World Review of Entrepreneurship, Management and Sust. Development, Vol. 8, No.

4, 2012 405
Copyright 2012 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.











Human resource management practices,
performance and strategy in the Italian hotel industry
Stefano Bresciani
Researcher of Innovation Management,
Faculty of Economics,
University of Torino,
Corso Unione Sovietica, 218 bis, 10134 Torino, Italy
Fax: +39 (0)11-6706052
E-mail: bresciani@econ.unito.it
Alkis Thrassou and Demetris Vrontis*
School of Business, University of Nicosia,
46 Makedonitissas Ave.,
P.O. Box 24005, 1700 Nicosia, Cyprus
Fax: 00357-22-353-722
E-mail: thrassou.a@unic.ac.cy
E-mail: vrontis.d@unic.ac.cy
*Corresponding author
Abstract: The aim of this paper is to study the relationship between human
resource management (HRM) and organisational performance in the Italian
hospitality sector. In particular, it investigates the extent of adoption of HRM
practices, the existence of formal HR strategies, and the degree of development
of the HR function, in the Italian hotel industry. The findings aim to verify
whether the effectiveness of HRM is contingent upon the approach to adopted
business strategies and whether the hotels, which strategically formally apply
HRM practices, outperform those with HRM practices outside a formal
organisational strategy. The research finally expands on the underlying factors
and managerial implications of the findings to conceptually interpret
phenomena and prescribe actions.
Keywords: human resource management; HRM; strategy; marketing;
hospitality industry; hotels; organisational performance; Italy.
Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Bresciani, S., Thrassou, A.
and Vrontis, D. (2012) Human resource management practices, performance
and strategy in the Italian hotel industry, World Review of Entrepreneurship,
Management and Sustainable Development, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp.405423.
Biographical notes: Stefano Bresciani received his PhD in Business
Administration in 2003. He has been working as research scholar in the
ESCP-EAP London in 2006. He is currently a Researcher in Business
Management at the Faculty of Economics, University of Torino, where he
teaches business management and innovation management. He is performing
research integrated with the Department of Business Administration of the
Faculty of Economics of the University of Torino. His main areas of research
include business management, innovation management and strategic
management.









406 S. Bresciani et al.












Alkis Thrassou is an Associate Professor at the School of Business, University
of Nicosia, Cyprus. He obtained his PhD in Strategic Marketing Management
from the University of Leeds (UK). From 1996 until 2002, he has worked as a
Business and Project Manager for an engineering management firm in Cyprus,
leading teams of professionals through many projects of varying size and
nature. In 2002, he joined the Marketing Department of the University of
Nicosia, involving himself in various scholarly activities, lecturing on
marketing-related subjects to both undergraduate and postgraduate students,
and undertaking extensive research in the fields of strategic marketing, services
and consumer behaviour. His work has been published in many scientific
journals and books, and he retains strong ties with the industry, acting also as a
consultant.
Demetris Vrontis is a Professor of Marketing and the Dean of the School of
Business at the University of Nicosia in Cyprus. He is also a Visiting Scholar
for Henley School of Management in the UK, a Visiting Professor for
Vorarlberg University in Austria, a Visiting Research Fellow at Manchester
Metropolitan University in the UK and a Visiting Fellow at Leeds Metropolitan
University in the UK. His prime research interests are on international
marketing, marketing planning, branding and marketing communications, areas
that he has widely published in over 50 refereed journal articles, contributed
chapters and cases in books and presented papers to conferences on a global
basis. He is also the author of ten books in the areas of international marketing
and marketing planning, is the Editor of the EuroMed Journal of Business
(EMJB) and the President of the EuroMed Research Business Institute
(EMRBI).
This paper is a revised and expanded version of a paper entitled Human
resource management practices, performance and strategy in the Italian hotel
industry presented at 3rd Annuale EuroMed Conference of the EuroMed
Academy of Business, Nicosia, Cyprus, 45 November 2010.

1 Introduction
In order to compete in an increasingly competitive business world, corporations have
modified their internal structure and processes to become more lean and flexible. This
enables them to react quickly to the incessantly changing competitive conditions and to
adapt their businesses accordingly. This is also reflected in the way corporations seek to
achieve competitive advantage, moving their attention from hard elements, such as
privileged access to resources (e.g., capital), to softer elements, such as the management
of human resources, innovation, etc. (Foss and Laursen, 2000; Laursen and Mahnke,
2000; Leoni et al., 2000; Wilkinson, 2000; Valdani, 2000; Ham and Kleimer, 2002;
Bresciani, 2009, 2010; Tardivo et al., 2011).
The relationship between human resources and performance has been widely
researched over the last twenty years, especially in the USA (Arthur, 1994; Osterman,
1994; Huselid, 1995; Macduffie, 1995; Koch and Mcgrath, 1996; Lazear, 1996;
Ichniowski and Shaw, 1999) and in Great Britain (Guest and Hoque, 1994; McNabb and
Whitfield, 1997; Guest, 1999; Hiltrop, 1999), where a number of research studies have
lead us to understand this relationship. The main outcome of these studies has been the
recognition that human resource management (HRM) has considerable impact on an









