Introduction To Political Science I

Book Author
Introduction to Political Science Prof. Dr. Muhammad Sarwar

Political Science - Theory and Practice Mazhar ul Haq
Pol. Science Greek word polis
Political Science studies the authoritative allocation of values in a society.
Prof. David Easton: 1)
Political Science deals with the state and the government and with all those laws which are
made for the internal security of the state and keep the external dangers away.
General: 2)
Politics: who gets what, when and how.
Dr. Harold Lasswell: 3)

Encyclopedia Britannica: 4)

Dr. Garner: 5)
Definitions:
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Political Science Page 1
Building Block a.
Family Tribe Society 1.
State 2.
Government 3.
Legislature () a.
b. Executive ()
Judiciary () c.
Political Institutions 4.
NGOs a.
Associations and Organisations 5.
International Relations 6.
Political and Economic Aspects 7.
Communicational and Satellite Revolution 8.
Exceptional view
Prof. David Easton + Trueman + Almond
Behaviours of Individuals 9.
Mutual Relations of Individual 10.
Socialism a.
Communism b.
Fascism c.
Capitalism d.
Political Concepts 11.
Scope of Political Science
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Analysis of the Past 12.
Study of the Present 13.
Understanding the Future Course 14.

Study of Rights and Duties 15.
Scope of Political Science
Gettle:

UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisations.
A Science ( ) 1.
Specialisations 2.
Social Science 3.
New directions 4.
Pressure Politics 5.
Public Opinion 6.
Q= Nature of Political Science
The Politics
Aristotle
Q= Is Political Science a science?
Jellick 1.
Sir Frederick Pollock 2.
Burgees 3.
Aristotle 4.
Bodin 5.
Hobbes 6.
Political Science should be made a science:
Lord Bryce 1.
Buckle 2.
J. S. Mill 3.
Bismarck 4.
Maitland 5.
Augusta Comte (French thinker) 6.
Walter Lippmann (American educationist and philosopher) 7.
Political Science is not a science from any aspect:
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A branch of knowledge dealing with fact or truth, systematically arranged, and showing the
operation of general laws.
Science:

Robert Field:
Absence of Laboratories 1.
Absence of Solid and Universal Principles 2.
Absence of Authenticated Terminologies 3.
Difference in Method of Research 4.
Contradiction in Habits and Emotions 5.
Arguments in opposition:
Law of Liberty a.
Power of Sovereignty b.
Rule of Law c.
Democracy d.
Uniform Terminologies and Principles 1.
Aristotle:

Exploitation, poverty and depression make the way for dictatorship.
The Rule of ups and downs.
Ibn e Khaldun
All societies and governments are experiments and observations
Experiments () and Observations ( ): 2.

Every change, battle and law of the government is an experiment for Political Science.
Gill Crist:
Solid and Universal Principles ( ) 3.

Karl Marx:
Not 100% result
Astronomy (
), Metrology () and Geography ( ): 4.

Aristotle

Ibn e Khaldun:
Predictions ( ): 5.
Arguments in Favour
Although Political Science is not a pure science like natural sciences (Biology, Chemistry, Physics)
but still it could be counted as a social science like others (Economics, Psychology, Sociology).
Conclusion:
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Relations with Social Sciences
Political Science and History
Laboratory ( ) 1.
Common Topics ( ) 2.
Evolution of Institutions and Theories 3.
Inseparable ( ) 4.
History without political science has no fruit; Political Science without History has no root.
John Seeley
Lord Acton

Sequence-wise study 1.
Study of the Past 2.
Scope 3.
Differences:
Political Science and Economics
Political Economy
Same subject in the Past 1.
Economic Background of Political Theories (
) 2.
International Effects ( ) 3.
Effects of Economic Changes 4.
Concept of Welfare State ( ) 5.
Effects on Ethics and Character 6.
Economic and Political Aspects ( ) 1.
Differences:
Conclusion ()
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Political Science and Ethics
Laws and Ethics ( ) 1.
Both are social sciences.
Social Sciences ( ) 2.
Kant:

Standard Subjects 3.
Religions and Ethics 4.
Ethical Aspects of Rights and Duties ( ) 5.
Purpose of State 6.
Internal and External Aspects 1.
Universality () 2.
Philosophy (Ethics) and Practical (Pol. Sci.) 3.
The Present World and the Next World 4.
Differences:
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Political Science and Sociology
Sociology is called the mother of social sciences.
Institutions
Conventions
Economics
Ethics
It includes:
Social Sciences 1.
Common Topics 2.
Whole (Sociology) and Part (Pol. Sci.) 3.
Magna Carta
Guidance from Sociology 4.
Inseparable 5.
Ibn-e-Khaldun
Montesquieu
Sociological Method 6.
Sociology
Political Science
Scope 1.
Political Science
Thorough Study 2.
Sociology Past
Present
Political Science Past
Present
Future
Planning for future 3.
Psychological Method 4.
Differences:
Public administration (i)
International Relations (ii)
Sparta + Athens
Local Government (iii)
Lord Rippon Basic Democracy
Political Theories (iv)
Comparative Politics (v)
Sub-Fields:
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State
The state is in itself an ethical force and a high moral good.
Treitschke:
The state is a product of society at a certain state of development.
Angels:

