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Module 3 &hapters
(. Electron Theory
).Static Electricity and &onduction
! 3.Electrical Terminology
;.<eneration o! Electricity
=.D& Sources o! Electricity
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6.D& &ircuits
8.@esistanceA@esistor
B.#ower
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C.&apacitanceAcapacitor
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(7.Magnetism
((.InductanceAinductor
().D& MotorA<enerator Theory
(3. "& Theory
(;. @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
(=. Trans!ormers
(6. ilters
(8. "& <enerators
(B. "& Motors
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Electrical undamentals
3.(
Electron Theory
Module 3.( Electron Theory
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Table o! &ontents
Module 3.( Electron Theory
=
Matter =
Elements and &ompounds =
Molecules =
"toms =
i 9
Energy %e.els B
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Shells and Sub$shells C
Ialence
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&ompounds
((
Ionisation
((
&onductors/ Semiconductors/ and Insulators
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Module 3.( Enabling 2b3ecti.es
2b3ecti.e
E"S" 66 @e!erence %e.el
Electron Theory
3.(
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Structure and distribution o! electrical charges withinH
atoms/ molecules/ ions/ compounds
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Module 3.( Electron Theory
Matter
Matter is de!ined as anything that occupies space and has weightK that is/ the weight and
dimensions o! matter can be measured. E+amples o! matter are air/ water/ automobiles/
clothing/ and e.en our own bodies. Thus/ we can say that matter may be !ound in any one o!
three statesH solid/ liquid/ and gaseous.
Elements and &ompounds
"n E%EMEGT is a substance which cannot be reduced to a simpler substance by chemical
means. E+amples o! elements with which you are in e.eryday contact are iron/ gold/ sil.er/
copper/ and o+ygen. There are now o.er (77 known elements. "ll the di!!erent substances we
know about are composed o! one or more o! these elements.
*hen two or more elements are chemically combined/ the resulting substance is called a
compound. " compound is a chemical combination o! elements which can be separated by
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chemical but not by physical means. E+amples o! common compounds are water which
consists o! hydrogen and o+ygen/ and table salt/ which consists o! sodium and chlorine. "
mi+ture/ on the other hand/ is a combination o! elements and compounds/ not chemically
combined/ that can be separated by physical means. E+amples o! mi+tures are air/ which is
made up o! nitrogen/ o+ygen/ carbon dio+ide/ and small amounts o! se.eral rare gases/ and sea
water/ which consists chie!ly o! salt and water.
Molecules
" molecule is a chemical combination o! two or more atoms/ Datoms are described in the ne+t
paragraphE. In a compound the molecule is the smallest particle that has all the characteristics o!
the compound.
&onsider water/ !or e+ample. *ater is matter/ since it occupies space and has weight.
Depending on the temperature/ it may e+ist as a liquid DwaterE/ a solid DiceE/ or a gas DsteamE.
@egardless o! the temperature/ it will still ha.e the same composition. I! we start with a quantity
o! water/ di.ide this and pour out one hal!/ and continue this process a su!!icient number o!
times/ we will e.entually end up with a quantity o! water which cannot be !urther di.ided without
ceasing to be water. This quantity is called a molecule o! water. I! this molecule o! water
di.ided/ instead o! two parts o! water/ there will be one part o! o+ygen and two parts o!
hydrogen DL)7E.
"toms
Molecules are made up o! smaller particles called atoms. "n atom is the smallest particle o! an
element that retains the characteristics o! that element. The atoms o! one element/ howe.er/ di!!er
!rom the atoms o! all other elements. Since there are o.er (77 known elements/ there
must be o.er (77 di!!erent atoms/ or a di!!erent atom !or each element. :ust as thousands o!
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words can be made by combining the proper letters o! the alphabet/ so thousands o! di!!erent
materials can be made by chemically combining the proper atoms.
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"ny particle that is a chemical combination o! two or more atoms is called a molecule. The
o+ygen molecule consists o! two atoms o! o+ygen/ and the hydrogen molecule consists o! two
atoms o! hydrogen. Sugar/ on the other hand/ is a compound composed o! atoms o! carbon/
hydrogen/ and o+ygen. These atoms are combined into sugar molecules. Since the sugar
molecules can be broken down by chemical means into smaller and simpler units/ we cannot
ha.e sugar atoms.
The atoms o! each element are made up o! electrons/ protons/ and/ in most cases/ neutrons/
which are collecti.ely called subatomic particles. urthermore/ the electrons/ protons/ and
neutrons o! one element are identical to those o! any other element. The reason that there are
di!!erent kinds o! elements is that the number and the arrangement o! electrons and protons
within the atom are di!!erent !or the di!!erent elements
The electron is considered to be a small negati.e charge o! electricity. The proton has a positi.e
charge o! electricity equal and opposite to the charge o! the electron. Scientists ha.e measured
the mass and siMe o! the electron and proton/ and they know how much charge each
possesses. The electron and proton each ha.e the same quantity o! charge/ although the mass
o! the proton is appro+imately (B38 times that o! the electron. In some atoms there e+ists a
neutral particle called a neutron. The neutron has a mass slightly greater than that o! a proton/
but it has no electrical charge. "ccording to a popular theory/ the electrons/ protons/ and
neutrons o! the atoms are thought to be arranged in a manner similar to a miniature solar
system. The protons and neutrons !orm a hea.y nucleus with a positi.e charge/ around which
the .ery light electrons re.ol.e.
igure (.(
shows one hydrogen and one helium atom. Each has a relati.ely simple structure.
The hydrogen atom has only one proton in the nucleus with one electron rotating about it. The
helium atom is a little more comple+. It has a nucleus made up o! two protons and two neutrons/
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with two electrons rotating about the nucleus. Elements are classi!ied numerically according to
the comple+ity o! their atoms. The atomic number o! an atom is determined by the number o!
protons in its nucleus.
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igure (.( $ Structure o! Lydrogen and Lelium
In a neutral state/ an atom contains an equal number o! protons and electrons. There!ore/ an
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atom o! hydrogen $ which contains one proton and one electron $ has an atomic number o! (K % i and
helium/ with two protons and two electrons/ has an atomic number o! ). The comple+ity o!
atomic structure increases with the number o! protons and electrons.
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Energy %e.els
Since an electron in an atom has both mass and motion/ it contains two types o! energy. 'y
.irtue o! its motion the electron contains kinetic energy. Due to its position it also contains
potential energy. The total energy contained by an electron Dkinetic plus potentialE is the !actor
which determines the radius o! the electron orbit. In order !or an electron to remain in this orbit/ it
must neither <"IG nor %2SE energy.
It is well known that light is a !orm o! energy/ but the physical !orm in which this energy e+ists is not
known.
2ne accepted theory proposes the e+istence o! light as tiny packets o! energy called photons.
#hotons can contain .arious quantities o! energy. The amount depends upon the colour o! the
light in.ol.ed. Should a photon o! su!!icient energy collide with an orbital electron/ the electron
will absorb the photon5s energy/ as shown in !igure (.). The electron/ which now has a greater than
normal amount o! energy/ will 3ump to a new orbit !arther !rom the nucleus. The !irst new orbit to
which the electron can 3ump has a radius !our times as large as the radius o! the original orbit. Lad
the electron recei.ed a greater amount o! energy/ the ne+t possible orbit to which it could 3ump
would ha.e a radius nine times the original. Thus/ each orbit may be considered to represent one o!
a large number o! energy le.els that the electron may attain. It must be
emphasiMed that the electron cannot 3ump to 3ust any orbit. The electron will remain in its lowest
orbit until a su!!icient amount o! energy is a.ailable/ at which time the electron will accept the
energy and 3ump to one o! a series o! permissible orbits. "n electron cannot e+ist in the space
between energy le.els. This indicates that the electron will not accept a photon o! energy unless it
contains enough energy to ele.ate itsel! to one o! the higher energy le.els. Leat energy and
collisions with other particles can also cause the electron to 3ump orbits.
igure (.) $$ Energy le.els in an atom
2nce the electron has been ele.ated to an energy le.el higher than the lowest possible energy
le.el/ the atom is said to be in an e+cited state. The electron will not remain in this e+cited
condition !or more than a !raction o! a second be!ore it will radiate the e+cess energy and return
to a lower energy orbit. To illustrate this principle/ assume that a normal electron has 3ust
recei.ed a photon o! energy su!!icient to raise it !rom the !irst to the third energy le.el. In a short
($B Module 3.( Electron Theory
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period o! time the electron may 3ump back to the !irst le.el emitting a new photon identical to the
one it recei.ed.
" second alternati.e would be !or the electron to return to the lower le.el in two 3umpsK !rom the
third to the second/ and then !rom the second to the !irst. In this case the electron would emit two
photons/ one !or each 3ump. Each o! these photons would ha.e less energy than the
original photon which e+cited the electron.
This principle is used in the !luorescent light where ultra.iolet light photons/ which are not .isible to
the human eye/ bombard a phosphor coating on the inside o! a glass tube. The phosphor electrons/
in returning to their normal orbits/ emit photons o! light that are .isible. 'y using the proper
chemicals !or the phosphor coating/ any colour o! light may be obtained/ including white.
This same principle is also used in lighting up the screen o! a tele.ision picture tube.
The basic principles 3ust de.eloped apply equally well to the atoms o! more comple+ elements. In
atoms containing two or more electrons/ the electrons interact with each other and the e+act
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path o! any one electron is .ery di!!icult to predict. Lowe.er/ each electron lies in a speci!ic
energy band and the orbits will be considered as an a.erage o! the electron5s position.
Shells and Sub$shells
The di!!erence between the atoms/ inso!ar as their chemical acti.ity and stability are concerned/ is
dependent upon the number and position o! the electrons included within the atom. Low are these
electrons positioned within the atom? In general/ the electrons reside in groups o! orbits called
shells. These shells are elliptically shaped and are assumed to be located at !i+ed
inter.als. Thus/ the shells are arranged in steps that correspond to !i+ed energy le.els. The
shells/ and the number o! electrons required to !ill them/ may be predicted by the employment o!
#auli5s e+clusion principle. Simply stated/ this principle speci!ies that each shell will contain a
ma+imum o! )n) electrons/ where n corresponds to the shell number starting with the one
closest to the nucleus. 'y this principle/ the second shell/ !or e+ample/ would contain )D)E) or B
electrons when !ull.
In addition to being numbered/ the shells are also gi.en letter designations/ as pictured in !igure ($3.
Starting with the shell closest to the nucleus and progressing outward/ the shells are labelled 0/ %/
M/ G/ 7/ #/ and S/ respecti.ely. The shells are considered to be !ull/ or complete/ when they contain
the !ollowing quantities o! electronsH two in the 0 shell/ eight in the % shell/ (B in the M shell/ and so
on/ in accordance with the e+clusion principle.
Each o! these shells is a ma3or shell and can be di.ided into sub$shells/ o! which there are !our/
labelled s/ p/ d/ and !. %ike the ma3or shells/ the sub$shells are also limited as to the number o!
electrons which they can contain. Thus/ the 1s1 sub$shell is complete when it contains two
electrons/ the 1p1 sub$shell when it contains 6/ the 1d1 sub$shell when it contains (7/ and the 1!1
sub$shell when it contains (; electrons.
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LETTER DESI<G"887G
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igure (.3 $ Shells in an atom
In as much as the 0 shell can contain no more than two electrons/ it must ha.e only one subshell/
the s sub$shell. The M shell is composed o! three sub$shellsH s/ p/ and d. I! the electrons in the s/
p/ and d sub$shells are added/ their total is !ound to be (B/ the e+act number required to !ill the
M shell. Gotice the electron con!iguration !or copper illustrated in !igure (.;. The
copper atom contains )C electrons/ which completely !ill the !irst three shells and sub$shells/
lea.ing one electron in the 1s1 sub$shell o! the G shell.
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igure (.; $ The copper atom
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Ialence
The number o! electrons in the outermost shell determines the .alence o! an atom. or this
reason/ the outer shell o! an atom is called the .alence shellK and the electrons contained in
this shell are called .alence electrons. The .alence o! an atom determines its ability to gain or
lose an electron/ which in turn determines the chemical and electrical properties o! the atom. "n
atom that is lacking only one or two electrons !rom its outer shell will easily gain electrons to
complete its shell/ but a large amount o! energy is required to !ree any o! its electrons. "n atom
ha.ing a relati.ely small number o! electrons in its outer shell in comparison to the number o!
electrons required to !ill the shell will easily lose these .alence electrons. The .alence shell
always re!ers to the outermost shell.
&ompounds
#ure substances made up more than ( element which ha.e been 3oined together by a chemical
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reaction there!ore the atoms are di!!icult to separate. The properties o! a compound are di!!erent
!rom the atoms that make it up. Splitting o! a compound is called chemical analysis.
Gote that a compoundH
J consists o! atoms o! two or more di!!erent elements bound together,
J can be broken down into a simpler type o! matter DelementsE by chemical means Dbut not
by physical meansE/
J has properties that are di!!erent !rom its component elements/ and
J always contains the same ratio o! its component atoms.
Ionisation
*hen the atom loses electrons or gains electrons in this process o! electron e+change/ it is said to
be ioniMed. or ionisation to take place/ there must be a trans!er o! energy which results in a
change in the internal energy o! the atom. "n atom ha.ing more than its normal amount o!
electrons acquires a negati.e charge/ and is called a negati.e ion. The atom that gi.es up
some o! its normal electrons is le!t with less negati.e charges than positi.e charges and is
called a positi.e ion. Thus/ ionisation is the process by which an atom loses or gains electrons.
&onductors/ Semiconductors/ and Insulators
In this study o! electricity and electronics/ the association o! matter and electricity is important.
Since e.ery electronic de.ice is constructed o! parts made !rom ordinary matter/ the e!!ects o!
electricity on matter must be well understood. "s a means o! accomplishing this/ all elements o!
which matter is made may be placed into one o! three categoriesH conductors/
semiconductors/ and insulators/ depending on their ability to conduct an electric current.
conductors are elements which conduct electricity .ery readily/ insulators ha.e an e+tremely
high resistance to the !low o! electricity. "ll matter between these two e+tremes may be called
semiconductors.
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The electron theory states that all matter is composed o! atoms and the atoms are composed o!
smaller particles called protons/ electrons/ and neutrons. The electrons orbit the nucleus which
contains the protons and neutrons. It is the .alence electrons Dthe electrons in the outer shellE
that we are most concerned with in electricity. These are the electrons which are easiest to
break loose !rom their parent atom. Gormally/ conductors ha.e three or less .alence electronsK
insulators ha.e !i.e or more .alence electronsK and semiconductors usually ha.e !our .alence
electrons. The !ewer the .alence electrons/ the better conductor o! electricity it will be. &opper/
n5n
!or e+ample/ has 3ust one .alence electron.
The electrical conducti.ity o! matter is dependent upon the atomic structure o! the material !rom
which the conductor is made. In any solid material/ such as copper/ the atoms which make up
the molecular structure are bound !irmly together. "t room temperature/ copper will contain a
considerable amount o! heat energy. Since heat energy is one method o! remo.ing electrons !rom
their orbits/ copper will contain many !ree electrons that can mo.e !rom atom to atom. *hen not
under the in!luence o! an e+ternal !orce/ these electrons mo.e in a haphaMard
manner within the conductor. This mo.ement is equal in all directions so that electrons are not lost
or gained by any part o! the conductor. *hen controlled by an e+ternal !orce/ the electrons mo.e
generally in the same direction. The e!!ect o! this mo.ement is !elt almost instantly !rom one end o!
the conductor to the other. This electron mo.ement is called an electric current.
Some metals are better conductors o! electricity than others. Sil.er/ copper/ gold/ and
aluminium are materials with many !ree electrons and make good conductors. Sil.er is the best
conductor/ !ollowed by copper/ gold/ and aluminium. &opper is used more o!ten than sil.er
because o! cost. "luminium is used where weight is a ma3or consideration/ such as in hightension
power lines/ with long spans between supports. <old is used where o+idation or
corrosion is a consideration and a good conducti.ity is required. The ability o! a conductor to
handle current also depends upon its physical dimensions. &onductors are usually !ound in the
!orm o! wire/ but may be in the !orm o! bars/ tubes/ or sheets.
Gon$conductors ha.e !ew !ree electrons. These materials are called insulators. Some
e+amples o! these materials are rubber/ plastic/ enamel/ glass/ dry wood/ and mica. :ust as
there is no per!ect conductor/ neither is there a per!ect insulator.
Some materials are neither good conductors nor good insulators/ since their electrical
characteristics !all between those o! conductors and insulators. These in$between materials are
classi!ied as semiconductors. <ermanium and silicon are two common semiconductors used
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in solid$state de.ices. (. S
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"tomic Element Electrons per Shell "tomic Element
Electrons per Shell
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( Lydrogen I =3 Iodine ) B (B B 8
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= 'oron ) 3 =8 %anthanum ) B (B B C )
6 &arbon ) ; =B &erium ) B (B (C
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B 2+ en ) $67 $ Geodymium ) B (B )( C )
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(( Sodium ) 63 Europium ) S (B ); C )
() Magnesium ) 6; <adolinium ) B (B )= C )
(3 "luminium ) 6= Terbium ) B (B )6 C )
(; Silicon ) 66 D s rosium ) B (B 8 C )
(= #hos horus ) 68 Lolmium ) B (B )
(6 Sul hur ) 6B Erbium ) B (B )
(8 &hlorine ) 6C Thulium ) B (B C )
(B "ron )
Ptterbium ) (B 3( C )
(C #otassium ) (
8( %utetium ) B (B C )
&alcium
) ) 8) Lalnium ) B (B (7 )
Scandium
) ) 83 Tantalum ) B (B (( )
Titanium ) ) 8; Tun sten ) B (B () )
Ianadium ) ( ) 8= @henium ) B (B 3) (3 )
; &hromium ) ( 86 2smium ) B (B (; )
Man anese ) ) 88 Iridium ) B (=
)
6 Iron ) ) 8B #latinum ) B (6 )
8 &obalt ) ) 8C <old ) B (B (
Gickel ) 6 ) B7 Mercu ) B (B
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&er ) B ( B( Thallium
) B 3 (B 3
7 Vinc ) B ) B) %ead
) B (B ;
3( <allium ) B 3 B3
'ismuth ) B (B =
3) <ermanium ) B ; B; #olonium
) B (B 6
33 "rsenic ) B = B= "satine
) B (B 8
3; Selenium ) B 6 B6
@adon ) B B 3 (B B
3= 'romine ) B 8 B8
rancium ) B B (B B (
36 0 ton ) B B
BB @adium ) B B 3 (B B )
38 @ubidium ) B B ( BC "ctinium ) B (B
(B C )
3B Strontium
B B ) C7 Thorium ) B (B 3) (C C )
3C Pttrium ) (B C ) C( #roactinium ) B (B 3) )7 C
)
;7 Virconium ) (B (7 ) C) ,ranium ) B (B
3) )( C )
;( Giobium
(B () C3 Ge tunium ) B (B 3) )) C )
;) Mol bdenum (B (3 C; #lutonium ) B (B 3) )3
)
;3 Technetium (B (; C= "merium ) B (B 3)
); )
;; @uthenium (B (= C6 &urium ) B B 3)
)= C )
;= @hodium (B (6 C8 'erkelium ) B B 3) )6 C
)
;6 #alladium ) (B (B 7 CB &ali!ornium ) B B 3)
)8 C )
;8 Sil.er ) (B (B
( CC Einsteinium ) B B 3) )B C
;B &admium ) (B (B ) (77 ermium ) B B 3) )C
C )
;C Indium ) B (B (B 3 (7( Mendele.ium ) B
(' 3) 37 C )
=7 Tin ) B (B (' ; (7) Gobelium ) B (B
3) 3( C )
=( "ntimony ) B (B (B = (73 %awrencium
) B (B 3) 3) C )
=)
Tellurium ) B ( (BF( (B 6
Table (.( $ Electrons per shell
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Electrical undamentals
3.) Static Electricity and &onduction
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Table o! &ontents
Module 3.) Static Electricity and &onduction =
Introduction =
Static Electricity
6
Gature o! &harges 8
&harged 'odies 8
&oulomb5s %aw o! &harges B
,nit o! &harge B
Electric ields B
&onduction o! Electricity in Solids/ %iquids and a Iacuum C
%i
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Module 3.) Static Electricity and &onduction
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Module 3.) Enabling 2b3ecti.es
2b3ecti.e E"S" 66 @e!erence
%e.el
Static Electricity and &onduction 3.)
)
Static electricity and distribution o! electrostatic charges
Electrostatic laws o! attraction and repulsion
,nits o! charge/ &oulomb5s %aw
&onduction o! electricity in solids/ liquids/ gases and a
.acuum
i:
t
i
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Module 3.) Static$ Electricity and &onduction
Introduction
.Electrostatics Delectricity at restE is a sub3ect with which most persons entering the !ield o!
electricity and electronics are somewhat !amiliar. or e+ample/ the way a person5s hair stands
on end a!ter a .igorous rubbing is an e!!ect o! electrostatics. *hile pursuing the study o!
electrostatics/ you will gain a better understanding o! this common occurrence. 2! e.en greater
signi!icance/ the study o! electrostatics will pro.ide you with the opportunity to gain important
background knowledge and to de.elop concepts which are essential to the understanding o!
%l electricity and electronics.
r /
Interest in the sub3ect o! static electricity can be traced back to the <reeks. Thales o! Miletus/ a
<reek philosopher and mathematician/ disco.ered that when an amber rod is rubbed with !ur/ the
rod has the amaMing characteristic o! attracting some .ery light ob3ects such as bits o! paper and
sha.ings o! wood.
"bout (677/ *illiam <ilbert/ an English scientist/ made a study o! other substances which had
been !ound to possess qualities o! attraction similar to amber. "mong these were glass/ when
rubbed with silk/ and ebonite/ when rubbed with !ur. <ilbert classi!ied all the substances which
possessed properties similar to those o! amber as electrics/ a word o! <reek origin meaning
amber.
'ecause o! <ilbert5s work with electrics/ a substance such as amber or glass when gi.en a
.igorous rubbing was recogniMed as being electri!ied/ or charged with electricity.
In the year (833/ &harles Du!ay/ a rench scientist/ made an important disco.ery about
electri!ication. Le !ound that when a glass was rubbed with !ur/ both the glass rod and the !ur
became electri!ied. This realiMation came when he systematically placed the glass rod and the !ur
near other electri!ied substances and !ound that certain substances which were attracted to the
glass rod were repelled by the !ur/ and .ice .ersa. rom e+periments such as this/ he concluded
that there must be two e+actly opposite kinds o! electricity.
'en3amin ranklin/ "merican statesman/ in.entor/ and philosopher/ is credited with !irst using the
terms positi.e and negati.e to describe the two opposite kinds o! electricity. The charge
produced on a glass rod when it is rubbed with silk/ ranklin labelled positi.e. Le attached the
term negati.e to the charge produced on the silk. Those bodies which were not electri!ied or
charged/ he called neutral.
Module 3.) Static Electricity and &onduction
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Static Electricity
In a natural or neutral state/ each atom in a body o! matter will ha.e the proper number o!
electrons in orbit around it. &onsequently/ the whole body o! matter composed o! the neutral atoms
will also be electrically neutral. In this state/ it is said to ha.e a 1Mero charge.1 Electrons will neither
lea.e nor enter the neutrally charged body should it come in contact with other
neutral bodies. I!/ howe.er/ any number o! electrons is remo.ed !rom the atoms o! a body o! matter/
there will remain more protons than electrons and the whole body o! matter will become electrically
positi.e. Should the positi.ely charged body come in contact with another body ha.ing a normal
charge/ or ha.ing a negati.e Dtoo many electronsE charge/ an electric current will !low between
them. Electrons will lea.e the more negati.e body and enter the positi.e body. This electron !low
will continue until both bodies ha.e equal charges. *hen two bodies o!
matter ha.e unequal charges and are near one another/ an electric !orce is e+erted between them
because o! their unequal charges. Lowe.er/ since they are not in contact/ their charges
cannot equaliMe. The e+istence o! such an electric !orce/ where current cannot !low/ is re!erred to
as static electricity. D1Static1 in this instance means 1not mo.ing.1E It is also re!erred to as an
electrostatic !orce.
2ne o! the easiest ways to create a static charge is by !riction. *hen two pieces o! matter are
rubbed together/ electrons can be 1wiped o!!1 one material onto the other. I! the materials used are
good conductors/ it is quite di!!icult to obtain a detectable charge on either/ since equaliMing
currents can !low easily between the conducting materials. These currents equaliMe the charges
almost as !ast as they are created. " static charge is more easily created between non$
conducting materials. *hen a hard rubber rod is rubbed with !ur/ the rod will accumulate
electrons gi.en up by the !ur/ as shown in !igure ).(. Since both materials are poor conductors/
.ery little equaliMing current can !low/ and an electrostatic charge builds up. *hen the charge
becomes great enough/ current will !low regardless o! the poor conducti.ity o! the materials. These
currents will cause .isible sparks and produce a crackling sound.