Human resource management 407












organisations capacity to be competitive and can be considered a source of sustainable,
long-term competitive advantage (Delery and Doty, 1996; Guest, 1997; Boselie et al.,
2001; Golinelli et al., 2005).
Moreover, authors describe the impact of high-commitment management (Wood
and Albanese, 1995; Wood and De Menezes, 1998) and high-performance work
practices (Huselid, 1995) on organisations. Most researchers, however, focus their
attention on the manufacturing industry (Arthur, 1994; MacDuffie, 1995), though more
recently it is possible to find studies related to services, and even particularly referring to
the hospitality sector (Boselie et al., 2003; Lockyer and Scholarios, 2004; Maxwell et al.,
2004; Tsaur and Chun Lin, 2004; Boella et al., 2005; Alleyne et al., 2006; Chand and
Katou, 2007; Cho et al., 2006; Knox and Walsh, 2006; Namasivayam et al., 2006;
Connolly and McGing, 2007; Nickson, 2007; Urbano and Yordanova, 2007; Watson
et al., 2007).
Given the heterogeneity difficulties characterising the service sector, it is very hard
for researchers to generalise data from different types of service organisations like
financial enterprises, retailing operations, transport operations and the hospitality sector.
Moreover, the service sector is probably undergoing the greatest changes in terms of
product, process and customer behaviour (Thrassou and Vrontis, 2008), and the role of
HRM cannot be generalised even within the sector itself. This paper, therefore, presents
an industry-specific research, rather than an analysis of the services sector as a whole,
investigating the relationship between HRM and performance, within the Italian hotel
industry.
The paper includes a literature review on the subject, with special focus on the
analysis of two frameworks: that of internal and that of external fit. In particular, the
paper uses an adapted version of the Hoques (1999) model in order to compare the
Italian hotel industry with Hoques (1999) sample of hotels in the UK; and Alleyne et al.
(2006) survey of the Barbados hotels. The research was executed in two phases,
which included firstly a selection process of a sample of 350 hotels, and secondly a
questionnaire survey based on this sample.
2 Theoretical background
2.1 Generic research on HRM and organisational performance
The study of HRM is concerned with the selections that organisations make, from among
the myriad of policies, practices and structures for managing employees (Sisson, 1990;
Boxall and Purcell, 2003; Boselie et al., 2005). The combination of chosen practices is
geared towards improving organisational effectiveness and hence better performance
outcomes, in order to enable the organisation to achieve its business goals (Wright and
McMahan, 1992; Delery and Doty, 1996).
A number of trends have emerged in the field of HRM over the past few years. A
mainstream one relates to the nature of the interaction between HRM and performance
(Arthur, 1994; Guest and Peccei, 1994; Kalleberg and Moody, 1994; Huselid, 1995;
MacDuffie, 1995; Snell and Youndt, 1995; Delery and Doty, 1996; Boselie et al., 2001;
Guthrie, 2001), showing a statistically significant linkage between HRM practices and
some measures of organisational performance. In the same context, Harney and Dundon
(2006) study HRM practices in small and medium size enterprises, finding that HRM was









408 S. Bresciani et al.












not the coherent set of practices typically identified in the literature, but rather was often
informal and emergent. In the latter context, Thrassou and Vrontis (2006) present the
need for HRM to be incorporated in the wider strategic functions of HRM, also retaining
nonetheless a much needed flexibility and adaptability.
Another major research trend was the endeavour to understand the mechanisms
through which this relationship takes place. Authors such as Dyer and Reeves (1995),
Guest (1997), Wright and Gardner (2003) and Dowling et al. (2008) researched some of
the mediating relationships that exist between the HRM practices and organisational
performance. Other authors, such as Ferris et al. (1999), Guest (1997), Rogers and Wright
(1998), Wood (1999), Gerhart (1999), Gerhart et al. (2000a, 2000b) and Wright et al.
(2001), studied the problem from a theoretical point of view reaching various and
frequently conceptual conclusions.
A final main trend is the more recent interest in taking a multi-level and
multi-dimensional approach. Wright and Gardner (2003) reviewed the HRM literature
and found that past researches on the subject can be differentiated along two dimensions:
firstly, whether the focus was on single or multiple practices; and secondly, regarding the
unit of analysis, specifically the individual versus the group or organisation. Ostroff and
Bowen (2000) and more recently Bowen and Ostroff (2004) have developed the most
extensive multi-level model of HRM, arguing that HR practices serve as communication
mechanisms signalling employees to engage in certain behaviours.
Reviewing all these works, their common thread lies in the recognition that HRM has
an important impact on an organisations capacity to be competitive, that it can be a
competitive advantage in itself and that it is in essence, not just a process, but an
investment.
The methodological deficiency of referring to past research, in this papers context
though, is the fact that one cannot blindly assume that these generic findings are
necessarily transferable to the hospitality industry. This research therefore, has expanded
its theoretical review to the existing, albeit much fewer, industry-specific works.
2.2 HRM and the hospitality sector
The hotel industry has been historically renowned for its poor pay, inferior employment
conditions and deficient adoption of HR practices. The industry has largely relied on a
low cost, numerically flexible and disposable workforce. Increasingly, however, there
have been debates concerning the extent to which managers in the hotel industry are
embracing high commitment HRM and functionally flexible work practices. Interest in
HRM within the hospitality sector has been increasing since the 1990s, with the first
studies, showing a lack of interest among managers in HRM practices (Hales, 1987;
Guerrier and Lockwood, 1989; Lockwood and Guerrier, 1989; Price, 1994; Lucas, 1995,
1996). Later research though, showed that the interest among hotel industry managers on
HRM practices, which could help organisations in improving effectiveness and hence
better performance outcomes, was visibly increasing (Harrington and Akehurst, 1996;
Watson and DAnnunzio-Green, 1996; Gilbert and Guerrier, 1997; Hoque, 1999).
However, it was only during the 2000s that it was possible to find specific evidence of
the systematic use of HRM practices within the hospitality sector.
Boselie et al. (2003) gathered empirical data on the effectiveness of HRM in the
Netherlands, including the tourism industry, finding a lower effect of HRM than in other
sectors. In the same context, Lockyer and Scholarios (2004) consider the nature of best