English version of this definition is on page '29 October 2013'.
Gettle:
Aristotle
Rousseau
Plato (5040)
Population () 1.
Vatican City population: 839 (July 2013); area: 110 acres (44 ha)
Monaco population: 36,371 (2011); area: 2.02 kilometer square
Noru 12000
Andora population: 7,657 (31 Dec 2010); area: 31.61 km. sq.
Smallest states:
Territory () 2.
Russia has the largest territory i.e. 170,75,400 sq. km.
Elements of the State
Legislature
Judiciary
Executive
Government 3.
Internal sovereignty a.
External sovereignty b.
Sovereignty 4.
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He considers state as an organised collective entity of the individuals, occupying a particular
territory, free from external control, and having their own government, the letter is vested
legislation but is also empowered to implement law over individuals and their associations.
Gettle:
regards state as a territorial social organisation consisting of ruler and ruled and which commands
supremacy over all institutions within its territorial boundaries.
Laski:
Functions of the State ( )
Maintenance of Law and Order 1.
Defense 2.
Administration of Justice 3.
Conduct of Foreign Affairs 4.
Primary Functions
Economic Planning 1.
Social Security ( ) 2.
Transportation and Communication 3.
Promotion of Health and Education 4.
Regulation of Trade and Industry 5.
Secondary Functions
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Security of Life 6.
Secondary Functions of the State
Welfare State ( )
Laski has defined welfare state as a polity that provides to its people socio-economic opportunities
and means on wider scale for social welfare.
Laski (Father of the Welfare State):

Kant:
Welfare 1.
Provision of Basic Needs of Life 2.
High Standard of Life 3.
Safeguard and Liberty 4.
Best Social Atmosphere 5.
Agricultural Development 6.
Social and Ethical Reforms 7.
Features of a Welfare State
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Q: Western and Islamic Concept of State
Western Views
The state is God's march on the earth.
Heagle:
considered state as a natural institute which is for the human being to build their character and to
provide the necessities of life.
Aristotle:
State is an end itself and this end is the most superior.
Idealist:
State is a form of the alliance of Lords. State is never confidered a means or the welfare of the
state. State is not a natural and original organisation.
Karl Marx
deny the existence of state. They consider state as an evil but they always try to use efforts to
destroy the existence of state.
Anarchist
Khilafat.
Advisory Council ( )
Government 1.
Internal Sovereignty a.
External Sovereignty b.
Sovereignty Allah 2.
Charity or Almsgiving (
) 3.
Population 4.
Territory 5.
Islamic Concept of State

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Introduction to Sovereignty
The word sovereignty is derived from the Latin word "superanaus" which means supreme.
Sovereignty is an essential element of state. State cannot exist without sovereignty. State is regarded
superior to other associations only because of sovereignty. In fact, modern theory of state got its proper
shape and perfection only when the concept of sovereignty was introduced in it. When we try to search
for the origin to this concept we find that the term sovereignty is the product of modern political
thinking but the ideas go back to the time of Aristotle who referred to it as the supreme power of the
state.
In middle ages, Roman jurist and civilians were also familiar to this idea but it was Jean Bodin
(1530-1596)who developed for the first time the theory of sovereignty, systematically, in his book, 'De la
republica'.
Definitions
In its original and only specific meaning, sovereignty means supreme authority.
Kelsen
Sovereignty is the supreme power over citizens and subjects unrestrained by law.
Jean Bodin
says that sovereignty is that power which is neither temporary nor delegated nor subject to
particular rules which it cannot alter nor answerable to any other power on the earth.

Pollock
described the sovereignty as original, absolute, unlimited power over the undivided subjects over
all associations subjects. It is the un-derived and independent power to command and compel
obedience.

Burgees
Sovereignty is legally supreme over any individual or groups. It possesses supreme coercive
power.

