Making Traditional Bows Light

Making Traditional Bows
Explained to the last detail easy instructions, color photos and video clips to guide you along
Making Traditional Bows LIGHT v. 1.21 Written by C. Mnkel Copyright 2011 Second Chapter Publishing ApS. All Rights Reserved. Page 1
Written by Chris Mnkel MD
Bow and arrow maker for The
Historic Viking Fortress Trelleborg
LIGHT version
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Light version - Introduction
This is the free light version of the e-book Making Traditional Bows. I
have included 42 pages and the video clip on how to make a Flemish
bowstring.
The video content
The video clip included here is an example of how the video clips function
in the DOWNLOAD version of the e-book. In the DVD-ROM version of the
e-book the video clips are embedded in the PDF fle which means you do
not need a connection to the internet to watch the video content.
If you encounter any problems when reading the e-book or when watching
the video clip - read the section about the e-book on page 11.
Remember, in only a few minutes you can be reading the full version of the
e-book. Just click here to buy and download the full version now!
Enjoy reading your copy of the light version!
The full version of the e-book includes:
More than 100 informative A4 (letter) size pages - Compared to most
regular books that is equivalent to more than 200 pages.
20 video clips - a mix of valuable instructive
video clips and bonus action video clips of
the author shooting the bows and arrows
that he carefully shows you how to make. All
videos are in English.
227 illustrative and supportive color photos.
When you make a bow or an arrow using this
book, you will not be lost in the dark with only
text to guide you - That is Guaranteed!
10 useful technical illustrations which will make your day at the workshop a
breeze; for instance when marking out a longbow.
Get the complete e-book now at: www.makingtraditionalbows.com
Reader reviews:
The book was easy to follow and told me everything I needed to know. I
have never done anything like this before and I found it easy and fun to do.
The videos were great to watch when doing the more complex aspect.
Tony, Wigan, England
This is the most well done work of its kind, worth paying for. I value what
youve done and recognise your labor and expense in making the book
and videos. Thank you!
Noah, Montana, USA
This e-book is very well writen. I wish I would have had this book when I
made my frst bow. This will be an excellent addition to my library of bow
making.
David, Georgia, USA
Many thanks for your excellent & prompt help! I think the E-book is really
great and the videos are worth their weight in gold!
Robert, Brighton, England
Read more reviews at: www.makingtraditionalbows.com/reviews.html
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Copyright 2011 Second Chapter Publishing ApS
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Front and back cover photos
The author shooting a 50 pound bamboo back laminate longbow.
The making of the bamboo back longbow, the war arrow and the medieval
style arrow bag featured in the photos are thoroughly covered in this book.
Photo by Jane Maimann
Text editing
Pia Sander
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Sections marked with a (*) are only included in the full version of the
e-book - Get it now at www.makingtraditionalbows.com
Tabe of Contents:
Light version - Introduction 2
Introduction 8
Warning - Disclaimer 10
1. Te e-book 11
Video clip playback 11
Printing the e-book 11
Zooming 11
Links 11
Metric and imperial units 12
2. Bow and arrow terms 13
3. Te longbow 14
4. Tilering 17
Fig. 1 Bow profles 19
5. A quic leson on wod * 22
Wood seasoning * 22
Wood grain * 22
6. Te l aminate longbow 22
What you need 23
The bamboo back laminate 23
The ash back laminate 23
The belly laminate * 23
The glue * 23
The Form * 23
The leather handle * 23
The string nocks * 23
The laminate longbow (ash back) * 23
The work process * 23
Making the laminates * 23
Gluing the laminates together * 23
Marking out the bow * 23
Cutting out the bow 23
Shaping the bow * 24
Tillering * 24
Shortening the bow limbs to increase the draw weight * 24
The nock reinforcements 24
Sanding 24
The arrow plate 24
Final sanding and the varnish 25
The leather handle * 25
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Last * 25
The laminate longbow (bamboo back) * 25
Making the bamboo laminate * 25
Gluing the laminates together * 25
Marking out and cutting out the bow * 25
Dealing with the nodes of the bamboo * 26
Removing the rind and shaping the bow * 26
Tillering * 26
Making and ftting the horn nocks * 26
Applying the varnish * 26
Last * 26
Fig. 2 The laminate longbow * 26
Fig. 3 The laminate longbow (use for heavy draw weight bow) * 26
7. Te fatbow - Holmegaard style 27
The fatbow 27
The Holmegaard bow 27
Fig. 4 High and low crown * 28
What you need 28
The stave 28
The work process 29
Removing the bark 29
Seasoning 29
Marking out the bow 29
Cutting out the bow * 30
Shaping the limbs * 30
Tillering * 30
Final sanding * 30
Last * 30
Some comments on the making of the Holmegaard fatbow * 30
The Holmegaard bow test shoot * 30
The dimensions of the original Holmegaard bow (6000 BC) * 30
The dimensions of the replica Holmegaard bow (2010) * 30
Fig. 5 The larger fatbow * 30
8. Hazel wod self bow 31
The dimensions of the Hazel bow * 31
9. Te Flemish twis bowstring 32
What you need 32
The string material 32
Materials for the string jig 32
Other stuff you need 32
The work process 32
The string jig 32
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The bowstring 32
Last 33
Table 3 (number of strands) 33
Fig. 6 The string jig * 33
10. Arrow sine
33
11. Te War Arrow 34
What you need 35
The arrow shaft 35
The arrow head 36
The fetchings 36
The binding thread 36
The nock 36
Other stuff you will need 37
The work process 37
Fitting the arrow head 37
Cutting the shaft 37
The bobtail profle 37
The nock reinforcements 38
The self nock 39
The varnish 39
Fletching 40
Binding 40
Last 41
War arrow test 41
The target knight 41
Lets get it on! 42
Some fnal thoughts * 42
12. Te target arrow * 43
What you need * 43
The arrow shaft * 43
The arrow head * 43
The fetchings * 43
The nock * 43
Dyeing the shaft * 43
The varnish * 43
The nock * 43
Fletching * 43
Cutting the arrow shaft * 43
Fitting the arrow head * 43
Last * 43
Target arrow test * 43
13. Te fight arrow * 43
What you need * 43
The arrow shaft * 43
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The arrow head * 43
The fetchings * 43
The nock * 43
The parallel fight arrow * 43
The barreled fight arrow * 43
The bobtailed fight arrow * 43
Fig. 7 Arrow shaft profles * 43
Last * 43
Flight arrow test * 43
How to cut the fetchings * 43
Flight arrow test continued * 43
14. Te Bow bag-medieval style * 44
What you need * 44
The fabric * 44
The bands and rope * 44
Fig. 8 The Bow Bag 44
Cutting the fabric and creating the tube * 44
Fitting the bands * 44
Sewing the bag * 44
Finishing the bow bag * 44
15. Te medieval arrow bag * 44
What you need * 44
The fabric * 44
The cotton string, rope and bands * 44
The leather disc * 44
Making the leather disc * 44
Cutting the fabric and sewing the edges * 44
Forming the tube * 44
The loops for the carry string * 44
Stitching the leather disc in place * 44
Last * 44
Fig. 9 The leather Disk * 44
16. Final thoughts 45
17. Literatur/refernces * 45
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that you save at the library and online may now be spent making and
shooting your own bows.