Human resource management 409












practice recruitment and selection in the Scottish hotel sector showing a reliance on
informal methods in smaller hotels and structured procedures, including references,
application forms and panel interviews in larger and chain hotels.
Knox and Walsh (2006), focusing on Australian hotels, find evidence that while hotel
workplaces in general continue to be associated with high levels of numerical and
temporal flexibility and greater informality of HR policies, larger luxury hotels were
adopting more systematic employee management techniques and strengthening their
internal labour markets through functional flexibility initiatives. Urbano and Yordanova
(2007) studied the determinants of the adoption of HRM in tourism SMEs. They find that
the adoption of HRM practices is positively associated with the presence of an HRM
department. Also, SMEs in which the person responsible for HRM has previous
experience in similar positions, are greater adopters of HRM practices. Finally, they find
that SMEs, which cooperate with other organisations, are more likely to implement HRM
practices.
Tsaur and Chun Lin (2004) empirically explore the relationship among HRM
practices, service behaviour and service quality among tourist hotels; discovering that
HRM practices partially have a direct effect on customer perceptions of service quality
and an indirect effect through employees service behaviour. Additionally, Maxwell et al.
(2004) investigate the nature of, and relationship between, a quality service initiative and
the concept of strategic human resource development, and find that the quality initiative
is acting as a catalyst for a strategic approach to human resource development to emerge.
Namasivayam et al. (2006) examined the relationships between compensation (direct and
indirect) practices in hotel organisations and their performance. The results show that in
the case of management employees, direct compensation fully mediated the relationship
between indirect compensation and hotel performance.
Cho et al. (2006) focused the attention on the impact of HRM practices on hospitality
firms performance. They investigate the relationship between twelve different HRM
practices and organisational performance is measured by turnover rates for managerial
and non-managerial employees, labour productivity, and return on assets. The results
indicated that companies implementing HRM practices are more likely to experience
lower turnover rates for non-managerial employees. In the same direction, Watson et al.
(2007) explore different levels of line manager perspectives, namely strategic and
first-line, and their role in HRM and human resource development; and identify enablers
of and barriers to devolving HR to line managers. They find a number of points of
divergence in opinions, implying that there is potential for organisations to secure greater
engagement of their first-line managers in HR roles. Focusing on Irish hotels, Connolly
and McGing (2007) show that Dublin-based hotels display some of the human resource
practices associated with high performing work practices. There are, however, very low
levels of employee participation, which many authors argue are the cornerstone of high
performance practices.
Finally, Chand and Katou (2007) focus their research on two interlinked aspects of
the hotel industry in India: whether specific characteristics of hotels exist that affect
organisational performance; and whether some HRM systems affect organisational
performance. They find that hotel performance is positively associated with hotel
category and type of hotel (chain or individual). Furthermore, hotel performance is
positively related to the HRM systems of recruitment and selection, manpower planning,
job design, training and development, quality circle, and pay systems.









410 S. Bresciani et al.












3 Research aims, value and limitations
The aim of this research is to investigate the relationship between HRM and performance
in the Italian hospitality sector, as well as its practical implications.
Towards this aim, four objectives have been set:
1 to undertake a literature review that will provide the theoretical context, both with
regards to generic and specific to the hotel industry HRM knowledge
2 to measure the extent of the adoption of HRM, the existence of a formal HR strategy,
and the degree and nature of the development of the HR function in the Italian hotel
industry
3 to compare it with Hoques (1999) sample of hotels in the UK and Alleynes et al.
(2006) survey in the Barbados hotels
4 to combine and interrelate the findings of the theoretical and empirical research and
analyses to conceptually identify underlying factors, managerial implications and
practical applications.
This research is a valuable contribution to knowledge on the subject for three main
reasons: it is the first study of its kind regarding the Italian hospitality industry; it makes
use of past studies (Hoque, 1999; Alleyne et al., 2006) to make additional comparisons of
international value; and finally, it interrelates and extrapolates on the findings to offer
practical prescriptive findings to both individual enterprises and collective stakeholders.
The limitations of the research relate to the difficulty in distinguishing between cause
and effect in the correlation between performance and HRM practices. Additionally, it
must be noted that the focus of the research was on larger hotels, whose adoption of
HRM practices is considerably greater than for smaller hotels. The results therefore, are
clearly not representative of the hotel industry as a whole.
Towards verifying whether the effectiveness of HRM is contingent upon the approach
to business strategy that has been adopted, this paper has additionally posed one research
question: Is external fit important within the hospitality sector? Furthermore, this paper
tests whether the hotels that introduce HRM as a formally supported package of strategic
practices outperform the hotels which do introduce HRM, but not as a part of the
organisational strategy. Consequently, a second research question has been generated: Is
internal fit important within the hospitality sector?
4 Methodology
4.1 Data sources
The data used are taken from Rapporto sul sistema alberghiero in Italia edited by
Federalberghi in 2007. The research was conducted in two separate phases. In the first
phase a sample of 350 hotels was selected, including only those with a minimum of
65 bedrooms
1
, which are representative of the region and which have a star rating of 3 or
more (on a rising scale of one to five). In the second phase, a structured questionnaire
was sent to the 350 hotels of the sample. One hundred four hotels responded with
acceptably completed questionnaires (a successful response rate of 29.71%).









Human resource management 411












Table 1 HRM practices used within the analysis
HRM practice
Terms and conditions
Harmonised terms and conditions between management and non-management staff
Single status for all staff
Internal promotion the norm for appointments above the basic levels
No compulsory redundancy
Recruitment and selection
Trainability as a major selection criteria
Use of psychological tests as the norm for the selection of all staff
Deliberate use of realistic job previews during recruitment and selection
A formal system for communicating the values and systems in the company to new staff
Training
Deliberate development of a learning organisation
An explicit policy requiring all staff to spend a specified minimum period annually in formal
training
Job design
Flexible job descriptions that are not linked to one specific task
Deliberate design of jobs to make full use of workers skills and abilities (i.e., use of job
enrichment and/or autonomous work groups)
Work organised around team-working for the majority of staff
Staff involvement in setting performance targets
Quality issues
Production/service staff responsible for their own quality
A majority of workers currently involved in quality circles or quality improvement teams
Communication and consultation
Regular use of attitude surveys to obtain the views of staff
A system of regular, planned team briefing or cascade of information from senior
management to the lower grades/shop-floor during which work stops
All staff are informed about the market position, competitive pressures and establishment
and company performance as a matter of course
Pay systems
A merit element in the pay of staff at all levels
Formal appraisal of all staff on a regular basis at least annually
Source: Hoque (1999)
4.2 Method of analysis
This research applies the same model of analysis used by Hoque (1999) and Alleyne et al.
(2006). The model is consequently synthesised as follows:
4.2.1 Dependent variables
To define HRM practices, the questionnaire asked for the rating of specific HR outcomes:
the commitment to the organisation of lower-grade staff, the level of job satisfaction of