Laski
So, we can say that the above definitions may differ from each other but one thing is very clear and
there is no doubt; the superior authority of sovereignty.
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Attributes (Features) of Sovereignty
Sovereignty is absolute from the legal point of view.
Absoluteness ( ) 1.
Indivisibility (
) 2.
says that sovereignty is indivisible. Sovereignty can not be divided between or shared by a
plurality.
Jellick
If sovereignty is not absolute, no state exists. If sovereignty is divided more than one state
exists. But, with the emergence of the concept of federalism, the idea of dual sovereignty
was provided by Tocqueville, Wheaton and Halleck.
Gettle
Russia 15 States in 1990
Creation of Bangladesh 16th December 1971
Czechoslovakia The Slovakia Republic and Czech Republic 31 December 1992
All-Comprehensiveness () 3.
Sovereignty of the state is universal. It extends to all within its territory.
Burgees
Sovereignty is permanent. It lasts as long as its state. Change in government does not end
sovereignty but only transfers it to the next bearer.
Permanence () 4.
Sovereignty is exclusive state and alone has the sovereign authority and legitimate power to
make citizens obey its dictate. It is again important to note all these attributes of
sovereignty are peculiar to the legal nation of sovereignty. They are best representative by
an absolute monarchy.
Exclusiveness ( ) 5.
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Attributes (Features) of Sovereignty
1956 America bought Alaska
1958 Huawei
Sovereignty is inalienable. Sovereignty of the state cannot be given away without destroying
the state.
Inalienability (
) 6.
Hong Kong
Kargil
Imprescriptibility (
) 7.
Kinds of Sovereignty
Sovereignty can be classified into different kinds. This classification is based on the location of
sovereignty.
By Titular sovereignty, we mean sovereignty by the title only. It refers to the sovereign
powers of the king or monarch who has ceased to exercise any real authority. In theory, he
may still possess all the power but in practice sovereign power is enjoyed by some other
person or body of persons. Titular sovereign is only a symbol of authority; a legacy of the
past. The Britain presents a good example of titular sovereignty. The king is the titular head
and he does not enjoy any real power. Actual powers are enjoyed by the parliament or
cabinet. In India, the president is the titular sovereign and the cabinet is the real sovereign.
Titular and Actual Sovereignty () 1.
The Congress of USA.
The Queen of Britain and its parliament
The legal sovereignty is always definite and determinate. 1)
It may reside either in one person or in a body of persons. 2)
Rights of citizens are a gift of legal sovereignty. 3)
The will of state is expressed by the legal sovereignty only. 4)
Legal sovereignty grants rights to its citizens and there can be no rights against it. It means
rights to citizens depend on the will of legal sovereign and, anytime, he can take them away.
Legal sovereignty has following attributes
Legal and Political Sovereignty () 2.
Dejure Sovereignty (by law) 3.
De Facto Sovereignty (in fact -
) 4.
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12:07 AM
Islamic Concept of Sovereignty
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Caliphate () 1.
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Rule of Law 2.
Rights and Liberty 3.
Advisory Council (
) 4.
System of Accountability ( ) 1.
Tolerance and Understanding 2.
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Attributes of Islamic Sovereignty
Absoluteness ( ) 1.
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6:31 PM
Unique Capacity/Exclusiveness ( ) 2.
Permanency 3.
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Not transferable 4.
Universality/All-Comprehensiveness () 5.
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Powerness 6.
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Kinds of Sovereignty
Political Sovereignty 5.
All these influences are the real power behind the legal sovereign and this is called political
sovereignty. As Professor Gill Crist says, the political sovereignty is the sum total of the
influences in the state which lie behind the law. The political sovereignty is not known to
law. In modern representative democracy, political sovereignty is very often identified with
either the whole mass of the people or with electorate or the public opinion. The legal
sovereignty cannot act against the political sovereignty.
Background of legal sovereignty
Popular Sovereignty 6.
When the sovereignty resides in the people of the state, it is called as popular sovereignty. This
theory was expounded by Rousseau. When this letter became the slogan of French Revolution,
the doctrine of popular sovereignty regarded people as the supreme authority. It is people who
decides right or wrong. People are not bound by any natural and divine law. Government exists
only as a tool for the good of the people. It should be held directly responsible to the people. Will
of the people is not ignored. Popular sovereignty is the basis of modern democratic system
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Federal Form of Government
This word is also derived from the Latin word foedus
Federation means an association of states forming a new one. It is an organisation of states
that gives birth to a new union.
Hamilton: 1)
It is a convention through which different states organise themselves into a wider union.

Montesquieu 2)
Definition:
It is a political contrivance intended to reconcile national unity with the maintenance of
state rights.