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Gature o! &harges
*hen in a natural or neutral state/ an atom has an equal number o! electrons and protons.
'ecause o! this balance/ the net negati.e charge o! the electrons in orbit is e+actly balanced by
the net positi.e charge o! the protons in the nucleus/ making the atom electrically neutral.
"n atom becomes a positi.e ion whene.er it loses an electron/ and has an o.erall positi.e
charge. &on.ersely/ whene.er an atom acquires an e+tra electron/ it becomes a negati.e ion
and has a negati.e charge.
Due to normal molecular acti.ity/ there are always ions present in any material. I! the number o!
positi.e ions and negati.e ions is equal/ the material is electrically neutral. *hen the number o!
positi.e ions e+ceeds the number o! negati.e ions/ the material is positi.ely charged. The
material is negati.ely charged whene.er the negati.e ions outnumber the positi.e ions.
Since ions are actually atoms without their normal number o! electrons/ it is the e+cess or the lack
o! electrons in a substance that determines its charge. In most solids/ the trans!er o!
charges is by mo.ement o! electrons rather than ions. The trans!er o! charges by ions will
become more signi!icant when we consider electrical acti.ity in liquids and gases. "t this time/ we
will discuss electrical beha.iour in terms o! electron mo.ement.
&harged 'odies
2ne o! the !undamental laws o! electricity is that like charges repel each other and unlike
charges attract each other. " positi.e charge and negati.e charge/ being unlike/ tend to mo.e
ri
toward each other. In the atom/ the negati.e electrons are drawn toward the positi.e protons in
%?l
the nucleus. This attracti.e !orce is balanced by the electron5s centri!ugal !orce caused by its
rotation about the nucleus. "s a result/ the electrons remain in orbit and are not drawn into the
nucleus. Electrons repel each other because o! their like negati.e charges/ and protons repel
each other because o! their like positi.e charges.
$/ The law o! charged bodies may be demonstrated by a simple e+periment. Two pith Dpaper pulpE
%i balls are suspended near one another by threads/ as shown in !igure ).).
$/
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D'E
D&E
igure ).) $ @epulsion and attraction o! charged bodies
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I! a hard rubber rod is rubbed with !ur to gi.e it a negati.e charge and is then held against the
right$hand ball in part D"E/ the rod will gi.e o!! a negati.e charge to the ball. The right$hand ball will
ha.e a negati.e charge with respect to the le!t$hand ball. *hen released/ the two balls will be drawn
together/ as shown in !igure ).) D"E. They will touch and remain in contact until the le!t$hand ball
gains a portion o! the negati.e charge o! the right$hand ball/ at which time they will swing apart as
shown in !igure ).) D&E. I! a positi.e or a negati.e charge is placed on both balls D!igure )$) D'EE/
the balls will repel each other.
&oulomb5s %aw o! &harges
The relationship between attracting or repelling charged bodies was !irst disco.ered and written
about by a rench scientist named &harles ". &oulomb. &oulomb5s %aw states that
&harged bodies attract or repel each other with a !orce that is directly proportional to the
product o! their indi.idual charges/ and is in.ersely proportional to the square o! the
distance between them.
The amount o! attracting or repelling !orce which acts between two electrically charged bodies in
!ree space depends on two things $ D(E their charges and D)E the distance between them.
,nit o! &harge
The process o! electrons arri.ing or lea.ing is e+actly what happens when certain combinations
o! materials are rubbed togetherH electrons !rom the atoms o! one material are !orced by the
rubbing to lea.e their respecti.e atoms and trans!er o.er to the atoms o! the other material. In
other words/ electrons comprise the 1!luid1 hypothesiMed by 'en3amin ranklin. The operational
de!inition o! a coulomb as the unit o! electrical charge Din terms o! !orce generated between
point chargesE was !ound to be equal to an e+cess or de!iciency o! about
6/)B7/777/777/777/777/777 electrons. 2r/ stated in re.erse terms/ one electron has a charge o!
about 7.777777777777777777(6 coulombs. 'eing that one electron is the smallest known
carrier o! electric charge/ this last !igure o! charge !or the electron is de!ined as the elementary
charge.
n
(
coulomb R 6/)B7/777/777/777/777/777 electrons
Electric ields
The space between and around charged bodies in which their in!luence is !elt is called an
electric !ield o! !orce. It can e+ist in air/ glass/ paper/ or a .acuum. electrostatic !ields and
dielectric !ields are other names used to re!er to this region o! !orce.
ields o! !orce spread out in the space surrounding their point o! origin and/ in general/
diminish in proportion to the square o! the distance !rom their source.
The !ield about a charged body is generally represented by lines which are re!erred to as
electrostatic lines o! !orce. These lines are imaginary and are used merely to represent the
direction and strength o! the !ield. To a.oid con!usion/ the lines o! !orce e+erted by a positi.e
charge are always shown lea.ing the charge/ and !or a negati.e charge they are shown
entering. igure ).3 illustrates the use o! lines to represent the !ield about charged bodies.
)$B
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,
D"E
D'E
igure ).3 $ Electrostatic lines o! !orce
,
igure ).3 D"E represents the repulsion o! like$charged bodies and their associated !ields. #art
D'E represents the attraction o! unlike$charged bodies and their associated !ields.
r &onduction o! Electricity in Solids/ %iquids and a Iacuum
Solids
(
Electric current is the mo.ement o! .alence electrons. &onduction is the name o! this process.
,
It is more !ully described in &hapter ( o! this Module. <enerally/ only metals conduct electricity.
Some conduct better than others.
I
,
The e+ception to this is graphite Done o! the !orms o! the element &arbonE. &arbon is a non$
metal which e+hibits some electrical conducti.ity.
,
%iquids
The only liquid elements which conduct are the liquid metals. "t room temperature liquid % i
mercury is a conductor. 2ther metals continue to conduct electricity when they are melted.
Gon$metals such as water/ alcohol/ ethanoic acid/ propanone/ he+ane and so on/ are all non
conductors o! electricity.
Lowe.er/ it is possible to make some non$conducting liquids conduct electricity/ by a process
called ioniMation. IoniMed substances are called ionic substances.
Ionic substances are made o! charged particles $ positi.e and negati.e ions. In the solid state they
are held .ery !irmly in place in a lattice structure. In the solid state the ions cannot mo.e about at
all. *hen the ionic solid is melted/ the bonds holding the ions in place in the lattice are broken.
The ions can then mo.e around !reely.
,4
*hen an electric current is applied to an ionic melt the electricity is carried by the ions that are
now able to mo.e. In an ionic melt the electric current is a !low o! ions.
is
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Taking water as an e+ample. @emember !irstly/ that water is considered to be a non$conductor o!
electricity. It can allow some electricity through it i! a high .oltage is applied to it. This is due to the
presence o! a minute concentration o! L!i and 2L$ ions in the water. Lowe.er/ electrons cannot
!low through water.
&o.alent substances do not conduct at all in solution.
Ionic substances are able to conduct electricity when they are dissol.ed in water.
The reason lies again in the !act that ionic substances are made o! charged particles $ ions.
*hen the ionic solid is dissol.ed in water the ionic lattice breaks up and the ions become !ree to
mo.e around in the water. *hen you pass electricity through the ionic solution/ the ions are
able to carry the electric current because o! their ability to mo.e !reely. " solution conducts by means
o! !reely mo.ing ions.
"n electrolyte is a liquid which can carry an electric current through it. Ionic solutions and ionic
melts are all electrolytes.
Electrolysis describes the process which takes place when an ionic solution or melt has
electricity passed through it.
<ases
" gas in its normal state is one o! the best insulators known. Lowe.er/ in a similar way as
liquid/ it can be !orced to conduct electricity by ionisation o! the gas molecules. Ionisation o! the gas
molecules can be e!!ected by e+tremely high .oltages. or e+ample/ lightning/ is electric current
!lowing through an ionised path through air due to the huge electrical potential di!!erence between
the storm cloud and the ground.
In air/ and other ordinary gases/ the dominant source o!
electrical conduction is .ia a relati.ely small number o!
mobile ions produced by radioacti.e gases/
ultra.iolet light/ or cosmic rays. Since the electrical
conducti.ity is e+tremely low/ gases are dielectrics or
%FI
insulators. Lowe.er/ once the applied electric !ield
approaches the breakdown .alue/ !ree electrons
become su!!iciently accelerated by the electric !ield to
create additional !ree electrons by colliding/ and
ioniMing/ neutral gas atoms or molecules in a process
called a.alanche breakdown. The breakdown process
!orms a plasma that contains a signi!icant number o!
mobile electrons and positi.e ions/ causing it to
beha.e as an electrical conductor. In the process/ it
!orms a light emitting conducti.e path/ such as a spark/
arc or lightning.
igure ).; $ %ightning is electric
current !lowing through an ioniMed
plasma o! its own making
)$(7
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#lasma is the state o! matter where some o! the electrons in a gas are stripped or 1ioniMed1
!rom their molecules or atoms. " plasma can be !ormed by high temperature/ or by application o!
a high electric or alternating magnetic !ield as noted abo.e. Due to their lower mass/ the electrons
in a plasma accelerate more quickly in response to an electric !ield than the hea.ier positi.e ions/
and hence carry the bulk o! the current.
Iacuum
It is a common belie! that electricity cannot !low through a .acuum. This is howe.er incorrect.
@emember that a conductor is 1something through which electricity can !low/1 rather than
1something which contains mo.able electricity.1 " .acuum o!!ers no blockage to mo.ing
charges. Should electrons be in3ected into a .acuum/ the electrons will !low uninhibited and
unretarded. "s such/ a .acuum is an ideal conductor.
This !act is taken ad.antage o! in many situations/ !rom tele.isions to .acuum .al.es. "
.acuum arc can arise when the sur!aces o! metal electrodes in contact with a good .acuum
%
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begin to emit electrons either through heating Dthermionic emissionE or .ia an electric !ield that
is su!!icient to cause !ield emission. 2nce initiated/ a .acuum arc can persist since the !reed
particles gain kinetic energy !rom the electric !ield/ heating the metal sur!aces through high
speed particle collisions. This process can create an incandescent cathode spot which !rees
more particles/ thereby sustaining the arc. "t su!!iciently high currents an incandescent anode
spot may also be !ormed.
Electrical discharge in .acuum is important !or certain types o! .acuum tubes and !or high
.oltage .acuum switches.
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3.3 Electrical Terminology
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J The applicant should be able to gi.e a simple description o! the whole sub3ect/ using common words and
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J The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
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J " general knowledge o! the theoretical and practical aspects o! the sub3ect.
J "n ability to apply that knowledge.
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J The applicant should be able to gi.e a general description o! the sub3ect using/ as appropriate/ typical
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J The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
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J " capacity to combine and apply the separate elements o! knowledge in a logical and comprehensi.e
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Table o! &ontents
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,Module 3.3 Electrical Terminology
Electrical Energy
Electrical &harges
Electric &urrent
Electrical @esistance
&onductance
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Module 3.3 Enabling 2b3ecti.es
2b3ecti.e
Electrical Terminology
The !ollowing terms/ their units and !actors a!!ecting themH
potential di!!erence/ electromoti.e !orce/ .oltage/ current/
resistance/ conductance/ charge/ con.entional current !low/
electron !low
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E"S" 66 @e!erence %e.el
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Module 3.3 Electrical Terminology
Electrical Energy
In the !ield o! physical science/ work must be de!ined as the product o! !orce and
displacement. That is/ the !orce applied to mo.e an ob3ect and the distance the ob3ect is
mo.ed are the !actors o! work per!ormed.
,
It is important to notice that no work is accomplished unless the !orce applied causes a change in
the position o! a stationary ob3ect/ or a change in the .elocity o! a mo.ing ob3ect. " worker
may tire by pushing against a hea.y wooden crate/ but unless the crate mo.es/ no work will be
accomplished.
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, Energy
In our study o! energy and work/ we must de!ine energy as the ability to do work. In order to
per!orm any kind o! work/ energy must be e+pended Dcon.erted !rom one !orm to anotherE.
- , Energy supplies the required !orce/ or power/ whene.er any work is accomplished.
2ne !orm o! energy is that which is contained by an ob3ect in motion. *hen a hammer is set in
motion in the direction o! a nail/ it possesses energy o! motion. "s the hammer strikes the nail/
the energy o! motion is con.erted into work as the nail is dri.en into the wood. The distance the
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nail is dri.en into the wood depends on the .elocity o! the hammer at the time it strikes the nail.
Energy contained by an ob3ect due to its motion is called kinetic energy. "ssume that the
hammer is suspended by a string in a position one meter abo.e a nail. "s a result o!
gra.itational attraction/ the hammer will e+perience a !orce pulling it downward. I! the string is
suddenly cut/ the !orce o! gra.ity will pull the hammer downward against the nail/ dri.ing it into
the wood. *hile the hammer is suspended abo.e the nail it has ability to do work because o! its
ele.ated position in the earth5s gra.itational !ield. Since energy is the ability to do work/ the
hammer contains energy.
Energy contained by an ob3ect due to its position is called potential energy. The amount o!
potential energy a.ailable is equal to the product o! the !orce required to ele.ate the hammer
and the height to which it is ele.ated.
"nother e+ample o! potential energy is that contained in a tightly coiled spring. The amount o!
energy released when the spring unwinds depends on the amount o! !orce required to wind the
spring initially.
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Electrical &harges
rom the pre.ious study o! electrostatics/ you learned that a !ield o! !orce e+ists in the space
surrounding any electrical charge. The strength o! the !ield is directly dependent on the !orce o! the
charge.
The charge o! one electron might be used as a unit o! electrical charge/ since charges are
created by displacement o! electronsK but the charge o! one electron is so small that it is
impractical to use.
The practical unit adopted !or measuring charges is the coulomb/ named a!ter the scientist
&harles &oulomb. 2ne coulomb is equal to the charge o! 6/)B7/777/777/777/777/777 Dsi+
quintillion two hundred and eighty quadrillionE or 6.)B + (7(B electrons.
*hen a charge o! one coulomb e+ists between two bodies/ one unit o! electrical potential
energy e+ists/ which is called the di!!erence o! potential between the two bodies. This is re!erred to
as electromoti.e !orce/ or .oltage/ and the unit o! measure is the .olt.
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Electrical charges are created by the displacement o! electrons/ so that there e+ists an e+cess
o! electrons at one point/ and a de!iciency at another point. &onsequently/ a charge must
always ha.e either a negati.e or positi.e polarity. " body with an e+cess o! electrons is
considered to be negati.e/ whereas a body with a de!iciency o! electrons is positi.e.
" di!!erence o! potential can e+ist between two points/ or bodies/ only i! they ha.e di!!erent
charges. In other words/ there is no di!!erence in potential between two bodies i! both ha.e a
de!iciency o! electrons to the same degree. I!/ howe.er/ one body is de!icient o! 6 coulombs
Drepresenting 6 .oltsE/ and the other is de!icient by () coulombs Drepresenting () .oltsE/ there is a
di!!erence o! potential o! 6 .olts. The body with the greater de!iciency is positi.e with respect to the
other.
In most electrical circuits only the di!!erence o! potential between two points is o! importance and
the absolute potentials o! the points are o! little concern. Iery o!ten it is con.enient to use one
standard re!erence !or all o! the .arious potentials throughout a piece o! equipment. or this
reason/ the potentials at .arious points in a circuit are generally measured with respect to the metal
chassis on which all parts o! the circuit are mounted. The chassis is considered to be at Mero
potential and all other potentials are either positi.e or negati.e with respect to the chassis. *hen
used as the re!erence point/ the chassis is said to be at ground potential.
2ccasionally/ rather large .alues o! .oltage may be encountered/ in which case the .olt becomes
too small a unit !or con.enience. In a situation o! this nature/ the kilo.olt DkIE/ meaning (/777 .olts/
is !requently used. "s an e+ample/ )7/777 .olts would be written as )7 kI. In other cases/ the .olt
may be too large a unit/ as when dealing with .ery small .oltages. or this purpose the milli.olt
DmIE/ meaning one$thousandth o! a .olt/ and the micro.olt DYIE/ meaning one$millionth o! a .olt/
are used. or e+ample/ 7.77( .olt would be written as ( mI/ and
7.7777)= .olt would be written as )= YI.
*hen a di!!erence in potential e+ists between two charged bodies that are connected by a
conductor/ electrons will !low along the conductor. This !low is !rom the negati.ely charged body to
the positi.ely charged body/ until the two charges are equaliMed and the potential di!!erence no
longer e+ists.
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"n analogy o! this action is shown in the two water tanks connected by a pipe and .al.e in
!igure 3.(. "t !irst the .al.e is closed and all the water is in tank ". Thus/ the water pressure
across the .al.e is at ma+imum. *hen the .al.e is opened/ the water !lows through the pipe
!rom " to ' until the water le.el becomes the same in both tanks. The water then stops !lowing
in the pipe/ because there is no longer a di!!erence in water pressure between the two tanks.
T"G0 " T"G 0 '
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igure 3.( $ "n analogy o! potential di!!erence
Electron mo.ement through an electric circuit is directly proportional to the di!!erence in potential
or electromoti.e !orce DEME/ across the circuit/ 3ust as the !low o! water through the pipe in !igure
3.( is directly proportional to the di!!erence in water le.el in the two tanks.
" !undamental law o! electricity is that the electron !low is directly proportional to the applied
.oltage. I! the .oltage is increased/ the !low is increased. I! the .oltage is decreased/ the !low is
decreased.
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Electric &urrent
Electron !low
It has been pro.en that electrons Dnegati.e chargesE mo.e through a conductor in response to an
electric !ield. Electron current !low will be used throughout this e+planation. Electron
current is de!ined as the directed !low o! electrons. The direction o! electron mo.ement is !rom a
region o! negati.e potential to a region o! positi.e potential. There!ore electron !low can be said to
!low !rom negati.e to positi.e. The direction o! current !low in a material is determined by the
polarity o! the applied .oltage.
&on.entional &urrent low
In the ,0 and Europe/ con.entional current !low is said to be !rom positi.e to negati.e potential $
the opposite way to the actual !low o! electrons.
&on.entional current was de!ined early in the
history o! electrical science as a !low o! positi.e
charge. In solid metals/ like wires/ the positi.e
low o! positi.e charge
charge carriers are immobile/ and only the
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negati.ely charged electrons !low. 'ecause the
electron carries negati.e charge/ the electron
current is in the direction opposite to that o!
con.entional Dor electricE current.
Electric charge mo.es !rom the positi.e side o!
the power source to the negati.e.
In other conducti.e materials/ the electric current
igure 3.) $ &on.entional current
is due to the !low o! charged particles in both
!low direction
directions at the same time. Electric currents in
electrolytes are !lows o! electrically charged atoms DionsE/ which e+ist in both positi.e and
negati.e .arieties. or e+ample/ an electrochemical cell may be constructed with salt water Da
solution o! sodium chlorideE on one side o! a membrane and pure water on the other. The
membrane lets the positi.e sodium ions pass/ but not the negati.e chloride ions/ so a net
current results. Electric currents in plasma are !lows o! electrons as well as positi.e and
negati.e ions. In ice and in certain solid electrolytes/ !lowing protons constitute the electric
current. To simpli!y this situation/ the original de!inition o! con.entional current still stands.
n
There are also materials where the electric current is due to the !low o! electrons and yet it is
conceptually easier to think o! the current as due to the !low o! positi.e 1holes1 Dthe spots that
should ha.e an electron to make the conductor neutralE. This is the case in a p$type
semiconductor.
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These E"S" #art$66 Module 3 notes will use con.entional current notation throughout/ unless
otherwise stated/ and then only !or speci!ic reasons.
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@andom Dri!t
"ll materials are composed o! atoms/ each o! which is capable o! being ionised. I! some !orm o!
energy/ such as heat/ is applied to a material/ some electrons acquire su!!icient energy to mo.e to
a higher energy le.el. "s a result/ some electrons are !reed !rom their parent atom5s which
then becomes ions. 2ther !orms o! energy/ particularly light or an electric !ield/ will cause
ionisation to occur.
The number o! !ree electrons resulting !rom ionisation is dependent upon the quantity o! energy
applied to a material/ as well as the atomic structure o! the material. "t room temperature some
materials/ classi!ied as conductors/ ha.e an abundance o! !ree electrons. ,nder a similar
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condition/ materials classi!ied as insulators ha.e relati.ely !ew !ree electrons.
In a study o! electric current/ conductors are o! ma3or concern. &onductors are made up o!
atoms that contain loosely bound electrons in their outer orbits. Due to the e!!ects o! increased
energy/ these outermost electrons !requently break away !rom their atoms and !reely dri!t
throughout the material. The !ree electrons/ also called mobile electrons/ take a path that is not
predictable and dri!t about the material in a haphaMard manner. &onsequently such a mo.ement is
termed random dri!t.
It is important to emphasiMe that the random dri!t o! electrons occurs in all materials. The degree o!
random dri!t is greater in a conductor than in an insulator.
Directed Dri!t
"ssociated with e.ery charged body there is an electrostatic !ield. 'odies that are charged alike
repel one another and bodies with unlike charges attract each other. "n electron will be a!!ected by
an electrostatic !ield in e+actly the same manner as any negati.ely charged body. It is
repelled by a negati.e charge and attracted by a positi.e charge. I! a conductor has a di!!erence in
potential impressed across it/ as shown in !igure 3.3/ a direction is imparted to the random dri!t.
This causes the mobile electrons to be repelled away !rom the negati.e terminal and
attracted toward the positi.e terminal. This constitutes a general migration o! electrons !rom one
end o! the conductor to the other. The directed migration o! mobile electrons due to the potential
di!!erence is called directed dri!t.
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igure 3.3 $ Directed dri!t
The directed mo.ement o! the electrons occurs at a relati.ely low .elocity Drate o! motion in a
particular directionE. The e!!ect o! this directed mo.ement/ howe.er/ is !elt almost
instantaneously/ as e+plained by the use o! !igure 3.3. "s a di!!erence in potential is impressed
across the conductor/ the positi.e terminal o! the battery attracts electrons !rom point ". #oint "
now has a de!iciency o! electrons. "s a result/ electrons are attracted !rom point ' to point ".
#oint ' has now de.eloped an electron de!iciency/ there!ore/ it will attract electrons. This same
e!!ect occurs throughout the conductor and repeats itsel! !rom points D to &. "t the same instant
the positi.e battery terminal attracted electrons !rom point "/ the negati.e terminal repelled
electrons toward point D. These electrons are attracted to point D as it gi.es up electrons to
point &. This process is continuous !or as long as a di!!erence o! potential e+ists across the
conductor. Though an indi.idual electron mo.es quite slowly through the conductor/ the e!!ect o!
a directed dri!t occurs almost instantaneously. "s an electron mo.es into the conductor at point
D/ an electron is lea.ing at point ". This action takes place at appro+imately the speed a light
D(B6/777 Miles #er SecondE.
3$(7
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Magnitude o! &urrent low
igure 3.; $ E!!ect o! directed dri!t.
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Electric current has been de!ined as the directed mo.ement o! electrons. Directed dri!t/
there!ore/ is current and the terms can be used interchangeably. The e+pression directed dri!t is
particularly help!ul in di!!erentiating between the random and directed motion o! electrons.
Lowe.er/ current !low is the terminology most commonly used in indicating a directed
mo.ement o! electrons.
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The magnitude o! current !low is directly related to the amount o! energy that passes through a
conductor as a result o! the dri!t action. "n increase in the number o! energy carriers Dthe mobile
electronsE or an increase in the energy o! the e+isting mobile electrons would pro.ide an increase in
current !low. *hen an electric potential is impressed across a conductor/ there is an increase in the
.elocity o! the mobile electrons causing an increase in the energy o! the carriers. There is also the
generation o! an increased number o! electrons pro.iding added carriers o! energy. The additional
number o! !ree electrons is relati.ely small/ hence the magnitude o! current !low is primarily
dependent on the .elocity o! the e+isting mobile electrons.
The magnitude o! current !low is a!!ected by the di!!erence o! potential in the !ollowing manner.
Initially/ mobile electrons are gi.en additional energy because o! the repelling and attracting
electrostatic !ield. I! the potential di!!erence is increased/ the electric !ield will be stronger/ the
amount o! energy imparted to a mobile electron will be greater/ and the current will be
increased. I! the potential di!!erence is decreased/ the strength o! the !ield is reduced/ the
% energy supplied to the electron is diminished/ and the current is decreased.