Throughout the book I use ready available and reasonably priced materials
when making the various types of archery equipment. Personally, I fnd it
very frustrating to read an instruction book where the author, for instance,
uses a very rare piece of yew wood to make a bow as yew is very hard to
fnd and costs a fortune. Of course, if I am looking for information on yew
bows, that is fne.
My second reason for writing this book is to share with you some
information on the Holmegaard bows which are Mesolithic (Stone
Age) bows found only a few miles from where I live in Denmark. These
bows date back to around 6000 - 7000 BC and are known in archery
communities worldwide. One of the bows found was a complete bow,
making it the oldest complete bow found in the world and maybe also one
of the oldest bows at all. Other authors have written about the Holmegaard
bows and some are, in my opinion, more or less accurate. I would like
to share some of my knowledge on these bows with you with some
assistance of Danish archeologist Xenia Pauli Jensen.
Personally, I started making longbows or should I say short bows as I was
not very tall, aged 8 - 10 years. We lived next to the forest, so I had
plenty of resources at my disposal, and my dad had a fairly big
workshop with all the necessary tools. I have been making
bows and traditional archery equipment ever since, with
a few breaks, and in the recent years I have been
studying the subject in depth by reading a wide
selection of archery related books and articles.
Lately, I have been making traditional longbows
and arrows for the historic Viking Fortress Trelleborg
in Denmark. The fortress dates back to around 980
AD and was possibly used by the Danish king Harald
Bluetooth. Todays Bluetooth technology is named after
the old Danish king due to his communication skills and
Introduction
My frst and most important reason for writing this book is to, hopefully,
create a single publication that can supply you with all the information that
you need to get started making your own traditional archery equipment,
with more ease and less time spent searching for information than I did
when I frst started out.
When I seriously started looking for information on how to make traditional
bows, arrows, and archery equipment, I found it very frustrating that I had
to search far and wide and go through a large number of books, videos
and websites, to fnd what I needed to make my frst bow and arrows. It
meant that I often ended up spending all day at the library and all night
online. What I was looking for was easy-to-follow instructions, many
photos, illustrations and maybe a video clip or two to guide me in the right
direction. Often, I had to fumble in the dark with only written text guiding
me as photos and illustrations were missing or too few. In those tricky
moments it would have been nice with a video clip to shed some light on
the subject. I would also have enjoyed watching the authors shoot and use
the equipment, which they had just taught you how to make.
There are some very well written books on how to make traditional bows
as well as various sources of information online, but generally illustrations
and photos were too few for my needs. Some instructional video clips may
also be found online, but they are of erratic quality.
When the highly experienced bow makers write books on the subject, I
believe that they sometimes forget to tell you the details, simply because
making bows has become second nature to them.
Many of the well written books are in a foreign language, which is not a
problem as such, but I had to order the books from outside the country and
thus wait for a week or more to get started. I am sure this is not just the
case in Denmark.
You are now holding or should I say looking at your new e-book and
hopefully you have acquired it with no effort spent on your part. The time
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ability to lead diplomatic negotiations. Not a skill the Vikings are commonly
known for.
Since I was a child I have been drawn towards martial arts and traditional
weaponry, and I have been practicing more traditional forms of both armed
and unarmed combat. To this day I still wonder what it is that draws me/
us to search in the direction of the ancient traditions. Maybe it is because
life was simpler back then, or at least we think so. Today, everyone is so
stressed out and life on this planet is becoming still more complicated, so
searching in this direction gives us a little taste of ancient simplicity.
I have spent a long time writing this book and turning it into what you see
before you today. I have made an effort to include all the things which I
thought were missing when I started out. I sincerely hope that you will
enjoy the book and fnd that it includes all the information that you will
need.
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Warning - Disclaimer
This e-book (Making Traditional Bows) is meant to provide authoritative
and accurate information on the subject matter covered.
The author has been thorough in his research and is knowledgeable in the
feld of traditional archery and the making of such equipment. However, he
is neither responsible nor liable for any inaccuracy or errors and omissions,
or for any damage or injury to persons or property resulting from the use
of this e-book or the use of any information, instruction, method or idea
contained or given herein.
When you choose to follow and/or rely on the instructions given in this
e-book, you do so at your sole risk.
Working with tools, especially power tools, is dangerous and so is shooting
and handling a bow and arrow without the appropriate training. This
e-book is sold with the understanding that the author and the publisher
Second Chapter Publishing ApS are not engaged in rendering professional
services, nor is anyone else connected with this e-book. If you have any
doubts whatsoever, professional advice or other expert assistance should
be sought.
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1. Te e-book
This is an e-book made in the PDF format which makes it possible to
read on your computer, laptop or a variety of handheld devices such as
smartphones and e-book readers. To read this e-book on your computer or
laptop I recommend that you use Adobe Reader which you can download
for free here. The table of contents can be accessed in the Bookmarks
panel of Adobe Reader for quick and easy navigation within the book.
If you have any need for support, please contact:
support@makingtraditionalbows.com.
Video clip playback
To watch the video content of the e-book, you need to have Adobe Flash
Player installed which is a free software. If you have an older version of the
player installed, the videos may not play, and you will then need to update
to the latest version of the player.
Click here - to go to the Adobe Flash Player site to see which version you
have installed.
At the Player Site you can also follow the link to the Player Download
Center to download the latest version of the player or you can click here to
go to the player download page.
Regarding video playback on your handheld device, please refer to the
instructional manual included when you bought the device.
When you wish to watch a video clip while reading the e-book, left-click
the movie frame once (your computer or e-book reading device needs to
be connected to the internet). A popup box will appear, asking you if you
trust the website makingtraditionalbows.com. Choose Allow to go to the
website to watch the video (DOWNLOAD version & LIGHT version).
Click the Play button and the movie will start. The video clip can be paused
by clicking the Pause button on the control bar. To navigate within the clip
you use the slider on the control bar.
(When you buy the DVD-ROM version of the e-book, you receive the
e-book on a DVD-ROM. The video clips are embedded in the PDF fle
which means you do not need a connection to the internet to watch the
video content).

The volume can be turned up and down by using the volume slider on the
control bar.

When you are done watching the video clip, you may close your browser.
Printing the e-book
You can print the e-book if you prefer to read the book this way. Before
going to your workshop printing the fgures may be really helpful as you do
not need to bring the computer.

Zooming
To zoom in on the video clips, the photos or the text in the e-book you use
the zoom function in Adobe Reader.
Links
Links are one of the wonderful things that can be included in an e-book,
and something you cannot put into a regular ink and paper style book. The
external links are blue, underlined and link to an external source on the
World Wide Web and are meant to be an aid to supply further information
on the particular word or phrase. Internal links are blue and link to other
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pages in the book. To return to the page which you came from, right-click
your mouse and choose Previous View (Adobe Reader). With the links
you, the reader, will quickly have access to further information on the
subject. The computer or the device which you use for reading the e-book
needs to be connected to the internet for the external links to work. The
World Wide Web is constantly changing so if you fnd any dead links,
please let us know and we will correct it as soon as possible.
Metric and imperial units
All information is given in both metric and imperial units, the only exception
being the draw weight of the bows. It has become tradition to announce
draw weight and draw length of bows in imperial units. Draw weight is
announced in pounds. One pound equals 0.454 kilograms which is a little
less than 1/2 kilogram.
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2. Bow and arrow terms
Draw length
Belly of
the bow Back of
the bow
Forces of
tension
Forces of
compression
Handle riser
Handle
Upper bow
leg/limb
Lower bow
leg/limb
Bracing height
(string height)
Bowstring
String
nock
Arrow head Shoulder Arrow shaft Fletchings Nock
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3. Te longbow
W
hen and how the longbow got its name, I am not certain and to
my knowledge neither are the history experts. When pondering
on the term longbow the frst thing that comes to mind as a
possible origin is, as implied in the name, the length of the bow. The length
of the longbow is naturally also one of the theories on what gave rise to
the name. Longbows do, in general, have longer limps when for instance
compared to fatbows. Another theory on how the longbow got its name is
referring to the way it is used and shot, which is upright compared to the
crossbow which is held across the body.

When comparing a longbow to a fatbow it is not only the length of the
longbow that makes it different from the fatbow but the complete design
of the bow. The design of a longbow is characterized by its narrow and
thick limps and the fatbow by its wide and thinner limps. In cross section
the longbow is D shaped, and the fatbow has a more rectangular or oval
shape. The limps of a longbow will, due to the design differences, have a
faster return speed when compared to the limps of a fatbow of the same
mass. The longbow will, as a result of the faster return of the limbs, be able
to shoot an arrow a longer distance. The wood of both the belly and the
back of a longbow are stressed to a larger extend than that of a fatbow
due to the design differences. The stress is lessened, to some degree,
by the longer limbs of the longbow. In a fatbow the stress is more evenly
distributed across the whole cross section of the wider limbs, which means
you do not need perfect bow wood to make a fatbow and can thus use
the weaker types of wood such as ash and elm etc. A fatbow can also be
made with shorter limbs because the stress is more evenly distributed,
thus diminishing the requirement for the longer limbs. The weaker bow
woods are not equally suitable for making a longbow.
The above explains why only very few types of wood may be used to make
a longbow from one piece of wood (a selfbow), as it was practice back in
time. A type of wood that will make a good longbow is yew (taxus baccata).
Yew possesses the perfect combination of the compression resistant
heartwood and the tension resistant sapwood which makes it the perfect
bow wood. When that is said, it should be added that not all yew is perfect
bow wood. The quality of the particular piece of wood, depends on the
growing conditions of the yew tree from which the stave was cut. Yew has,
not surprisingly, been the favored wood of bow makers (bowyers) since
the Iron Age and up to the late medieval period, and to many it still is when
making a bow from one piece of wood.
Because of the almost unique characteristics of yew it is one of the very
few types of wood that has the ability to withstand the compression forces
at work on the belly side of a longbow, without the wood giving in when the
bow is drawn and used over time, or in the worst case, getting a fracture.
This applies to longbows over 50 pounds in draw weight and made from a
single piece of wood. Longbows under 50 pounds can be made from the
weaker types of wood but the level of success will depend on how high
a draw weight is chosen, the quality of the wood being used and the skill
of the bowyer. Although yew is close to perfect bow wood, our ancestors
still had a lot of problems with yew bows breaking. Yew was the only bow
wood available for making powerful longbows in ancient and medieval
Europe, which made it a very desired commodity. In medieval England yew
was brought in from far and wide and it was illegal to export yew from the
region.
Today yew wood is rare and very expensive, and in some regions
of Denmark it is even illegal to cut down the yew tree. The
story is a different one with regard to the selection and
availability of wood for making a laminate longbow.
Many different types of wood can be combined to
make a laminate longbow and when doing so you
will still have a good, reliable and maybe even better
bow than a yew bow. In order to successfully combine
the layers of a laminate bow you need a strong adhesive
to create a safe and functional bond between the different
layers of the laminate bow. Today, a wide selection of glue
is available and some are able to effectively glue the layers
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of a laminated bow and this even under the stressful life of a bow. Back
in time the bow makers did not have the option of making laminate bows,
simply because they did not have reliable glue, and this is why they had to
make bows from a single piece of wood.
When making a longbow today the most common practice is to make
a laminate longbow, partly because the yew is so hard to obtain and
when found so very expensive, but also because we have the right glue
available. Not to forget the fact that it is a lot easier to make a simple
laminate longbow than a yew selfbow or any selfbow for that matter, and
the laminate bow may even shoot better. When making a laminate bow
you can pretty much use a set of dimensions, which is not possible when
making a bow from one piece of wood, because you have to care for the
knots and the curvatures of the wood etc.
Having said all this, we cannot deny the awe and beauty that surrounds a
well made yew bow, which over the years has drawn the attention of many.
In the bogs of Denmark archaeological fnds of Iron Age war booty
offerings have been recovered, and among the fnds were several
longbows, some dating back to the year 200 AD. The bows found are
powerful yew selfbows, the size of a fully grown man, with an oval or
D shaped cross section. The D shaped cross section was the most
common design of the longbows from the late 3rd and 4th century whereas
the longbows with the oval cross section belonged to the earlier fnds. It is
amazing how the design of the longbow has hardly changed since the 3rd
century.
The period between the Iron Age and the Medieval Times (800 - 1050
AD) signifes the days of the Vikings to the Scandinavians. Powerful D
section longbows dating back to the Age of the Vikings have been found
in the former Danish Viking town Hedeby. The town lies just across the
Danish/German border near the German town Schleswig. In German
Hedeby is called Haithabu. Hedeby dates back to 800 AD and was a key
trading center in the Viking Age. The town was attacked and destroyed
on numerous occasions and was fnally destroyed, as far as I know,
around1050 AD by the Norwegians. It was never rebuilt. At the site of
the old Viking town one complete bow and six bow fragments have been
found. Also found were numerous arrow heads, some fragments of arrow
shafts and patches of leather thought to have been part of a hip-side
quiver (arrow bag).
The one complete bow found was made from a slender stem of yew and
was 191 cm long. At the handle the bow was 4 cm wide by 3.3 cm thick.
There were no signs of an actual handle but some markings were found
just above the centre, which are interpreted as wear caused by the arrows
passing. The only design differences when compared to bows from the
Iron Age are the characteristic de-fexed tips found on these bows. 5 - 9 cm
(2 - 3 1/2) from the ends of the limbs the tips are bent back in the direction
of the archer. Why exactly the Vikings de-fexed the tips of their longbows
I am not sure, and I have not found any good arguments concerning the
matter. Personally, I believe it might have been some form of aid when
bracing the bow.
A German author has made three replica bows of the one complete bow
from Hedeby, and the bows have a draw weight around 75 - 90 pounds.
Five of the six bow fragments that were also found were made from yew
and the last one from elm. All the designs were quite similar.