Professor Dicey 3)
A group of states with a central government but independence in internal affairs, e.g. the Russian
Federation.
Definition by Oxford Dictionary
Salient Features/Attributes/Characteristics
In a federal government, the powers of administration are divided between the center and
the units. The powers may be distributed in one of the two ways. Either the constitution
states what powers federal authority shall have and leaves the remainder to the federating
units. The remainder is generally known as residuary powers. The first method was
employed in America and second in Canada
Division of Powers 1.
Basic Principles ( ) i.
Principle of Concurrent powers ii.
The constitution is the supreme law in federation. Neither the central government nor the
government of the units can go against its spirits.
Supremacy of the Constitution 2.
A federation must have a written constitution which is not easily changeable. A federation is
a political partnership of various states and, consequently, there must be a written
constitution. Unless it is a written, disputes may arise between the two sets of government
regarding their jurisdiction.
The constitution of a federation should be better rigid so that it could be regarded as a
Written and Rigid Constitutions ( ) 3.
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2:54 PM
The constitution of a federation should be better rigid so that it could be regarded as a
sacred agreement, the spirit of which can not be easily violated.
India
Pakistan
USA
Canada
Germany
Australia
Russia
Countries with federal government:
Salient Features/Attributes/Characteristics
In a federation, there are possibilities of constitutional disputes, arising between the center
and the units or between one unit and another or between the citizens and the
government. For this purpose, independent judiciary, with wide powers, must be
established. It should act as the custodian and guardian of the constitution.
Independent Judiciary ( ) 4.
Citizenship in a federal state has dual interest and citizens should be given rights of dual
citizenship. Citizenship of the state wherein they are domiciled and citizenship of federal
state as a whole.
Double Citizenship ( ) 5.
In a federation, legislature should be bicameral; consisting of two chambers. The people and
the units should be given representation separately; people in the lower chamber while the
units in the upper chamber, on equality basis.
Bicameral legislature ( ) 6.
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Every province has political, social and economical problems peculiar to the region itself.
Provincial government representative live in close proximity to the people and, or the most of the
times, from the same community so that they are in a better positions to understand these
problems and offer unique solutions for them.
1.
Federalism offers equal representation to different population. Citizens of various provinces may
have different aspiration, authenticity and follow different cultures. The central government can
sometimes overlook these differences and adopt policies. Local needs, tastes, and opinions are
given due consideration by the state government. Right of the minorities are protected to e.g. in
states like Arizona, where there is large Hispanic population, and therefore, a large number of
schools provide bilingual education.
2.
State government has the freedom to adopt policies which may not be followed nationally or by
any other state, e.g. same-sex-marriages are not recognised in the federal government of US but
they are given legal state within the states of Connecticut Lover Mont.
3.
Division of work between the central and regional governments leads to optimum utilisation of
recourses. The central governments can focus on International affairs and defense of the country
while the provincial government can cater to the local needs.
4.
Federalism has room for innovation and experimentations. Two local governments can have two
different approaches to bring reforms in my area of public domain, be it taxation or education.
The comparison of the results of these policies can give a clear idea of which policy is better and,
thus, can be adopted in the future.
5.
Advantages of Federalism
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10:26 PM
Suitable for large states 1.
Strong government 2.
Benefits of distribution of works 3.
Enhancement in national dignity 4.
Prevention of absoluteness 5.
World State 6.
Opportunities of experiments 7.
Combination of unity and autonomy 8.
Suitable for the cultures of all the regions 9.
Merits of Federalism
Demerits (Disadvantages of Federal System)
Sharing of power between the center and the states creates confusion. Sometimes, there
can be overlapping of work and subsequent confusion regarding who is responsible for what
e.g. when Typhoon Katrina hit greater New Orleans, US, in 2005, there was delay in the
rescue work as there was a confusion, between the state governments and federal
government, on who is responsible for which disaster management work. This resulted in
the loss of many many lives.
Creates Confusion 1.
Federal system of government is very expensive as more people are elected to office, both,
at the state and at the center, than necessary. Thus, it is often said that only rich countries
can afford it. Too many elective representatives with overlapping rules may also leads to
corruption.
Very Expensive 2.
Federalism lead to unnecessary competition between different regions. There can be a
rebellion by a regional government against the national government to.
Unnecessary Competition 3.
Federalism promotes regional inequalities. Natural resources, industries, employment,
opportunities, differ from region to region. Hence, earning and wealth are unevenly
distributed. Rich states offer more opportunities and benefits to its citizens than poor states
can. Thus, the gap between rich and poor states widens.
Regional Inequalities 4.
Federalism can make the state-government selfishness and concern only about their own
region's progress. They can formulate policies which might be determinant to other regions
e.g. pollution from a province which is promoting industrialisation in a big way can affect
another region which depends solely on agriculture and cause crop damage.
State-Government Selfishness 5.
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Demerits (Disadvantages of Federal System)
Federalism does not eliminate poverty. Even in New York, there are poor labour hoods like
Harlem with the majority of black population. The reasons for this may be that during policy
framing, it is the intellectuals, and not the masses, who are invited by the local government.
Does Not Eliminate Poverty 6.
Thus, it is understood that there had been both, advantages and disadvantages in US. There is a
general feeling that the rights of the minorities, like blacks, are compromised in US but, at the
same time, US now has a democratically elected African-American President. Similarly, there had
been advantages and disadvantages of federalism in other countries as well.
Conclusion
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27 2013
10:53 PM
Unitary Form of Government
In such type of government, central government, constantly, uses the power of legislation.