Measurement o! &urrent
The magnitude o! current is measured in amperes. " current o! one ampere is said to !low
L when one coulomb o! char *e passes a point in one second. @emember/ one coulomb is equal
to the charge o! 6.)B + (7(
electrons.
Module 3.3 Electrical Terminology
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requently/ the ampere is much too large a unit !or measuring current. There!ore/ the
milliampere Dm"E/ one$thousandth o! an ampere/ or the microampere DY"E/ one$millionth o! an
ampere/ is used. The de.ice used to measure current is called an ammeter and will be
discussed in detail in a later module.
" current o! ( "mp is !lowing when a quantity o! ( &oulomb o! charge !lows !or ( second.
The current I in amperes can be calculated with the !ollowing equationH
n
*hereH
n
S is the electric charge in coulombs Dampere secondsE
t is the time in seconds
It !ollows thatH
t
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#9
Electrical @esistance
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It is known that the directed mo.ement o! electrons constitutes a current !low. It is also known
that the electrons do not mo.e !reely through a conductor5s crystalline structure. Some materials
o!!er little opposition to current !low/ while others greatly oppose current !low. This opposition to
current !low is known as resistance D@E/ and the unit o! measure is the ohm. The standard o!
measure !or one ohm is the resistance pro.ided at Mero degrees &elsius by a column o!
mercury ha.ing a cross$sectional area o! one square millimetre and a length o! (76.3
centimetres.
" conductor has one ohm o! resistance when an applied potential o! one .olt produces a
current o! one ampere. The symbol used to represent the ohm is the <reek letter omega
DcaE.
@esistance/ although an electrical property/ is determined by the physical structure o! a material.
The resistance o! a material is go.erned by many o! the same !actors that control current !low.
There!ore/ in a subsequent discussion/ the !actors that a!!ect current !low will be used to assist in
the e+planation o! the !actors a!!ecting resistance.
&onductance
Electricity is a study that is !requently e+plained in terms o! opposites. The term that is the
opposite o! resistance is conductance. &onductance is the ability o! a material to pass
electrons. The !actors that a!!ect the magnitude o! resistance are e+actly the same !or
conductance/ but they a!!ect conductance in the opposite manner. There!ore/ conductance is
directly proportional to area/ and in.ersely proportional to the length o! the material. The
temperature o! the material is de!initely a !actor/ but assuming a constant temperature/ the
conductance o! a material can be calculated.
The unit o! conductance is the mho D<E/ which is ohm spelled backwards. @ecently the term
mho has been redesignated siemens DSE. *hereas the symbol used to represent resistance
D@E is the <reek letter omega DC)E/ the symbol used to represent conductance D<E is DSE. The
relationship that e+ists between resistance D@E and conductance D<E or DSE is a reciprocal one. "
reciprocal o! a number is 5one5 di.ided by that number. In terms o! resistance and conductanceH
@R$/ <R $
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Electrical %aws
araday5s %aw
araday5s law o! induction states that the induced electromoti.e !orce in a closed loop o! wire is
directly proportional to the time rate o! change o! magnetic !lu+ through the loop.
2hm5s %aw
"n electrical circuit/ the current passing through a conductor between two points is directly
proportional to the potential di!!erence Di.e. .oltage drop or .oltageE across the two points/ and
in.ersely proportional to the resistance between them.
0irchho!!5s %aws
#urrent Law $"t any point in an electrical circuit where charge density is not changing in
time/ the sum o! currents !lowing towards that point is equal to the sum o! currents
!lowing away !rom that point.
%oltage Law $ The directed sum o! the electrical potential di!!erences around any closed
circuit must be Mero.
%ens5s %aw
The induced current in a loop is in the direction that creates a magnetic !ield that opposes the
change in magnetic !lu+ through the area enclosed by the loop. That is/ the induced current
tends to keep the original magnetic !lu+ through the !ield !rom changing.
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Electrical undamentals
3.; <eneration o! Electricity
Module 3.; <eneration o! Electricity
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'asic knowledge !or categories "/ '( and ') are indicated by the allocation o! knowledge le.els indicators D(/ ) or
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basic knowledge le.els.
The knowledge le.el indicators are de!ined as !ollowsH
%EIE% (
J " !amiliarisation with the principal elements o! the sub3ect.
2b3ecti.esH
J The applicant should be !amiliar with the basic elements o! the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to gi.e a simple description o! the whole sub3ect/ using common words and
e+amples.
J The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
%EIE% )
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" general knowledge o! the theoretical and practical aspects o! the sub3ect.
J "n ability to apply that knowledge.
2b3ecti.esH
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e+amples.
J The applicant should be able to use mathematical !ormulae in con3unction with physical laws describing the
sub3ect.
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The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches/ drawings and schematics describing the
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manner.
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J The applicant should be able to gi.e a detailed description o! the sub3ect using theoretical !undamentals
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The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical !ormulae related to the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to read/ understand and prepare sketches/ simple drawings and schematics
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Table o! &ontents
Module 3.; <eneration o! Electricity =
Low Ioltage is #roduced =
Ioltage #roduced by riction 6
Ioltage #roduced by #ressure 6
Ioltage #roduced by Leat 8
Ioltage #roduced by %ight 8
Ioltage #roduced by &hemical "ction C
Ioltage #roduced by Magnetism (7
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Module 3.; Enabling 2b3ecti.es
2b3ecti.e
E"S" 66 @e!erence %e.el
<eneration o! Electricity
3.; (
#roduction o! electricity by the !ollowing methodsH light/
heat/ !riction/ pressure/ chemical action/ magnetism and
motion
8(
;$;
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% Module 3.; <eneration o! Electricity
Low Ioltage is #roduced
rk
L
It has been demonstrated that a charge can be produced by rubbing a rubber rod with !ur.
'ecause o! the !riction in.ol.ed/ the rod acquires electrons !rom the !ur/ making it negati.eK the !ur
becomes positi.e due to the loss o! electrons. These quantities o! charge constitute a
di!!erence o! potential between the rod and the !ur. The electrons which make up this di!!erence
o! potential are capable o! doing work i! a discharge is allowed to occur.
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To be a practical source o! .oltage/ the potential di!!erence must not be allowed to dissipate/ but
must be maintained continuously. "s one electron lea.es the concentration o! negati.e charge/
another must be immediately pro.ided to take its place or the charge will e.entually diminish to the
point where no !urther work can be accomplished. " .oltage source/ there!ore/ is a de.ice which is
capable o! supplying and maintaining .oltage while some type o! electrical apparatus is connected
to its terminals. The internal action o! the source is such that electrons are
continuously remo.ed !rom one terminal/ keeping it positi.e/ and simultaneously supplied to the
second terminal which maintains a negati.e charge.
#resently/ there are si+ known methods !or producing a .oltage or electromoti.e !orce DEME.
Some o! these methods are more widely used than others/ and some are used mostly !or
speci!ic applications. ollowing is a list o! the si+ known methods o! producing a .oltage.
J riction $ Ioltage produced by rubbing certain materials together.
J #ressure DpieMoelectricityE $ Ioltage produced by squeeMing crystals o! certain
substances
J Leat DthermoelectricityE $ Ioltage produced by heating the 3oint D3unctionE where two
unlike metals are 3oined.
J %ight DphotoelectricityE $ Ioltage produced by light striking photosensiti.e Dlight sensiti.eE
substances.
J &hemical "ction $ Ioltage produced by chemical reaction in a battery cell.
J Magnetism $ Ioltage produced in a conductor when the conductor mo.es through a
magnetic !ield/ or a magnetic !ield mo.es through the conductor in such a manner as to
cut the magnetic lines o! !orce o! the !ield.
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Ioltage #roduced by riction
The !irst method disco.ered !or creating a .oltage was that o! generation by !riction. The
de.elopment o! charges by rubbing a rod with !ur is a prime e+ample o! the way in which a
.oltage is generated by !riction. 'ecause o! the nature o! the materials with which this .oltage is
generated/ it cannot be con.eniently used or maintained. or this reason/ .ery little practical use has
been !ound !or .oltages generated by this method.
In the search !or methods to produce a .oltage o! a larger amplitude and o! a more practical
nature/ machines were de.eloped in which charges were trans!erred !rom one terminal to
another by means o! rotating glass discs or mo.ing belts. The most notable o! these machines is
the Ian de <raa!! generator. It is used today to produce potentials in the order o! millions o! .olts
!or nuclear research. "s these machines ha.e little .alue outside the !ield o! research/ their theory o!
operation will not be described here.
Ioltage #roduced by #ressure
2ne specialiMed method o! generating an EM utiliMes the characteristics o! certain ionic
crystals such as quartM/ @ochelle salts/ and tourmaline. These crystals ha.e the remarkable 88
ability to generate a .oltage whene.er stresses are applied to their sur!aces. Thus/ i! a crystal o!
quartM is squeeMed/ charges o! opposite polarity will appear on two opposite sur!aces o! the
crystal. I! the !orce is re.ersed and the crystal is stretched/ charges will again appear/ but will be
o! the opposite polarity !rom those produced by squeeMing. I! a crystal o! this type is gi.en a
.ibratory motion/ it will produce a .oltage o! re.ersing polarity between two o! its sides. SuartM
or similar crystals can thus be used to con.ert mechanical energy into electrical energy.
This phenomenon/ called the pieMoelectric e!!ect/ is shown in !igure ;.(. Some o! the common
de.ices that make use o! pieMoelectric crystals are microphones/ phonograph cartridges/ and
oscillators used in radio transmitters/ radio recei.ers/ and sonar equipment. This method o!
generating an EM is not suitable !or applications ha.ing large .oltage or power requirements/
but is widely used in sound and communications systems where small signal .oltages can be
e!!ecti.ely used.
S,"@TV &@PST"%
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D"E Gon$crystalliMed structureK
D'E crystalliMed structureK
D&E compression o! a crystalK
DDE decompression o! a crystal.
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&rystals o! this type also possess another interesting property/ the 1con.erse pieMoelectric
e!!ect.1 That is/ they ha.e the ability to con.ert electrical energy into mechanical energy. "
.oltage impressed across the proper sur!aces o! the crystal will cause it to e+pand or contract
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its sur!aces in response to the .oltage applied.
Ioltage #roduced by Leat
*hen a length o! metal/ such as copper/ is heated at one end/ electrons tend to mo.e away !rom
the hot end toward the cooler end. This is true o! most metals. Lowe.er/ in some metals/ such as
iron/ the opposite takes place and electrons tend to mo.e toward the hot end. These
characteristics are illustrated in !igure ;.). The negati.e charges DelectronsE are mo.ing through the
copper away !rom the heat and through the iron toward the heat. They cross !rom the iron to the
copper through the current meter to the iron at the cold 3unction. This de.ice is generally re!erred to
as a thermocouple
&2%D
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igure ;.) $ Ioltage produced by heat.
Thermocouples ha.e somewhat greater power capacities than crystals/ but their capacity is still
.ery small i! compared to some other sources. The thermoelectric .oltage in a thermocouple
depends mainly on the di!!erence in temperature between the hot and cold 3unctions.
&onsequently/ they are widely used to measure temperature/ and as heat$sensing de.ices in
automatic temperature control equipment. Thermocouples generally can be sub3ected to much
greater temperatures than ordinary thermometers/ such as the mercury or alcohol types.
Ioltage #roduced by %ight
*hen light strikes the sur!ace o! a substance/ it may dislodge electrons !rom their orbits around the
sur!ace atoms o! the substance. This occurs because light has energy/ the same as any mo.ing
!orce.
Some substances/ mostly metallic ones/ are !ar more sensiti.e to light than others. That is/
more electrons will be dislodged and emitted !rom the sur!ace o! a highly sensiti.e metal/ with a
gi.en amount o! light/ than will be emitted !rom a less sensiti.e substance. ,pon losing
electrons/ the photosensiti.e Dlight$sensiti.eE metal becomes positi.ely charged/ and an electric
!orce is created. Ioltage produced in this manner is re!erred to as a photoelectric .oltage.
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The photosensiti.e materials most commonly used to produce a photoelectric .oltage are
.arious compounds o! sil.er o+ide or copper o+ide. " complete de.ice which operates on the
photoelectric principle is re!erred to as a 1photoelectric cell.1 There are many di!!erent siMes and
types o! photoelectric cells in use/ and each ser.es the special purpose !or which it is designed.
Gearly all/ howe.er/ ha.e some o! the basic !eatures o! the photoelectric cells shown in !igure
;.3.
#L2T2SEGSITIIE SI%IE@
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igure ;.3 $ Ioltage produced by light.
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The cell D!igure ;.3 .iew "E has a cur.ed light$sensiti.e sur!ace !ocused on the central anode. *hen
light !rom the direction shown strikes the sensiti.e sur!ace/ it emits electrons toward the anode. The
more intense the light/ the greater the number o! electrons emitted. *hen a wire is connected
between the !ilament and the back/ or dark side o! the cell/ the accumulated
electrons will !low to the dark side. These electrons will e.entually pass through the metal o! the
re!lector and replace the electrons lea.ing the light$sensiti.e sur!ace. Thus/ light energy is
con.erted to a !low o! electrons/ and a usable current is de.eloped.
The cell D!igure ;.3 .iew 'E is constructed in layers. " base plate o! pure copper is coated with
light$sensiti.e copper o+ide. "n e+tremely thin semitransparent layer o! metal is placed o.er the
copper o+ide. This additional layer ser.es two purposesH
J It permits the penetration o! light to the copper o+ide.
J It collects the electrons emitted by the copper o+ide.
"n e+ternally connected wire completes the electron path/ the same as in the re!lector$type cell.
The photocell5s .oltage is used as needed by connecting the e+ternal wires to some other
de.ice/ which ampli!ies DenlargesE it to a usable le.el.
I
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The power capacity o! a photocell is .ery small. Lowe.er/ it reacts to light$intensity .ariations in an
e+tremely short time. This characteristic makes the photocell .ery use!ul in detecting or
accurately controlling a great number o! operations. or instance/ the photoelectric cell/ or some
!orm o! the photoelectric principle/ is used in tele.ision cameras/ automatic manu!acturing
process controls/ door openers/ burglar alarms/ and so !orth.
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Ioltage #roduced by &hemical "ction
Ioltage may be produced chemically when certain substances are e+posed to chemical action. I!
two dissimilar substances Dusually metals or metallic materialsE are immersed in a solution that
produces a greater chemical action on one substance than on the other/ a di!!erence o!
potential will e+ist between the two. I! a conductor is then connected between them/ electrons
will !low through the conductor to equaliMe the charge. This arrangement is called a primary cell.
The two metallic pieces are called electrodes and the solution is called the electrolyte. The
.oltaic cell illustrated in !igure ;.; is a simple e+ample o! a primary cell. The di!!erence o!
potential results !rom the !act that material !rom one or both o! the electrodes goes into solution in
the electrolyte/ and in the process/ ions !orm in the .icinity o! the electrodes. Due to the electric
!ield associated with the charged ions/ the electrodes acquire charges.
VIG& &2##E@
E%E&T@2DE . . E%E&T@2DE
igure ;.; $ Ioltaic cell.
The amount o! di!!erence in potential between the electrodes depends principally on the metals
used. The type o! electrolyte and the siMe o! the cell ha.e little or no e!!ect on the potential
di!!erence produced.
There are two types o! primary cells/ the wet cell and the dry cell. In a wet cell the electrolyte is
a liquid. " cell with a liquid electrolyte must remain in an upright position and is not readily
transportable. "n automoti.e battery is an e+ample o! this type o! cell. The dry cell/ much more
commonly used than the wet cell/ is not actually dry/ but contains an electrolyte mi+ed with
other materials to !orm a paste. Torches and portable radios are commonly powered by dry
cells.
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'atteries are !ormed when se.eral cells are connected together to increase electrical output.
Ioltage #roduced by Magnetism
Magnets or magnetic de.ices are used !or thousands o! di!!erent 3obs. 2ne o! the most use!ul and
widely employed applications o! magnets is in the production o! .ast quantities o! electric power
!rom mechanical sources. The mechanical power may be pro.ided by a number o!
di!!erent sources/ such as gasoline or diesel engines/ and water or steam turbines. Lowe.er/ the
!inal con.ersion o! these source energies to electricity is done by generators employing the
principle o! electromagnetic induction. These generators/ o! many types and siMes/ are
discussed in other modules in this series. The important sub3ect to be discussed here is the
!undamental operating principle o! all such electromagnetic$induction generators.
To begin with/ there are three !undamental conditions which must e+ist be!ore a .oltage can be n
produced by magnetism.
K
(
J There must be a conductor in which the .oltage will be produced.
J There must be a magnetic !ield in the conductor5s .icinity.
J There must be relati.e motion between the !ield and conductor. The conductor must be
mo.ed so as to cut across the magnetic lines o! !orce/ or the !ield must be mo.ed so that n
the lines o! !orce are cut by the conductor.
In accordance with these conditions/ when a conductor or conductors mo.e across a magnetic
!ield so as to cut the lines o! !orce/ electrons within the conductor are propelled in one
direction or another. Thus/ an electric !orce/ or .oltage/ is created.
In !igure ;.=/ note the presence o! the three conditions needed !or creating an induced .oltage.
;$(7
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D"E
DE
D&E
direction o!
motion re.ersed
igure ;.= $ Ioltage produced by magnetism.
J " magnetic !ield e+ists between the poles o! the &$shaped magnet.
J There is a conductor Dcopper wireE.
J There is a relati.e motion. The wire is mo.ed back and !orth across the magnetic !ield.
J In !igure ;.= .iew "/ the conductor is mo.ing toward the !ront o! the page and the
electrons mo.e !rom le!t to right.
The mo.ement o! the electrons occurs because o! the magnetically induced EM acting on the
electrons in the copper. The right$hand end becomes negati.e/ and the le!t$hand end positi.e. The
conductor is stopped at .iew '/ motion is eliminated Done o! the three required conditionsE/ and
there is no longer an induced EM. &onsequently/ there is no longer any di!!erence in
potential between the two ends o! the wire. The conductor at .iew & is mo.ing away !rom the !ront
o! the page. "n induced EM is again created. Lowe.er/ note care!ully that the re.ersal o! motion
has caused a re.ersal o! direction in the induced EM.
I! a path !or electron !low is pro.ided between the ends o! the conductor/ electrons will lea.e the
negati.e end and !low to the positi.e end. This condition is shown in part .iew D. Electron !low
will continue as long as the EM e+ists. In studying !igure ;.=/it should be noted that the
induced EM could also ha.e been created by holding the conductor stationary and mo.ing the
magnetic !ield back and !orth.
The more comple+ aspects o! power generation by use o! mechanical motion and magnetism are
discussed later in &hapter (; $ D& MotorA<enerator Theory.
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Electrical undamentals
3.= D& Sources o! Electricity
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&opyright Gotice
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The knowledge le.el indicators are de!ined as !ollowsH
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%EIE% (
J " !amiliarisation with the principal elements o! the sub3ect.
2b3ecti.esH
J The applicant should be !amiliar with the basic elements o! the sub3ect.
e+amples.
J
The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
%EIE% )
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J
"n ability to apply that knowledge.
2b3ecti.esH
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J
e+amples.
sub3ect.
sub3ect.
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manner.
2b3ecti.esH
J The applicant should know the theory o! the sub3ect and interrelationships with other sub3ects.
and speci!ic e+amples.
J
J
describing the sub3ect.
instructions.
J
correcti.e action where appropriate.
=
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Table o! &ontents
Module 3.= D& Sources o! Electricity
=
Introduction =
The &ell =
#rimary and Secondary &ells
8
Electrochemical "ction 8
#rimary &ell &hemistry B
Secondary &ell &hemistry
C
#olariMation o! the &ell (7
%ocal "ction
((
Types o! &ells
((
2ther Types o! &ells
(=
Secondary *et &ells
(B
&ell &apacity
(C
&ells in Series and #arallel
)7
'attery &onstruction
))
'attery Internal @esistance
37
'attery Maintenance
3(
&apacity and @ating o! 'atteries
3)
'attery &harging
33
Thermocouples 3=
#hotocells
;;
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Module 3.= Enabling 2b3ecti.es
2b3ecti.e
E"S" 66 @e!erence %e.el
D& Sources o! Electricity 3.=
)
&onstruction and basic chemical action o!H primary cells/
secondary cells/ lead acid cells/ nickel cadmium cells/ other
alkaline cells
&ells connected in series and parallel
Internal resistance and its a!!ect on a battery
&onstruction/ materials and operation o! thermocouples
2peration o! photo$cells 8
=$;
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Module 3.= D& Sources o! Electricity
Introduction
The purpose o! this chapter is to introduce and e+plain the basic theory and characteristics o!
batteries. The batteries which are discussed and illustrated ha.e been selected as
representati.e o! many models and types which are used in aircra!t today. Go attempt has been
made to co.er e.ery type o! battery in use/ howe.er/ a!ter completing this chapter you will ha.e a
good working knowledge o! the batteries which are in general use.
irst/ you will learn about the building block o! all batteries/ the cell. The e+planation will e+plore the
physical makeup o! the cell and the methods used to combine cells to pro.ide use!ul
.oltage/ current/ and power. The chemistry o! the cell and how chemical action is used to
con.ert chemical energy to electrical energy are also discussed.
In addition/ the care/ maintenance/ and operation o! batteries/ as well as some o! the sa!ety
i
r
,
Ell
precautions that should be !ollowed while working with and around batteries are discussed.
'atteries are widely used as sources o! direct$current electrical energy in automobiles/ boats/
aircra!t/ ships/ portable electricAelectronic equipment/ and lighting equipment. In some instances/
they are used as the only source o! powerK while in others/ they are used as a secondary or
standby power source.
" battery consists o! a number o! cells assembled in a common container and connected
together to !unction as a source o! electrical power.
The &ell
" cell is a de.ice that trans!orms chemical energy into electrical energy. The simplest cell/ known
as either a gal.anic or .oltaic cell/ is shown in igure =.(. It consists o! a piece o! carbon D&E and a
piece o! Minc DVnE suspended in a 3ar that contains a solution o! water DL)7E and sulphuric acid
DL)S2;E called the electrolyte.
igure =.( $ Simple .oltaic or gal.anic cell.
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The cell is the !undamental unit o! the battery. " simple cell consists o! two electrodes placed in n
a container that holds the electrolyte.
3
In some cells the container acts as one o! the electrodes and/ in this case/ is acted upon by the
electrolyte. This will be co.ered in more detail later.
Electrodes
The electrodes are the conductors by which the current lea.es or returns to the electrolyte. In
the simple cell/ they are carbon and Minc strips that are placed in the electrolyteK while in the dry
cell Digure =.)E/ they are the carbon rod in the centre and Minc container in which the cell is
assembled.
<arton
DgraphiteE
c lectrocle
surr.5unded
by carbon
black and
manganese
dlo+lde
is the
oath rode.
. nDn$oEndlctinc/
tube
Ion trans!er is
accomallshed in
a paste o!
ammonium chloriide$
ar!id Minc chl rids
Vinc metal
slee.e$ is the/
ante.
n
igure =.) $ Dry cell/ cross$sectional .iew.
In a discharging battery or gal.anic cell DdrawingE the cathode is the positi.e terminal/ where
con.entional current !lows out. This outward current is carried internally by positi.e ions mo.ing
!rom the electrolyte to the positi.e cathode Dchemical energy is responsible !or this 1uphill1
motionE. It is continued e+ternally by electrons mo.ing inwards/ negati.e charge mo.ing one way
amounting to positi.e current !lowing the other way.
The anode is the negati.e terminal/ where con.entional current !lows in/ and electrons out.
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Electrolyte
The electrolyte is the solution that acts upon the electrodes. The electrolyte/ which pro.ides a path
!or electron !low/ may be a salt/ an acid/ or an alkaline solution. In the simple gal.anic cell/ the
electrolyte is in a liquid !orm. In the dry cell/ the electrolyte is a paste.
&ontainer
The container which may be constructed o! one o! many di!!erent materials pro.ides a means o!
holding DcontainingE the electrolyte. The container is also used to mount the electrodes. In the
.oltaic cell the container must be constructed o! a material that will not be acted upon by the
electrolyte.
#rimary and Secondary &ells
#rimary &ell
" primary cell is one in which the chemical action eats away one o! the electrodes/ usually the
negati.e electrode. *hen this happens/ the electrode must be replaced or the cell must be
discarded. In the gal.anic$type cell/ the Minc electrode and the liquid electrolyte are usually
replaced when this happens. In the case o! the dry cell/ it is usually cheaper to buy a new cell.