After the Viking Age comes the Medieval Times. Here, the English have
shown us the power of the longbow when it is used on a larger scale as
an artillery weapon. Medieval longbows have been recovered from the
English war ship The Mary Rose, which sank in 1545 while leading an
attack on a French invasion feet. The Mary Rose was salvaged in 1982
by The Mary Rose Trust. One could say that the longbows recovered
from The Mary Rose represent some of the last longbows used for war as
frearms were taking over at around that period. The English were some of
the last to let go of the longbow.
When considering the many and much earlier fnds and proof of D
section longbows, I am confused and not quite sure what is meant when
someone calls a longbow an English longbow, because longbows were
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used in various places long before the Medieval Times. It is my opinion
that it would be fairer if we left the longbow design unclaimed by any man
or country. Let us all just enjoy the amazing design that it was and still is.
We will shortly start making some fne longbows, but frst you need to know
a little about tillering and the remarkable structure of wood. Read on!
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4. Tilering
When making bows you need to know something about the art of tillering.
Tillering roughly means to make the bow bend nice and evenly by
removing wood in the right places. There are more aspects to the art of
tillering than getting the bow to bend nicely. You also have to arrive at the
desired draw weight and draw length, all in the same process. The draw
weight of a bow is the amount of force/weight that is required to draw
the bow back to its full drawn position. Your draw length is the distance
from the back of the bow to the bowstring when you have drawn the bow
to its full drawn position. This is a practical way of measuring your draw
length. If you buy a more modern bow, the manufactures may measure
the draw length a little differently (and more complicated) in an attempt to
standardize the way of measuring draw length. We are making our own
equipment, so we do not have to worry about any standardization. The
most common draw length for adult males is in the area of 71 - 73.5 cm
(28 - 29).
To be able to tiller your bow you need a tillering
devise. The photos (p1-3) show two examples
of such a devise. The simple tiller in photo
(p1+2) is the easiest one to make as it is just a
simple board. When using the simple tiller you
place the handle of the bow in the slot at the
top of the board. The bow can now be drawn
back/down by hand with the device resting on
the ground as shown in the photos. Fix the
bowstring in one of the grooves cut into the
board at 5 cm (2) increments. Then step back
and watch the bend of the bow. You do not even
need to make the stand arrangements shown in
the photos (p1-2), just rest the tiller board and
your partly drawn bow against the wall.
The wall tiller seen in photo (p3),
may take a little longer to make but
it is really nice to have, especially If
you are considering making more
bows. When using the wall tiller it is
possible to draw the bow back from
a distance using rope and pulleys,
thus making it convenient and easy
to see the bend of the bow while
you work. Working the bow on the
tiller after you have removed wood
as part of the tillering is also easier
when using a wall tiller.
You can see the wall tiller in use in the video clip - The tillering process.
The majority of wood removal during the tillering process is done on the
belly side of the bow. Occasionally it is necessary to remove wood from
the sides of the bow, for instance if a bow limb is twisting to one side.
Regarding the bows we will be making in this book, we never remove
wood from the back of the bow during the tillering process. When I tiller
a bow, I hardly ever use any other tools than a card scraper and maybe
some rough sandpaper. When I fnd a spot that needs some wood
removed, I use the card scraper to remove the necessary amount of
wood and then remove the tool marks from the card scraper with rough
sandpaper.
Before we start the actual tillering
we should take a look at some
different bow profles to give you a
better understanding of how a bow
should bend, and what to look out
for when tillering.
Profle A (Fig.1) is a bow bending
through its full length, also called
bending full compass. The bow is
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also bending in the handle area, which means the handle section is a part
of the working bow. This profle is great for distance shooting and was also
the preferred profle for the artillery bows back in time. Having the bow
bend through the handle makes it more powerful, but often uncomfortable
to use as it is more prone to kick when shot. Profle A is not the best
profle for obtaining maximum accuracy and consistency, especially at
a shorter range, which is something you would wish for when target
shooting.
Profle B (Fig.1) has a stiff handle section which is obtained through a
small handle riser (rise of the handle). A bow with profle B has more
stability and will be more accurate and comfortable to shoot compared to a
bow with profle A. The increase in accuracy is gained by only a slight loss
in distance. Profle B is a good all round bow design and this is the design
we will be using for the longbows in this book.
As with everything else good in life, such as the stiff handle section, the
tendency is that if you overdo it, it does not turn out very well, which is the
case with profle C.
Profle C (Fig.1), the whip ended bow is the extreme case of a stiff handle/
centre section. This profle has a bad tendency to stack when drawn, which
means the bow gets harder to draw as you approach your full draw length.
The bow is much more in danger of taking a bad set (follow the string) or
getting a fracture, as there is much more stress on the bow limbs at the
point where they actually do bend. The whip ended bow is often quite
accurate over shorter distances, but it will not have a great amount of
power and thus not be able to achieve any great distance when shot. This
is why we want our bows to bend all the way up to the handle section, with
the only stiff part being the small handle area with the riser.
Profle D (Fig.1) shows a bow that bends too much in the handle. The bow
will be more prone to damage in this area.
Profle E (Fig.1) shows a bow with a hinge on the right bow leg. The bow
will be more prone to damage in this area.
Profle C, D and E all illustrate problems that you should try to avoid when
tillering. The problem areas are exaggerated for illustration purposes and
may not be as obvious when tillering your bow and should be corrected
long before they get as bad as illustrated.
Profle F (Fig.1) shows a bow with an uneven tiller, where one bow leg is
bending much more than the other. The two nocks should be at the same
horizontal level and the bow should have an even bend.
The handle of the longbow is offset from the centre of the bow (length
wise), which means you are holding down on the lower bow limb (Fig. 2
(only full version). This results in the lower bow limb being both shorter and
stiffer than the upper limb. The upper bow limb will thus bend slightly more
than the lower limb, which is not an uneven tiller but the way a longbow
should bend, and this can be checked during the tillering process. To do
this, brace the bow and measure the distance from the string to the belly of
the bow, on both the upper and the lower limb at any point equally distant
from the handle. When doing so, the distance from the string to the belly of
the bow should be about 0.5 cm (3/16) shorter on the lower limb than on
the upper limb.
To get started with the tillering process you need to make an overlong and
temporary bowstring. I use braided nylon, but the temporary bowstring can
be made from any material that is strong enough for the job. I recommend
that you do not use the actual bowstring as it probably will get damaged in
the tillering process.
When you start tillering your bow, the frst task is to achieve an even bend
and avoid one bow leg being much stronger (stiffer) than the other. If this is
the case, you need to remove wood from the belly side of the stronger leg,
in order to make the bow bend nice and evenly.
Slowly start bending the bow on the tiller, only making it bend a few inches
at frst. Lets say I am drawing the bow down 10 cm (4) and it still bends
nicely, then I draw it down 10 cm (4) repeatedly 20-50 times before I
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A
B
C
D
E
F
Fig. 1 Bow profles
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proceed. At some point in the past your bow was part of a tree and was not
exposed to the amount of stress that it will experience in its life as a bow.
Therefore it is important to take small steps and only bend the bow little by
little to let the wood get used to its new state. If and when the bow bends
nicely I draw it a little further and continue like this with 2.5 - 5 cm (1 - 2)
increments until I reach my intended draw length.
During the tillering always watch for irregularities and asymmetry in the
way the bow bends. If any stiff areas present themselves, remove wood
from this area and NEVER from the weak areas (an area were the bow
bends too much). To avoid causing permanent damage to the bow limbs it
is crucial that you take your bow off the tiller as soon as you see any form
of hinge or weak area starting to develop and do not draw your bow any
further until the error is corrected. The way you correct a hinge or weak
area is by removing wood around the area and leaving the hinged/weak
area untouched. When doing this you relieve the weak area and the bow
leg will start bending more evenly. Correcting a hinged area may cause
the particular bow limp to become weaker than the other limb due to the
removal of wood. If this happens, remove wood from the other limb to get
an even bend again.
Every time I remove wood during the tillering process, I draw the bow
down repeatedly 20 - 50 times to work the changes into the wood, before I
continue with the tillering.
When you have reached your intended draw length, shorten the string
to make it ft tightly against the bow in such a way that the bow is still not
bending. Now with the shorter bowstring ftted, draw the bow down in
small increments like before, repeating the process. Continue like this,
doing your magic, and remove wood if necessary. When you reach your
intended draw length once again, and if the bow is still bending nicely, it
is time to brace the bow at a low bracing height. You do this by shortening
the bowstring once more. The bracing height of a bow is the distance from
the belly side of the grip to the bowstring, measured at 90. An easy way
to fgure out the distance, which has to suit the archer, is by using the
distance from the tip of a outstretched thumb to the other side of the hand,
which is typically around 15 - 17 cm (5 29/32 - 6 11/16). Now, go through
the process again at low bracing height and if the bow still bends nicely
when you reach your draw length, it is time to fully brace the bow and go
through the whole process one last time.
Before you have completed tillering you have to fx your braced bow in a
vise near the handle with the belly side up. Now look down the bowstring
from both ends and see how the bowstring is positioned in relation to the
central vertical axis of the bow (the centre line). The bowstring and the
centre line should be in alignment with the string overlapping the centre
line. If they do not overlap, make sure the bowstring is placed centrally in
the temporary nock grooves, which it should be. If the string is still not in
alignment with the centre line, it means one or both bow limbs are bending
off to one side and this may need to be corrected, depending on your
luck. When looking at the bow from the bottom leg, and you fnd that the
bowstring is closer to the left edge of the bow, you have what is called a
handed bow, meant for a right handed archer. It takes a fair amount of skill
to make a handed bow, so congratulate yourself. If you are right handed
and the bowstring is closer to the right edge of the bow, you are not as
lucky and will have to do some work to get it back in alignment.
Here is what you do to get the bowstring to overlap the centre line as it
should, if you cannot excuse the fact that it is off by saying it is a handed
bow. You already have the bow fxed in the vise and you now need to
remove a little wood from the side of the limbs. Remove the wood from
the side opposite to the side which the string has moved to, as this is the
stronger side. If for instance the bowstring is off to the right of the centre
line, you carefully remove wood with the card scraper from the left side
of the bow limbs. One bow leg alone could cause the string to be off the
centre line, if so, you only need to remove wood from the side of that
particular bow leg to get the string back in alignment with the centre line.
Having removed the wood you may need to bend the limbs by hand in
the desired direction for the effect to show. When you are done with the
corrections, put the bow back on the tiller and draw it down a couple of
times to see whether the changes remain effective.
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If you choose to make or keep the bow handed always make sure the
limbs of the bow are both bending evenly to the same side.
Making a handed bow is usually something that you do at the end of the
tillering process and it is done just as explained above, by removing a
little wood from the side of the limbs to which you want the string to move
to. Removing the wood will make the side from which the wood has been
removed weaker, and the string will move in that direction.
A handed bow is more accurate on a short distance shot as the arrow does
not have to bend around the handle as much as it normally would (Read
the chapter on arrow spine and the archers paradox for more on this
subject). Professional bow makers often make handed bows.
It is now time to measure the draw weight of your bow. When doing so, the
bow needs to be drawn to the intended draw length. If you do not have a
scale that you can hook up to the bowstring as you draw it down or back,
it is possible to use a regular bathroom scale together with the simple tiller
(p1-2). You place the foot/base of the simple tiller on the bathroom scale
and then you draw the bow down without fxing the string. You can now
read the draw weight of the bow on the bathroom scale. The bow limbs
can be shortened to increase the draw weight, if you fnd that it is lower
than intended. For more information on how to increase the draw weight by
shortening the bow limbs, please read Chapter 6 (The ash back longbow).
If you have a certain draw weight in mind, make sure you never, at any
point during the tillering process, exceed your intended draw weight. To
avoid this, it is important to check the draw weight frequently during the
tillering. Drawing your bow beyond the intended draw weight may cause
the belly wood to compress beyond what is desirable or in the worst case
damage the bow limbs. If this happens you could end up with a rather
lifeless bow compared to what it could have been with a little care taken
during the tillering process.
Watch the video clip below to complete the lesson on tillering and become
a tillering wizard.
Click the video frame to watch the video (only in the full version of Making
Traditional Bows).
Tillering is an art only to be mastered through practice. Making a bow that
is too light in draw weight in the pursuit of perfection is a common mistake
when frst starting out, and is caused by excessive wood removal. Making
a functional bow, that may not be bending perfectly in your frst attempt,
is in my opinion better than attempting to achieve perfection. More often
than not you will end up with a bow that cannot cast an arrow past the tip
of your shoe. So do not wear sandals. I would like to spare you the pain of
watching all those hours of work go up in smoke, as you watch your frst
bow making attempt burn in the fre place. Keep a close eye on the scales
as you tiller your bow and go for perfection when you have made a few
bows. When you gain more experience, you will also know what you want
from a bow, or maybe even more so, what you do not want.
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5. A quic leson on wod *
Y
ou need a basic knowledge on how to handle and choose the right
wood for your bows. This knowledge includes learning a little about
wood seasoning and the grain of the wood....
Wood seasoning *
Wood grain *
6. Te l aminate longbow
W
e will now be making a simple laminate longbow and for
illustration I will make two bows with different back laminates one
with bamboo and one with ash.
Before you start I recommend you look through the instructions for making
both the ash back and the bamboo back longbow regardless, which one
you choose to make. The work processes are quite similar and information
needed may be given in one passage and not in the other. When doing so,
you will also know what to aim for in your minds eye.
First you have to decide whether you want to use bamboo, ash or maybe
even a different type of wood for the back laminate of your bow.
Bamboo is very strong in tension and you hardly have to worry about the
grain running off the edges of the laminate. The back laminate can much
easier be made to have a perfectly straight grain as you only have to think
about the front view plane. Bamboo is in fact a type of grass, but from now
on I will refer to it as wood. Then you saw and fle the grass, just does not
sound right.
Ash will also make a great back laminate and thus a fne bow, but it is not
as strong in tension as bamboo. The bow will have a larger risk of taking a
set, which means the bow limbs may follow the string over time.
Making a thin back laminate of ash without a band saw or circular saw is
hard, if not impossible, and it would also take a very long time. The same
applies to any other back laminate except for bamboo. Thus you will need
to fnd someone with the necessary power tools to help you cut the thin
back laminate. I would recommend that you make the back laminate from
bamboo if you cannot get help or are the lucky owner of one of the above
mentioned power tools.
My bows will be in the 40 - 50 pound range, using the dimensions in Fig.
2 (only full version). If you choose to make a bow with a draw weight of 80
pounds or higher, I recommend the dimensions in Fig. 3 (only full version).
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When making a 70 pound bow or higher with a draw length of 76 cm (30)
or more, you should also use the dimensions in Fig. 3 (only full version).
Before we start, remember it is better to have made a bow that is not all
perfect, than to give up half way because you feel it is getting too diffcult.
More experience is often gained by the less perfect bows that you have
made in your time as a bowyer. The next bow you make may turn out just
the way you want it to!
Here we go!
What you need
The bamboo back laminate
A bamboo log about 10 - 15 cm (4 - 6) in diameter.
The fnished bamboo laminate should be ?? cm (??) (only full version)
in length and must have an equal distance from the ends to the top and
the bottom node of the laminate. Unless you measure this before you
buy the bamboo, it is safer to get a log that is somewhat longer than what
you need. Also get the bamboo log with the longest distance between the
nodes and as few cracks as possible.
If you buy green bamboo and season it yourself, you will need to split
the log open at least once, down the whole length of it, and hammer out
the internal space dividers of the bamboo with for instance the shaft of a
broom. In doing so, the bamboo will not have the same tendency to crack,
as it looses its moisture. I actually do this to all my bamboo logs before I
store them, green or not, just to be on the safe side.
The ash back laminate
An ash board, a plank or a quarter log, cut in such a way that the grain of
the wood is straight and does not run off the edges of the board in front or
side view as mentioned earlier.
The dimensions of the board should, as a minimum be ??? cm (??) (only
full version) in length by ?? cm (??) wide by ?? cm (??) thick (only full
version).
The laminate must be made from the sapwood of the tree, which is the
outer band of light colored wood that can be seen when studying the
cross section of a tree. The darker wood in the centre of the stem is the
heartwood.
Hickory, elm and maple are other types of wood which may be used as
backing for your bow with no need to change any of the dimensions given
here. Hickory is used by many professional bowyers for bow backing
and is very good and probably also the best of the four types of wood
mentioned. Hickory is harder to come by and also quite expensive, well at
least in Denmark.
The belly laminate *
The glue *
The Form *
The leather handle *
The string nocks *
The laminate longbow (ash back) *
The work process *
Making the laminates *
Gluing the laminates together *
Marking out the bow *
Cutting out the bow
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Shaping the bow *
Tillering *
Shortening the bow limbs to increase the draw weight *
The nock reinforcements
16. Now we will make some nice
looking nock reinforcements using
a small slice of hardwood (p25+26).
This is by far the easiest way to
reinforce the string nocks. For
information on how you make and
ft horn nocks see the description
below on page 40 (only full version).
Make 2 small slices of hardwood
about 0.5 cm (3/16) thick, with
the same width as the bow. With
regard to the length, please refer
to the photos (p23-26). At the top nock I have chosen to keep one of the
temporary nock grooves to use with the stringer when bracing the bow
(p23+26).
Use a two component epoxy resin
to glue the 2 slices of hardwood to
the back of the bow as shown in
photo (p 23+24).
When the glue is dry, use a metal
work fle and sandpaper to round
everything off to a nice and smooth
fnish. Then make the fnal nock
grooves with the 4 mm (5/32)
round fle. When making the nock
grooves you should fle into the face
of the reinforcing slice of hardwood, but do not cut or fle into the face of
the bow backing, in this case the ash laminate (p25+26).
Sanding
17. It is now time to sand the whole bow. I do the fnal sanding by hand.
First use 80 grit sandpaper and make sure that the surface is smooth
and even with no dips. Then run everything over once more, with 120
grit sandpaper. You do not have to sand the back if you did it earlier as
recommended.
The arrow plate
18. Before applying the varnish you have the option of making an arrow
plate, which is meant to protect the bow from wear caused by the arrows
passing. It will give the bow a nice
fnish (p37 (only full version)). The
plate is not a necessity in this case
as this type of belly wood is quite
resistant to the wear caused by the
arrows.
For this bow I use a piece of bone
to make the arrow plate. The size
is about 30 mm x 8 mm x 3 mm
(1 3/16 x 5/16 x 1/8). Horn also
works fne.
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Place the bone piece just inside
the handle area in such a way
that you will not be able to see the
lower edge of the bone when the
leather handle is ftted (p37 (only
full version)). Mark along the edges
of the bone with a fne tipped pencil
(p27). Cut along the markings using
a sharp knife and a steel ruler in
order to avoid splits once you start
working with the chisel. Then use a
chisel to carefully remove the wood
inside the markings to create a hole
about 2 mm (3/32) deep (p28)
with the same shape as your bone
piece. Be very careful when working
with the knife and chisel, otherwise
you can easily damage the bow.
When the piece of bone is ftted into
the hole, it should be just above the
level of the wood (p29). This way
the arrow will only brush against the
bone when it is shot.
Glue the bone piece in place using
a two component epoxy resin. When the glue is dry, fle the edges of the
bone down to the level of the wood to give it a nice ft into the body of the
bow (p37 (only full version)). Make sure that the centre part of the bone is
still above the level of the wood.
Final sanding and the varnish
19. The nocks are fnished and the arrow plate is in place and looking
good. Your frst shooting session is done and the bow still bends nicely
when set on the tiller. Meaning it is now time to apply the fnish!
Before doing so, I run the whole bow over one last time with 180 grit
sandpaper. Some bowyers use 300 - 400 grit sandpaper when doing the
fnal sanding.
When you are done sanding and you are certain all dust is removed, you
can apply the fnish to protect the bow from moisture and dents. There is a
wide selection of oils and lacquer available, which can be applied by brush,
sponge or by the use of compressed air and sprayed on. Two component
products are often most effective but also more expensive and harder to
come by. A one component foor lacquer or boat lacquer is in my opinion
not a bad choice, as they are quite resistant to both wear and moisture.
Give the bow a few coats of lacquer and you will have a great looking
fnish. Remember to add your personal mark, and if you like also the draw
weight and draw length of the bow, in between the coats of lacquer.
Please refer to the instructions included with the product regarding safety and use.
When you are certain the lacquer is dry you are ready to proceed.
The leather handle *
I will now show you how to make a sweet looking leather handle, that will
blow the competition away.....
e-book Making Traditional Bows. You may be reading the full version in
only a few minutes - Click here to buy the full version.
Last *
The laminate longbow (bamboo back) *
The work process *
Making the bamboo laminate *
Gluing the laminates together *
Marking out and cutting out the bow *
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Dealing with the nodes of the bamboo *
Removing the rind and shaping the bow *
Tillering *
Making and ftting the horn nocks *
Applying the varnish *
Last *
Fig. 2 The laminate longbow *
Fig. 3 The laminate longbow (use for heavy draw weight bow) *
Fig. 2, Fig. 3 and sections marked with a (*) are only included in the full
version of the e-book - Get it now at www.makingtraditionalbows.com
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7. Te fatbow - Holmegaard style
The fatbow
T
he design of the fatbow is very old and was developed long before
Christ was born. When making a fatbow, it is possible to make a
strong and durable selfbow from the weaker types of wood like ash,
elm and maple just to name a few. These types of wood would not perform
well if they were used to make a longbow from one piece of wood. As
mentioned earlier the fatbow has wide, thin, and shorter limbs compared
to the longbow.