Dicey 1.
Such type of government in which all the powers belongs to a central government.
Fiez 2.
A unitary government may be defined as in which the powers are concentrated in the hands of a central
government. There may be local governments. These are created and derive their power from the
central government and as such a subordinate to the same in all respects. They are mere agents of the
central government. The best example of the unitary government is that of the Great Britain and France.
Merits of Unitary Form of Government
The great merit of unitary form of government is its strength and wider. The central
government with its vast powers and control over local administrations can deal effectively
and vigorously with all questions; internal and external. It checks centrifugal forces and
saves administration from dis-corruption. The strength of the centralised unitary state is
especially manifested in foreign policy and national defense.
Strength and Stability of Government 1.
In unitary form of government, there is a uniformity of law's policy and administration
throughout the country because there is no autonomous units as they are in federal state.
Uniformity of Law's Policies 2.
The unitary state is simple in organisation as there is a single administrative system to
execute laws and policy. This saves money. It is therefore less expensive form of
government than the federal one.
Simplicity in Organisation 3.
Unitary form of government is most suitable system for small states. Central government
can easily control a small area and small populated state.
Appropriate/Suitable for Small States 4.
In unitary state, there is uniformity in laws and policies. All the decisions are made by
central government. So, it is easy to establish national unity and integration.
National Unity and Integration 5.
In unitary state, there is no concept of provincial government or decisions are made by the
central government. So, central government can make decisions easily.
Quick Decision 6.
Free from Complications 7.
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02 2013
2:10 PM
Unitary form of government is very easy. Common man can easily follow it. There are not
any disputes or complications like in federal state.
Free from Complications 7.
Safeguard of National Integration 8.
In unitary government, there is not such constitutional division of power except that there may be
the delegation of authority by the central government to the local one. In a federal government,
constitution is the supreme.
1.
The federal government determines the powers between the two sets of governments, both of
which are equal before the constitution but in the unitary government, the central government
may be the supreme authority, exercising all the powers.
2.
In the federation, the units are independent of center in their own sphere, whereas, in unitary
form of government, the local or unit government in authority are subordinate to the center.
3.
A unitary government may have unwritten and flexible constitution but a federal government can
not work successfully unless it possesses a written and rigid constitution.
4.
In federal government, generally, the judiciary plays a vital part in administration. It decides the
disputes that may crop up between the central and provincial government or between one unit
and the other. It interprets the constitution and may declare an act of any government as ultra
wires. The judiciary in the unitary form of government does not possesses any such powers as
there is no need to have an authority to decide conflicts of jurisdiction between center and local
authority. There, the central government is supreme over the local governments.
5.
Salient Features of Unitary Form of Government
Demerits of Unitary Form of Government
Modern experience has shown that large territorial states, with their great diversity of
culture, language and tradition, can not be effectively governed from a single center. These
conditions demands a federal form of government.
Not Suitable for Large Territorial States 1.
A centralised unitary government is inclined to disregard local needs and interests. It is
partly because it is situated far away in the capital but mainly because it has neither
knowledge nor contact with local conditions and affairs.
Inclined to Disregard Local Needs and Interests 2.
Dangers of Dictatorship of Central Government 3.
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04 2013
3:24 PM
Definitions Meaning:
The state is the most universal and most powerful of all social institutions. The state is a natural
institution. Aristotle said that man is a social animal and by nature he is a political being.
The modern term 'state' is derived from the word 'status'. It was Nicedo Machiavelli (1469-1527) who
first used the term 'state' in his writings. His important work is titled as 'Prince'.
The state is the highest form of human association. It is necessary because it comes into existence out of
the basic needs of life. It continues to remain for the sake of good life.
State is a community of people occupying a definite form of territory free of external control
and possessing an organised government to which people show habitual obedience.
According to Garner 1)
A particular portion of mankind viewed as an organised unit.
Burgees defines the state as 2)
Definition:
It is the people who make the state. Population is essential for the state. Greek thinkers
were of the view that the population should neither be too big nor too small. According to
Plato, the ideal number would be 5040. According to Aristotle, the number should be
neither be too large enough to be self-sufficing nor small enough to be well governed.
Rousseau determined 10,000 to be an ideal number for a state. Greek thinkers', like Plato's
and Aristotle's, thinking on the number was based on small city-states like Athens and
Sparta. However, modern states vary in population.
Population 1.
There can be no state without a fixed territory. People need territory to live and organise
themselves socially and politically. It may be remembered that the territory of the state
includes land, water and air-space.
The modern states differ in their sizes. Territory is necessary for citizenship. As in the case of
population, no definite size, with regards to extent of area of the state, can be fixed. There
are small and big states.
In the words of Prof. Elliott, "territorial sovereignty or the superiority of state, overall,
within its boundaries, and complete freedom from external control has been a fundamental
principle of the modern state life.
Territory 2.
Government is the third element of the state. There can be no state without government.
Government is the working agency of the state. It is the political organisation of the state.
Prof. Appadorai defined government as the agency through which the will of the state if
formulated, expressed and realised.
According to C. F. Strong, in order to make and enforce laws, the state must have supreme
authority. This is called government.
Government 3.
The fourth essential element of the state is sovereignty. The word 'sovereignty' means
Sovereignty 4.
Elements
The State and its Elements
04 2013
3:54 PM
The fourth essential element of the state is sovereignty. The word 'sovereignty' means
supreme and final legal authority above and beyond which no legal power exists.
The concept of 'sovereignty' was developed in conjunction with the rise of the modern
state.
The term sovereignty is derived from the Latin word superanaus which means supreme. The
father of modern theory of sovereignty was Jean Bodin (1530-1597), a French political
thinker.
Internal Sovereignty i.
External Sovereignty ii.
Sovereignty has two aspects
Internal sovereignty means that the state is supreme over all its citizens and associations.
External sovereignty means that the state is independent and free from foreign or outside
control.
Functions of Unitary Form of Government
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22 2013
5:12 PM
Concentration of Power tends to make the central government despotic. The subordinate
position of local government deprives them of initiative and time to devote the local affairs
without first getting orders or powers from the superior central authority. Hence, they
usually neglect them. Central authority impairs the vitality of the local governments and
facilitates the development of the centralised bureaucracy.
Concentration of Power 4.
In unitary form of government, there are top much responsibilities on central government.
For this reason, decisions cannot be made quickly. Government officials make the decisions
according to official method and they do not try to follow the people or point of view.
More Responsibilities on Central Government 5.
Confederation
There are many sovereigns in confederation. In fact, all the states included are sovereign.

Dr. Garner 1.
Confederation is union of independent states which establish for particular purpose.