Secondary &ell
" secondary cell is one in which the electrodes and the electrolyte are altered by the chemical
action that takes place when the cell deli.ers current. These cells may be restored to their original
condition by !orcing an electric current through them in the direction opposite to that o! discharge.
The automobile storage battery is a common e+ample o! the secondary cell.
Electrochemical "ction
I! a load Da de.ice that consumes electrical powerE is connected e+ternally to the electrodes o! a
cell/ electrons will !low under the in!luence o! a di!!erence in potential across the electrodes !rom the
anode Dnegati.e electrodeE/ through the e+ternal conductor to the cathode Dpositi.e
electrodeE.
" cell is a de.ice in which chemical energy is con.erted to electrical energy. This process is
called electrochemical action.
The .oltage across the electrodes depends upon the materials !rom which the electrodes are
made and the composition o! the electrolyte. The current that a cell deli.ers depends upon the
resistance o! the entire circuit/ including that o! the cell itsel!. The internal resistance o! the cell
depends upon the siMe o! the electrodes/ the distance between them in the electrolyte/ and the
resistance o! the electrolyte. The larger the electrodes and the closer together they are in the
electrolyte Dwithout touchingE/ the lower the internal resistance o! the cell and the more current the
cell is capable o! supplying to the load.
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#rimary &ell &hemistry
*hen a current !lows through a primary cell ha.ing carbon and Minc electrodes and a diluted
solution o! sulphuric acid and water Dcombined to !orm the electrolyteE/ the !ollowing chemical
reaction takes place.
The electron !low through the load is the mo.ement o! electrons !rom the negati.e electrode o! the
cell DMincE and to the positi.e electrode DcarbonE. This causes !ewer electrons in the Minc and an
e+cess o! electrons in the carbon. The hydrogen ions DL)E !rom the sulphuric acid are
attracted to the carbon electrode. Since the hydrogen ions are positi.ely charged/ they are
attracted to the negati.e charge on the carbon electrode. This negati.e charge is caused by the
e+cess o! electrons. The Minc electrode has a positi.e charge because it has lost electrons to the
carbon electrode. This positi.e charge attracts the negati.e ions DS7;E !rom the sulphuric acid. The
negati.e ions combine with the Minc to !orm Minc sulphate. This action causes the Minc electrode to
be eaten away. Vinc sulphate is a greyish$white substance that is sometimes seen on the battery
post o! an automobile battery.
The process o! the Minc being eaten away and the sulphuric acid changing to hydrogen and Minc
sulphate is the cause o! the cell discharging. *hen the Minc is used up/ the .oltage o! the cell is
reduced to Mero.
In igure =.) you will notice that the Minc electrode Dthe caseE is labelled negati.e and the
carbon electrode is labelled positi.e. This represents the current !low outside the cell !rom
positi.e to negati.e.
The Minc combines with the sulphuric acid to !orm Minc sulphate and hydrogen. The Minc
sulphate dissol.es in the electrolyte Dsulphuric acid and waterE and the hydrogen appears as
gas bubbles around the carbon electrode. "s current continues to !low/ the Minc gradually
dissol.es and the solution changes to Minc sulphate and water. The carbon electrode does not
enter into the chemical changes taking place/ but simply pro.ides a return path !or the current.
! l
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=$B Module 3.= D& Sources o! Electricity
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System go.erned by the statement
,se andior disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
6 &oo.rioht )7(7
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) or this &hapter.
pt$
Secondary &ell &hemistry
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"s stated be!ore/ the di!!erences between primary and secondary cells are/ the secondary cell can
be recharged and the electrodes are made o! di!!erent materials. The secondary cell shown in
igure =.3 uses sponge lead as the anode and lead pero+ide as the cathode. This is the lead$
acid type cell and will be used to e+plain the general chemistry o! the secondary cell. %ater in the
chapter when other types o! secondary cells are discussed/ you will see that the materials which
make up the parts o! a cell are di!!erent/ but that the chemical action is essentially the
same.
S2%,TI2G
S,%,@I& "&ID
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da
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"GD *"TE@ L)2
S#2G<E %E"D
%E"D #E@2UIDE
#b #b7 )
D"E &L"@<ED
I%
DDE &L"@<IG<
IG&@E"SIG< IG&@E"SIG<
S#2G<E %E"D %E"D #E@2UIDE
DE&@E"SIG< DE&@E"SIG<
%E"D S,%"TE %E"D S,%"TE
#bS2; W #b #bS2; W #b<)
D'E DIS&L"@<IG<
DE&@E"SIG< DE&@E"SIG<
S#2G<E %E"D %E"D #E@2UIDE
IG&@E"SIG< IG&@E"SIG<
%E"D S,%"TE %E"D S,%"TE
#b W #bS2; #b2$W #bS2;
D&E DIS&L"@<ED
MIGIM,M MIGIM,M
S#2G<E %E"D %E"D #E@2UIDE
M"UIM,M M"UIM,M
%E"D S,%"TE %E"D S,%"TE
#bS2( W #b #bS<(W #b7 )
L
S#2G<E %E"D 3 %E"D #E@2UIDE %E"D S,%"TE
igure =.3 $ Secondary cell.
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igure =.3 .iew " shows a lead$acid secondary cell that is !ully charged. The anode is pure
sponge lead/ the cathode is pure lead pero+ide/ and the electrolyte is a mi+ture o! sulphuric acid
and water.
igure =.3 .iew ' shows the secondary cell discharging. " load is connected between the cathode
and anodeK electrons !low negati.e to positi.e as shown. This electron !low creates the same
process as was e+plained !or the primary cell with the !ollowing e+ceptionsH
J In the primary cell the Minc anode was eaten away by the sulphuric acid. In the secondary
cell the sponge$like construction o! the anode retains the lead sulphate !ormed by the
chemical action o! the sulphuric acid and the lead.
J In the primary cell the carbon cathode was not chemically acted upon by the sulphuric
acid. In the secondary cell the lead pero+ide cathode is chemically changed to lead
sulphate by the sulphuric acid.
*hen the cell is !ully discharged it will be as shown in igure =.3 .iew &. The cathode and anode
retain some lead pero+ide and sponge lead but the amounts o! lead sulphate in each is
ma+imum. The electrolyte has a minimum amount o! sulphuric acid. *ith this condition no !urther
chemical action can take place within the cell.
"s you know/ the secondary cell can be recharged. @echarging is the process o! re.ersing the
chemical action that occurs as the cell discharges. To recharge the cell/ a .oltage source/ such as
a generator/ is connected as shown in igure =.3 .iew D. The negati.e terminal o! the
.oltage source is connected to the cathode o! the cell and the positi.e terminal o! the .oltage
source is connected to the anode o! the cell. *ith this arrangement the lead sulphate is
chemically changed back to sponge lead in the cathode/ lead pero+ide in the anode/ and
sulphuric acid in the electrolyte. "!ter all the lead sulphate is chemically changed/ the cell is !ully
charged as shown in igure =.3 .iew ". 2nce the cell has been charged/ the discharge$charge
cycle may be repeated.
Gotice in the abo.e paragraph that the "node and &athode appear to ha.e changed polarity.
This is because a cell being recharged is an electrolytic cell Drather than a .oltaic or gal.anic
cell/ as it was when dischargingE. In an electrolytic cell/ the anode is positi.e/ and the
cathode is negati.e.
#olariMation o! the &ell
The chemical action that occurs in the cell while the current is !lowing causes hydrogen bubbles
to !orm on the sur!ace o! the anode. This action is called polariMation. Some hydrogen bubbles
rise to the sur!ace o! the electrolyte and escape into the air/ some remain on the sur!ace o! the
anode. I! enough bubbles remain around the anode/ the bubbles !orm a barrier that increases
internal resistance. *hen the internal resistance o! the cell increases/ the output current is
decreased and the .oltage o! the cell also decreases.
" cell that is hea.ily polariMed has no use!ul output. There are se.eral methods to pre.ent
polariMation or to depolarise the cell.
2ne method uses a .ent on the cell to permit the hydrogen to escape into the air. "
disad.antage o! this method is that hydrogen is not a.ailable to re!orm into the electrolyte
=$(7 Module 3.= D& Sources o! Electricity t
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!
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during recharging. This problem is sol.ed by adding water to the electrolyte/ such as in an
automobile battery. " second method is to use material that is rich in o+ygen/ such as
manganese dio+ide/ which supplies !ree o+ygen to combine with the hydrogen and !orm water. "
third method is to use a material that will absorb the hydrogen/ such as calcium. The calcium
releases hydrogen during the charging process. "ll three methods remo.e enough hydrogen so
that the cell is practically !ree !rom polariMation.
%ocal "ction
*hen the e+ternal circuit is remo.ed/ the current ceases to !low/ and/ theoretically/ all chemical
action within the cell stops. Lowe.er/ commercial Minc contains many impurities/ such as iron/
carbon/ lead/ and arsenic. These impurities !orm many small electrical cells within the Minc
electrode in which current !lows between the Minc and its impurities. Thus/ the chemical action
continues e.en though the cell itsel! is not connected to a load.
%ocal action may be pre.ented by using pure Minc Dwhich is not practicalE/ by coating the Minc with
mercury/ or by adding a small percentage o! mercury to the Minc during the manu!acturing process.
The treatment o! the Minc with mercury is called amalgamating Dmi+ingE the Minc. Since mercury is
many times hea.ier than an equal .olume o! water/ small particles o! impurities
weighing less than mercury will !loat to the sur!ace o! the mercury. The remo.al o! these
impurities !rom the Minc pre.ents local action. The mercury is not readily acted upon by the acid.
*hen the cell is deli.ering current to a load/ the mercury continues to act on the impurities in the
Minc. This causes the impurities to lea.e the sur!ace o! the Minc electrode and !loat to the sur!ace o!
the mercury. This process greatly increases the storage li!e o! the cell.
Types o! &ells
The de.elopment o! new and di!!erent types o! cells in the past decade has been so rapid that it is
.irtually impossible to ha.e a complete knowledge o! all the .arious types. " !ew recent
de.elopments are the sil.er$Minc/ nickel$Minc/ nickel$cadmium/ sil.er$cadmium/ organic and
inorganic lithium/ and mercury cells.
#rimary Dry &ell
The dry cell is the most popular type o! primary cell. It is ideal !or simple applications where an
ine+pensi.e and non$critical source o! electricity is all that is needed.
The dry cell is not actually dry. The electrolyte is not in a liquid state/ but is a moist paste. I! it
should become totally dry/ it would no longer be able to trans!orm chemical energy to electrical
energy.
The construction o! a common type o! dry cell is shown in igure =.;. These dry cells are also
re!erred to as %eclanche5 cells. The internal parts o! the cell are located in a cylindrical Minc
container. This Minc container ser.es as the negati.e electrode DanodeE o! the cell. The
container is lined with a non$conducting material/ such as blotting paper/ to separate the Minc !rom
the paste. " carbon electrode is located in the centre/ and it ser.es as the positi.e terminal
DcathodeE o! the cell. The paste is a mi+ture o! se.eral substances such as ammonium chloride/
powdered coke/ ground carbon/ manganese dio+ide/ Minc chloride/ graphite/ and water.
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#rotecti.e casing
Electrolyte paste
Dammonium chloride
and Minc chlorideE
Vinc
Separator
#ositi.e terminal
#itch seal
"ir space
&arbon and manganese
dio+ide mi+ture
&arbon rod
Gegati.e terminal
in
n
n
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igure =.; $ &utaway .iew o! the general$purpose dry cell.
This electrolyte paste also ser.es to hold the cathode rigid in the centre o! the cell. *hen the
paste is packed in the cell/ a small space is le!t at the top !or e+pansion o! the electrolytic paste
caused by the depolarisation action. The cell is then sealed with a cardboard or plastic seal.
Since the Minc container is the anode/ it must be protected with some insulating material to be
electrically isolated. There!ore/ it is common practice !or the manu!acturer to enclose the cells in
cardboard and metal containers.
The dry cell Digure =.;E is basically the same as the simple .oltaic cell Dwet cellE described
earlier/ as !ar as its internal chemical action is concerned. The action o! the water and the
ammonium chloride in the paste/ together with the Minc and carbon electrodes/ produces the
.oltage o! the cell. Manganese dio+ide is added to reduce polariMation when current !lows and
! l
Minc chloride reduces local action when the cell is not being used.
" cell that is not being used Dsitting on the shel!E will gradually deteriorate because o! slow
internal chemical changes Dlocal actionE. This deterioration is usually .ery slow i! cells are
properly stored. I! unused cells are stored in a cool place/ their shel! li!e will be greatly
preser.ed. There!ore/ to minimiMe deterioration/ they should be stored in re!rigerated spaces.
The cell is sealed at the top to keep air !rom entering and drying the electrolyte. &are should be
taken to pre.ent breaking this seal.
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Module 3.= D& Sources o! Electricity ,se andAor disclosure is
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,se andAor disclosure is
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go.erned by the statement
nn *"*") nt this chanter.
6 &opyright )7(7
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
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The %eclanche &ell
<eorges %eclanche in.ented and patented in (B66 his
battery/ the %eclanche cell. It contained a
conducting solution DelectrolyteE o! ammonium
%J
K
chloride/ a cathode Dpositi.e terminalE o! carbon/ a
depolariMer o! manganese dio+ide/ and an anode
Dnegati.e terminalE o! Minc. The %eclanche battery
was essentially a sel!$contained .ersion o! an earth
battery/ and !airly copied its design.
The %eclanche battery Dor wet cell as it was re!erred toE
was the !orerunner o! the modern dry cell Minc$
carbon battery.
igure =.= $ The %eclanche &ell
%i
The Daniell &ell
()*+ '' ,le
TER-,+%.&
I !
Il lll
/++vc I K I
ELE#$
TR)0E
,
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igure =.6 $ The Daniell &ell
The Daniell cell/ also called the gra.ity cell or
crow!oot cell was in.ented in (B36 by :ohn
rederic Daniell/ who was a 'ritish chemist and
meteorologist. The Daniell cell was a great
impro.ement o.er and is somewhat sa!er than the
.oltaic cell used in the early days o! battery
de.elopment. The Daniel cell5s theoretical .oltage
is (.( .olts.
The Daniel proper consists o! a central Minc anode
dipping into a porous earthenware pot containing Minc
sulphate solution. The porous pot is/ in turn/ immersed
in a solution o! copper sulphate
contained in a copper can/ which acts as the cell5s
cathode. The use o! a porous barrier pre.ents the
copper ions in the copper sulphate solution !rom
reaching the Minc anode and undergoing reduction.
This would render the cell ine!!ecti.e by bringing
the battery to equilibrium without dri.ing a current.
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Mercuric$2+ide Vinc &ell
The mercuric$o+ide Minc cell Dmercury cellE is a primary cell that was de.eloped during *orld
*ar II. Two important assets o! the mercury cell are its ability to produce current !or a long
period o! time and a long shel! li!e when compared to the dry cell shown in igure =.;.The
mercury cell also has a .ery stable output .oltage and is a power source that can be made in a
small physical siMe.
*ith the birth o! the space program and the de.elopment o! small transcei.ers and miniaturiMed
equipment/ a power source o! small siMe was needed. Such equipment requires a small cell which
is capable o! deli.ering ma+imum electrical energy at a constant discharge .oltage. The mercury
cell/ which is one o! the smallest cells/ meets these requirements.
#resent mercury cells are manu!actured in three basic types as shown in igure =.8. The
wound$anode type/ shown in igure =.8 .iew "/ has an anode composed o! a corrugated Minc
strip with a paper absorbent. The Minc is mi+ed with mercury/ and the paper is soaked in the
electrolyte which causes it to swell and press against the Minc and make positi.e contact. This
process ensures that the electrolyte makes contact with the cathode.
Vinc "nod .
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igure =.8 $ Mercury cell
I! the anode and cathode o! a cell are connected together without a load/ a short circuit
condition e+ists. Short circuits DshortsE can be .ery dangerous. They cause e+cessi.e heat/
=$(;
Module 3.= D& Sources o! Electricity
,se andlor disclosure is
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nn $ .C nr hie r.hnmr
6 &opyright )7(7
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pressure/ and current !low which may cause serious damage to the cell or be a sa!ety haMard to
personnel.
1arning2 Do not short the mercury cell. Shorted mercury cells ha.e e+ploded with considerable
!orce.
,

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2ther Types o! &ells
There are many di!!erent types o! primary cells. 'ecause o! such !actors as cost/ siMe/ ease o!
replacement/ and .oltage or current needs/ many types o! primary cells ha.e been de.eloped. The
!ollowing is a brie! description o! some o! the primary cells in use today.
The Manganese Dio+ide$"lkaline$Vinc &ell is similar to the Minc$carbon cell e+cept !or the
electrolyte used. This type o! cell o!!ers better .oltage stability and longer li!e than the Minc$
carbon type. It also has a longer shel! li!e and can operate o.er a wide temperature range. The
manganese dio+ide$alkaline$Minc cell has a .oltage o! (.= .olts and is a.ailable in a wide range o!
siMes. This cell is commonly re!erred to as the alkaline cell.
The Magnesium$Manganese Dio+ide &ell uses magnesium as the anode material. This allows a
higher output capacity o.er an e+tended period o! time compared to the Minc$carbon cell. This cell
produces a .oltage o! appro+imately ) .olts. The disad.antage o! this type o! cell is the
production o! hydrogen during its operation.
The %ithium$2rganic &ell and the %ithium$Inorganic &ell are recent de.elopments o! a new line o!
high$energy cells. The main ad.antages o! these types o! cells are .ery high power/ operation o.er
a wide temperature range/ they are lighter than most cells/ and ha.e a remarkably long shel! li!e o!
up to )7 years.
1arning2 %ithium cells contain to+ic materials under pressure. Do not puncture/ recharge/
short$circuit/ e+pose to e+cessi.ely high temperatures/ or incinerate. ,se these batteriesAcells
only in appro.ed equipment. Do not throw in bin.
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Disposable &ells
These are not designed to be rechargeable $ i.e. primary cells. 1Disposable1 may also imply
that special disposal procedures must take place !or proper disposal according to regulation/
depending on battery type.
J Vinc$carbonH mid cost/ used in light drain applications.
J Vinc$chlorideH similar to Minc$carbon but slightly longer li!e.
J "lkalineH alkalineAmanganese 1long li!e1 batteries widely used in both light$drain and
hea.y$drain applications.
J Sil.er$o+ideH commonly used in hearing aids/ watches/ and calculators.
J
%ithium Iron DisulphideH commonly used in digital cameras. Sometimes used in
watches and computer clocks. Iery long li!e Dup to ten years in wristwatchesE and
capable o! deli.ering high currents but e+pensi.e. *ill operate in sub$Mero temperatures. J
%ithium$Thionyl &hlorideH used in industrial applications/ including computers/ electric
meters and other de.ices which contain .olatile memory circuits and act as a 1carryo.er1
.oltage to maintain the memory in the e.ent o! a main power !ailure. 2ther applications
include pro.iding power !or wireless gas and water meters. The cells are rated at 3.6
Iolts and come in (A)""/ ""/ )A3"/ "/ &/ D \ DD siMes. They are relati.ely e+pensi.e/
but ha.e a long shel! li!e/ losing less than (7] o! their capacity in ten years.
J MercuryH !ormerly used in digital watches/ radio communications/ and portable electronic
instruments. Manu!actured only !or specialist applications due to to+icity.
J Vinc$airH commonly used in hearing aids.
%id
Dnegati.e terminalE
#lastic
sealing ring
"node
DMinc powderE
3
igure =.B $ Vinc$air cell
J
Gickel 2+yhydro+ideH Ideal !or applications that use bursts o! high current/ such as
digital cameras. They will last two times longer than alkaline batteries in digital cameras.
J
#aperH In "ugust )778/ a research team at @#I Dled by Drs. @obert %inhardt/ #ulickel M.
"3ayan/ and 2mkaram GalamasuE de.eloped a paper battery with aligned carbon
nanotubes/ designed to !unction as both a lithium$ion battery and a super$capacitor/
=$(6
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using ionic liquid/ essentially a liquid salt/ as electrolyte. The sheets can be rolled/
twisted/ !olded/ or cut into numerous shapes with no loss o! integrity or e!!iciency/ or
stacked/ like printer paper Dor a .oltaic pileE/ to boost total output. "s well/ they can be made
in a .ariety o! siMes/ !rom postage stamp to broadsheet. Their light weight and low cost
make them attracti.e !or portable electronics/ aircra!t/ and automobiles/ while their ability
to use electrolytes in blood make them potentially use!ul !or medical de.ices such
r
I
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u
ri
l
%
% i
as pacemakers. In addition/ they are biodegradable/ unlike most other disposable cells.
@echargeable &ells
"lso known as secondary batteries or accumulators. The Gational Electrical Manu!acturers
"ssociation has estimated that ,.S. demand !or rechargeables is growing twice as !ast as
demand !or non$rechargeables. There are a !ew main typesH
J Gickel$cadmium DGi&dEH 'est used !or motoriMed equipment and other high$discharge/
short$term de.ices. Gi&d batteries can withstand e.en more drain than GiMLK howe.er/
the m"h rating is not high enough to keep a de.ice running !or .ery long/ and the
memory e!!ect is !ar more se.ere.
J Gickel$metal hydride DGiMLEH 'est used !or high$tech de.ices. GiML batteries can last
up to !our times longer than alkaline batteries because GiML can withstand high current
!or a long while.
J @echargeable alkalineH ,ses similar chemistry as non$rechargeable alkaline batteries
and are best suited !or similar applications. "dditionally/ they hold their charge !or years/
unlike Gi&d and GiML batteries.
J %ithium Ion D%i$IonEH &ontinuing in the tradition o! modern battery chemistries/ the
lithium ion battery has an increased energy density and can pro.ide a respectable
amount o! current. Ligh discharge rates don5t signi!icantly reduce its capacity/ nor does it
lose .ery much capacity a!ter each cycle/ still retaining B7] o! its energy capacity a!ter
=77 recharge cycles. This is a .olatile technology/ early .ersions were prone to e+ploding
in the labs. It is the .olatile nature o! lithium that gi.es this battery its punch/ though.
These bene!it come with a price/ o! course Dperhaps to pay !or equipment damaged in
the research?E.
J uel &ellsH The !uel cell isn5t so
much a battery as it is a catalytic
chemical engine that creates
electricity !rom hydrogen and
o+ygen. The !uel is typically a
.ariation o! hydrogen/ such as
the hydrocarbon !uels methanol/
natural gas/ or e.en gasoline.
The output o! the !uel cell is
electricity and water.
igure =.C $$ The uel &ell
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Secondary *et &ells
Secondary cells are sometimes known as wet cells. There are !our basic type o! wet cells/ the
lead$acid/ nickel$cadmium/ sil.er$Minc/ and sil.er$cadmium.
3 Lead .cid #ell
The lead$acid cell is the most widely used secondary cell. The pre.ious e+planation o! the
secondary cell describes e+actly the manner in which the lead$acid cell pro.ides
electrical power. The discharging and charging action presented in electrochemical action
describes the lead$acid cell.
Pou should recall that the lead$acid cell has an anode o! lead pero+ide/ a cathode o!
sponge lead/ and the electrolyte is sulphuric acid and water.
3 4ickel$#admium #ell
The nickel$cadmium cell DGi&ad or Gi&dE is !ar superior to the lead$acid cell. In
comparison to lead$acid cells/ these cells generally require less maintenance throughout
their ser.ice li!e in regard to the adding o! electrolyte or water. The ma3or di!!erence
between the nickel$cadmium cell and the lead$acid cell is the material used in the
cathode/ anode/ and electrolyte. In the nickel$cadmium cell the cathode is cadmium
hydro+ide/ the anode is nickel hydro+ide/ and the electrolyte is potassium hydro+ide and
water.
The nickel$cadmium and lead$acid cells ha.e capacities that are comparable at normal
discharge rates/ but at high discharge rates the nickel$cadmium cell can deli.er a larger
amount o! power. In addition the nickel$cadmium cell canH
J 'e charged in a shorter time
J Stay idle longer in any state o! charge and keep a !ull charge when stored !or a
longer period o! time
J 'e charged and discharged any number o! times without any appreciable
damage.
J Due to their superior capabilities/ nickel$cadmium cells are being used
e+tensi.ely in many aircra!t applications that require a cell with a high discharge
rate.
3 *ilver$5inc #ells
The sil.er$Minc cell is used e+tensi.ely to power emergency equipment. This type o! cell
is relati.ely e+pensi.e and can be charged and discharged !ewer times than other types
o! cells. *hen compared to the lead$acid or nickel$cadmium cells/ these disad.antages are
o.erweighed by the light weight/ small siMe/ and good electrical capacity o! the sil.er$
Minc cell.