412 S. Bresciani et al.












lower-grade staff, the flexibility of staff, the ability of staff to move between jobs as the
work demands, the quality of work of lower-grades staff, and the quality of staff currently
employed; on a scale of one (very low) to five (very high).
Then, to define the performance, the questionnaire asked for the rating of specific
performance outcomes: how well does labour productivity compare with the hotel
industry average?, how does quality of service compare with the hotel industry average?,
how is the financial performance compared with the hotel industry average?; on a scale of
one (very low) to five (very high).
4.2.2 Independent variables
Table 1 presents the specific measures of HRM used to test the relationship between
HRM and performance.
4.3 Towards answering the research questions
Question 1: Is external fit important within the hospitality sector?
According to Schuler and Jackson (1987) and Hoque (1999), HRM should prove
effective only within hotels which emphasise a quality-enhancing or innovative approach
to business strategy, and should prove ineffective where the hotels business strategy is
focused on cost-cutting or price competition. Consequently, in Hoques (1999) model,
respondents are asked to chose the two features that best describe their approach to
business strategy. The choices were price, quality, cost control, responsiveness to
customer needs, advertising/marketing and providing a distinctive service.
On the base of the answers, it was possible to split the sample into three categories:
a hotels that focus their business strategy on cost minimisation or price competition
b hotels that focus their business strategy on quality enhancement
c hotels that do not have a clear approach to their business strategy.
The measure of HRM used in this analysis is cumulative, in order to allow the ranking of
the hotels from the most HRM practices adopter to the least HRM practices adopter
on a rank from 0 to 21 (see Table 1; 0 = no HRM practices; 21 = all HRM practices
adopted). By splitting the sample in the three categories described above, and then
regressing this aggregate HRM variable on each of the dependent outcome variables, it is
possible to verify the effectiveness of HRM in each of the categories.
Question 2: Is internal fit important within the hospitality sector?
Of the hotels adopting HRM practices, those introducing HRM practices as a strategic
part of their own business strategy [Hoque (1999), says as a synergistic package of
mutually supporting practicesas a coherent, institutionally supported synergistic
package] should outperform hotels which introduced HRM practice in a more casual and
independent operating manner.
According to Hoque (1999), it is possible to split the sample into three categories:











Human resource management 413












1 strategic HRM hotels, which are those with above-average (14 or more) HRM
practices, strategically integrated with each other
2 non-strategic HRM hotels, which are those with above-average (14 or more) HRM
practices, but not strategically integrated
3 low-HRM hotels, which are those with below-average (fewer than 14) adoption of
HRM practices.
If internal fit is important, the strategic HRM hotels should outperform the others.
5 Results and analysis
5.1 External fit
Table 2 shows the presence of a link between HRM and all of the HR outcome measures.
In-depth analysis of the sub-samples, makes it possible to find more differences. For
others, the link is perfectly replicated; for quality-enhancer the link is replicated, with
the only exception being quality of staff; otherwise, for cost-reducers it is possible to
find a link only for the HR outcomes of organisational commitment, job satisfaction and
staff flexibility. So, HRM would seem to be more effective among the quality-enhancer
hotels.
Table 2 The relationship between HR outcomes and HRM in Italian hotel industry
All hotels Cost-reducers Quality-enhancer Others
Organisational commitment
HRM 0.016 (0.011) 0.028 (0.030) 0.123 (0.021) 0.105 (0.010)
n 104 24 51 29
Job satisfaction
HRM 0.101 (0.033) 0.018 (0.021) 0.014 (0.034) 0.021 (0.042)
n 104 24 51 29
Staff flexibility
HRM 0.04 (0.015) 0.021 (0.046) 0.110 (0.032) 0.135 (0.047)
n 104 24 51 29
Ability to move staff between jobs as required
HRM 0.081(0.012) 0.078 (0.134) 0.089 (0.022) 0.064 (0.043)
n 104 24 51 29
Quality of work
HRM 0.066 (0.018) 0.095 (0.124) 0.043 (0.043) 0.110 (0.032)
n 104 24 51 29
Quality of staff
HRM 0.044 (0.021) 0.044 (0.115) 0.068 (0.118) 0.049 (0.026)
n 104 24 51 29
Notes: Ordered probit analysis
Coefficients given (sig. in brackets)










414 S. Bresciani et al.












Table 3 provides evidence of the relationship between HRM practices and organisational
Performance in the Italian hotel industry. It is possible to find a strong relationship
between the extent to which HRM is used and all three performance measures. Analysing
the sub-samples, however, it is possible to find a relationship only for quality-enhancer
(with the exception of labour productivity) and others. So, there is no evidence that the
adoption of HRM practices improves performance where hotels put a premium on cost
control within their business strategy.
Finally, it is possible to assume that the results positively answer question 1, i.e., that
the effectiveness of HRM is dependent upon congruence with business strategy. A
positive correlation between the cumulative HRM variable and effectiveness exists only
within quality-enhancer and `other hotels. Where hotels emphasise cost control or price
competition, there is no relationship.
Table 3 The relationship between HRM practices and organisational performance in Italian
hotel industry
All hotels Cost-reducers Quality-enhancer Others
Labour productivity
HRM 0.02 (0.021) 0.078 (0.123) 0.054 (0.131) 0.141 (0.042)
n 104 24 51 29
Quality of service
HRM 0.087 (0.011) 0.012 (0.121) 0.134 (0.040) 0.081 (0.021)
n 104 24 51 29
Financial performance
HRM 0.091 (0.019) 0.049 (0.141) 0.081 (0.032) 0.121 (0.030)
n 104 24 51 29
Notes: Ordered probit analysis
R
2
is pseudo
Coefficients given (sig. in brackets)
5.2 Internal fit
Here, it should be possible to find evidence on whether hotels introducing HRM practices
as a strategic part of their own business strategy outperform hotels which introducing
HRM practices independently.
Table 4 provides evidence that strategic HRM hotels routinely outperform the
low-HRM hotels across all of the HR outcome measures. On the contrary, the
non-strategic HRM hotels outperform the low-HRM hotels only where organisational
commitment is concerned.
The results concerning performance outcomes are presented in Table 5, which shows
the impact of internal fit on performance. Whereas the strategic HRM hotels outperform
the low-HRM hotels in terms of labour productivity, quality of service and financial
performance, the non-strategic HRM hotels outperform the low-HRM hotels only on
financial performance. The results here confirm the importance of introducing HRM
practices as part of an institutionally strategic package, i.e., as a strategic part of their
own business strategy [Hoque (1999), says as a synergistic package of mutually
supporting practicesas a coherent, institutionally supported synergistic package].