Hall 2.
A confederation is an association of sovereigns. Sovereign member states that by treaty have delegated
certain of their powers to common institutions in order to coordinate their policies in a number of areas,
without constitutions of a new member states under international law. A confederation respects the
sovereignty of its members and its constituting treaty can only be changed by unanimous. A
confederation in modern political terms is a permanent union of sovereign states for common actions in
relation to other states, usually created by treaty but often, later, adopting a common constitution.
Confederations tend to be established for deciding with critical issues such as defense, foreign affairs or
a common currency with the central government being required to provide support for all members.
10 December 2013
22 2013
5:13 PM
Confederation
Thus confederation is union of independent states but it is quite different from federation.
The nature of the relationship among the states constituting a confederation varies considerably.
Likewise, the relationship between the member states and the central government and the distribution
of powers among them is highly virile. Some looser confederation are similar to intergovernmental
organisation, while tighter confederations may resemble federation.
In a non political context, confederation is used to describe a type of organisation which consolidates
authority from other semi-autonomous bodies. Examples include sports confederations or
confederations of Pan-European trades unions
Confederation vs. Federation
Supreme Court 1.
Base 2.
Citizenship 3.
In confederation, the states do not give up their sovereignty but, in federation, the federating
units give up their sovereignty and a new state come into being and sovereignty belongs to the
new state.
1)
The common authority in a confederation deals only with the governments of confederation and
not with their citizens while the federal government can directly deal with citizens.
2)
In a confederation, the central government does not possess any independent power of law
making. It can make only proposals of laws which may be enacted by the government of
confederating states. The central government in a federation is, however, his independence
power of law making regarding those subjects which are allotted to it by the constitution. All
federating states are bound to obey such laws.
3)
The following are the distinction between federation and confederation.
11 December 2013
22 2013
5:27 PM
Q= Difference between Confederation and Federation
A federation is one international person. The federating unit can not become member of an
international organisation like UK (United Kingdom). If a war breaks out between the unit of
federation, it will be civil power. On the other hand, each of the confederating state is an
international person; each can become the member of an international organisation state. If a civil
war breaks out between confederation states, it will be an international war.
4)
A confederation by its nature is a temporary union. It come into existence by means or pact or
treaty between different states. The confederating state can withdraw from union from any time.
On the other hand, a federation is the product of constitution. The central government will not
allow any state to break away from the union. A federation is therefore most able than a
confederation.
5)
23 December 2013
01 2014
3:44 PM
Parliamentary Form of Government
A parliamentary form of government is a system in which ministers of the executive branch get their
democratic legitimacy from the legislature and are accountable to that body. Such that the executive
and legislative branches are inter-wined. A parliamentary system is a form of government in which the
real executive, the cabinet, is responsible for its actions and policies to the legislature, and remains in
office as long as it enjoys the confidence of the legislature, of lower or popular chamber, if the
legislature is bicameral. If its policies do not receive the support of the legislature, the voters go through
new elections. Then the party obtaining a majority in the new legislature form the cabinet of the
government. This type of government is also called cabinet or responsible or ministerial form of
government. It is called parliamentary form of government because the legislature or the parliament is
considered to be superior to the executive or the cabinet.
Japan
India
Britain (Mother of parliamentary form of governments)
Canada
Australia
Bangladesh
Pakistan
Countries having parliamentary form of government
Main Features of the Parliamentary Form of Government
The state administrated by this type of government possesses a titular or nominal head of
the state. The government is legally carried on in his name, but actually he enjoys only a
position of titular head, without any real power. The head of the state may be an elective
president as in Pakistan or a hereditary monarch as in Britain or a nominated governor
general as in the dominions like Canada and Australia.
Titular Head of State 1.
The real executive authority is the cabinet (body of ministers), headed by a prime minister,
who are members of the legislature, the lower house.
Cabinet is the real executive 2.
The cabinet is immediately responsible to the legislature. This means that this is answerable
for its policies and actions to the legislature and its tenure of office is dependent on the will
of the legislature. The responsibility of ministers is collective. A vote of no confidence
against one minister is regarded as a vote of no confidence against the entire cabinet.
Responsible Government 3.
06 January 2014
Monday, January 20, 2014
11:40 PM
Members of the cabinet are the member of the legislature. They are taken from the party
commanding the majority in the legislature. The leader of the majority party becomes the
prime minister and on his advice other ministers are appointed by the head of the state or
the presidential. Thus, the cabinet is a homogeneous body. If no party in the legislative
enjoys the clear or absolute majority, two or more parties join together to form the cabinet,
known as coalition cabinet.
Cabinet is Homogeneous 4.
Merits (Advantages) of Parliamentary System
See in extra notes.
07 January 2014
21 2014
12:21 AM
Demerits of Parliamentary System
659 members House of Common
25-30 members Cabinet members
Cabinet Dictatorship () 1.
Instability (
) 2.
Inexperienced Ministers ( ) 3.
Protection of Personal Interests ( ) 4.
The idea of separation of powers was given by Montesquieu
Opposite to Separation of Powers 5.
Criticism for the sake of criticism 6.
Horse Trading and Floor Crossing () 7.
Slow System of Government (
) 8.
Expensive System of Government 9.
13 January 2014
21 2014
12:25 AM
Presidential Form of Government
Introduction
Presidential system is a form of government in which the real executive powers are exercised by an
elected president, whose tenure of office is not dependent on the will of legislature. The president is not
only the head of the state but also the executive. It is called presidential because, in this system, the
president is the real head of executive and of the state. It is, sometimes, called a non-parliamentary
government. In this system, an executive branch exists and resides separately from the legislature to
which it is not responsible and which can not dismiss it in any circumstances.
A presidential form of government is a system of government where an executive branch is lead
by a president, who serve as both, head of the state and the head of the government.
Definition
The president, the head of the state, exercises real executive authority. 1.
The president appoints a number of ministers (in the USA, they are called secretaries) to assist him
in his works. The ministers are his subordinates and are responsible to him.
2.
The president is elected for a fixed term. He cannot be turned out by the legislature before the
expiry of that term.
3.
The president is not responsible to the legislature nor are his secretaries responsible to the
legislature. They may be removed only by the president.
4.
The president is not a member of the legislature. 5.
There is a complete separation of powers between executive and legislature with the system of
check and balance.
6.
Features
America
Brazil
Argentina
Egypt
Philippines
Mexico
Afghanistan
Countries having presidential form of government
20 January 2014
21 2014
12:33 AM
Advantages of Presidential Form of Government
A prime minister is usually chosen by the majority of the people representatives while a
president is directly chosen by the people. According to the supporters of the presidential
system, a popularly elected leadership is inherently more democratic than a leadership
chosen by a legislative body, even if the legislative body was itself elected to rule through
making more than one electoral choice. Voters in a presidential system can more accurately
indicate their policy preferences, for example, in the US of America, some political scientists
interpret the late cold war tendency to elect a Democratic Congress and a Republican
President as the choice for a Republican Foreign Policy and a Democratic Domestic Policy.
Direct Mandate 1.
21 January 2014
22 2014
2:37 PM
The fact that a presidential system separates the executive system from the legislature is
sometimes held up as an advantage. In that, each branch may scrutinize the actions of the
others. In a parliamentary system, the executive is drawn from the legislature, making
criticism of one by the other considerably less likely. A former condemnation of the
executive by the legislature is often regarded to be a vote of no confidence. According to
the supporters of the presidential system, the lack of checks and balance means that
misconduct by a prim minister may never be discovered. Writing about Watergate,
Woodrog Wyatt, a former MP (member of the parliament) in the UK, said, "Don't think a
Watergate could not happen here. You just would not hear about it."
Separation of Powers 2.
The presidential system guarantees the stability in the country while most parliamentary
governments go long periods of time without a no confidence vote. Italy, Israel and the
French Fourth Republic have, all, experienced difficulties maintaining to relish on coalitions.
As they often do in nations, that use a system of proportional representation, extremist
parties can theoretically use the threat of leaving a coalition to further their agendas.
Stability 3.
Many people consider presidential system to be more able to survive emergencies. A
country under enormous stress, may supporter's arguments be better, of being lead by
president with a fixed term than rotating preneurships. France, during the Algeria
controversy, switch to the semi-presidential system, as did Sri Lanka during its civil war. In
France and Sri Lanka, the results are widely considered to have been positive.
Meeting Emergencies 4.
Under the presidential system, the legislature can always maintain its independent and can
legislate without interference of the government. Even if the president's party is a majority,
in the legislature, there is no guarantee that legislature will always follow the president
blindly. Supporters of presidential system note that parliamentary system frequently go
through disrupted cabinet shuffles where legislatures are moved between part flaws.
Whereas, in presidential system, cabinet shuffles are unheard of.
Independent Legislature 5.
22 January 2014
22 2014
2:47 PM
Presentations - 27-28 Feb 2014
03 2014
4:07 PM
Demerits of Presidential Form of Government
According to Dr. Garner, presidential form of government is autocratic, irresponsible and dangerous.
The presidential system develops the tendency towards authoritarianism and dictatorship as
winning the presidency is a winner taker or zero sum prize. A prime minister who does not
enjoy a majority in the legislature will have to either form a coalition or, if he is able to lead
a majority government, govern in a manner acceptable to, at least, some of the opposition
parties. Even if the prime minister leads a majority government, he must, still, govern within
constrains as determined by the members of tis party. A prime minister, in this situation, is
often at greater risk of losing his party leadership. Then, his party is at risk of losing the next
election.
On the other hand, once elected president cannot only marginalize the influence of other
parties but can exclude several functions in his own party as well, or even leave the party
whose ticket he was elected under. The president can, thus, rule without any allies for the
duration of one or possible multiple terms; a worrisome for many interest groups.
Juan Liz argues that in a presidential system, the legislature and the president has equally
valid mandates from the public. There is often no way to reconcile the conflict between the
branches of the government. When president and legislature are in disagreement and
government is not working effectively, there is a powerful incentive to imply extra-
constitutional measures to break the deadlock.
Tendency towards authoritarianism 1.
03 February 2014
03 2014
4:09 PM
Legislature
The legislature is law making branch. The legislature has an important role in the amendment of the
constitution. The legislature is a deliberative body where matters of social, economical and political
concerns are discussed, debated and decided.
The British parliament is said to be the mother of parliaments. It is the oldest legislature in the world.
According to Professor Laski, Law making is not the only functions of the legislature but its real function
is to watch the process of administration to safeguard the liberties of private citizens.
Upper House (i)
Lower House (ii)
The legislature of the union is called the parliament in Pakistan and India. It consists of two cambers;
Senate. (i)
National Assembly. (ii)
In Pakistan, the Parliament consists of:
The Council of States or The Rajya Sabha. (i)
The House of the People of The Lok Sabha. (ii)
In India, the Congress consists of:
The Council of States (i)
National Council (ii)
In Switzerland, the Federal Assembly consists of:
The House of Councilors. (i)
The House of Representative. (ii)
In Japan, the National Diet consists of:
Senate. (i)
The House of Commons. (ii)
In Canada, the Parliament consists of:
Senate. (i)
In Australia, the Commonwealth Parliament consists of:
Senate. (i)
The House of Assembly. (ii)
In South Africa, the Union Parliament consists of:
Senate. (i)
National Assembly. (ii)
In France, the Parliament consists of:
The House of Lords. (i)
The House of Commons. (ii)
In Great Britain, the Parliament consists of:
In United States of America, the Congress consists of:
11 February 2014
12 2014
2:31 PM
Senate. (i)
In United States of America, the Congress consists of:
State Duma. (i)
Federation Council. (ii)
In Russia, the Federal Assembly consists of:
Unicameral (i)
Bicameral (ii)
Kinds of Legislature
Functions of Legislature
Law Making 1.
Auditor General
Financial Functions 2.
Executive Functions 3.
Judicial Functions 4.
Power to Amend the Constitution 5.
Electoral Functions 6.
Functions regarding to Foreign Affairs 7.
Prevention of Public Grievances 8.
Functions of Public Opinion 9.
Investigatory Functions 10.
National Policies 11.
International Relation 12.
Executive
Executive is that organ of government which enforces the will of the people as formulated in laws. The
term is used in broad and narrow sense. In the broad sense, the executive includes the supreme head of
the state, his ministers and all other officials, high and low, who are concerned with the execution of
laws and related affairs. In the narrow sense, if simply refers to the chief executive and his advisors, who
determines the policy of the government and sees that the laws are properly enforced and
implemented.
In the presidential system of government, president and the members of his cabinet are executive,
while, in the parliamentary system, prime minister and his members are executive, who are chosen by
the majority party in the parliament. They head the administrative departments, initiate legislation and
get it passed by the parliament. The implementation of laws and policies of the government is the
function of permanent civil servants who are recruited at fixed age and remain in office till the age of
retirement. With permanent carrier, thus, the executive in the Great Britain means the team of
executives and ministers, headed by prime minister; In United States, the president and his secretaries;
and in Pakistan, the prime minister and his cabinet and those subordinate officials who carry out the
policy and enforce the laws. The executive branch, the government, is the part of the government that
has sole authority and responsibility for the daily administration of state bureaucracy. The division of
power into separate branches of the government is central to the idea of the Separation of Powers.
Nominal and Real Executive 1.
Switzerland: Federal Council is based on 7 members who become president or prime
minister every year.
Single and Plural Executive () 2.