Now, let us step back in time.
The Holmegaard bow
About 8000 years ago a Mesolithic (Stone Age) hunter was sitting at the
edge of a lake, in what is now called the country of Denmark, and in his
hands he was holding a bow. This is the very same complete bow that is
now in the caring hands of the National Museum of Denmark. The hunter
may just have come back from the daily hunt and now taking a well-
deserved rest, having carried his trophy deer through the vast pine forest,
with a thick undergrowth of hazel, which is thought to have surrounded
the lake at the time. The lake of that time was near what today is the town
of Holmegaard. Long ago the lake dried out and it is now a bog, the bog
of Holmegaard. For many years there has been a glassworks right by the
bog. They needed fuel for their furnaces and for a long time they depended
on the peat supply from the bog. During their peat digging activity more
Stone Age settlements have been discovered. Therefore, we have the
glassworks to thank for the great discoveries made in the bog. In 1944 an
amazing discovery was made at one of these Stone Age settlements. One
complete bow was found, 154 cm (60 5/8) long, and another incomplete
bow thought to have been around 160 - 170 cm (63 - 67) long was also
found. Other small fragments of bows were also recovered. The bows date
back to around 6000 - 7000 BC.
The frst piece on the Holmegaard bows was written in the year 1945, the
year right after the discovery of the bows. The article was written by C. J.
Becker (1915-2001). C. J. Becker was a Danish archeologist and later he
also became a professor at the University of Copenhagen. As far as I know
Becker participated in the excavation, but I am not aware of the extent
of his involvement. The article was part of an annual collection of articles
published by the National Museum of Denmark. The issue is called Fra
Nationalmuseets Arbejdsmark 1945, but unfortunately for readers with no
knowledge of Danish it is in Danish. I will try to summarize the information
given in this article by one of the frst people who lay hands and eyes on
these very old artifacts. Added are a few of my own comments.
Both of the Mesolithic bows were made from elm wood, which was not a
common tree at the time. Therefore the wood must have been specially
chosen for the purpose. The advanced layout and construction of these
highly specialized and effective weapons, points towards.........
The missing section is only included in the full version of the e-book
Making Traditional Bows. You may be reading the full version in only a few
minutes - Click here to buy the full version.
........It is my intension to make a bow that is as close to a copy of the real
bow as possible. This will be a great illustration of how to make a selfbow
with the design of a fatbow.
Now, I am sure that you are thinking 154 cm (60 5/8) is a short bow, but if
you have ever tried to get a longbow through a thick forest, not to mention
shooting it in one, you will know that a shorter bow would be quite handy in
such a place. A shorter bow is also great to have at a 3D course as there
are often some tricky shots, I think mostly for the amusement of the course
makers.
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Now, let us make the bow.
Fig. 4 High and low crown *
What you need
The stave
An elm wood log (the stem) about 6 - 10 cm (2 - 3 1/8) in diameter. Larger
logs can be used to make both the Holmegaard bow and the larger fatbow
in Fig. 5.
Ash has many characteristics that are similar to elm and is a great
alternative. Hickory and maple are two other fne alternatives. Many other
types of wood can be used for making a fatbow as this design is very
forgiving with regard to both strength and quality of the wood so do not be
afraid to experiment with different types of wood.
In Denmark we have had the elm decease for quite a while now, but I was
lucky to acquire a fne straight piece of shadow grown wood with hardly
any knots.
In general, you should avoid knots and fnd a log as straight as possible.
If you cannot fnd such a perfect piece, then just get the snaky one with all
the knots. You will be amazed by what a fne bow it will make anyway.
When searching for your elm log, it is important that the wood just below
the bark is still intact as it will be the
future back of the bow. If you do not
cut down your own tree, look out for
the small holes in the bark made by
the bark beetle (p1). Especially, if
the wood has been in storage with
the bark still on. If you spot these
beetle holes in the bark, it is very
likely that the wood (the sapwood)
just below the bark is damaged
(p1). Such a damaged piece
Traditional Bows).
of wood can still be used, but you will have to carefully work down the
damaged annual growth ring, until you have one complete and undamaged
ring to use for the back of your bow. Doing this takes time, patience, and
some precision work. If this is not you, avoid the bark beetles!
The size of the what you need list for this bow is short because the one
piece of elm wood is pretty much all you need. This is why you could
certainly justify calling these bows simple. I do wonder, why anyone would
choose to call the Holmegaard bows and other bows alike for primitive
bows. The Mesolithic men created a fantastic performing weapon with
whatever means they had at the time. You may choose to call the bows
simple, but in my opinion primitive is not an appropriate term for these
masterpieces.
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The work process
A large part of the work processes
on how to make bows are similar. I
therefore recommend that you also
read Chapter 6 (only full version)
on making the laminate longbow
before you start making the fatbow
as described below.
Before you begin, watch the video
clip - Making the Holmegaard bow.
Removing the bark
1. Remove the bark of the elm log,
but be VERY careful not to damage
the wood just below the bark as
this is the future back of the bow
(p2-4). I use a knife to loosen
the bark and then I pull it with my
hands. It was quite easy with my
particular piece as the tree was
felled in the late summer. If you fell
the tree in the winter the inner bark
can be quite laborious to remove as
it was the case with my hazel bow
in Chapter 8.
Seasoning
2. Store your log until it has
reached the desired moisture
content (around 9 - 12%) if deemed
necessary (read Chapter 5 (only full
version)). As mentioned earlier you
can seal the ends of the log with
some paint to keep the wood from
splitting while it loses its moisture.
This technique can be combined
with the tying of a steel wire tightly
around the ends of the log. After
the bark was removed, my log
was stored in the shed for about
2 months. I then split the log once
down the middle (p5) and stored it
inside the house for a few weeks. It
was now ready to be shaped into a
bow with a moisture content of about 11 - 12 %. When you split the stem,
make sure you end up with a piece large enough to ft the bow that you
choose to make.
Marking out the bow
3. Study the bow stave (it is now a stave) to fgure out where to position
the layout of the bow in order to get as few knots as possible in your
fnished product. Also try to get the two bow limbs as symmetrically looking
as possible. My stave had two small defex curves, so I placed the handle
midway between them to get the bow limbs as symmetrically looking as
possible (p12+13 (only full version)). When doing so, it is more likely that
the limbs will bend evenly and the bow will be easier to tiller.
4. Draw a center line down the
whole length of the stave (p6).
Make sure it does not twist;
otherwise the grain will be cut. Use
a string to check whether the line is
straight or mark along the string.
5. Mark out the back of the bow
with reference to the center line,
using the dimensions in Table 2
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(only full version) or Fig 5 (only full version), depending on which bow you
are making (p7 (only full version)).
6. Mark out the belly tapers (p8+9 (only full version)). Again, by using the
dimensions in either Table 2 or Fig. 5 (only full version).
Cutting out the bow *
Shaping the limbs *
Tillering *
Final sanding *
Last *
Some comments on the making of the Holmegaard fatbow *
The Holmegaard bow test shoot *
Table 1:
The dimensions of the original Holmegaard bow (6000 BC) *
Table 2:
The dimensions of the replica Holmegaard bow (2010) *
Fig. 5 The larger fatbow *
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8. Hazel wod self bow
T
o make a hazel wood selfbow, like the ones I made in my childhood,
is something that I have wanted to do for some time now. Back in my
childhood days, we made all our bows from hazel wood, as hazel
grew widely along the forest next to our house. It was always easy to fnd
a straight stave to make a bow from. Being kids, we did not have the time
or the patience to season the wood nor did we have the knowledge of
the advantage gained by using seasoned wood. At that time we actually
did not know anything about making bows at all, but our experience was
growing rapidly with the many attempts........
The missing section is only included in the full version of the e-book
Making Traditional Bows. You may be reading the full version in only a few
minutes - Click here to buy the full version.
.......The whole project was fnished in a day not counting the time it took
to season the wood. This bow is very easy to make and could be a fun
little something to do with your friends or your kids. At the end of the day,
you could make a contest to see who can get an arrow to fy the
furthest using your newly constructed bows.
You could try straining the wood to its maximum capability,
just as I did, to get your arrows to fy as far as possible. I
ended up with quite a good bow and I am sure this
bow will last longer than the day. Well, it already
did. Therefore, the bow has both outlived and
outshot my many childhood attempts.
The dimensions of the Hazel bow *
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9. Te Flemish twis bowstring
Y
ou need a bowstring for your bow, and the most traditional type
of string is the Flemish twist bowstring. In my opinion the Flemish
twist bowstring is the best suitable bowstring for all traditional bows,
and consequently the only type of string I will cover here. Traditionally,
the bowstrings were made from materials such as linen and hemp, which
were not as reliable and durable as the modern materials that are available
today. Due to the poorer durability of the bowstrings back in time, the
strings had a greater tendency to fail and break. When a bowstring breaks,
it often means that the bow is also damaged to a certain extent, so this is a
serious issue.
Making a Flemish twist bowstring is much easier when you use a string
jig. I therefore recommend that you make one referring to Fig. 6 and the
photos (p1-3). The time spent making the jig is easily gained when you
make the bowstrings using the jig compared to making a bowstring without
the aid of a string jig.
What you need
The string material
Dacron B50 or Fast Flight.
Dacron is the cheaper option and to my knowledge the most commonly
used string material. Dacron does not have the same high performance as
Fast Flight, partly because it is a more stretchy material. Fast Flight has a
tendency to increase the shooting distance, but Dacron is said to be more
forgiving on a shorter distance shoot. Mostly, I use Dacron because it is
inexpensive, functions well and is what I have gotten used to.
Materials for the string jig
Refer to Fig. 6 and photo (p1-3). My jig is made from fairly cheap pine
wood.
Other stuff you need
Bowstring wax.
A serving material for the bowstring.
A serving tool.
The work process
The string jig
You should be able to make the
string jig referring to Fig. 6 and the
photos (p1-3).
The bowstring
I will make a double loop Flemish
twist bowstring.
When making a Dacron bowstring,
the string has to be made 10 - 12.5
cm (4 - 5) shorter than your bow,
measured from one nock to the
other. When making a Fast Flight
bowstring, it has to be made 7.5 -
10 cm (3 - 4) shorter. These are the
fgures I use to get the correct string
length. You may need to make
your string a little shorter or longer
depending on your string making
technique, and you probably have
to make a few strings to get the
length exactly right.
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Watch and follow the video clip - Making a Flemish twist bowstring.
The bowstring can also be made in two colors, which look really nice but
maybe not so traditional. E.g. when making a 14 strand bowstring, you
simply start with 7 strands of one color string material and 7 strands of a
different color and when cutting the measured strands, you sort the strands
into similar colors in such a way that you have two main strands, each with
a different color.
Number of strands of Dacron or Fast Flight
The string material manufacturer
Brownell recommends 1 twist in the
string for each 5 - 7.5 cm (2 - 3) of
string length.
Fast Flight has a smaller diameter
than Dacron. When serving a Fast
Flight bowstring, you may have to
lay a few small pieces of Fast Flight
material under the serving to bulk
up the bowstring. When doing so,
the bowstring will still have a nice ft
to the nocks on your arrows despite the smaller diameter of the Fast Flight
string material.
Last
Dacron does have some initial stretch. To eliminate that stretch before
using the string, I hang the fnished bowstring from the ceiling with some
weights at the end. I usually let the string stretch overnight.
Always care for your bow string. Wax it with regular intervals, when the
bow is in use. When a string starts to show signs of wear, change it,
Table 3 (number of strands)
Draw weight of
the bow
Number of strands
(Dacron or Fast Flight)
- 35 lbs 10
35 - 45 lbs 12
45 - 55 lbs 14
55 - 65 lbs 16
65 - 75 lbs 18
75 - 85 lbs 20
85 - 95 lbs 22
because as mentioned earlier, a string that breaks can cause damage to
your bow and in worst case, to your pretty face.
Click the video frame to watch the video.
Fig. 6 The string jig *
10. Arrow sine