The sil.er$Minc cell uses the same electrolyte as the nickel$cadmium cell Dpotassium
hydro+ide and waterE/ but the anode and cathode di!!er !rom the nickel$cadmium cell.
The anode is composed o! sil.er o+ide and the cathode is made o! Minc.
n
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Module 3.= D& Sources o! Electricity
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7 .../ $$ C nr lhic !4h.nlcr
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
club66pro.co.uk question practice aid
3 *ilver$#admium #ell
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The sil.er$cadmium cell is a !airly recent de.elopment !or use in storage batteries. The
sil.er$cadmium cell combines some o! the better !eatures o! the nickel$cadmium and
sil.er$Minc cells. It has more than twice the shel! li!e o! the sil.er$Minc cell and can be
recharged many more times. The disad.antages o! the sil.er$cadmium cell are high cost
and low .oltage production.
The electrolyte o! the sil.er$cadmium cell is potassium hydro+ide and water as in the
nickel$cadmium and sil.er$Minc cells. The anode is sil.er o+ide as in the sil.er$Minc cell
and the cathode is cadmium hydro+ide as in the nicad cell. Pou may notice that di!!erent
combinations o! materials are used to !orm the electrolyte/ cathode/ and anode o!
di!!erent cells. These combinations pro.ide the cells with di!!erent qualities !or many
.aried applications.
&ell &apacity
The capacity o! a cell relates to the amount o! current that the cell is capable o! supplying. The
capacity will depend upon the area o! the platesH the larger the area/ the greater the capacity.
The .oltage produced is independent o! plate siMe and is purely related to the materials o! the
cell.
In igure =.(7 the two e+ample use identical materials but are o! di!!erent siMes. The .oltages
produced by each cell/ there!ore/ are identical but the capacities are di!!erent.
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igure =.(7 $ &ell #late "rea $ &urrent &apacity @elationship
Module 3.= D& Sources o! Electricity
=$(C
Integrated Training System
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&ells in Series and #arallel
&ells in Series
I! cells are connected in series/ as shown in igure =.((/ the total .oltage will increase.
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The terminal .oltages o! the indi.idual cells are added together to obtain the battery terminal
.oltage.
The o.erall capacity/ howe.er/ does not increase.
&ells in #arallel
I! cells or batteries are connected in parallel/ as shown in igure =.()/ the total capacity will
increase.
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TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
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6 &opyright )7(7
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
Integrated Training System
3 !$
&ells in Series$#arallel
Designed in association with the
club66pro.co.uk question practice aid
igure =.(3 depicts a battery network supplying power to a load requiring both a .oltage and a
current greater than one cell can pro.ide. To pro.ide the required ;.= .olts/ groups o! three (.=.olt
cells are connected in series. To pro.ide the required (A) ampere o! current/ !our series groups are
connected in parallel/ each supplying (AB ampere o! current.
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igure =.(3 $ Schematic o! series$parallel connected cells.
,
The connections shown ha.e been used to illustrate the .arious methods o! combining cells to
!orm a battery. Series/ parallel/ and series$parallel circuits will be co.ered in detail in the ne+t
chapter/ 1Direct &urrent.1
Some batteries are made !rom primary cells. *hen a primary$cell battery is completely
D discharged/ the entire battery must be replaced. 'ecause there is nothing else that can be done
%i
to primary cell batteries/ the rest o! the discussion on batteries will be concerned with batteries
made o! secondary cells.
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Module 3.= D& Sources o! Electricity
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'attery &onstruction
The %ead$"cid &ell
The basic lead$acid cell consists o! two sets o! plates/ one o! which is negati.e and the other
positi.e. They are interlea.ed and pre.ented !rom coming into contact with each other by porous
separators. The separators ha.e high insulation qualities but permit the unobstructed circulation
o! the electrolyte at the plate sur!aces.
The basic lead$acid cell components are shown in igure =.(;.
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igure =.(; $ %ead$"cid &ell &omponents
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Module 3.= D& Sources o! Electricity
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TTS Integrated Training System
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,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
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igure =.(6 $ %ead$acid battery plate arrangement.
The positi.e plates are made up o! grids o! lead and antimony !illed with lead pero+ide. The
negati.e plates are made up o! similar grids/ but !illed with spongy lead.
The electrolyte is a solution o! sulphuric acid and water in contact with both sets o! plates.
The type o! cell construction permits the electrolyte to circulate !reely and also pro.ides a path !or
sediment to settle at the bottom o! the cell.
*hen an e+ternal circuit is connected to a !ully charged cell/ electrons !low !rom the negati.e
lead plates/ .ia the circuit/ to the positi.e lead pero+ide plates.
"s the electrons lea.e the negati.e plates/ positi.e ions !orm. These attract negati.e sulphate
ions !rom the sulphuric acid o! the electrolyte. This causes lead sulphate to !orm on the negati.e
plates.
The electrons arri.ing at the positi.e plates/ !rom the e+ternal circuit/ dri.e negati.e o+ygen ions
!rom the lead pero+ide into the electrolyte. These combine with hydrogen/ which has lost
sulphate ions/ to !orm water.
The positi.e lead ions that are le!t on the positi.e plates also attract and combine with sulphate
,
ions !rom the electrolyte to !orm lead sulphate on the positi.e plates.
2nce lead sulphate collects on both the positi.e and negati.e plates and the electrolyte
becomes diluted by the water/ which has !ormed in it/ the cell is considered discharged.
(
Module 3.= D& Sources o! Electricity =$)3
,se andAor disclosure Is
go.erned by the statement
TTS Integrated Training System
/. F F..F. .
Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
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" discharged cell is recharged using a direct current o! the correct .oltage. *hen the positi.e
plates o! the cell are connected to the positi.e o! the charging source and the negati.e plates to
the negati.e o! the source/ electrons are drawn !rom the positi.e plates and !orced onto the
negati.e plates.
Electrons arri.ing at the negati.e plates dri.e negati.e sulphate ions out o! the lead sulphate
back into the electrolyte. The sulphate ions 3oin with hydrogen to !orm sulphuric acid.
*hen electrons !low !rom the positi.e plates they lea.e positi.ely charged lead ions. These
attract o+ygen !rom the water in the electrolyte to !orm lead pero+ide on the plates.
*hen the cell is !ully charged the positi.e plates again become lead pero+ide and the negati.e
plates lead. The electrolyte becomes a high concentration o! sulphuric acid.
The speci!ic gra.ity o! the electrolyte o! a !ully charged cell is appro+imately (.)67. This !alls to
about (.(=7 when the cell is completely discharged. These .alues will depend upon the
manu!acturer5s instructions.
The speci!ic/ gra.ity/ there!ore/ is a good indication o! the state o! charge o! the cell and is
measured using a hydrometer. ,sing the rubber bulb/ enough electrolyte is drawn up into the
hydrometer/ to !loat the !loat. The speci!ic gra.ity is then indicated by the calibration mark on the
!loat at the sur!ace o! the electrolyte. This is shown in igure =$(8.
(.(77$$$$$
(.(=7$ ^
(.(77
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igure =.(8 $ The Lydrometer
During the charging o! the cell hydrogen gas is released !rom the electrolyte and bubbles to the
sur!ace. "s the cell nears !ull charge more hydrogen is released and the bubbling increases. "
.ent is/ there!ore/ incorporated in the cell cap.
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Module 3.= D& Sources o! Electricity
TTS Integrated Training System go.erned by the statemen
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Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
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The .oltage o! a !ully charged cell is appro+imately ).) .olts D) .olts nominalE and in the
discharged state (.B .olts.
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The electrolyte le.el should be 3ust abo.e the top o! the plates and the le.el will generally drop
o.er a period o! use due to e.aporation and gassing. The le.el can be ad3usted by topping up
with distilled water a!ter remo.al o! the .ent cap.
<enerally lead$acid batteries are made up o! cells in a common case so that cells cannot be
remo.ed indi.idually as shown in igure =.(B.
igure =.(B $ " Typical %ead$"cid 'attery
Module 3.= D& Sources o! Electricity
=$)=
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The Gickel$&admium &ell
"ircra!t engines/ particularly turbines/ require e+tremely high current !or starting. Ligh rate
discharges o! lead$acid batteries causes their output .oltage to !all/ due to the increased internal
resistance caused by the build$up o! sulphate deposits. This drawback led to the de.elopment o!
the alkaline cell !or aircra!t use.
The nickel$cadmium/ or ni$cad/ battery has a .ery distinct ad.antage in that its internal
resistance is .ery low. Its output .oltage/ there!ore/ remains almost constant until it is nearly
totally discharged. The low resistance also allows high charging rates without damage.
The ni$cad cell has positi.e plates made !rom powdered nickel which is !used/ or sintered/ to a
porous nickel mesh. The mesh is then impregnated with nickel hydro+ide.
The negati.e plates are o! the same construction but are impregnated with cadmium hydro+ide.
Separators o! nylon and cellophane/ in the !orm o! a continuous strip wound between the plates/
keeps the plates !rom touching each other. &ellophane is used because it has low electrical
resisti.ity and also acts as a gas barrier pre.enting o+ygen/ gi.en o!! at the positi.e plates t
during o.ercharge/ !rom passing to the negati.e plates. I! the o+ygen were allowed to reach the l
negati.e plates it would combine with acti.e cadmium/ reduce cell .oltage and produce heat as
t
a result o! chemical reaction.
The cell construction is shown in igure =.(C/ where the complete plate group is mounted in a
(8/
sealed plastic container.
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igure =.(C $ Gickel$&admium &ell &onstruction
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,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement n/ 94nn irinh; )n$
n
TTS Integrated Training System go.erned by the statement
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igure =.)7 $ Gickel$cadmium cell.
The electrolyte is an alkaline solution o! potassium hydro+ide and distilled or de$ioniMed water
with a speci!ic gra.ity o! (.); to (.37.
The speci!ic gra.ity o! the electrolyte does not change during charge or discharge so it cannot be
used to indicate the state o! charge.
The electrolyte does not play an acti.e part in the chemical reaction and is used only to pro.ide a
path !or current !low.
During charging o! the cell an e+change o! ions takes place. 2+ygen is remo.ed !rom the
negati.e plates and added to the positi.e plates/ the electrolyte acting as an ioniMed conductor.
The positi.e plates are/ there!ore/ brought to a higher state o! o+idation.
*hen the cell is !ully charged all the o+ygen is dri.en out o! the negati.e plates/ lea.ing only
metallic cadmium/ and the positi.e plates are highly o+idiMed nickel hydro+ide.
The electrolyte is !orced out o! both sets o! plates during charging so that the electrolyte le.el in the
cell rises. The electrolyte le.el is/ there!ore/ only checked and any water added when the cell is
!ully charged.
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Towards the end o! the charging process and during o.ercharging/ gassing occurs as a result o!
electrolysis. This only reduces the water content o! the electrolyte.
During discharge the chemical action is re.ersed. The positi.e plates gradually lose o+ygen to
become less o+idiMed and the negati.e plates regain lost o+ygen and change to cadmium
hydro+ide.
Module 3.= D& Sources o! Electricity
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The plates absorb electrolyte so that the le.el in the cell !alls but it should always co.er the top o!
the plates. The charge and discharge le.els are shown in igure =.)(.
&harged le.el
Discharged le.el
%i
igure =.)( $ Gickel$&admium cell electrolyte le.els
The discharge and charging cycle o! a ni$cad cell produces high temperatures which/ i! not
correctly monitored/ can break down the cellophane gas barrier. This creates a short circuit
allowing current !low to increase. More heat is produced/ causing !urther break down. The
condition is aggra.ated by the internal resistance o! the cell !alling as the temperature rises.
These !actors all contribute to a process known as 1thermal runaway1/ which ultimately results in the
destruction o! the cell.
The ni$cad electrolyte would be contaminated and its speci!ic gra.ity reduced i! it were to be
e+posed to the carbon dio+ide in the air. The atmosphere must/ there!ore/ be kept out o! a nicad
cell. Three basic types o! ni$cad cell are/ there!ore/ producedH
aE The sealed type where the cell is completely sealed/ as used in small capacity batteries.
bE
The semi$sealed type where the cell is almost !ully sealed but has a sa!ety pressure
.al.e.
cE
The semi$open type which has a non$return .al.e/ allowing the cell to gas yet pre.enting
the electrolyte !rom being contaminated by the air. This type is used in the main aircra!t
battery.
The indi.idual ni$cad cell produces an open circuit .oltage o! between (.== and (.B7 .olts/
depending on the manu!acturer.
n
=$)B
Module 3.= D& Sources o! Electricity
y disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System go.erned by tstatement
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
tcl &nn.rinht )7(7
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
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(
"lthough the nickel$cadmium battery has become the pre!erred type in today5s aircra!t/ there are
also the nickel$iron and sil.er$Minc types o! alkaline cell. Sil.er$Minc rechargeable batteries ha.e
been used in the space programme/ where siMe and weight !actors greatly outweigh initial cost.
The capacity o! each cell is added together to obtain the total capacity. In e!!ect the area o! the
%]
plates has been increased. The .oltage/ on the other hand/ does not increase.
%
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igure =.)) $$ E+amples o! Gi&ad 'atteries
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Module 3.= D& Sources o! Electricity
=$)C
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'attery Internal @esistance
Each cell in a battery has a certain internal resistance. The terminal .oltage o! the battery when it
is o!! load is not a!!ected by this internal resistance.
In igure =.)3 the battery has been drawn with its cells in series with the total internal resistance
o! the battery.
'"TTE@P TE@MIG"% I2%T"<E
igure =.)3 $ 'attery Showing &ells and Internal @esistance
I! an e+ternal circuit is connected across the battery terminals o! igure =.)3/ electrons will !low
!rom the negati.e plate o! the cells/ through the e+ternal circuit and through the internal resistance
to the positi.e plate o! the cells.
" .oltage drop/ or potential di!!erence/ will appear across the internal resistance due to the
current !low.
The .oltage a.ailable to the e+ternal circuit at the battery terminals will now be the original o!!
load terminal .oltage minus the .olts drop across the internal resistance.
The terminal .oltage will/ there!ore/ decrease with an increase in circuit current or an increase in
internal resistance.
=$37 Module 3.= D& Sources o! Electricity ,se andAor disclosure is
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'attery Maintenance
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The !ollowing in!ormation concerns the maintenance o! secondary$cell batteries and is o! a
general nature. Pou must check the appropriate technical manuals !or the speci!ic type o!
battery prior to per!orming maintenance on any battery.
Speci!ic <ra.ity
or a battery to work properly/ its electrolyte Dwater plus acti.e ingredientE must contain a certain
amount o! acti.e ingredient. Since the acti.e ingredient is dissol.ed in the water/ the amount o!
acti.e ingredient cannot be measured directly. "n indirect way to determine whether or not the
electrolyte contains the proper amount o! acti.e ingredient is to measure the
electrolyte5s speci!ic gra.ity. Speci!ic gra.ity is the ratio o! the weight o! a certain amount o! a gi.en
substance compared to the weight o! the same amount o! pure water. The speci!ic gra.ity o! pure
water is (.7. "ny substance that !loats has a speci!ic gra.ity less than (.7. "ny
substance that sinks has a speci!ic gra.ity greater than (.7.
The acti.e ingredient in electrolyte Dsulphuric acid/ potassium hydro+ide/ etc.E is hea.ier than water.
There!ore/ the electrolyte has a speci!ic gra.ity greater than (.7. The acceptable range o! speci!ic
gra.ity !or a gi.en battery is pro.ided by the battery5s manu!acturer. To measure a battery5s speci!ic
gra.ity/ use an instrument called a hydrometer.
The Lydrometer
" hydrometer/ shown in igure =.);/ is a
glass syringe with a !loat inside it. The !loat is
a hollow glass tube sealed at both ends and
weighted at the bottom end/ with a scale
calibrated in speci!ic gra.ity marked on its
side. To test an electrolyte/ draw it into the
hydrometer using the suction bulb. Draw
enough electrolyte into the hydrometer to
make the !loat rise. Do not draw in so much
electrolyte that the !loat rises into the suction
bulb. The !loat will rise to a point determined
by the speci!ic gra.ity o! the electrolyte. I! the
electrolyte contains a large amount o! acti.e
ingredient/ its speci!ic gra.ity will be relati.ely
high. The !loat will rise higher than it would i!
the electrolyte contained only a small amount
o! acti.e ingredient.
To read the hydrometer/ hold it in a .ertical
position and read the scale at the point that
sur!ace o! the electrolyte touches the !loat.
@e!er to the manu!acturer5s technical
manual to determine whether or not the igure =.); $ Lydrometer in use
battery5s speci!ic gra.ity is within
speci!ications.
Module 3.= D& Sources o! Electricity
=$3(
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GoteH Lydrometers should be !lushed with !resh water a!ter each use to pre.ent inaccurate
readings. Storage battery hydrometers must not be used !or any other purpose.
2ther Maintenance
The routine maintenance o! a battery is .ery simple. Terminals should be checked periodically !or
cleanliness and good electrical connection. The battery case should be inspected !or
cleanliness and e.idence o! damage. The le.el o! electrolyte should be checked and i! the
electrolyte is low/ distilled water should be added to bring the electrolyte to the proper le.el.
Maintenance procedures !or batteries are normally determined by higher authority and each
command will ha.e detailed procedures !or battery care and maintenance.
Sa!ety #recautions with 'atteries
l E
"ll types o! batteries should be handled with careH
J ne.er short the terminals o! a battery
J carrying straps should be used when transporting batteries.
J protecti.e clothing/ such as rubber apron/ rubber glo.es/ and a !ace shield should be
worn when working with batteries.
J no smoking/ electric sparks/ or open !lames should be permitted near charging batteries.
J care should be taken to pre.ent spilling o! the electrolyte.
In the e.ent electrolyte is splashed or spilled on a sur!ace/ such as the !loor or table/ it should be
diluted with large quantities o! water and cleaned up immediately.
I! the electrolyte is spilled or splashed on the skin or eyes/ IMMEDI"TE%P !lush the skin or eyes
with large quantities o! !resh water !or a minimum o! (= minutes. I! the electrolyte is in the eyes/ be
sure the upper and lower eyelids are pulled out su!!iciently to allow the !resh water to !lush under
the eyelids. The medical department should be noti!ied as soon as possible and in!ormed o! the
type o! electrolyte and the location o! the accident.
&apacity and @ating o! 'atteries
The capacity o! a battery is measured in ampere$hours. The ampere$hour capacity is equal to the
product o! the current in amperes and the time in hours during which the battery will supply this
current. The ampere$hour capacity .aries in.ersely with the discharge current. or e+ample/ a ;77
ampere$hour battery will deli.er ;77 amperes !or ( hour or (77 amperes !or ; hours.
Storage batteries are rated according to their rate o! discharge and ampere$hour capacity. Most
batteries are rated according to a )7$hour rate o! discharge. That is/ i! a !ully charged battery is
completely discharged during a )7$hour period/ it is discharged at the )7$hour rate. Thus/ i! a
battery can deli.er )7 amperes continuously !or )7 hours/ the battery has a rating o! )7
amperes + )7 hours/ or ;77 ampere$hours. There!ore/ the )7$hour rating is equal to the a.erage
current that a battery is capable o! supplying without interruption !or an inter.al o! )7 hours.
DGoteH "ircra!t batteries are rated according to a ($hour rate o! dischargeE.
"ll standard batteries deli.er (77 percent o! their a.ailable capacity i! discharged in )7 hours or
more/ but they will deli.er less than their a.ailable capacity i! discharged at a !aster rate. The !aster
they discharge/ the less ampere$hour capacity they ha.e.
=$3)
Module 3.= D& Sources o! Electricity
,se andAor disclosure is
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
l !4nr .rrinhW 77(
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TTS Integrated Training System go.erned by the statement
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on page ) o! this &hapter.
Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
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The low$.oltage limit/ as speci!ied by the manu!acturer/ is the limit beyond which .ery little
use!ul energy can be obtained !rom a battery. This low$.oltage limit is normally a test used in
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battery shops to determine the condition o! a battery.
'attery &harging
It should be remembered that adding the acti.e ingredient to the electrolyte o! a discharged
battery does not recharge the battery. "dding the acti.e ingredient only increases the speci!ic
gra.ity o! the electrolyte and does not con.ert the plates back to acti.e material/ and so does not
bring the battery back to a charged condition. " charging current must be passed through the
battery to recharge it.
'atteries are usually charged in battery shops. Each shop will ha.e speci!ic charging procedures
!or the types o! batteries to be charged. The !ollowing discussion will introduce you to the types o!
battery charges.
The !ollowing types o! charges may be gi.en to a storage battery/ depending upon the condition o!
the batteryH
J Initial charge
J Gormal charge
J EqualiMing charge
J loating charge
J ast charge
J Initial &harge
*hen a new battery is shipped dry/ the plates are in an uncharged condition. "!ter the
electrolyte has been added/ it is necessary to charge the battery. This is accomplished
by gi.ing the battery a long low$rate initial charge. The charge is gi.en in accordance
with the manu!acturer5s instructions/ which are shipped with each battery.
J Gormal &harge
" normal charge is a routine charge that is gi.en in accordance with the nameplate data
during the ordinary cycle o! operation to restore the battery to its charged condition.
J EqualiMing &harge
"n equaliMing charge is a special e+tended normal charge that is gi.en periodically to
batteries as part o! a maintenance routine. It ensures that all the sulphate is dri.en !rom
the plates and that all the cells are restored to a ma+imum speci!ic gra.ity. The
equaliMing charge is continued until the speci!ic gra.ity o! all cells/ corrected !or
temperature/ shows no change !or a ;$hour period.
J loating &harge
In a !loating charge/ the charging rate is determined by the battery .oltage rather than by
a de!inite current .alue. The !loating charge is used to keep a battery at !ull charge while
Module 3.= D& Sources o! Electricity
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the battery is idle or in light duty. It is sometimes re!erred to as a trickle charge and is
n
accomplished with low current.
J ast &harge
" !ast charge is used when a battery must be recharged in the shortest possible time. The
charge starts at a much higher rate than is normally used !or charging. It should be used
only in an emergency/ as this type charge may be harm!ul to the battery.
J &harging @ate
Gormally/ the charging rate o! aircra!t storage batteries is gi.en on the battery nameplate. I!
the a.ailable charging equipment does not ha.e the desired charging rates/ the nearest
a.ailable rates should be used. Lowe.er/ the rate should ne.er be so high that .iolent
gassing De+plained later in this te+tE occurs.
J &harging Time
The charge must be continued until the battery is !ully charged. requent readings o!
speci!ic gra.ity should be taken during the charge and compared with the reading taken
be!ore the battery was placed on charge.
<assing
*hen a battery is being charged/ a portion o! the energy breaks down the water in the
electrolyte. Lydrogen is released at the negati.e plates and o+ygen at the positi.e plates.
These gases bubble up through the electrolyte and collect in the air space at the top o! the cell. I!
.iolent gassing occurs when the battery is !irst placed on charge/ the charging rate is too high. I! the
rate is not too high/ steady gassing de.elops as the charging proceeds/ indicating that the battery is
nearing a !ully charged condition.
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1arning2 " mi+ture o! hydrogen and air can be dangerously e+plosi.e. Go smoking/ electric
sparks/ or open !lames should be permitted near charging batteries.
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Module 3.= D& Sources o! Electricity
,se andAor disclosure is
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
t8 &nn.rinht C7(7
TTS Integrated Training System go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter/
Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
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s a metalE is sub3ected to a thermal gradient/ it will generate a .oltage. This is now known as the
thermoelectric e!!ect or Seebeck e!!ect. "ny attempt to measure this .oltage necessarily in.ol.es
connecting another conductor to the 1hot1 end. This additional conductor will then also e+perience
the temperature gradient/ and de.elop a .oltage o! its own which will oppose the original.
ortunately/ the magnitude o! the e!!ect depends on the metal in use. ,sing a dissimilar metal to
complete the circuit creates a circuit in which the two legs generate
di!!erent .oltages/ lea.ing a small di!!erence in .oltage a.ailable !or measurement. That
di!!erence increases with temperature/ and can typically be between one and se.enty micro.olts per
degree &elsius DYIAtE !or the modern range o! a.ailable metal combinations. &ertain
combinations ha.e become popular as industry standards/ dri.en by cost/ a.ailability/
con.enience/ melting point/ chemical properties/ stability/ and output. This coupling o! two metals
gi.es the thermocouple its name.
It is important to note that thermocouples measure the temperature di!!erence between two
points/ not absolute temperature. In traditional applications/ one o! the 3unctions$the cold
3unction$was maintained at a known Dre!erenceE temperature/ while the other end was
attached to a probe.