Parliamentary and Presidential Executive 3.
Permanent and non-Permanent Executive 4.
Kinds of Executive
Establishment of Internal Peace and Security 1.
Defense of the State 2.
Foreign Relations 3.
Judicial Functions 4.
Legislature Powers 5.
Financial Powers 6.
Public Welfare 7.
Powers of Appointment 8.
Functions of Executive
12 February 2014
12 2014
2:59 PM
Judiciary
Judiciary is the third organ of the government which occupies an eminent position and performs
important functions. Its main function is to dispense justice. The demand of justice is inherent in man
and this is filled by the judiciary. The only independent judiciary can perform this function. The judiciary
is the system of courts that interprets and applies the law in the name of the state. The judiciary also
provides a mechanism for the resolution of disputes under the doctrine of the suppression of power.
The judiciary, generally, does not make law or enforce law but rather interprets law and applies it to the
fact of each case. This branch of government is often tasked with ensuring equal justice under law. It
usually consists of a court of final appeal, together with lower courts.
Lord Bryce has said that there are two better tests of excellence of government than the efficiency of its
judicial system. The welfare of citizens depends to a larger extent upon the judiciary. Judiciary is one of
the pillars of democracy. Its interpretation ensures justice, equality and liberty to all its citizens.
Independent and impartial judiciary is an essential feature of democratic setup. The Supreme Court of
Pakistan consists of chief justice and other judges. The Supreme Court has its permanent seat in
Islamabad.
According to Justice Charles Evans Hughes, we are under a constitution but the constitution is what the
judges say it is.
Functions of Judiciary
Provision of Justice 1.
Interpretation of Laws ( ) 2.
Safeguard of Constitution 3.
1954 Governor General Sikander Mirza dissolved the assembly.
Interpretation of Constitution 4.
1972 Acceptance of Bangladesh.
Advisory Functions 5.
Safeguard of Basic/Fundamental Rights 6.
Supervise and to Hear Appeals 7.
Preventive Justice ( ) 8.

