlng LhaL ablaLlon
reduces convecLlve heaL fluxes by 20-23.

8adlaLlon heaL flux proflles are obLalned uslng a 8olLzmann dlsLrlbuLlon for populaLlng energy levels when Lhere ls
Lhermal equlllbrlum (Lhls ls almosL Lhe case for 13) and a colllslonal radlaLlve model uslng CSS approxlmaLlon
when conslderlng Lhermal non-equlllbrlum (11, 12 and 14). ln all four cases, Lhere ls a noLlceable dlfference
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EUROPEAN CONFERENCE FOR AERONAUTICS AND SPACE SCIENCES (EUCASS)

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beLween Lhe Lwo populaLlon models. 1he 8olLzmann approxlmaLlon over-predlcLs Lhe radlaLlve heaL flux by aL leasL
23 wlLh respecL Lo CSS slmulaLlon resulLs for 11 Lo 3.

8adlaLlve heaL flux ls noLlced Lo be smaller wlLh ablaLlon Lhan wlLhouL where Cn ls presenL ln small amounL, Lhe
radlaLlve flux whlch ls reduced by Lhe presence of ablaLlon producLs due Lo Lhe lncreased absorpLlon ln Lhe
boundary layer due Lo Lhe presence of Lhese specles. 1hls radlaLlon blockage effecL ls noL as well undersLood as Lhe
blowlng correcLlon and ls under sLudy aL Lhe presenL Llme. 1hls ls ln agreemenL wlLh Lhe sLudy of !ohnsLon [28].



1oble J. compotlsoo of toJlotlve beot flox levels.


llqote18. loteqtoteJ toJlotlve beot floxes ot 1lJ.

llnally lL ls lnLeresLlng Lo noLe LhaL from Lhese LheoreLlcal esLlmaLlons, as well as ln Lhe llLeraLure, abouL 73 of Lhe
radlaLlve heaL flux ls wlLhln Lhe vuv range (30-200 nm) and Lhe lmporLance of vuv almosL Lhe same wlLh and
wlLhouL ablaLlon. 1hls ls under sLudy experlmenLally wlLhln an LSA 18 sLudy on golng aL presenL.

Conc|us|ons
AlLhough capsule Lechnology daLes from Lhe early 60s and Lhe space exploraLlon race, Lhey remaln and wlll
conLlnue, Lo be slgnlflcanL space exploraLlon shapes for Lhelr versaLlle large radlus heaLshleld for dlsslpaLlng energy
for hyperveloclLy enLry or reLurn. Advances ln research are belng made on Lhe coupllng of Lhe heaL loads Lo Lhe
capsule 1S, ln parLlcular when Lhls ls made of an ablaLlng maLerlal of composlLes, such as Carbon maLrlx/Carbon
phenollcs or Sl-C shells wlLh reslns. ln Lhls paper we have dlscussed LesLlng of scaled Lo almosL fllghL models ln
expanslon Lubes aL near fllghL condlLlons, and ablaLlon modelllng. 1he new posslblllLles of performlng ln-slLu
heaLlng of samples ln expanslon Lubes open many lnLeresLlng perspecLlves for valldaLlon of modelllng acLlvlLles on
radlaLlon-ablaLlon coupllng.

Acknow|edgements
1he work relaLed ln Lhls paper was parLlally supporLed by AusLrallan 8esearch Councll granL numbers u1094360
and u120102663 and Lhe Cueensland CovernmenL SmarL SLaLe Scheme, as well as by Lhe Luropean Space
P. Leyland, T .McIntyre, R. Morgan et al.

16
Agencys LSA-18 AMCu, LSA-18-A8C, LSA nl fellowshlp scheme, Swlss naLlonal 8esearch loundaLlon, Snl
granLs numbers 200021_146710, 200021_140701, and 200021_140693.

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