and te arcers paradox *
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11. Te War Arrow
S
hortly we will be making a war arrow, which resembles the arrows
used for war in medieval England. It will not be an exact replica of
the arrows as this would make the process more diffcult, both with
regard to getting the right materials and making the arrow. It is my intention
to make traditional bow and arrow making easier, therefore we will be
using ready available materials and cut some small corners, all without
losing the sweet feel and look of this fne type of arrow. This arrow design
is in my opinion the most awesome of the various designs which I have
seen during my time as a bowyer. The armor penetrating and fear striking
bodkin arrow head, the long triangular fetchings bound to the shaft and
the beauty of the horn reinforced self nock. Not to mention, the fat battle
shaft with a diameter of 1.3 cm (1/2) at the head.
The medieval battle shaft, like the ones found on The Mary Rose, had a
diameter of 1.3 cm (1/2) at the head and tapered to 0.95 cm (3/8) at the
nock. The longbows that were used for war in those days are estimated to
have had a draw weight of around 100 pounds, which is far greater than
recreational bows today. The greater draw weight also meant that the
archers needed a stiffer arrow than most of us do today, which to some
extent was obtained by increasing the diameter of the arrow shaft. The
greater diameter also increased the mass of the arrow, which in turn meant
more power on impact. The larger mass of the arrow was important and
necessary at the time for the arrow to be able to penetrate plate armor.
Today, only few archers shoot longbows with a draw weight over 60 - 70
pounds and even fewer shoot bows with a draw weight of 100 pounds. A
more common draw weight for a longbow today is around 35 - 60 pounds.
We do not need a great amount of power on impact and our lives do not
depend on the ability of the arrows to penetrate plate armor or chain mail
any longer. I believe this development is a positive thing for our health, but
it does not mean that we cannot enjoy this fne type of arrow.