La.ing a.ailable a known temperature cold 3unction/ while use!ul !or laboratory calibrations/ is
simply not con.enient !or most directly connected indicating and control instruments. They
incorporate into their circuits an arti!icial cold 3unction using some other thermally sensiti.e de.ice/
such as a thermistor or diode/ to measure the temperature o! the input connections at the
instrument/ with special care being taken to minimiMe any temperature gradient between terminals.
Lence/ the .oltage !rom a known cold 3unction can be simulated/ and the appropriate correction
applied. This is known as cold 3unction compensation.
"dditionally/ a de.ice can per!orm cold 3unction compensation by computation. It can translate
de.ice .oltages to temperatures by either o! two methods. It can use .alues !rom look$up tables or
appro+imate using polynomial interpolation.
" thermocouple can produce current/ which means it can be used to dri.e some processes
directly/ without the need !or e+tra circuitry and power sources. or e+ample/ the power !rom a
thermocouple can acti.ate a .al.e when a temperature di!!erence arises. The electric power
generated by a thermocouple is a con.ersion o! the heat energy that one must continuously supply
to the hot side o! the thermocouple to maintain the electric potential. The !low o! heat is necessary
because the current !lowing through the thermocouple tends to cause the hot side to cool down
and the cold side to heat up Dthe #eltier e!!ectE.
2peration
I! two dissimilar metals are 3oined together a contact potential/ which is independent o! any
e+ternal electrical supply/ will appear at the 3unction.
In a thermocouple two dissimilar metals are 3oined at both ends to !orm a hot 3unction and a cold
3unction.
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In the simplest arrangement the thermocouple would be connected directly to a meter/ the
meter terminals being the cold 3unction.
In an aircra!t/ howe.er/ the hot 3unction is in the engine and the meter indicator on the !light
deck.
I! the thermocouple cold 3unction were to be connected to the meter by copper wires/ as shown in
igure =.)=/ the potential at the cold 3unction would be as i! points 1"1 and 1'1 were 3oined together
Dpro.ided that 1"1 and 1'1 were at the same temperatureE. This would still allow the meter to read
the di!!erence between I( and I).
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I! howe.er/ the hot and cold 3unctions were relati.ely close together/ the temperature di!!erence
between them would not be so great as i! they were !ar apart. The thermocouple EM would/
there!ore/ be reduced and/ in igure =.)=/ there would also be a problem o! !luctuations in the
readings.
I! the cold 3unction was in the meter itsel! there would be a greater temperature di!!erence and
hence a greater EM and also less !luctuations.
To achie.e this/ the connecting leads !rom the thermocouple to the meter must be o! the same
material as the thermocouple or at least ha.e the same thermoelectric characteristics.
They are called e+tension leads i! they are o! the same material and compensating leads i! they
are o! the same characteristics.
The small EM generated by the thermocouple is not only dependent upon the temperature but
also upon the metals employed. igure =.)6 shows a graph o! .oltage against temperature !or
se.eral common thermocouples.
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Module 3.= D& Sources o! Electricity
,se andAor disclosure is
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
&on.riaht )7(7
TTS Integrated Training System go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
Integrated Training System
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nickel$ch iumlcopper$nickel ironAconstantan
nickel$chromi%rrdnickel$aluminiumi
38] pier num
(3] rho ium Aplatinum
copperAconstantan
CSC6 pla!inum
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igure =.)6 $ Thermocouple Material <raph
GickelAchromium and nickelAaluminium are normally chosen !or aircra!t thermocouples due to
their near linear characteristics and their long operating li!e at temperature o! up to ((77(. The
nickelAchromium is the positi.e connection and the nickelAaluminium the negati.e connection.
The thermocouple and its connections are housed in a protecti.e metal sheath or probe which
allows the hot 3unction to be e+posed to the engine gases.
Thermocouples can be connected in series with each other to !orm a thermopile/ where all the hot
3unctions are e+posed to the higher temperature and all the cold 3unctions to a lower
temperature. Thus/ the .oltages o! the indi.idual thermocouple add up/ which allows !or a larger
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.oltage and increased power.
Materials
Thermocouple materials are a.ailable in se.eral di!!erent metallurgical !ormulations per type/ such
asH Dlisted in decreasing le.els o! accuracy and costE Special limits o! error/ Standard/ and
E+tension grades. E+tension grade wire is less costly than dedicated thermocouple 3unction
wire and is usually speci!ied !or accuracy o.er a more restricted temperature range. E+tension
grade wire is used when the point o! measurement is !arther !rom the measuring instrument
than would be !inancially .iable !or standard or special limits materials/ and has a .ery similar
thermal coe!!icient o! EM !or a narrow range Dusually encompassing ambientE. In this case/ a
standard or special limits wire 3unction is tied to the e+tension grade wire outside o! the area o!
Module 3.= D& Sources o! Electricity
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temperature measurement !or transit to the instrument. Since most modern temperature
measuring instruments that utiliMe thermocouples are electronically bu!!ered to pre.ent any
signi!icant current draw !rom the thermocouple/ the length o! the thermocouple or e+tension wire is
irrele.ant.
&hanges in metallurgy along the length o! the thermocouple Dsuch as termination strips or
changes in thermocouple type wireE will introduce another thermocouple 3unction which a!!ects
measurement accuracy. "lso/ industry standards are that the thermocouple colour code is used
!or the insulation o! the positi.e lead/ and red is the negati.e lead.
Types
" .ariety o! thermocouples are a.ailable/ suitable !or di!!erent measuring applications. They are
usually selected based on the temperature range and sensiti.ity needed. Thermocouples with
low sensiti.ities D'/ @/ and S typesE ha.e correspondingly lower resolutions. 2ther selection
criteria include the inertness o! the thermocouple material/ and whether or not it is magnetic.
The thermocouple types are listed below with the positi.e electrode !irst/ !ollowed by the
negati.e electrode.
Type 0 Dchromel$alumelE is the most commonly used general purpose thermocouple. It is
ine+pensi.e and/ owing to its popularity/ a.ailable in a wide .ariety o! probes. They are
a.ailable in the $)77 && to W(3=7 && range. The typ e 0 was speci!ied at a time when metallurgy
was less ad.anced than it is today and/ consequently/ characteristics .ary considerably
between e+amples. "nother potential problem arises in some situations since one o! the
constituent metals/ nickel/ is magnetic. The characteristic o! the thermocouple undergoes a step
change when a magnetic material reaches its &urie point. This occurs !or this thermocouple at
3=;&&. Sensiti.ity is appro+imately ;( YIA &.
Type E Dchromel$constantanE has a high output D6B YIAtE which makes it well s uited to
cryogenic use. "dditionally/ it is non$magnetic.
Type : Diron$constantanE is less popular than type 0 due to its limited range D$;7 to W8=7 &E.
The main application is with old equipment that cannot accept modern thermocouples. : types
cannot be used abo.e 867 && as an abrupt magnetic trans!ormation causes permanent
decalibration. The magnetic properties also pre.ent use in some applications. Type :
thermocouples ha.e a sensiti.ity o! about =7 YIA&&.
Type G Dnicrosil$nisilE thermocouples are suitable !or use at high temperatures/ e+ceeding ()77
&&/ due to their stability and ability to resist high temperature o+idation. Sensiti.ity is about 3C
YIA&& at C77&&/ slightly lower than type 0. Desi gned to be an impro.ed type 0/ it is
becoming more popular.
Types '/ @/ and S thermocouples use platinum or a platinum$rhodium alloy !or each
conductor. These are among the most stable thermocouples/ but ha.e lower sensiti.ity/
appro+imately (7 YIA&&/ than other types. The high cost o! these thermocouple types makes
them unsuitable !or general use. <enerally/ type '/ @/ and S thermocouples are used only !or
high temperature measurements.
=$3B Module 3.= D& Sources o! Electricity ,se andAor disclosure is
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TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
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6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
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Type ' thermocouples use a platinum$rhodium alloy !or each conductor. 2ne conductor contains
37] rhodium while the other conductor contains 6] rhodium. These thermocouples are suited !or
use at up to (B77 t. Type ' thermoc ouples produce the same output at 71& and ;) &/ limiting
their use below about =7 t.
Type @ thermocouples use a platinum$rhodium alloy containing (3] rhodium !or one
conductor and pure platinum !or the other conductor. Type @ thermocouples are used up to
(677 4&.
Type S thermocouples use a platinum$rhodium alloy containing (7] rhodium !or one
conductor and pure platinum !or the other conductor. %ike type @/ type S thermocouples are used
up to (677 &. In particular/ type S is used a s the standard o! calibration !or the melting point o!
gold D(76;.;3 &E.
Type T Dcopper$constantanE thermocouples are suited !or measurements in the $)77 to 3=7 4&
range. 2!ten used as a di!!erential measurem ent since only copper wire touches the probes. "s
both conductors are non$magnetic/ type T thermocouples are a popular choice !or applications
such as electrical generators which contain strong magnetic !ields. Type T thermocouples ha.e a
sensiti.ity o! about ;3 ltIAt.
Type & Dtungsten =] rhenium $$ tungsten )6] rheniumE thermocouples are suited !or
measurements in the 7 & to )3)7C& range. This the rmocouple is well$suited !or .acuum !urnaces
at e+tremely high temperatures and must ne.er be used in the presence o! o+ygen at
temperatures abo.e )67 &.
Type M thermocouples use a nickel alloy !or each wire. The positi.e wire contains (B]
molybdenum while the negati.e wire contains 7.B] cobalt. These thermocouples are used in the
.acuum !urnaces !or the same reasons as with type &. ,pper temperature is limited to (;77 t.
Though it is a less common type o! thermocouple/ look$up tables to correlate temperature to
EM Dmilli$.olt outputE are a.ailable.
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% :
Thermocouple &omparison and Identi!ication
The table below describes properties o! se.eral di!!erent thermocouple types. *ithin the
E.:
tolerance columns/ T represents the temperature o! the hot 3unction/ in degrees &elsius. or
e+ample/ a thermocouple with a tolerance o! _7.77)=+T would ha.e a tolerance o! _).= && at
(777 (&.
I %
Temperature range C&
Type
0
:
G
@
DcontinuousE
7 to W((77
7 to W877
7 to W((77
7 to W(677
'S &olour code"GSI &olour
code
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'lue @ed
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'lue @ed
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*hite @ed
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'lue
S 7 to (677
' W)77 to W(877
T $(B= to W377
E 7 to WB77
*hite
'lue
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copper wire
*hite
'lue
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Got de!ined.
'lue
@ed
'lue
@de
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,se andAor disclosu re is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
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ITS Integrated Training System go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
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% " practical thermocouple is shown in igure =.)8.
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Two basic types o! probe are employed !or measuring e+haust gas temperatures in turbine
engines. These are shown in igure =.)B.
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igure =.)B $ Turbine engine probes
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igure =.)C $ E+amples o! thermocouple hot 3unction assemblies
The stagnation probe has a large entry port and a small e+it port so that the gas is brought
almost to rest/ pre.enting errors caused by the kinetic energy o! the gas !low. This type is
designed !or high .elocity gas !low.
The rapid response probe is designed !or slow e+haust gas .elocity. The gas !lows !rom the
inlet port/ o.er the 3unction/ to the diametrically opposite outlet port.
E+haust gas thermocouples are mounted radially around the engine tail pipe. There are usually a
minimum o! !our. The @' )(( engine/ howe.er/ has se.enteen connected in a parallel
arrangement which has the ad.antage that the !ailure o! one or more thermocouples does not
cause complete !ailure o! the output signal.
" typical thermocouple installation is shown in igure =.37.
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Module 3.= D& Sources o! Electricity ,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System go.erned by the statement
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TTS Integrated Training System
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integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
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EUL",ST TLE@M2&2,#%E
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igure =.37 $ Thermocouple installation
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#hotocells
l.:
#hotocells undergo a change in their electrical parameters when e+posed to light energy and
are known as photoelectric de.ices. They are a!!ected by light in three di!!erent ways as !ollows.
O 8
#hoto$emissionH$ *here the application o! light causes the emission o! electrons !rom a
prepared sur!ace as discussed in &hapter ;/ the construction o! which is shown in igure =.3(.
"I@TI<LT EI"&,"TED
<%"SS EGIE%2#E
EUTE@G"%
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igure =.3( $ The #hotocell
*ith the positi.e potential o! a supply connected to the anode o! the cell and the negati.e to the
cathode/ the current in the circuit will depend upon the amount o! light !alling on the de.iceH no light/
no currentK high intensity light/ high current.
*hen the cell is used in an aircra!t smoke detector/ a pro3ector lamp shines abeam o! light past the
detector cell. I! no light reaches the cell/ no current !lows in the cell5s e+ternal circuit and no
warning is gi.en.
*hen smoke appears in the detection chamber the pro3ector lamp beam is re!racted onto the
detector cell by the smoke particles. The cell conducts acti.ating the smoke warning circuit. This is
shown in igure =.3).
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TTS Integrated Training System
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Integrated Training System
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igure =.3) $ Smoke Detector 2peration
Solid state de.ices ha.e now largely replaced this type o! cell.
#hoto$.oltaicH$ *here the application o! light causes the production o! a .oltage.
The photo$.oltaic Dor solar cellE/ can be used to
produce electrical energy !or a .ariety o!
purposes. I! a large number o! cells are connected
together to !orm a solar panel the power
generated is limited only by the number o! cells
employed.
The silicon solar cell consists o! a wa!er o! silicon
which has been doped to make it a
semiconductor. " thin layer o! boron is then
di!!used into it.
The wa!er is rein!orced with metal and igure =.33 $ " photo.oltaic cell panel
pro.ided with electrical contacts to enable it
to be connected to other cells.
#hotons o! light penetrating an atom o! the cell !orces electrons in the atom into the conduction
band. This produces a .oltage across the cell which can be used to dri.e a current around an
e+ternally connected circuit.
There are many uses o! the solar cell/ !rom the operation o! light meters in cameras to powering
calculators and satellites in space.
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#hoto$conductionH$ *here a de.ice undergoes a change o! resistance with a .ariation in light
intensity.
The photo$conducti.e cell or light dependent resistor is a solid state de.ice as shown in igure
=.3;.
#@2TE&TIIE
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igure =.3; $ The #hoto$&onducti.e &ell
The e!!ecti.e area o! the light collecting photo$conducti.e material is increased by etching it
onto the substrate in a serpentine manner.
*hen there is an increase in light intensity the additional photon
bombardment releases more electrons !rom the atomic bond which
increases the current through the de.ice. The resistance has/
there!ore/ decreased. The re.erse occurs with a reduction in light
intensity.
igure =.3= $ " photoconductor r8
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Module 3.= D& Sources o! Electricity
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System go.erned by the statement
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TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
7 rHnrnrrinht C7( n
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
Integrated Training System
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TTS Integrated
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Module 3
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Electrical undamentals
3.6 D& &ircuits
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
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TTS Integrated Training System
Integrated Training System
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&opyright Gotice
6 &opyright. "ll worldwide rights reser.ed. Go part o! this publication may be reproduced/
stored in a retrie.al system or transmitted in any !orm by any other means whatsoe.erH i.e.
photocopy/ electronic/ mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission o!
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0nowledge %e.els $ &ategory "/ '(/ ') and & "ircra!t Maintenance
%icence
'asic knowledge !or categories "/ '( and ') are indicated by the allocation o! knowledge le.els indicators D(/ ) or
3E against each applicable sub3ect. &ategory & applicants must meet either the category B( or the category ')
basic knowledge le.els.
The knowledge le.el indicators are de!ined as !ollowsH
%EIE% (
J " !amiliarisation with the principal elements o! the sub3ect.
2b3ecti.esH
J The applicant should be !amiliar with the basic elements o! the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to gi.e a simple description o! the whole sub3ect/ using common words and
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J The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
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J The applicant should be able to gi.e a detailed description o! the sub3ect using theoretical !undamentals
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J The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical !ormulae related to the sub3ect.
J
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J The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manu!acturer5s
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J The applicant should be able to interpret results !rom .arious sources and measurements and apply
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Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
y e t
TTS Integrated Training System
by the st ment
go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
club66pro.co.uk question practice aid
%
Table o! &ontents
,
ri
%
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits =
The 'asic Electric &ircuit =
2hm5s %aw 8
Series D& &ircuits (6
0irchho!!5s Ioltage %aw )8
0irchho!!5s &urrent %aw 3;
&ircuit Terms and &haracteristics ;(
Internal @esistance o! the Supply ;6
#arallel D& &ircuits ;B
Series$#arallel D& &ircuits 66
#ractice &ircuit #roblem 8(
@edrawing &ircuits !or &larity 8=
E!!ects o! 2pen and Short &ircuits B7
Ioltage Di.iders B3
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
6$3
,se andAor disclosure is
go.erned by the statement
TTS Integrated Training System
i &cl &nn.rinht )n( n
Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
ciub66pro.co.uk question practice aid
Module 3.6 Enabling 2b3ecti.es
2b3ecti.e
E"S" 66 @e!erence %e.el
D& &ircuits
3.6 )
2hms %aw/ 0irchho!!5s Ioltage and &urrent %aws
&alculations using the abo.e laws to !ind resistance/
.oltage and current
Signi!icance o! the internal resistance o! a supply
:
6$;
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
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Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
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@(
""AIGI
)7;
ETF?
=7 S
@
3
igure 6.(; $ Sol.ing !or applied .oltage in a series circuit.
<i.enH
@ (R )7 ohms
@) R 37 ohms
@3 R =7 ohms
I R ) amps
SolutionH
ETRE(WE)WE3
E(R @( + I( DI(R The current through
resistor @(E
E)R@)+I)
E3R@3+I3
SubstitutingH
ETRD@i+I(EWD@)+(
)EW
DB3+(3E
ETRD)7 ohms + ) ampsEWD37 ohms
+ )ampsEW
D=7 ohms +)ampsE
ET R ;7 .olts W 67 .olts W (77 .olts
ET R )77 .olts
6$)(
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
club66pro.co.uk question practice aid
GoteH *hen you use 2hm5s law/ the quantities !or the equation must be taken !rom the same part
o! the circuit. In the abo.e e+ample the .oltage across @) was computed using the current through
@ ) and the resistance o! @).
The .alue o! the .oltage dropped by a resistor is determined by the applied .oltage and is in
proportion to the circuit resistances. The .oltage drops that occur in a series circuit are in direct
proportion to the resistances. This is the result o! ha.ing the same current !low through each
resistor $ the larger the ohmic .alue o! the resistor/ the larger the .oltage drop across it.
Summary o! Series D& &ircuit &haracteristics
The important !actors go.erning the operation o! a series circuit are listed below. These !actors
ha.e been set up as a group o! rules so that they may be easily studied. These rules must be
completely understood be!ore the study o! more ad.anced circuit theory is undertaken.
@ules !or Series D& &ircuits
J The same current !lows through each part o! a series circuit.
J The total resistance o! a series circuit is equal to the sum o! the indi.idual
resistances.
J The total .oltage across a series circuit is equal to the sum o! the indi.idual
.oltage drops.
J The .oltage drop across a resistor in a series circuit is proportional to the ohmic
.alue o! the resistor.
Series &ircuit "nalysis
To establish a procedure !or sol.ing series circuits/ the !ollowing sample problems will be
sol.ed.
E+ampleH Three resistors o! = ohms/ (7 ohms/ and (= ohms are connected in series with a
power source o! C7 .olts as shown in igure 6.(=. ind the total resistance/ circuit current/
.oltage drop o! each resistor.
@
=
E T
C7 I
@3
(=S
@ )
(77
igure 6.(= $ Sol.ing !or .arious .alues in a series circuit.
6$))
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
,se andAor disclosure is
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System go.erned by the
statement
nr rnn.rinh! grain
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) 7( this &hapter.
Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
ciub66pro.co/uk question practice aid
In sol.ing the circuit the total resistance will be !ound !irst. Ge+t/ the circuit current will be
calculated. 2nce the current is known/ the .oltage drops and power dissipations can be
calculated.
<i.enH @( $ = ohms
@) R (7 ohms
@3 R (= ohms
E R C7 .olts
SolutionH @T R @( W @) W @3
@TR= ohms W (7 ohms
W (= ohms
@T R 37 ohms
In
,
ET
,
rl
%
@
T
C7 .olts
37 ohms
I R 3 amps
El R I@(
E(R3amperes + = ohms
E(R (= .olts
E) R I@)
EM R 3 amperes + (7 ohms
E) R 37 .olts
E3 R I@3
E3 R 3 amperes + (= ohms
E3 R ;= .olts
6$)3
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
club66pro.co.uk question practice aid
E+ampleH our resistors/ @i R (7 ohms/ @) R (7 ohms/ @3 R =7 ohms/ and @; R 37 ohms/ are
connected in series with a power source as shown in igure 6.(6. The current through the
circuit is (A) ampere.
J *hat is the battery .oltage?
J *hat is the .oltage across each resistor?
n
E
?
T
igure 6.(6 $ &omputing series circuit .alues.
<i.enH
@( R (7 ohms
@)R (7 ohms
@3 R =7 ohms
@; R 37 ohms
(
R 7.= amps
n
6$);
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
Nc( rnn.rinht ::
n
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
club66pro.co.uk question practice aid
/i
%
%
%$
%
(
%
%
Solution DaEH
ET R I@T
@TR@(W@)W@3
W@/;
@T R (7 ohms W (7 ohms
W =7 ohms W 37 ohms
@T R (77 ohms
ET R 7.= amps+ (77 ohms
ETR =7 .olts
Solution DbEH
E(R I@(
E(R 7.= amperes + (7 ohms
E(R = .olts
E) R I@)
E) R 7/= amperes + (7 ohms
E)R=Iolts
E3 R I@3
E3 R 7.= amperes + =7 ohms
E3 R )= .olts
E" R I@;
E; R 7.= amperes + 37 ohms
Eq R (= .olts
"n important !act to keep in mind when applying 2hm5s law to a series circuit is to consider whether
the .alues used are component .alues or total .alues. *hen the in!ormation a.ailable enables the
use o! 2hm5s law to !ind total resistance/ total .oltage/ and total current/ total .alues must be
inserted into the !ormula. To !ind total resistanceH
To !ind total .oltageH
ETRITR@T
6$)=
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
club66pro.co.uk question practice aid
To !ind total currentH
IT
$ E T
@T
GoteH IT is equal to I in a series circuit. Lowe.er/ the distinction between IT and I in the !ormula
should be noted. The reason !or this is that !uture circuits may ha.e se.eral currents/ and it will be
necessary to di!!erentiate between IT and other currents.
To compute any quantity DE/ I/ @/ or #E associated with a single gi.en resistor/ the .alues used
in the !ormula must be obtained !rom that particular resistor. or e+ample/ to !ind the .alue o! an
unknown resistance/ the .oltage across and the current through that particular resistor must be
used.
To !ind the .alue o! a resistorH
@F E@
I@
To !ind the .oltage drop across a resistorH
n
E@ 5@ +@
To !ind current through a resistorH
I @
E@
@
n
p
6$)6
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
,se andAor disclosure t
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
,se andAor disclosure is
go.erned by the statement
TTS Integrated Training System
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o( this &hapter.
Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
club66pro.co.uk question practice aid
0irchho!!5s Ioltage %aw
In
(B;8/ <.@.0irchho!! e+tended the use o! 2hm5s law by de.eloping a simple concept
concerning the .oltages contained in a series circuit loop. 0irchho!!5s .oltage law statesH
;The algebraic sum of the voltage dro!s in any closed !ath in a
circuit and the electromotive forces in that !ath is e<ual to /ero. ;
To state 0irchho!!5s law another way/ the .oltage drops and .oltage sources in a circuit are equal
at any gi.en moment in time. I! the .oltage sources are assumed to ha.e one sign Dpositi.e or
negati.eE at that instant and the .oltage drops are assumed to ha.e the opposite sign/ the result
o! adding the .oltage sources and .oltage drops will be Mero.
GoteH The terms electromoti.e !orce and EM are used when e+plaining 0irchho!!5s law
because 0irchho!!5s law is used in alternating current circuits. In applying 0irchho!!5s law to
,
direct current circuits/ the terms electromoti.e !orce and EM apply to .oltage sources such as
batteries or power supplies.
Through the use o! 0irchho!!5s law/ circuit problems can be sol.ed which would be di!!icult/ and
o!ten impossible/ with knowledge o! 2hm5s law alone. *hen 0irchho!!5s law is properly applied/ an
equation can be set up !or a closed loop and the unknown circuit .alues can be calculated.
(
,
6$)8
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
club66pro.co.uk question practice aid
#olarity o! Ioltage
To apply 0irchho!!5s .oltage law/ the meaning o! .oltage polarity must be understood.
In the circuit shown in igure 6.(8/ the con.entional current is shown !lowing in a clockwise
direction. Gotice that the end o! resistor @)/ into which the current !lows/ is marked positi.e DWE.