Human resource management 415












Table 4 Internal fit and HR outcomes

Organisational
commitment
Job satisfaction Staff flexibility
Strategic HRM 0.822 (0.020) 0.788 (0.011) 0.440 (0.024)
Non-strategic HRM 0.491 (0.012) 0.521 (0.311) 0.320 (0.120)
n 68 68 68

Ability to move staff
between jobs
Quality of work Quality of staff
Strategic HRM 0.610 (0.020) 0.910 (0.030) 0.710 (0.015)
Non-strategic HRM 0.410 (0.121) 0.010 (0.310) 0.410 (0.210)
n 68 68 68
Notes: Ordered probit analysis
Coefficients given (sig. in brackets)
Strategic HRM = above-average no. of HR practices used and hotel has formal
strategy
Non-strategic HRM = above-average no. of HR practices used but hotel does not
have formal strategy
Omitted category = below-average no. of HR practices used (low HRM)
Table 5 Internal fit and performance outcomes
Labour productivity Quality of service
Financial
performance
Strategic HRM 0.590 (0.010) 0.810 (0.032) 0.810 (0.022)
Non-strategic HRM 0.325 (0.345) 0.224 (0.129) 0.630 (0.010)
n 68 68 68
Notes: Ordered probit analysis
Coefficients given (sig. in brackets)
Strategic HRM = above-average no. of HR practices used and hotel has formal
strategy
Non-strategic HRM = above-average no. of HR practices used but hotel does not
have formal strategy
Omitted category = below-average no. of HR practices used (low HRM)
5.3 Discussion of the findings
The main goal of this paper was to investigate the relationship between HRM and
performance in the Italian hospitality sector, focusing the analysis on two frameworks:
that of internal and that external fit. Further analysis was undertaken to compare this
researchs results with those of the UK hotels research by Hoque (2009) and those of the
Barbados hotels research by Alleyne et al. (2006).
Alleyne et al. (2006) results showed an adoption of HR practices in Barbados hotels
that is more prevalent than in the UK sample of Hoques (2009) work. This research has
found that for the Italian hotels the results are similar to the UK ones. For Barbados, with
respect to the existence of a formal HR strategy, the results were mixed. Additionally
they show that in many respects Barbados hotels are ahead of their UK counterparts in
the development of the HR function.









416 S. Bresciani et al.












External fit therefore, emerges as a fundamental key factor. A relationship between
HRM and performance exists only among hotels emphasising the importance of quality
enhancement and among hotels in the other category. HRM proves ineffective where
cost control is seen as the key to business strategy. Looking at internal fit, there is strong
evidence that higher performance exists where HRM is introduced as a strategic part of
the individual hotel business strategy. The results here add to the conclusions reached by
Ichniowski et al. (1994), MacDuffie (1995) and Hoque (1999).
The research has provided evidence that the trend of increasing importance of HRM
is valid also in the case of the Italian hotel industry. Moreover, and much in line with past
generic research findings, it was found that formalised HRM in the context of a wider
business strategy is even more successful. The results are not surprising as the literature
review has shown that similar findings have been produced regarding other industries
and/or countries.
The research results though, inevitably give rise to a number of interesting and critical
questions:
1 Beyond, classical HRM theories, are there any additional reasons why strategically
formalised HRM is becoming increasingly important?
2 Why is strategically formalised HRM more effective than independently adopted
HRM?
3 What are the underlying causes, at the environmental and consumer behaviour levels,
that instigate these phenomena?
4 What are the managerial implications of the findings?
5 Are there any other implications at the collective and/or industry levels, or in relation
to other stakeholders?
These questions obviously demand for empirical research to properly test and validate
any answers/hypotheses ventured. Nevertheless, through the interrelation of its empirical
and theoretical findings, as well as through further literature review and extrapolation,
this research concludes by venturing a conceptual approach to answering these questions.
Regarding question 1, the answers appear to lie primarily in the marketing
interpretation of the phenomenon. Specifically, in the services sector, and especially in
high-contact services, such as this researchs focus, HRM is increasingly related to the
organisations ability to better serve its customers. Beyond the obvious explanations of
this fact, relating to better employee quality, efficiency/effectiveness, transferability,
improved service, customer satisfaction, etc. (Lovelock and Wirtz, 2011) one needs to
zoom out and see the forest rather than the individual trees. The human resource for
high-contact services is not simply important for the organisation; it is the organisation.
The interpretation of this researchs results is more valid if one reverses the perspective
and looks at the organisation through the eyes of the customer, instead of the more usual
opposite. From this perspective, and excluding tangibles, human resource constitutes the
services facade and consequently the measure of service satisfaction (Zeithaml et al.,
2006). Moreover, the human resource, is the means to building an identity for the service,
a brand image, positioning, and overall creating the perceptions that ultimately form and
solidify customers evaluations, attitudes and beliefs regarding individual organisations
(Thrassou, 2007). Not surprisingly therefore, the more attention is being paid to HRM the
better the results of the hotel in terms of performance.









Human resource management 417












Regarding question 2, the answer lies in the elaboration of the previous point. Since
HRMs value is closely related to the marketing aspects of the business, it is only natural
that HRM tactics and processes can never reach their full potential if designed and
applied independently. On the other hand, HRM designed as part of a wider strategy, that
considers all business aspects, including marketing, branding and of course finance etc, is
naturally more successful. At the same time, strategically formalised HRM allows for
decisions to be taken subsequent to methodical and systematic environmental analysis,
while communications and actions can be more effective as part of a wider formalised
strategy (Kotler et al., 2005; Smith and Taylor, 2002).
Regarding question 3, though business theory as utilised in the above two points
explains the phenomena in terms of business practice, it does not unveil their underlying
causes. The latter can be understood through a study of the development of consumer
behaviour in the services sector, a subject largely outside the scope of this paper.
Nonetheless, to touch upon the root-cause of these phenomena one needs to refer to
existing research that sheds valuable light on the subject. Of primary value to this end is
the conceptual framework for a business-consumer relationship (Vrontis and Thrassou,
2007), as well its marketing communications application (Thrassou and Vrontis, 2009).
The authors show that contemporary consumer behaviour increasingly shifts value from
the tangible to the intangible and from the pragmatic to the perceived service. In this
context the value of the human factor and consequently of HRM, are also becoming
increasingly important. In the same context, the input of the human factor in the
construction of subjective perceptions of service value stretches far more than its
functional capability to fulfil its purpose.
HRM therefore, becomes a key factor, not only of the hotels functional abilities, but
also of the customers impressions, attitudes, beliefs and ultimately of the brand image
and value itself. To better use the authors term in this context: HRM is a key factor of
perception management and branding; themselves being correspondingly the primary
strategic marketing process and vehicle towards the terminal strategic marketing aims
of: shift of focus of marketing communications from the products and their attributes to
the product experience, the product intangibles and, in essence, service higher-order
value additions.
Regarding question 4, the managerial implications are obvious in terms of what
these are, but less obvious in terms of how. In terms what these are, the research
findings are direct and explicit: managers need to adopt strategically formalised HRM
practices, which are becoming increasingly important, and in any case more effective
than independently adopted HRM practices. Concerning the how, it is again outside this
researchs scope to enter the field of internal HRM. It is appropriate though, to point
towards a number of steps that appear to be indicated (not proven though) by this
researchs findings:
a hotel managers need first of all to understand and appreciate the value of
strategically formalised HRM, as the realisation of the fact appears to be a greater
obstacle to its adoption than the process itself
b hotel managers need to have or gain the knowledge to develop and apply a
comprehensive strategy, since managers with essentially experiential knowledge tend
to deal with management functions independently and without interrelating them and
incorporating under a wider strategy