The medieval battle shaft measured 76 - 80 cm (30 - 31 1/2) from the
nock to the shoulder, and it is believed to have been drawn to the ear.
This style of shooting naturally required a longer arrow shaft than when
the arrow had just been drawn to the corner of the mouth. The latter is
the most commonly used anchor point today, resulting in a draw length
of around 71 cm (28). The longer draw to the ear meant more energy
was transferred to the arrow when it was shot, which in turn increased the
shooting distance and probably also the lifespan of the archer. Drawing
the arrow to the ear results in less accuracy than one would have with
a draw to the corner of the mouth, but on a long distance shoot pinpoint
accuracy is not that important, especially if you are shooting at a charging
army. When the enemy came closer a more precise aim would have been
desirable, and at this point of the battle the shorter draw to the corner of
the mouth was probably used. For this shorter distance shot there was no
longer a need for the longer arrow shaft and maybe a different shaft profle
would also have been in place. This theory is supported by the fndings
from the Mary Rose where remains of quivers issued to the archers were
found containing arrow shafts of different length and profle.
The bodkin arrow head, which was used in medieval times, was chosen
for war for its armor penetrating abilities and most likely also for its ease
of mass production. This type of arrow head has also been found by
archaeologists in the bogs of Denmark. Some dating back to the year 200
AD, which is the Iron Age, i.e. long before Medieval Times. The arrow head
is also believed to have been used for war purpose then. When
comparing the earliest fnds from the Danish bogs of Iron
Age arrow shafts and arrow heads to the later fnds, the
earliest fnds have a more individual character. This
tells us that the archers from that period probably
made their own equipment. When we study the
arrow heads found from the late 3rd century, they
begin to show signs of standardization and production
in larger quantities. As you may recall, this is also the
period when the D section longbow was the more
common design found. The fndings from the late 3rd
century combined with other fnds like reinforcement of
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shields are interpreted by archaeologists as the emergence of specialized
units of archers in the southern Scandinavian armies around that period of
time.
The arrow shafts found on the Mary Rose had markings which tell us that
the fetchings were about 19 cm (7 1/2) long. These fnds, of course, do
not say anything about the height or shape of the fetchings. Referring to
medieval art I believe, the more traditional archers of today have come to
an agreement, more or less, that the shape of the fetchings was triangular,
though there are some opposing thoughts to this point of view. The height
of the fetchings used by the traditional archers of today are around 1.5 -
1.9 cm (5/8 - 3/4).
Back in time it was common practice to bind the fetchings to the arrow
shaft as the glue available in those times was not the same quality as it
is today. Binding the fetchings to the shaft was your only option, if you
wanted to make sure that your arrow stayed on course and did not lose a
feather or two on its way to its target. Imagine you are in a line of archers
and the enemy charges before you anticipated. You will have to swallow
your lambs leg and bread, quickly rushing to open your quiver, and here all
you would fnd was a bag of sticks and feathers, because the glue did not
do its job. Today, we do not need to bind the fetchings onto the shaft as
the glue available is strong enough to hold them in place. I am quite sure
a mass producing fetcher, back in the medieval times, would not have
bothered binding the fetchings to the shaft, had he been in possession of
the glue that we have today. I am also certain that the bowyers would not
have been messing around with yew selfbows, because they would have
been making laminated bows like the ones in this book. Well, let us not try
to change the course of history and leave it as written.
Let us get on with the actual making of the arrow.
What you need
Mostly I make arrows in batches of 12, but go ahead and make as many
as you like.
The arrow shaft
I have chosen to make the arrows with two different shaft profles, i.e.
the bobtailed and the parallel arrow shaft (see Fig. 7 (only full version)).
This way we shall have some variation in our quiver, like they had back
in Medieval Times. We shall also be able to see how the different shaft
profles affect the fight distance of the arrows. As I explained at the
beginning of the chapter, there is no longer any need of shafts with the
thick diameter of 1.3 cm (1/2). Therefore, my choice of arrow shafts is as
follows:
The parallel arrow shaft:
6 pine shafts with a diameter of 9 mm (11/32). Length 81.3 cm (32),
which is the standard length supplied by most archery dealers. When
making a self nock on a 81.3 cm (32) shaft it is not possible to end up with
a total arrow length of 80 cm (31 1/2). You will be short by just about 0.5
cm (3/16) or so. It really makes no difference, but buy the 83.8 cm (33)
long shafts if you can. If it means you have to pay more, forget about it.
The bobtailed arrow shaft:
6 poplar (or pine) shafts with a diameter of 1.03 cm (13/32). Length 81.3
cm (32) or 83.8 cm (33) if you can fnd it.
The poplar shafts that I have are a little lighter than my pine shafts, which
is why I chose poplar. I hope to end up with the same total arrow weight
for both the bobtail and the parallel shafted arrows. A similar weight is
not of great importance, but it will be fun to see the difference in the fight
distances achieved, if there is any.
All shafts must be chosen with a spine to suit the draw weight of your bow.
The shafts which will be shaped into a bobtail profle should be slightly
stiffer, as we will remove wood from the shaft and thereby alter the primary
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spine of the shaft.
The arrow head
12 armor penetrating bodkin arrow heads with a socket to ft the 9 mm
(11/32) shaft.
The arrow head that I choose for this arrow is a 150 grain square point
bodkin. It is similar to a type 10 bodkin, I believe it was thus named by the
English when they catalogued archeological fnds. The arrow head that I
use is the short version of the type 10 arrow head and one of the cheaper
machine made kind. If you cannot fnd the square bodkin, I am sure you
will be able to fnd the round machine made version and it is even cheaper.
If you want to go all the way, you can buy the hand forged arrow heads,
but be prepared to pinch a tear when you miss the target and the arrow
continues into the woods as they are quite expensive.
The fetchings
12 grey (the cock feathers) and 24 white fetches 15.2 cm (6) long with a
triangular profle.