Contempt of Court 9.
13 February 2014
13 2014
3:15 PM
Following are the merits of Parliamentary System
This system strengthens the relation between executive and legislature. As the members of
cabinet are also the members of the parliament, so there is a close collaboration between
executive and legislature. The ministers participate in all debates, discussions and decisions
of the legislature and are responsible to it. There is a unity of purpose and harmony
between them.
Strengthens the Relations 1.
It ensures the responsibility of those who govern to those who are governed. This
responsibility is firstly and directly to the members of parliament. The ministers are
constantly criticized by the members, especially by those of opposition. It is impossible for
an irresponsible ministry to hold office for long. It resigns as soon as it loses the confidence
of majority in the legislature.
Ensures Responsibility 2.
Parliamentary system is flexible enough to adjust itself according to the need of the
changing circumstances. In case, public policy is not in the line with popular demands, it can
be reshaped under the presence of parliament. Moreover, proper changes can be brought in
the proper composition of the cabinet in order to meet any emergency.
Flexibility 3.
Power is more divided in a parliamentary system, spread out among number of leaders in
parliament, including the prime minister. The majority party leader and the whip to name a
few. A prime minister does not have as much power as a president. In a parliamentary
system, a shift in power can take place without an election.
Powers Spread Out 4.
While trying to address the concerns of different regions and cultures of the nation, the
parliamentary form of government helps in promoting national integration.
Conductive to National Integration 5.
In parliamentary system, it is faster and easier to pass legislature. This is because the
executive branch is dependent upon the direct or indirect amount to the executive
possessing more votes in order to pass legislation.
Quicker Legislative Action 6.
Merits of Parliamentary Form of Government
13 2014
3:34 PM

Introduction To Political Science I

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Introduction To Political Science I

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Introduction to Political Science Prof. Dr. Muhammad Sarwar

), Metrology () and Geography ( ): 4.

Single and Plural Executive () 2.

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