418 S. Bresciani et al.












c HRM in services starts from ensuring that the hotel has the right people for the right
positions and not simply by (re)organising existing HR
d this may demand for painful decisions regarding existing HR and in itself poses
another obstacle
e where managers do not have the knowledge/ability to undertake the responsibility of
developing strategically formalised HRM, the option of external consultants must be
considered, either for the HRM function alone or even for the comprehensive
strategic design of the hotel(s).
Regarding question 5, the degree of utilisation of this researchs findings at a
collective/industry level is proportional to the degree to which the industry and related
authorities generally collaborate with each other. In most regions of Italy and elsewhere,
there is substantial collaboration towards the overall improvement of services offered at a
local and regional level. In this context it is easy to see that there is considerable room for
action. Firstly, related authorities and associations can educate and train managers to
adopt the above listed points. Secondly, the same entities may organise or monitor the
training of hotel HR at all levels. Thirdly, and since strategic planning surfaces as a key
issue, authorities and associations may assist in the planning of local/regional tourism
strategies that give specific direction and even assistance to individual hotels strategic
business planning. For many localities, tourism is a primary economic activity and it is
expected that all stakeholders shall collaborate towards an integrated and comprehensive
design regarding all related businesses and of course, especially hotels.
6 Conclusions
While HR practices are more prevalent in Barbados hotels than in the UK sample, for the
Italian hotels the results were similar to those of the UK. External fit consequently
emerged as a fundamental issue. The relationship between HRM and performance was
shown to exist only among some hotels. With regards to internal fit, the results indicate
higher performance where HRM is formally introduced as an inherent part of the
organisational strategy. Additionally the research indicates a change in the role of HRM
in the business context, from a simple HR organisation function to a key strategic
marketing tool.
In the relationship between HRM practice and performance it is difficult to be certain
which is the cause and which is the effect of the correlation. Additionally, it must be
noted that the focus of the research was on larger hotels, whose adoption of HRM
practices is considerably greater than for smaller hotels. The results therefore, are clearly
not representative of the hotel industry as a whole.
The research findings stress the importance of incorporating HRM in the strategic
organisational context, as opposed to applying it as an independent function. In line with
most of the mainstream HRM and internal marketing literature, this researchs findings
support the need for a comprehensive approach to management, within a wider
methodically developed strategic context, as the means to long term business success.
The paper, further to its specific findings, continues to interrelate its theoretical and
empirical findings, and to conceptually develop these towards practical application; both
at the organisational and the industry/collective levels.









Human resource management 419












This research is a valuable contribution to knowledge on the subject for three main
reasons: it is the first study of its kind regarding the Italian hospitality industry; it makes
use of past studies to make additional comparisons of international value; and finally, it
interrelates and extrapolates on the findings to offer practical prescriptive findings to both
individual enterprises and collective stakeholders.
Overall, this research has produced findings which, one the hand answer specific key
questions regarding hotel HRM performance, and on the other, interrelate theoretical with
empirical findings to reach more generic conclusions of practical value. The research has
reinforced the belief that HRM must be developed in a strategically formalised manner as
the means to improved performance. More importantly perhaps, it has put forward the
argument that HRM must be viewed, not simply as the means to organising human
resources in a better way, but as a key function of strategic marketing design, and
consequently, of competitive success.
References
Alleyne, P., Doherty, L. and Greenidge, D. (2006) Approaches to HRM in the Barbados hotel
industry, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 18, No. 2,
pp.94109.
Arthur, J. (1994) Effects of human resource systems on manufacturing performance and turnover,
Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 37, No. 2, pp.670687.
Boella, M.J., Eade, V.H. and Goss-Turner, S. (2005) Human Resource Management in the
Hospitality Industry: An Introductory Guide, 8th ed., Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford.
Boselie, J.P., Dietz, G. and Boon, C. (2005) Commonalities and contradictions in research on
human resource management and performance, Human Resource Management Journal,
Vol. 15, No. 3, pp.6794.
Boselie, P., Paauwe, J. and Jansen, P.G.W. (2001) Human resource management and performance:
lessons from the Netherlands, The International Journal of Human Resource Management,
Vol. 7, No. 12, pp.11071125.
Boselie, P., Paauwe, J. and Richardson, R. (2003) Human resource management,
institutionalization and organizational performance: a comparison of hospitals, hotels and
local government, The International Journal of Human Resource Management, December,
Vol. 14, No. 8, pp.14071429.
Bowen, D. and Ostroff, C. (2004) Understanding HRM-firm performance linkages: the role of the
strength of the HRM system, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 29, No. 2, pp.203221.
Boxall, P. and Purcell, J. (2003) Strategy and Human Resource Management, Palgrave Macmillan,
London.
Bresciani, S. (2009) Innovation and creativity within firms: an empirical demonstration in the
Piedmont area, International Journal of Business Innovation and Research, Vol. 3, No. 4,
pp.427443.
Bresciani, S. (2010) Innovation within firms: a survey in the Piedmont area, International Journal
of Quality and Innovation, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp.138152.
Chand, M. and Katou, A.A. (2007) The impact of HRM practices on organisational performance
in the Indian hotel industry, Employee Relations, Vol. 29, No. 6, pp.576594.
Cho, S., Woods, R.H., Jang, S.C. and Erdem, M. (2006) Measuring the impact of human resource
management practices on hospitality firms performances, International Journal of
Hospitality Management, June, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp.262277.
Connolly, P. and McGing, G. (2007) High performance work practices and competitive advantage
in the Irish hospitality sector, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality
Management, Vol. 19, No. 3, pp.201210.