The fetchings that I use are 1.42 cm (9/16) high, not far from 1.58 cm
(5/8). If you recall 1.58 cm (5/8) is the fetching height used by some of
todays traditional archers. I am not sure whether they would approve of a
1.42 cm (9/16) fetching for their events, though. The heavier arrow head
you choose, the larger the fetchings need to be in order to stabilize the
arrow.
The 15.2 cm (6) fetchings are by far large enough for an arrow head of
only 150 grain. The arrow heads ftted on a 1.3 cm (1/2) medieval battle
shaft would have been considerably heavier and therefore more in need of
the larger fetchings. Depending on the specifc event, todays traditional
archers will accept a fetching length of 15.2 cm (6) and luckily this size is
available at most archery dealers. The longer fetchings are not.
The triangular profle may be diffcult to fnd, but the shield profle is quite
common and almost as nice.
It can be hell cutting the fetchings yourself, if you do not have the right
technique, which we will get to at a later stage, and the result is not always
satisfactory. Therefore, I recommend that you buy the already cut kind.
The uncut feathers are often more expensive than the ones already cut to
shape, unless you catch the turkey yourself.
The binding thread
Linen or nylon binding thread.
The one that I use is a linen thread (50 g) which is a more traditional
choice, but this type of thread can be a little harder to fnd. My advice is
not to bother, unless you stumble upon it. Just get a simple nylon serving
of more natural/traditional color. This type of thread is supplied by most
archery dealers and will give the arrow the same nice look.
The nock
The nock:
A self nock, which is a groove cut into one end of the shaft to
accommodate the string.
To reinforce the nock groove:
12 slices of horn or dark hardwood. 5 cm (2) long by about 15 mm (5/8)
wide by 2 mm (3/32) thick.
In medieval England it was practice to make the nock reinforcements with
a length of 5 cm (2), and this is still practice in traditional circles today. You
can make the reinforcement shorter if you like, as part of it will be covered
by the cock feather.
My reinforcements are made from horn pieces 5 cm (2) long. However,
horn is harder to come by and you may as well use a darker type of
hardwood, which will still reinforce the nock and look just as nice. Also,
when using hardwood you do not have to endure the bad smell that comes
from working the horn.
The self nock could also be reinforced by winding the binding thread 10 -
15 times around the shaft just below the nock groove.
You can also choose not to reinforce the nock, which works fne in most
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cases.
Other stuff you will need
For gluing on the arrow head:
A two component epoxy resin like araldite. I use a less expensive one
which is just as good.
For gluing the feathers to the shaft:
Fletching glue. There are many different brands.
To ft the arrow head:
A 9 mm (11/32) taper tool. The cheap plastic ones work fne.
For making the self nock and the horn reinforcements:
9 hacksaw blades to make your own nock saws.