The end o! @) at which the current lea.es is marked negati.e D$E. These polarity markings are used
to show that the end o! @( into which the current !lows is at a higher positi.e potential than the end
o! the resistor at which the current lea.es. #oint D is more positi.e than point &.
; 5
igure 6.(8 $ Ioltage polarities.
#oint '/ which is at the same potential as point &/ is labelled positi.e. This is to indicate that
point ' is more positi.e than point ". To say a point is positi.e Dor negati.eE without stating what the
polarity is based upon has no meaning. In working with 0irchho!!5s law/ positi.e and
negati.e polarities are assigned in the direction o! current !low.
"pplication o! 0irchho!!5s Ioltage %aw
0irchho!!5s .oltage law can be written as an equation/ as shown belowH
Ea W Eb W Ec W... EnR7
where Ea/ Eb/ etc./ are the .oltage drops or EMs around any closed circuit loop. To set up the
equation !or an actual circuit/ the !ollowing procedure is used.
J "ssume a direction o! current through the circuit. DThe correct direction is desirable but
not necessary.E
J ,sing the assumed direction o! current/ assign polarities to all resistors through which the
current !lows.
J #lace the correct polarities on any sources included in the circuit.
n
6$)B
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
,se by tdisclosure is
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
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rn on( n
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J Starting at any point in the circuit/ trace around the circuit/ writing down the amount and
polarity o! the .oltage across each component in succession. The polarity used is the
sign a!ter the assumed current has passed through the component. Stop when the point at
which the trace was started is reached.
J #lace these .oltages/ with their polarities/ into the equation and sol.e !or the desired
quantity.
iu
E+ampleH Three resistors are connected across a =7$.olt source. *hat is the .oltage across the
third resistor i! the .oltage drops across the !irst two resistors are )= .olts and (= .olts?
SolutionH irst/ a diagram/ such as the one shown in igure 6.(B/ is drawn. Ge+t/ a direction o!
current is assumed Das shownE. ,sing this current/ the polarity markings are placed at each end o!
each resistor and also on the terminals o! the source. Starting at point "/ trace around the
circuit in the direction o! current !low/ recording the .oltage and polarity o! each component.
Starting at point " and using the components !rom the circuitH
D
WE+E W DWE)E W DWE(E WD$E"E R 7
Substituting .alues !rom the circuitH
,
%i
)= .olts W (= .olts WE+ $ =7 .olts R 7
E+$ (7.olts R7
E+ R (7 .olts
The unknown .oltage DE+E is !ound to be (7 .olts.
%W
T =7I
EU W
igure 6.(B $ Determining unknown .oltage in a series circuit.
,sing the same idea as abo.e/ you can sol.e a problem in which the current is the unknown
quantity.
6$)C
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E+ampleH " circuit ha.ing a source .oltage o! 67 .olts contains three resistors o! = ohms/ (7
ohms/ and (= ohms. ind the circuit current.
SolutionH Draw and label the circuit Digure 6.(CE. Establish a direction o! current !low and
assign polarities. Ge+t/ starting at any point $ point " will be used in this e+ample $ write out the
loop equation.
@(
w]A%%=
=c
El
W
ion
67I
E)
(6
E3
W
"
@3
igure 6.(C $ &orrect direction o! assumed current.
'asic Equation/ starting at "
E3$E"WE(WE)R7
Since E R I@/ by substitutionH
DI+@3E$E" WDI+@iEWDl+@)ER7
Substituting .aluesH
DI + (= ohmsE $ 67 .olts W DI + = ohmsE W DI + (7 ohmsE R 7
&ombining like termsH
DI + 37 ohmsE $ 67 .olts R 7
DI + 37 ohmsE R 67 .olts
(R ) amps
Since the current obtained in the abo.e calculations is a positi.e ) amps/ the assumed direction o!
current was correct. To show what happens i! the incorrect direction o! current is assumed/
the problem will be sol.ed as be!ore/ but with the opposite direction o! current. The circuit is
redrawn showing the new direction o! current and new polarities in igure 6.)7. Starting at point "
the loop equation isH
6$37
T i
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
use andAor dis ta
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e is
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
n t5./r/./rinhW CM D
TTS Integrated Training System go.erned by
the st atement
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
! $/
%
'asic Equation/ starting at "
E3WE"WE(WE)R7
Since E R I@/ by substitutionH
DI+@3EWE" WDI+@(EWDI+@)ER7
, Substituting .aluesH
DI + (= ohmsE W 67 .olts W DI + = ohmsE W DI + (7 ohmsE R 7
E
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% i
l...l5I
%
% i
I
,
&ombining like termsH
DI + 37 ohmsE W 67 .olts R 7
DI + 37 ohmsE R $67 .olts
I R $) amps
Et
$ $ W E" Ion
67P E)
(=
M $ E3 W "
@3
igure 6.)7 $ incorrect direction o! assumed current.
Gotice that the amount o! current is the same as be!ore. The polarity/ howe.er/ is negati.e. The
negati.e polarity simply indicates the wrong direction o! current was assumed. Should it be
necessary to use this current in !urther calculations on the circuit using 0irchho!!5s law/ the negati.e
polarity should be retained in the calculations.
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
6$3(
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Series "iding and 2pposing Sources
In many practical applications a circuit may contain more than one source o! EM. Sources o!
EM that cause current to !low in the same direction are considered to be series aiding and the
.oltages are added. Sources o! EM that would tend to !orce current in opposite directions are said
to be series opposing/ and the e!!ecti.e source .oltage is the di!!erence between the
opposing .oltages. *hen two opposing sources are inserted into a circuit current !low would be
in a direction determined by the larger source. E+amples o! series aiding and opposing sources are
shown in igure 6.)(.
II
W
$a$
E)
E(
@(
@)
SE@IES "IDIG<
@(
SE@IES 2##2SIG<
igure 6.)( $ "iding and opposing sources.
" simple solution may be obtained !or a multiple$source circuit through the use o! 0irchho!!5s
.oltage law. In applying this method/ the same procedure is used !or the multiple$source circuit as
was used abo.e !or the single$source circuit. This is demonstrated by the !ollowing e+ample.
6$3)
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E+ampleH ,sing 0irchho!!5s .oltage equation/ !ind the amount o! current in the circuit shown in !ig
3$)).
%
%
%
%9
I.. IX
@3
W 67 S
@)
$$ (B(3I )7S
%
igure 6.)) $ Sol.ing !or circuit current using 0irchho!!5s .oltage equation.
SolutionH "s be!ore/ a direction o! current !low is assumed and polarity signs are placed on the
drawing. The loop equation will be started at point ".
E@)WE3WE(WE@(WE) R7
DI + )7 ohmsE W ;7 .olts W D$(B7 .oltsE W DI + 67 ohmsE W )7 .olts R 7 )7
.olts W ;7 .olts $ (B7 .olts W DI + )7 ohmsE W DI + 67 ohmsE R 7
$()7 .olts W DI + B7 ohmsE R 7
I + B7 ohms R ()7 .olts
I R ()7AB7 R (.= amps
6$33
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0irchho!!5s &urrent %aw
2hm5s law states that the current in a circuit is in.ersely proportional to the circuit resistance.
This !act is true in both series and parallel circuits.
There is a single path !or current in a series circuit. The amount o! current is determined by the
total resistance o! the circuit and the applied .oltage. In a parallel circuit the source current
di.ides among the a.ailable paths.
The beha.iour o! current in parallel circuits will be shown by a series o! illustrations using
e+ample circuits with di!!erent .alues o! resistance !or a gi.en .alue o! applied .oltage.
#art D"E o! igure 6.)3 shows a basic series circuit. Lere/ the total current must pass through
the single resistor. The amount o! current can be determined.
@(
I T R
="
IT R (7"
(( R ="
IT R (;"
G (77
1IA
D"E
() R="
@$( @)
(77) (77
DBE
igure 6.)3 $ "nalysis o! current in parallel circuit.
I
T
=7 .olts
R
(7 ohms
IT R=amps
n
6$3;
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
,se andlot disclosure is
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go.erned by the statement
rrn rn/$ rt[hr on(n
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#art D'E o! igure 6.)3 shows the same resistor D@(E with a second resistor D@)E o! equal .alue
connected in parallel across the .oltage source. *hen 2hm5s law is applied/ the current !low
through each resistor is !ound to be the same as the current through the single resistor in part
D"E.
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ES R =7 .olts
@i R (7 ohms
@) R (7 ohms
SolutionH
IRE
@
E= RE @($E@)
I @( RE @(
@(
=7 .olts
I @( R
(7 ohms
I @( R = amps
I@) E@)
R @)
=7 .olts
I@) (7 ohms
I@) R= amps
It is apparent that i! there is = amperes o! current through each o! the two resistors/ there must be
a total current o! (7 amperes drawn !rom the source.
The total current o! (7 amperes/ as illustrated in igure 6.)3 D'E lea.es the positi.e terminal o!
the battery and !lows to point a. Since point a is a connecting point !or the two resistors/ it is
called a 3unction. "t 3unction a/ the total current di.ides into two currents o! = amperes each.
These two currents !low through their respecti.e resistors and re3oin at 3unction b. The total
current then !lows !rom 3unction b back to the positi.e terminal o! the source. The source
supplies a total current o! (7 amperes and each o! the two equal resistors carries one$hal! the
total current.
6$3=
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rom the pre.ious e+planation/ the characteristics o! current in a parallel circuit can be
e+pressed in terms o! the !ollowing general equationH
ITR(( W()W. .In
&ompare part D"E o! igure 6.); with part D'E o! the circuit in igure 6.);. Gotice that doubling the
.alue o! the second branch resistor D@)E has no e!!ect on the current in the !irst branch DI@(E/ but
does reduce the second branch current DI@)E to one$hal! its original .alue. The total circuit current
drops to a .alue equal to the sum o! the branch currents. These !acts are .eri!ied by the !ollowing
equations.
<i.enH
E S R =7 .olts
@( R(7 ohms
@) R )7 ohms
SolutionH
E
@
Es RE@( RE@)
E@(
@(
=7 .olts
(7 ohms
I@I R= amps
F E@)
I@)
n
(.
%(
:
K .a
I@) R
@)
=7 .olts
)7 ohms
I T
I@) R).= amps
IT RI
@(WI@)
I
T
R=amps
W ).= amps
IT R8.= amps
6$36
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
,se andAor disclosure is
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
n Dnn.rinht C7( n
ITS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
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%:
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ITR8.=" () ).3"
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T =7. ion )7&?
IT R 8.="
"-
D'E
igure 6.); $ &urrent beha.iour in parallel circuits.
The amount o! current !low in the branch circuits and the total current in the circuit shown in
igure 6.); D'E are determined by the !ollowing computations.
<i.enH
E S R =7 .olts
@ ( R(7 ohms
@M R(7 ohms
@ 3 R(7 ohms
6$38
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
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SolutionH
E
@
ES R E@( R E@) R E@3
I@( R $
I@( R
@(
=7 .olts
(7 ohms
I @(
I@)
R = amps
$ E@)
@M
I@) R=7 .olts
(7 ohms
I@) R = amps
I
@3 RE@3
@3
=7 .olts
I @3
(7 ohms
I@3 R =
amps
IT RI
@( WI@) WI@3
I T R = amps
W = amps
W = amps
IT R(= amps
Gotice that the sum o! the ohmic .alues in each circuit shown in igure 6.); is equal D37 ohmsE/
and that the applied .oltage is the same D=7 .oltsE. Lowe.er/ the total current in 6.); D'E
D(=
n
ampsE is twice the amount in 6.); D"E D8.= ampsE. It is apparent/ there!ore/ that the manner in
which resistors are connected in a circuit/ as well as their actual ohmic .alues/ a!!ect the total
current.
%:
6$3B
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
,se andAor disclosure is
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
Dcl Dnn.rinh! Cn$(7
TTS Integrated Training System
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on page ) o! this &hapter.
t:
$:
L
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The di.ision o! current in a parallel network !ollows a de!inite pattern. This pattern is described by
kirchho!!4s current law which statesH
;The algebraic sum of the currents entering and leaving any 7unction
of conductors is e<ual to /ero. ;
This law can be stated mathematically asH
IaWlbW. .In W2
whereH la/ lb/ etc./ are the currents entering and lea.ing the 3unction. &urrents entering the
3unction are considered to be positi.e and currents lea.ing the 3unction are considered to be
negati.e. *hen sol.ing a problem using 0irchho!!5s current law/ the currents must be placed into
the equation with the proper polarity signs attached.
E+ample. Sol.e !or the .alue o! (3 in igure 6.)=.
<i.enH
I ( R (7 amps
() R 3 amps
(; R= amps
IaWIbW//.In R7
SolutionH
IlR3"
(^
(( R(7" :
(3R?
(;RS"
igure 6.)= $ &ircuit !or e+ample problem.
%.
The currents are placed into the equation with the proper signs.
I(WI)W (3W I;R7
(7 amps
7
WD$3 ampsE WI3WD$= ampsE
I3W)amps R7
(3R $) amps
r/
(3
has a .alue o! ) amperes/ and the negati.e sign shows it to be a current lea.ing the 3unction.
u
6$3C
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
L r
,se andAor disclosure is
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E+ampleH ,sing igure 6.)6/ sol.e !or the magnitude and direction o! (3.
() R 3"
! l
(( R6" : (3R?
(; R ="
igure 6.)6 $ &ircuit !or e+ample problem.
<i.enH
I( R6 amps
() R 3 amps
I;R=amps
SolutionH
,
IaWIbW/// I[R7
I(WI)WI3W(; > 7
6 amps W D$3 ampsE WI3
W
D$= ampsER7
I3WD$) ampsE R 7
(3R $) amps
(3 is ) amperes and its positi.e sign shows it to be a current entering the 3unction.
8
6$;7
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
t
6
go.erned he
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&ircuit Terms and &haracteristics
'e!ore you learn about the types o! circuits other than the series circuit/ you should become
!amiliar with some o! the terms and characteristics used in electrical circuits. These terms and
characteristics will be used throughout your study o! electricity and electronics.
@e!erence #oint
" re!erence point is an arbitrarily chosen point to which all other points in the circuit are
compared. In series circuits/ any point can be chosen as a re!erence and the electrical potential at
all other points can be determined in re!erence to that point. In igure 6.)8 point " shall be
considered the re!erence point. Each series resistor in the illustrated circuit is o! equal .alue. The
applied .oltage is equally distributed across each resistor. The potential at point D is 8= .olts more
positi.e than at point ". #oints & and ' are =7 .olts and )= .olts more positi.e than
point " respecti.ely.
r$ $$$ D W8=I
IW
8=I
"2I
igure 6.)8 $ @e!erence points in a series circuit.
*hen point ' is used as the re!erence/ as in igure 6.)B/ point D would be positi.e =7 .olts in
respect.to the new re!erence point. The !ormer re!erence point/ "/ is )= .olts negati.e in respect to
point '.
,
6$;(
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n
a !ly
)=I
855$ " $)=I
igure 6.)B $ Determining potentials with respect to a re!erence point.
"s in the pre.ious circuit illustration/ the re!erence point o! a circuit is always considered to be at
Mero potential. Since the earth DgroundE is said to be at a Mero potential/ the term ground is
used to denote a common electrical point o! Mero potential. In igure 6.)C/ point " is the Mero
re!erence/ or ground/ and the symbol !or ground is shown connected to point ". #oint & is 8=
%:
.olts positi.e in respect to ground.
< W8=I
E) t =7I
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8=I
' W)=I
R )=I
t5$$$ " 2I
igure 6.)C $ ,se o! ground symbols.
In most electrical equipment/ the metal chassis is the common ground !or the many electrical
circuits. *hen each electrical circuit is completed/ common points o! a circuit at Mero potential are
connected directly to the metal chassis/ thereby eliminating a large amount o! connecting
6$;)
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,se andAor disclosure is
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Di wire. The current passes through the metal chassis Da conductorE to reach other points o! the
i circuit. This is particularly use!ul on aircra!t where the air!rame can be used as the return circuit
!or all the aircra!t5s electrical systems. "n e+ample o! a chassis grounded circuit is illustrated in
igure 6.37.
@q
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&2GD,&TIG< &L"SSIS
igure 6.37 $ <round used as a conductor.
Most .oltage measurements used to check proper circuit operation in electrical equipment are
taken in respect to ground. 2ne meter lead is attached to a grounded point and the other meter
lead is mo.ed to .arious test points.
2pen &ircuit
" circuit is said to be open when a break e+ists in a complete conducting pathway. "lthough an
open occurs when a switch is used to de$energiMe a circuit/ an open may also de.elop
accidentally. To restore a circuit to proper operation/ the open must be located/ its cause
determined/ and repairs made.
Sometimes an open can be located .isually by a close inspection o! the circuit components.
De!ecti.e components/ such as burned out resistors/ can usually be disco.ered by this method.
2thers/ such as a break in wire co.ered by insulation or the melted element o! an enclosed
!use/ are not .isible to the eye. ,nder such conditions/ the understanding o! the e!!ect an open
has on circuit conditions enables a technician to make use o! test equipment to locate the open
component.
In igure 6.3(/ the series circuit consists o! two resistors and a !use. Gotice the e!!ects on circuit
rK
(
%i
conditions when the !use opens.
6$;3
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=I
(n5E
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'y
D"E G2@M"% &I@&,IT DG2@M"% &,@@EGTE
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igure 6.3( $ Gormal and open circuit conditions.
D"E Gormal currentK
D'E E+cessi.e current.
&urrent ceases to !lowK there!ore/ there is no longer a .oltage drop across the resistors. Each end
o! the open conducting path becomes an e+tension o! the battery terminals and the .oltage
!elt across the open is equal to the applied .oltage DE"E.
"n open circuit has in!inite resistance. In!inity represents a quantity so large it cannot be
measured. The symbol !or in!inity is o. In an open circuit/ @T R $$
Short &ircuit
" short circuit is an accidental path o! low resistance which passes an abnormally high amount o!
current. " short circuit e+ists whene.er the resistance o! a circuit or the resistance o! a part o! a
circuit drops in .alue to almost Mero ohms. " short o!ten occurs as a result o! improper wiring or
broken insulation.
In igure 6.3)/ a short is caused by improper wiring. Gote the e!!ect on current !low. Since the
resistor has in e!!ect been replaced with a piece o! wire/ practically all the current !lows through
the short and .ery little current !lows through the resistor. &urrent !lows through the short Da
path o! almost Mero resistanceE and the remainder o! the circuit by passing through the (7$ohm
resistor and the battery. The amount o! current !low increases greatly because its resisti.e path
has decreased !rom (7/7(7 ohms to (7 ohms. Due to the e+cessi.e current !low/ the (7$ohm
8
%I
.3
6$;;
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits ,se andAor disclosure is
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,se andAor disclosure is
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resistor becomes heated. "s it attempts to dissipate this heat/ the resistor will probably be
destroyed. igure 6.33 shows a pictorial wiring diagram/ rather than a schematic diagram/ to
indicate how broken insulation might cause a short circuit.
@(
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igure 6.3) $ Gormal and short circuit conditions.
SL2@T D,E T2
*2@G IGS,%"TI2G
igure 6.33 $ Short due to broken insulation.
ii
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Internal @esistance o! the Supply
" meter connected across the terminals o! a good (.=$.olt battery reads about (.= .olts. *hen the
same battery is inserted into a complete circuit/ the meter reading decreases to something less
than (.= .olts. This di!!erence in terminal .oltage is caused by the internal resistance o! the
battery Dthe opposition to current o!!ered by the electrolyte in the batteryE. "ll sources o!
electromoti.e !orce ha.e some !orm o! internal resistance which causes a drop in terminal
.oltage as current !lows through the source.
This principle is illustrated in igure 6.3;/ where the internal resistance o! a battery is shown as @i.
In the schematic/ the internal resistance is indicated by an additional resistor in series with the
battery. The battery/ with its internal resistance/ is enclosed within the dotted lines o! the schematic
diagram. *ith the switch open/ the .oltage across the battery terminals reads (= .olts. *hen the
switch is closed/ current !low causes .oltage drops around the circuit. The
circuit current o! ) amperes causes a .oltage drop o! ) .olts across @i. The ($ohm internal
battery resistance thereby drops the battery terminal .oltage to (3 .olts. Internal resistance cannot
be measured directly with a meter. "n attempt to do this would damage the meter.
n
igure 6.3; $ E!!ect o! internal resistance.
The e!!ect o! the source resistance on the power output o! a D& source may be shown by an
analysis o! the circuit in igure 6.3=. *hen the .ariable load resistor D@%E is set at the Mero$ohm
position Dequi.alent to a short circuitE/ current DIE is calculated using the !ollowing !ormulaH
E (77 .olts
%.:
I R $ R
@i
= ohms
R )7 amperes
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This is the ma+imum current that may be drawn !rom the source. The terminal .oltage across
the short circuit is Mero .olts and all the .oltage is across the resistance within the source.
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igure 6.3= $ E!!ect o! source resistance on power output.
I! the load resistance D@%E were increased Dthe internal resistance remaining the sameE/ the
current drawn !rom the source would decrease. &onsequently/ the .oltage drop across the
internal resistance would decrease. "t the same time/ the terminal .oltage applied across the
load would increase and approach a ma+imum as the current approaches Mero amps.
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
6$;8
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#arallel D& &ircuits
The discussion o! electrical circuits presented up to this point has been concerned with series
circuits in which there is only one path !or current. There is another basic type o! circuit known as
the parallel circuit with which you must become !amiliar. *here the series circuit has only one
path !or current/ the parallel circuit has more than one path !or current.
2hm5s law and 0irchho!!5s law apply to all electrical circuits/ but the characteristics o! a parallel
D& circuit are di!!erent than those o! a series D& circuit.
#arallel &ircuit &haracteristics
" parallel circuit is de!ined as one ha.ing more than one current path connected to a common
.oltage source. #arallel circuits/ there!ore/ must contain two or more resistances which are not
connected in series. "n e+ample o! a basic parallel circuit is shown in igure 6.36.
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igure 6.36 $ E+ample o! a basic parallel circuit.
Start at the .oltage source DEsE and trace anticlockwise around the circuit. Two complete and
separate paths can be identi!ied in which current can !low. 2ne path is traced !rom the source/
through resistance @(/ and back to the source. The other path is !rom the source/ through
resistance @)/ and back to the source.
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Ioltage in a #arallel &ircuit
Pou ha.e seen that the source .oltage in a series circuit di.ides proportionately across each
resistor in the circuit. In a parallel circuit/ the same .oltage is present in each branch. D"
branch is a section o! a circuit that has a complete path !or current.E In igure 6.36 this .oltage is
equal to the applied .oltage DESE. This can be e+pressed in equation !orm asH
Es R E@( R E@)
Ioltage measurements taken across the resistors o! a parallel circuit/ as illustrated by igure
6.38 .eri!y this equation. Each meter indicates the same amount o! .oltage. Gotice that the
.oltage across each resistor is the same as the applied .oltage.
igure 6.38 $ Ioltage comparison in a parallel circuit.
E+ampleH "ssume that the current through a resistor o! a parallel circuit is known to be ;.=
milliamperes D;.= m"E and the .alue o! the resistor is 37/777 ohms D37 k,E. Determine the
source .oltage. The circuit is shown in igure 6.3B.
<i.enH
@) R 37/ 777 ohms D32kSE
I@) R ;.= milliamps D;.=m" or.77;= ampsE
SolutionH
E R I@
E@) R.77;= amp + 37/777 ohms
E@) R (3= .olts
6$;C
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
Integrated Training System
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@)
37k !l
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igure 6.3B $ E+ample problem parallel circuit.
Since the source .oltage is equal to the .oltage o! a branchH
ES R E@)
ES R (3= .olts
To simpli!y the math operation/ the .alues can be e+pressed in powers o! ten as !ollowsH
37/777 ohms R 37 + (73 ohms
;/Sm"R;.=+(7$3 amps
E@) RD;.=+(7
$3E
amps +D37+(73E ohms
E@) R D;.= + 37 + (7$3 U(73 E .olts
D(7$3
+(73 R(7$3W3 R(7( R(E
E@) RD;.=+37+(E .olts
E@) R(3= .olts
ES RE@)
E S R(3= .olts
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,se andlor disclosure is
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6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
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@esistance in a #arallel &ircuit
In the e+ample diagram/ igure 6.3C/ there are two resistors connected in parallel across a =$
.olt battery. Each has a resistance .alue o! (7 ohms. " complete circuit consisting o! two
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parallel paths is !ormed and current !lows as shown.
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igure 6.3C $ Two equal resistors connected in parallel.