420 S. Bresciani et al.












Delery, J.E. and Doty, D.H. (1996) Modes of theorizing in strategic human resource management:
tests of universalistic, contingency, and configurational performance predictions, Academy of
Management Journal, Vol. 39, No. 4, pp.802835.
Dowling, P., Welch, D.E., Festing, M. and Engle, A.D. (2008) International Human Resource
Management: Managing People in a Multinational Context, 5th ed., Cengage Learning,
London.
Dyer, L. and Reeves, T. (1995) HR strategies and firm performance: what do we know and where
do we need to go, International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 6, No. 3,
pp.656670.
Ferris, G.R., Hochwater, W.A., Buckley, M.R., Harrel-Cook, G. and Frink, D.D. (1999) Human
resources management: some new directions, Journal of Management, Vol. 25, No. 3,
pp.385414.
Foss, N.J. and Laursen, K. (2000) New HRM practices, complementarities, and the impact on
innovation performance, Working paper no. 5, Department of Industrial Economics and
Strategy, Copenhagen Business School, Denmark.
Gerhart, B. (1999) Human resource management and firm performance: measurement issues and
effect on causal and policy inferences, Research in Personnel and Human Resource
Management, Vol. 17, Supplement 4, pp.3151.
Gerhart, B., Wright, P.M. and McMahan, G. (2000) Measurement error in research on the human
resource and firm performance relationship: further evidence and analysis, Personnel
Psychology, Vol. 5, No. 4, pp.855872.
Gerhart, B., Wright, P.M., McMahan, G. and Snell, S.A. (2000) Measurement error in research on
human resources and firm performance: how much error is there and how does it influence
effect size estimates?, Personnel Psychology, Vol. 53, No. 4, pp.803834.
Gilbert, D. and Guerrier, Y. (1997) UK hospitality managers past and present, Service Industries
Journal, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp.115132.
Golinelli, G.M., Tardivo, G. and Dias, R.P. (2005) Home based R&D, performance and
internationalization: the dynamics of the biggest multinationals, 31st EIBA Annual
Conference.
Guerrier, Y. and Lockwood, A. (1989) Developing hotel managers: a reappraisal, International
Journal of Hospitality Management, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp.8288.
Guest, D.E. (1997) Human resource management and performance: a review and research agenda,
The International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 3, No. 8, pp.263276.
Guest, D.E. (1999) Human resource management the workers verdict, Human Resource
Management Journal, Vol. 3, No. 9, pp.525.
Guest, D.E. and Hoque, K. (1994) The good, the bad and the ugly: employment relations in new
non-union workplaces, Human Resource Management Journal, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp.114.
Guest, D.E. and Peccei, R. (1994) The nature and causes of effective human resource
management, British Journal of Industrial Relations, Vol. 2, No. 32, pp.219241.
Guthrie, J. (2001) High involvement work practices, turnover, and productivity: evidence from
New Zealand, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 44, No. 1, pp.180192.
Hales, C. (1987) Quality of working life, job redesign and participation in a service industry: a
rose by any other name?, Service Industries Journal, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp.253273.
Ham, H. and Kleimer, M.M. (2002) Do industrial relations institutions impact economic
outcomes?: international and US state-level evidence, NBER Working paper 8729.
Harney, B. and Dundon, T. (2006) Capturing complexity: developing an integrated approach to
analysing HRM in SMEs, Human Research Management Journal, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp.4873.
Harrington, D. and Akehurst, G. (1996) Service quality and business performance in the UK hotel
industry, International Journal of Hospitality Management, Vol. 15, No. 3, pp.283298.
Hiltrop, J.M. (1999) The quest for the best: human resource practices to attract and retain talent,
European Management Journal, Vol. 4, No. 17, pp.422430.









Human resource management 421












Hoque, K. (1999) Human resource management and performance in the UK hotel industry,
British Journal of Industrial Relations, September, Vol. 37, No. 3, pp.419443.
Huselid, M. (1995) The impact of human resource management on turnover, productivity
and corporate financial performance, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 38, No. 3,
pp.635672.
Ichniowski, C. and Shaw, K. (1999) The effects of human resource management systems on
economic performance: an international comparison of US and Japanese plants, Management
Science, Vol. 5, No. 45, pp.704721.
Ichniowski, C., Shaw, K. and Prennushi, G. (1994) The Effects of Human Resource Management
Practices on Productivity, Columbia University Press, New York.
Kalleberg, A.L. and Moody, J.W. (1994) Human resource management and organizational
performance, American Behavioral Scientist, Vol. 37, No. 7, pp.948962.
Knox, A. and Walsh, J. (2006) Organisational flexibility and HRM in the hotel industry: evidence
from Australia, Human Resource Management Journal, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp.5775.
Koch, M.J. and Mcgrath, R.G. (1996) Improving labour productivity: human resource
management policies do matter, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 17, No. 5, pp.335354.
Kotler, P., Armstrong, G., Saunders, J. and Wong, V. (2005) Principles of Marketing, 4th European
ed., Pearson Education, Harlow.
Laursen, K. and Mahnke, V. (2000) Knowledge strategies, firm types, and complementarity in
human resources practices, INSEAD Conference, May, Mimeo, University of Fontainebleau,
France.
Lazear, E.P. (1996) Performance pay and productivity, NBER Working paper series, Cambridge.
Leoni, R., Cristini, A, Mazzoni, N. and Labory, S. (2000) Disegni organizzativi, stili di
management e performance dimpresa. Risultati di unindagine in un campione di imprese
industriali, AIEL National Conference, October, Mimeo, Ancona.
Lockwood, A. and Guerrier, Y. (1989) Flexible working practices in the hospitality industry:
current strategies and future potential, Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management,
Vol. 1, No. 1, pp.1116.
Lockyer, C. and Scholarios, D. (2004) Selecting hotel staff: why best practice does not always
work, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 16, No. 2,
pp.125135.
Lovelock, C.H. and Wirtz, J. (2011) Services Marketing People, Technology, Strategy, 7th ed.,
ISBN 13: 978-0-13-611874-9, Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
Lucas, R. (1995) Managing Employee Relations in the Hotel and Catering Industry, Cassell,
London.
Lucas, R. (1996) Industrial relations in hotels and catering: neglect and paradox?, British Journal
of Industrial Relations, Vol. 34, No. 2, pp.267286.
MacDuffie, J. (1995) Human resource bundles and manufacturing performance: organisational
logic and flexible production systems in the world auto industry, Industrial and Labour
Relations Review, Vol. 48, No. 2, pp.197221.
Maxwell, G., Watson, S. and Quail, S. (2004) Quality service in the international hotel sector: a
catalyst for strategic human resource development?, Journal of European Industrial Training,
Vol. 28, Nos. 2/3/4, pp.159182.
Mcnabb, R. and Whitfield, K. (1997) Unions, flexibility, team working and financial
performance, Organisation Studies, Vol. 5, No. 18, pp.821838.
Namasivayam, K., Miao, L. and Zhao, X. (2006) An investigation of the relationships between
compensation practices and firm performance in the US hotel industry, International Journal
of Hospitality Management, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp.574587.
Nickson, D. (2007) Human Resource Management for the Hospitality and Tourism Industries,
Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford.