To aid the attaching of the feathers to the shaft:
A fetching jig. Mine is a medium priced jig from Cartel and unless you
are really ambitious, you need not spend all your money on this item.
Make sure the jig and the clamp that comes with it are large enough to
accommodate the 15.2 cm (6) fetchings.
An alternative to buying a jig is to make your own jig or use pins to hold the
feathers in place until the glue is dry.
My advice is to get yourself a fetching jig if you have just the slightest
feeling that you will be making more arrows in the future as it will save you
a lot of time and sweat.
The work process
Fitting the arrow head
1. First we will ft the arrow heads. I recommend that you buy a taper
tool to taper the ends of the 9 mm (11/32) diameter shafts. It makes the
process quick and easy.
To ft the arrow heads to the wider 1.03 cm (13/32) shafts, you need to
make a cone and shoulder, just like they did in Medieval Times. The cone
and shoulder is necessary because the arrow head we are using has a
socket to ft a 9 mm (11/32) shaft (p2). Watch and follow the video clip -
Making the cone.
Traditional Bows).
Cutting the shaft
2. Now, cut the arrow shafts to a
length of 80 cm + 0.8 cm (31 1/2 +
5/16), measured from the shoulder
(the back of the arrowhead) to the
end of the shaft (p1).
The bobtail profle
3. Taper the six 1.03 cm (13/32)
poplar shafts into a bobtail profle.
Watch and follow the video clip -
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How to taper an arrow shaft in Chapter 13 (only full version) and also see
Fig. 7 (only full version). I taper my arrow shafts from 1.03 cm (13/32) at
the shoulder down to about 9 mm (11/32) at the nock.
The nock reinforcements
4. Make 12 reinforcing pieces of horn/hardwood for the nock. 5 cm (2)
long by about 15 mm (5/8) wide by 2 mm (3/32) thick.
5. Now you are almost ready to start working on the nock reinforcements.
First you need to make 3 homemade nock saws, which we shall be using
to cut the groove for the reinforcing piece of horn (p3). Get the 9 hacksaw
blades and get ready to make your frst homemade nock saw. Arrange 3
hacksaw blades on top of each other so that the center blade is upside
down and protruding about 3 - 4
mm (5/32) (p3+6). Fix the blades
together with duct tape. Then make
another 3 blade saw where the
center blade is still upside down,
but now just protruding by about 1
mm (1/32) (p3). Finally, make a last
homemade saw with all 3 blades
turned the right way. Now, you have
3 saws that can cut a groove about
2 mm (3/32) wide.
6. Before we cut the groove to ft the reinforcing pieces for the nock, draw
a line (5 cm (2) long) down the center of the arrow shaft as shown in the
photo (p4). The line will act as a guide when you make the frst cut. The
cut must be made parallel to the growth rings (p4), so study the shaft to
determine the direction of these lines before you start cutting. It is easier to
see the lines if you sand the end of the arrow shaft with fne sandpaper.
7. With a hacksaw, carefully cut along the pencil marked line making a
groove 5 cm (2) deep. (p5).
8. Take your frst homemade nock saw, the one with the center blade
protruding the most, and saw to the bottom of the newly created groove.
The center blade should guide you all the way down (p6). This technique
prevents the blade from going off to one side. Make sure the three
hacksaw blades do not spread apart when you are sawing.
Now take the second nock saw and saw as far down as you can, that will
only be 3 - 5 mm (5/32).
Last, take the third nock saw, the one with all the blades turned the right
way, and work your way to the bottom of the primary groove and the 5 cm
(2) mark. Naturally, there are more ways to make the groove, but this is
the way I like to do it.
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9. Fit the horn piece into the
groove (p7). You might have to
use a small fat fle to remove a
little more wood from the sides of
the groove. When the horn has
a nice ft, use a two component
epoxy resin to glue it in place. I use
the same two component epoxy
that I use to ft the arrow heads. I
recommend that you use rubber
gloves for this job because it can
get quite messy the frst few times
that you try it. Trust me when I say,
it gets easier once you gain some
experience. Remember to have fun,
also when all your fngers are glued
together, hence the gloves.
10. When the glue is dry, fle
and sand down the horn until it is
smooth and level with the wood of
the shaft (p8).
The self nock
11. Now, make the nocks by following the video clip - Making a self nock.
The nock groove is cut at right angles to the reinforcing horn/hardwood
pieces which you just glued in place (p9).
The varnish
12. At this stage I apply one or two coats of an oil based foor lacquer
to protect the arrow shafts from moisture, small dents and alike. The
lacquer I use gives the wood the same tint as linseed oil. Linseed oil was
traditionally used to protect wood from moisture, but in general a modern
lacquer gives the wood a better protection from small dents and scratches.
I still use linseed oil for some applications, though.
More products can be used to varnish the arrow shafts, so look around
and fnd something that suits you.
Traditional Bows).
13. Glue the arrow heads in place with a two component epoxy resin
(p10).
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Fletching
14. Now, it is time to attach the feathers to the shaft. First you need to
adjust the fetching jig. The clamp that holds the feather must be aligned
with the arrow shaft in such a way, that the feather will be positioned at
the center of the shaft and parallel to the length of the shaft (p11-13). The
feathers are positioned 120 apart and the cock feather is placed at right
angles to the nock groove.
When ready, watch and follow the video clip - Using the fetching jig.
If you did not buy a fetching jig, there is a nice technique that you can use
to fnd the right position for the feathers.
Mark out where the cock feather will be positioned, which is as just
mentioned at right angles to the string groove. Do this by drawing a pencil
line parallel to the shaft and running down the center of the shaft for about
20 cm (8). Then take a piece of thread and wind it around the shaft once.
Traditional Bows).
Tighten the thread and hold the
ends of the thread together at the
line that you just made. Then mark
the ends where they cross the line
using a pen. Now unwind the thread
and stretch it out. The distance
between the markings which you
just made equals the circumference
of the shaft, if you have done
it right. Now make two more
markings between the two markings
that you just made, parting the
circumference of the shaft into 3
equally sized pieces of thread.
When you have done that, wind the
thread around the shaft again, and
align the frst two markings with the
line representing the cock feather.
The last two markings you made
now mark the position for the last
two feathers. You can now draw 20
cm (8) lines down and parallel to
the shaft like you did for the cock feather, to mark the position of the last
two feathers.
Then glue the feathers to the shaft, one at a time fxing them with pins until
the glue is dry.
Binding
15. Now to the binding process. Watch and follow the video clip - The
binding process (only full version). Also see photo (p11+12).
16. With time the binding thread has a tendency to slowly work its way
back towards the nock end of the shaft or in the worst case come undone.
To avoid this, take a thin brush and apply some lacquer over the binding
thread. This will fx the thread in its position. Usually, I use the same
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lacquer that I use to coat the shaft, but in this case I have to use a different
lacquer as the oil based lacquer adds a dark tint to the linen thread. I do
not want the color of my binding thread to change, so therefore I use a
clear drying lacquer. Alternatively you can use a clear drying glue. I fnd it
easier to use a lacquer, especially if you need to make future repairs on
your fetchings.
Traditional Bows).
Last
17. Last, do not forget to add your personal mark to the arrow, so
everybody will know who hit the target dead center. Or if your arrows fy all
over the place, maybe you should write your address on the arrow in case
someone stumbles upon one, they can then mail it to you. Now, thinking
about it, I will go do that...
Last look (p13).
Total arrow weight.
Average weight for the 6 poplar shaft arrows is 37.5 g.
Average weight for the 6 pine shaft arrows is 39.0 g.
On average the arrows with the
thinner pine shaft actually turned
out 1.5 g heavier than the arrows
with the thicker poplar shafts. The
arrows are still quite close to a
similar weight as 1.5 g is about
the same weight as 3 peanuts, the
salted kind without the shell.
Now it will be fun to see how they
shoot!
War arrow test
Before we start testing the arrows,
you need an introduction to the
target knight that will be acting
as the target when testing the war
arrows (p14). You should know
what our newly made equipment is
up against!
The target knight
The head:
The bottom of a bamboo log with a
bamboo wall thickness about 2 cm (7/8). That is a thick skull!
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The body and limbs:
The body and the limbs are made from an old surf board bag. The board
bag consists of 2 layers of heavy duty nylon fabric and has a protective
foam core about 1 cm (13/32) thick and this is times two!
The spine:
A bamboo log with a diameter of about 5 cm (2).
The skin:
To resemble the skin I have cut open an old exercise ball and pulled it over
the torso of the board bag body. The thickness is about 3 mm (1/8).
The clothing:
A fairly thick woven cotton sweater.
Armor:
Reenactment chain mail, weight 8.5 kg (18 pounds).
Lets get it on!
In the video clip - War arrow test, I will try to take down the target knight
introduced above, using the 50 pound bamboo back longbow, which we
made earlier and the war arrows that we have just made. Watch the video
clip.
Some fnal thoughts *
Having watched the video clip I am sure you will agree with me, when I
say, that this guy did not survive the test but that is the life of a test dummy.
It is short lived.

When taking a closer look................The missing section is only included in
the full version of the e-book Making Traditional Bows. You may be reading
the full version in only a few minutes - Click here to buy the full version.
Traditional Bows).
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13. Te fight arrow *
What you need *
The arrow shaft *
The arrow head *
The fetchings *
The nock *
The work process *
The parallel fight arrow *
The barreled fight arrow *
The bobtailed fight arrow *
Fig. 7 Arrow shaft profles *
Last *
Flight arrow test *
How to cut the fetchings *
Flight arrow test continued *
12. Te target arrow *
What you need *
The arrow shaft *
The arrow head *
The fetchings *
The nock *
The work process *
Dyeing the shaft *
The varnish *
The nock *
Fletching *
Cutting the arrow shaft *
Fitting the arrow head *
Last *
Target arrow test *
A agacija@gmail.com
15. Te medieval arrow bag *
What you need *
The fabric *
The cotton string, rope and bands *
The leather disc *
The work process *
Making the leather disc *
Cutting the fabric and sewing the edges *
Forming the tube *
The loops for the carry string *
Stitching the leather disc in place *
Last *
Fig. 9 The leather Disk *
Sections marked with a (*) are only included in the full
version of the e-book - Get it now at
www.makingtraditionalbows.com
14. Te Bow bag-medieval style *
What you need *
The fabric *
The bands and rope *
Fig. 8 The Bow Bag
The work process *

Cutting the fabric and creating the tube *
Fitting the bands *
Sewing the bag *
Finishing the bow bag *
A agacija@gmail.com
16. Final thoughts
I hope that you enjoyed the LIGHT version of the e-book. If you have a
wish for a deeper knowledge of traditional archery and a desire to learn
how to make your own archery equipment, then the full version of the
e-book Making Traditional Bows is a giant step on the way. You can be
on your way in just a few simple steps. Invest in yourself and learn the
skills required - Click here to buy the full version.
Sincerely
Chris M.
17. Literatur/refernces *
A agacija@gmail.com

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