422 S. Bresciani et al.












Osterman, P. (1994) How common is workplace transformation and who adopts it?, Industrial
and Labor Relations Review, Vol. 47, No. 2, pp.173188.
Ostroff, C. and Bowen, D.E. (2000) Moving HR to a higher level: HR practices and organizational
effectiveness, in Klein, K.K. and Kozlowski, S.W.J. (Eds.): Multilevel Theory, Research, and
Methods in Organizations: Foundations, Extensions and New Directions, Jossey-Bass,
San Francisco, CA.
Price, L. (1994) Poor personnel practice in the hotel and catering industry: does it matter?, Human
Resource Management Journal, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp.4462.
Rogers, E.W. and Wright, P.M. (1998) Measuring organizational performance in strategic human
resource management: problems, perspectives and performance information markets, Human
Resource Management Review, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp.311331.
Schuler, R. and Jackson, S. (1987) Linking competitive strategies with human resource
management practices, Academy of Management Executive, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp.207219.
Sisson, K. (1990) Introducing the human resource management journal, Human Resource
Management Journal, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp.115.
Smith, P.R. and Taylor, J. (2002) Marketing Communications An Integrated Approach, 3rd ed.,
Kogan Page, London and Sterling, VA.
Snell, S.A. and Youndt, M.A. (1995) Human resource management and firm performance:
testing a contingency model of executive controls, Journal of Management, Vol. 21, No. 4,
pp.711737.
Tardivo, G., Bresciani, S. and Fabris, F. (2011) Internal dealing and insider trading: focus on
financial market in Italy research findings, Journal of Financial Management and Analysis,
Vol. 24, No. 1, pp.2438.
Thrassou, A. (2007) Doing Business in the Industrialised Countries, in Katsioloudes, M. and
Hadjidakis, S. (Eds.): International Business A Global Perspective, Chapter 13,
ISBN 978-0-7506-7983-1, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, UK.
Thrassou, A. and Vrontis, D. (2006) A small services firm marketing communications model for
SME-dominated environments, Journal of Marketing Communications, Vol. 12, No. 3,
pp.183202, ISSN: 1352-7266, 2006.
Thrassou, A. and Vrontis, D. (2008) Internet marketing by SMEs towards enhanced
competitiveness and internationalisation of professional services, International Journal of
Internet Marketing and Advertising, Vol. 4, Nos. 3/4, pp.241161.
Thrassou, A. and Vrontis, D. (2009) A new consumer relationship model: the marketing
communications application, Journal of Promotion Management, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp.499521.
Tsaur, S.H. and Chun Lin, Y.C.I. (2004) Promoting service quality in tourist hotels: the role of
HRM practices and service behaviour, Tourism Management, August, Vol. 25, No. 4,
pp.471481.
Urbano, D. and Yordanova, D. (2007) Determinants of the adoption of HRM practices in tourism
SMEs in Spain: an exploratory study, Service Business, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp.167185.
Valdani, E. (2000) Limpresa pro-attiva. Co-evolvere e competere nellera dellimmaginazione,
McGraw-Hill, Milano.
Vrontis, D. and Thrassou, A. (2007) A new conceptual framework for a business-consumer
relationship, Marketing Intelligence and Planning, Vol. 25, No. 7, pp.789806.
Watson, S. and DAnnunzio-Green, N. (1996) Implementing cultural change through human
resources: the elusive organisational alchemy?, International Journal of Contemporary
Hospitality Management, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp.2530.
Watson, S., Maxwell, G.A. and Farquharson, L. (2007) Line managers views on adopting human
resource roles: the case of Hilton (UK) hotels, Employee Relations, Vol. 29, No. 1, pp.3049.
Wilkinson, F. (2000) Human resources management and business objective and strategies in small
and medium sized business, Working paper no. 184, Mimeo, ESRC Centre for Business
Research, University of Cambridge.









Human resource management 423












Wood, S. (1999) Human resource management and performance, International Journal of
Management Reviews, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp.367413.
Wood, S. and Albanese, M. (1995) Can we speak of a high commitment management on the shop
floor?, Journal of Management Studies, Vol. 32, No. 2, pp.215247.
Wood, S. and De Menezes, L. (1998) High commitment management in the UK: evidence from
the workplace industrial relations survey, and employers, manpower and skills practices
survey, Human Relations, Vol. 51, No. 4, pp.485515.
Wright, P.M. and Gardner, T.M. (2003) Theoretical and empirical challenges in studying the HR
practice firm performance relationship, in Holman, D., Wall, T.D., Clegg, C., Sparrow, P.
and Howard, A. (Eds.): The New Workplace: People Technology, and Organisation, John
Wiley and Sons, Sussex, UK.
Wright, P.M. and McMahan, G.C. (1992) Theoretical perspectives for strategic human resource
management, Journal of Management, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp.295320.
Wright, P.M., Gardner, T.M., Moynihan, L.M., Park, H.J., Gerhart, B. and Delery, J.E. (2001)
Measurement error in research on human resources and firm performance: additional data and
suggestions for future research, Personnel Psychology, Vol. 54, No. 4, pp.875901.
Zeithaml, V., Bitner, M.J. and Gremler, D. (2006) Services Marketing Integrating Customer
Focus Across the Firm, 4th (International) ed., McGraw-Hill Higher Education, New York.
Notes
1 In this way, we can compare our sample with the one reported in Hoque (1999).