&omputing the indi.idual currents shows that there is one$hal! o! an ampere o! current through
each resistance. The total current !lowing !rom the battery to the 3unction o! the resistors/ and
returning !rom the resistors to the battery/ is equal to ( ampere.
The total resistance o! the circuit can be calculated by using the .alues o! total .oltage DETE and
total current DITE.
G2TEH rom this point on the abbre.iations and symbology !or electrical quantities will be used
in e+ample problems.
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@R
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@T R= 7
This computation shows the total resistance to be = ohmsK one$hal! the .alue o! either o! the two
resistors.
6$=(
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Since the total resistance o! a parallel circuit is smaller than any o! the indi.idual resistors/ total
resistance o! a parallel circuit is not the sum o! the indi.idual resistor .alues as was the case in a
series circuit. The total resistance o! resistors in parallel is also re!erred to as equi.alent
resistance D@eqE. The terms total resistance and equi.alent resistance are used
interchangeably.
There are se.eral methods used to determine the equi.alent resistance o! parallel circuits. The
best method !or a gi.en circuit depends on the number and .alue o! the resistors. or the circuit
described abo.e/ where all resistors ha.e the same .alue/ the !ollowing simple equation is
usedH
@eg
n
@
G i F
@eg R equi.alent parallel resistance
@ R ohmic .alu a o! one resistor
G R number o! resistors
This equation is .alid !or any number o! parallel resistors o! equal .alue.
E+ample. our ;7$ohm resistors are connected in parallel. *hat is their equi.alent
<i.enH
@(W @) W @3W @;
@tR;7 3
SolutionH
@
resistance?
8
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G
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@eg ;
@eg R(7 S
igure 6.;7 shows two resistors o! unequal .alue in parallel. Since the total current
the equi.alent resistance can be calculated.
6$=)
is shown/
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ES @(
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igure 6.;7 $ E+ample circuit with unequal parallel resistors.
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EcR37I
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@eg
R Ec
I T
37 I
@eg R
(="
@eg R)=)
.
The equi.alent resistance o! the circuit shown in igure 6.;7 is smaller than either o! the two
resistors D@ (/ @)E. "n important point to remember is that the equi.alent resistance o! a parallel
circuit is always less than the resistance o! any branch.
Equi.alent resistance can be !ound i! you know the indi.idual resistance .alues and the source
.oltage. 'y calculating each branch current/ adding the branch currents to calculate total
current/ and di.iding the source .oltage by the total current/ the total can be !ound. This
method/ while e!!ecti.e/ is somewhat lengthy. " quicker method o! !inding equi.alent resistance
is to use the general !ormula !or resistors in parallelH
l ( R (W (W ( W... (
@eg @( @) @3
@n
% I! you apply the general !ormula to the circuit shown in igure 6.;7 you will get the same .alue
!or equi.alent resistance D)SE as was obtained in the pre.ious calculation that used source
%$3
6$=3
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.oltage and total current.
<i.enH
@( 3S
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SolutionH
&on.ert the !ractions to a common denominator.
l
8
ie
n
I I
n
Since both sides are reciprocals Ddi.ided into oneE/ disregard the reciprocal !unction.
n
@eg R)S
The !ormula you were gi.en !or equal resistors in parallel
@eg R@ E
is a simpli!ication o! the general !ormula !or resistors in parallel
( F ( W (
:
W ( W../ I
@eg @( @) @3 @n
There are other simpli!ications o! the general !ormula !or resistors in parallel which can be used to
calculate the total or equi.alent resistance in a parallel circuit.
@eciprocal Method $ This method is based upon taking the reciprocal o! each side o! the
equation. This presents the general !ormula !or resistors in parallel asH
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!
go.erned by the statement
TTS Integrated Training System
6$=;
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits ,se andAor disclosure is
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!II
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@ eq R
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(
( ( (
@( @) @[
This !ormula is used to sol.e !or the equi.alent resistance o! a number o! unequal parallel
resistors. Pou must !ind the lowest common denominator in sol.ing these problems.
E+ampleH Three resistors are connected in parallel as shown in igure 6.;(. The resistor .alues
areH @( R )7 ohms/ @) R 37 ohms/ @3 R ;7 ohms. *hat is the equi.alent resistance? D,se the
reciprocal method.E
E
@3
;7 =)
igure 6.;( $ E+ample parallel circuit with unequal branch resistors.
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!
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Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
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SolutionH
@eq
@ eg R
(
@(
(
(
@)
W
(
@3
(
( (
W
@eg R
@ R
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6
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3
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eq
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#roduct 2.er the Sum Method $ " con.enient method !or !inding the equi.alent/ or total/
resistance o! two parallel resistors is by using the !ollowing !ormula.
@ eq R
@(U @)
@t W @)
This equation/ called the product o.er the sum !ormula/ is used so !requently it should be
committed to memory.
E+ample. *hat is the equi.alent resistance o! a )7$ohm and a 37$ohm resistor connected in
parallel/ as in igure 6.;)?
igure 6.;) $ #arallel circuit with two unequal resistors.
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
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Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
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<i.enH

@
(
R)7=
@) R37=
SolutionH
@eg W @)
@(
)7S + 37S
@eg )7 W 37=
F 677
@eg =7
@eg R()7
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Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
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Equi.alent #arallel &ircuits
In the study o! electricity/ it is o!ten necessary to reduce a comple+ circuit into a simpler !orm.
"ny comple+ circuit consisting o! resistances can be redrawn DreducedE to a basic equi.alent
circuit containing the .oltage source and a single resistor representing total resistance. This
process is called reduction to an equi.alent circuit.
igure 6.;3 shows a parallel circuit with three resistors o! equal .alue and the redrawn
equi.alent circuit. The parallel circuit shown in part " shows the original circuit. To create the
equi.alent circuit/ you must !irst calculate the equi.alent resistance.
@)
@3
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;=7
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b o.
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igure 6.;3 $ #arallel circuit with equi.alent circuit.
6$=B
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
,se andAor disclosure is
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lrO !Hnrnrrinh! Cn( !(
TTS Integrated Training System
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SolutionH
8
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2nce the equi.alent resistance is known/ a new circuit is drawn consisting o! a single resistor
Dto represent the equi.alent resistanceE and the .oltage source/ as shown in part '.
@ules !or #arallel D& &ircuits
J The same .oltage e+ists across each branch o! a parallel circuit and is equal to the
source .oltage.
J The current through a branch o! a parallel network is in.ersely proportional to the
amount o! resistance o! the branch.
J The total current o! a parallel circuit is equal to the sum o! the indi.idual branch
currents o! the circuit.
J The total resistance o! a parallel circuit is !ound by the general !ormulaH
( ( ( (
@eq@( @) @n
or one o! the !ormulas deri.ed !rom this general !ormula.
Sol.ing #arallel &ircuit #roblems
#roblems in.ol.ing the determination o! resistance/ .oltage/ current/ and power in a parallel
circuit are sol.ed as simply as in a series circuit. The procedure is the same $ D(E draw the
circuit diagram/ D)E state the .alues gi.en and the .alues to be !ound/ D3E select the equations to
be used in sol.ing !or the unknown quantities based upon the known quantities/ and D;E
substitute the known .alues in the equation you ha.e selected and sol.e !or the unknown .alue.
E+ampleH " parallel circuit consists o! !i.e resistors. The .alue o! each resistor is known and the
current through @( is known. Pou are asked to calculate the .alue !or total resistance/ total power/
total current/ source .oltage/ the power used by each resistor/ and the current through resistors @)/
@3/@;/ and @=.
6$=C
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,se andAor disclosure is
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<i.enH
@( R )77
@)R377
@3 R (B7
@q R (B7
@= R (B7
I@b.
R C"
indH
@T/ ES / IT/ #T/ I@)/ I@3/ I@;/ I@=.
This may appear to be a large amount o! mathematical manipulation. Lowe.er/ i! you use the
step$by$step approach/ the circuit will !all apart quite easily.
The !irst step in sol.ing this problem is !or you to draw the circuit and indicate the known .alues
as shown in igure 6.;;.
Es
#?
igure 6.;; $ #arallel circuit problem.
There are se.eral ways to approach this problem. *ith the .alues you ha.e been gi.en/ you could
!irst sol.e !or @T/ the power used by @(/ or the .oltage across @(/ which you know is equal to the
source .oltage and the .oltage across each o! the other resistors. Sol.ing !or @T or the power used
by @( will not help in sol.ing !or the other unknown .alues.
2nce the .oltage across @I is known/ this .alue will help you calculate other unknowns.
There!ore the logical unknown to sol.e !or is the source .oltage Dthe .oltage across @(E.
a
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on page ) o! this &hapter.
Integrated Training System
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<i.enH
@( R )77
I@(RC"
% E@(R ES
SolutionH
ESR@( +I@(
ESRC" +)77
ES R (B7I
Gow that source .oltage
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ES R (B7I
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@3 R (Bn
@q R (B
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SolutionH
ES
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branch.
El
R
I@V R
@ )
(B7I
37=
I@) R6"
ES
I @3
I @ 3
@
3
(B7 I
(B 7
I@3 R(7 "
Since @3 R @; R @s and the .oltage
I@; R(7"
I@= R(7"
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across each branch is the sameH
6$6(
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Sol.ing !or total resistance.
<i.enH
@( R )7S
@) R 37S
@3 R (BS
@;R (BS
@= R (BS
SolutionH
@T R@eg
( (
@eg @(
( (
W (
@
)
W
W ( W ( W (
@3 @; @=
( W ( W ( W (
@T )7= 37S (B= (BS (.'HS
( F CW6W(7W(7W(7=
@T (B7 D%&DE
@T R;==
(B7
(B7
@TT;=S
@TR;S
"n alternate method !or sol.ing !or @T can be used. 'y obser.ation/ you can see that @3/ @ ;/
and @= are o! equal ohmic .alue. There!ore an equi.alent resistor can be substituted !or these
three resistors in sol.ing !or total resistance.
<i.enH
@3 R@;R @= R (B=
SolutionH
@
@egl R @
4
(B=
n
@egl R 3
@eg/ R 6S
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
,se andAor disclosure is
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TTS Integ rated Training System
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Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
,se andAor disclosure is
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7 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this chapter.
,
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The circuit can now be redrawn using a resistor labelled @egi in place o! @3/ @;/ and @= as
shown in igure 6.;=.
@(
)77
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igure 6.;= $ irst equi.alent parallel circuit.
"n equi.alent resistor can be calculated and substituted !or @ I and @) by use o! the product
o.er the sum !ormula.
t
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@( R )7=
@) R 37=
SolutionH
@eg @( W@)
@eC)
@ )
$C
)7= + 37S
)7=) W37=)
677
=7
@eC) R()=
The circuit is now redrawn again using a resistor labelled @=g) in place o! @i and @) as shown in
igure 6.;6.
6$63
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Es @eq ) @eq (
()S 6c
(BtiI
igure 6.;6 $ Second equi.alent parallel circuit.
Pou are now le!t with two resistors in parallel. The product o.er the sum method can now be
used to sol.e !or total resistance.
<i.enH
@egl R 67
@eg/ R()=
@T R @eg
SolutionH
F @( + @ )
@eg @(
W @)
@T R
@egl
U @eg)
@eg? W @eg)
6c+()S
a
n
@ T
67W()C
@T R 8) (
@T R;S
This agrees with the solution !ound by using the general !ormula !or sol.ing !or resistors in
parallel.
The circuit can now be redrawn as shown in igure 6.;8 and total current can be calculated.
6$6;
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Es @eq
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igure 6.;8 $ #arallel circuit redrawn to !inal equi.alent circuit.
<i.enH
ES R(67I
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SolutionH
This solution can be checked by using the .alues already calculated !or the branch currents.
% <i.enH
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Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
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Series$#arallel D& &ircuits
In the preceding discussions/ series and parallel D& circuits ha.e been considered separately. The
technician will encounter circuits consisting o! both series and parallel elements. " circuit o! this
type is re!erred to as a combination circuit. Sol.ing !or the quantities and elements in a
combination circuit is simply a matter o! applying the laws and rules discussed up to this point.
Sol.ing &ombination$&ircuit #roblems
l !
The basic technique used !or sol.ing D& combination$circuit problems is the use o! equi.alent
circuits. To simpli!y a comple+ circuit to a simple circuit containing only one load/ equi.alent
circuits are substituted Don paperE !or the comple+ circuit they represent. To demonstrate the
3
method used to sol.e combination circuit problems/ the network shown in igure 6.;B D"E will be
used to calculate .arious circuit quantities/ such as resistance/ current and .oltage.
67I
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Es
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igure 6.;B $ E+ample combination circuit.
E+amination o! the circuit shows that the only quantity that can be computed with the gi.en
in!ormation is the equi.alent resistance o! @) and @3.
<i.enH
@)R)7S
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@eg/
)7= W37=
@eg
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R 677 S7
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Gow that the equi.alent resistance !or @) and @3 has been calculated/ the circuit can be
redrawn as a series circuit as shown in igure 6.;B D'E.
The equi.alent resistance o! this circuit Dtotal resistanceE can now be calculated.
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The original circuit can be redrawn with a single resistor that represents the equi.alent
resistance o! the entire circuit as shown in igure 6.;B D&E.
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To !ind the .oltage dropped across @(/ @)/ and @3/ re!er to igure 6.;B D'E. @eg( represents the
parallel network o! @) and @3. Since the .oltage across each branch o! a
the .oltage across @eal DEeg(E will be equal to the .oltage across @) DE@)
.oltage across @3 DE@3E.
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and E@3 !rom pre.ious calculation.
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Gow that you ha.e sol.ed !or the unknown quantities in this circuit/ you can apply what you
ha.e learned to any series/ parallel/ or combination circuit. It is important to remember to !irst
look at the circuit and !rom obser.ation make your determination o! the type o! circuit/ what is
known/ and what you are looking !or. " minute spent in this manner may sa.e you many
unnecessary calculations.
La.ing computed all the currents and .oltages o! igure 6.;B a complete description o! the
operation o! the circuit can be made. The total current o! 3 amps lea.es the negati.e terminal o! the
battery and !lows through the B$ohm resistor D@(E. In so doing/ a .oltage drop o! ); .olts occurs
across resistor @i. "t point "/ this 3$ampere current di.ides into two currents. 2! the total current/
(.B amps !lows through the )7$ohm resistor. The remaining current o! (.) amps !lows
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Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
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!rom point "/ down through the 37$ohm resistor to point '. This current produces a .oltage drop o!
36 .olts across the 37$ohm resistor. DGotice that the .oltage drops across the )7$ and 37$
ohm resistors are the same.E The two branch currents o! (.B and (.) amps combine at 3unction '
and the total current o! 3 amps !lows back to the source. The action o! the circuit has been
completely described with the e+ception o! power consumed/ which could be described using
the .alues pre.iously computed.
It should be pointed out that the combination circuit is not di!!icult to sol.e. The key to its
solution lies in knowing the order in which the steps o! the solution must be accomplished.
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#ractice &ircuit #roblem
igure 6.;C is a typical combination circuit. To make sure you understand the techniques o!
sol.ing !or the unknown quantities/ sol.e !or E@t.
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igure 6.;C $ &ombination practice circuit.
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It is not necessary to sol.e !or all the .alues in the circuit to compute the .oltage drop across
resistor @( DE @(E. irst look at the circuit and determine that the .alues gi.en do not pro.ide
enough in!ormation to sol.e !or E@( directly.
I! the current through @( DI@(E is known/ then E@( can be computed by applying the !ormulaH
E@(R @( U I@i
The !ollowing steps will be used to sol.e the problem.
The total resistance D@TE is calculated by the use o! equi.alent resistance.
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@eg( R @( W @)
@eg( R 3777 W (777
@eg( R ;777
@edraw the circuit as shown in igure 6.;C D'E.
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@edraw the circuit as shown in igure 6.;C D&E.
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@eq R @e7) W @;
@eS R )777 W(k2
@eg R (/ )k7
The total current DITE is now computed.
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IT R
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Sol.e !or the .oltage dropped across @eg). This represents the .oltage dropped across the
network @(/ @)/ and @3 in the original circuit.
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Sol.e !or the current through @eg(. D@eg( represents the network @( and @) in the original circuit.E
Since the .oltage across each branch o! a parallel circuit is equal to the .oltage across the
equi.alent resistor representing the circuitH
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Sol.e !or the .oltage dropped across @( Dthe quantity you were asked to !indE. Since @eg(
represents the series network o! @( and @) and total current !lows through each resistor in a
series circuit/ I@( must equal I@eg(.
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I@( R ()=m"
@( R 3777
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@edrawing &ircuits !or &larity
Pou will notice that the schematic diagrams you ha.e been working with ha.e shown parallel
circuits drawn as neat square !igures/ with each branch easily identi!ied.
In actual practice the wired circuits and more comple+ schematics are rarely laid out in this
simple !orm. or this reason/ it is important !or you to recogniMe that circuits can be drawn in a
.ariety o! ways/ and to learn some o! the techniques !or redrawing them into their simpli!ied
!orm. *hen a circuit is redrawn !or clarity or to its simplest !orm/ the !ollowing steps are used.
J Trace the current paths in the circuit.
J %abel the 3unctions in the circuit.
J @ecogniMe points which are at the same potential.
J IisualiMe a rearrangement/ 1stretching1 or 1shrinking/1 o! connecting wires.
J @edraw the circuit into simpler !orm Dthrough stages i! necessaryE.
To redraw any circuit/ start at the source/ and trace the path o! current !low through the circuit.
"t points where the current di.ides/ called 3unctions/ parallel branches begin. These 3unctions
are key points o! re!erence in any circuit and should be labelled as you !ind them. The wires in
circuit schematics are assumed to ha.e no resistance and there is no .oltage drop along any
wire. This means that any unbroken wire is at the same .oltage all along its length/ until it is
interrupted by a resistor/ battery/ or some other circuit component. In redrawing a circuit/ a wire
can be 1stretched1 or 1shrunk1 as much as you like without changing any electrical characteristic
o! the circuit.
igure 6.=7 D"E is a schematic o! a circuit that is not drawn in the bo+$like !ashion used in
pre.ious illustrations. To redraw this circuit/ start at the .oltage source and trace the path !or
current to the 3unction marked DaE. "t this 3unction the current di.ides into three paths. I! you
were to stretch the wire to show the three current paths/ the circuit would appear as shown in
igure 6.=7 D'E.
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DaE
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DaE DaE DaE
D'E
igure 6.=7 $ @edrawing a simple parallel circuit.
*hile these circuits may appear to be di!!erent/ the two drawings actually represent the same
circuit. The drawing in igure 6.=7 D'E is the !amiliar bo+$like structure and may be easier to work
with. igure 6.=(D"E is a schematic o! a circuit shown in a bo+$like structure/ but may be
misleading. This circuit in reality is a series$parallel circuit that may be redrawn as shown in
igure 6.=( D'E. The drawing in part D'E o! the !igure is a simpler representation o! the original
circuit and could be reduced to 3ust two resistors in parallel.
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$ @edrawing a simple series$parallel circuit.
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@edrawing a &omple+ &ircuit
igure 6.=) D"E shows a comple+ circuit that may be redrawn !or clari!ication in the !ollowing
steps.
D"E
D'E
D&E
igure 6.=) $ @edrawing a comple+ circuit.
G2TEH "s you redraw the circuit/ draw it in simple bo+$like !orm. Each time you reach a 3unction/ a
new branch is created by stretching or shrinking the wires.
Start at the positi.e terminal o! the .oltage source. &urrent !lows through @( to a 3unction and
di.ides into three pathsK label this 3unction DaE. ollow one o! the paths o! current through @) and @3
to a 3unction where the current di.ides into two more paths. This 3unction is labelled DbE.
The current through one branch o! this 3unction goes through @= and back to the source. DThe
most direct path.E Gow that you ha.e completed a path !or current to the source/ return to the last
3unction/ DbE.
8(
ollow current through the other branch !rom this 3unction. &urrent !lows !rom 3unction DbE
through @; to the source. "ll the paths !rom 3unction DbE ha.e been traced. 2nly one path !rom
3unction DaE has been completed. Pou must now return to 3unction DaE to complete the other two
paths. rom 3unction DaE the current !lows through @
8
back to the source. DThere are no
additional branches on this path.E @eturn to 3unction DaE to trace the third path !rom this 3unction.
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&urrent !lows through @ 6 and @B and comes to a 3unction. %abel this 3unction DcE. rom 3unction DcE
one path !or current is through @ C to the source. The other path !or current !rom 3unction DcE
is through @(7 to the source. "ll the 3unctions in this circuit ha.e now been labelled. The circuit and
the 3unction can be redrawn as shown in igure 6.=) D&E. It is much easier to recogniMe the series
and parallel paths in the redrawn circuit.
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*hat is the total resistance o! the circuit shown in igure 6.=3? DLintH @edraw the circuit to
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igure 6.=3 $ Simpli!ication circuit problem.
*hat is the total resistance o! the circuit shown in igure 6.=;?
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igure 6.=; $ Source resistance in a parallel circuit.
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*hat e!!ect does the internal resistance ha.e on the rest o! the circuit shown in igure 6.=;?
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E!!ects o! 2pen and Short &ircuits
Earlier in this chapter the terms open and short circuits were discussed. The !ollowing
discussion deals with the e!!ects on a circuit when an open or a short occurs.
The ma3or di!!erence between an open in a parallel circuit and an open in a series circuit is that in
the parallel circuit the open would not necessarily disable the circuit. I! the open condition occurs in
a series portion o! the circuit/ there will be no current because there is no complete path !or current
!low. I!/ on the other hand/ the open occurs in a parallel path/ some current will still !low in the
circuit. The parallel branch where the open occurs will be e!!ecti.ely disabled/ total resistance o! the
circuit will increase/ and total current will decrease.
To clari!y these points/ igure 6.== illustrates a series parallel circuit. irst the e!!ect o! an open F:
in the series portion o! this circuit will be e+amined. igure 6.== D"E shows the normal circuit/
@T R ;7 ohms and IT R 3 amps. In igure 6.== D'E an open is shown in the series portion o! the
circuit/ there is no complete path !or current and the resistance o! the circuit is considered to be
in!inite.
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igure 6.== $ Series$parallel circuit with opens.
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In igure 6.== D&E an open is shown in the parallel branch o! @3. There is no path !or current
through @3. In the circuit/ current !lows through @ ( and @) only. Since there is only one path !or
current !low/ @( and @) are e!!ecti.ely in series.
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,nder these conditions @T R ()77 and IT R ( amp. "s you can see/ when an open occurs in a
parallel branch/ total circuit resistance increases and total circuit current decreases.
" short circuit in a parallel network has an e!!ect similar to a short in a series circuit. In general/
the short will cause an increase in current and the possibility o! component damage regardless
o! the type o! circuit in.ol.ed. To illustrate this point/ igure 6.=6 shows a series$parallel network
in which shorts are de.eloped. In igure 6.=6 D"E the normal circuit is shown. @T R ;7 ohms and
ITR3amps.
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igure 6.=6 $ Series$parallel circuit with shorts.
In igure 6.=6 D'E/ @( has shorted. @( now has Mero ohms o! resistance. The total o! the
resistance o! the circuit is now equal to the resistance o! the parallel network o! @) and @3/ or )7
ohms. &ircuit current has increased to 6 amps. "ll o! this current goes through the parallel
network D@)/ @3E and this increase in current would most likely damage the components.
In igure 6.=6 D&E/ @3 has shorted. *ith @3 shorted there is a short circuit in parallel with @).
The short circuit routes the current around @)/ e!!ecti.ely remo.ing @) !rom the circuit. Total
circuit resistance is now equal to the resistance o! @(/ or )7 ohms.
"s you know/ @) and @3 !orm a parallel network. @esistance o! the network can be calculated
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Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
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The total circuit current with @3 shorted is 6 amps. "ll o! this current !lows through @( and
would most likely damage @(. Gotice that e.en though only one portion o! the parallel network
was shorted/ the entire paralleled network was disabled.
2pens and shorts alike/ i! occurring in a circuit/ result in an o.erall change in the equi.alent
resistance. This can cause undesirable e!!ects in other parts o! the circuit due to the
corresponding change in the total current !low. " short usually causes components to !ail in a
circuit which is not properly !used or otherwise protected. The !ailure may take the !orm o! a
burned$out resistor/ damaged source/ or a !ire in the circuit components and wiring.
uses and other circuit protection de.ices are installed in equipment circuits to pre.ent damage
caused by increases in current. These circuit protection de.ices are designed to open i! current
increases to a predetermined .alue. &ircuit protection de.ices are connected in series with the
circuit or portion o! the circuit that the de.ice is protecting. *hen the circuit protection de.ice
opens/ current !low ceases in the circuit.
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,se andAor disclosure is
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on page ) o! this &hapter.
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Ioltage Di.iders
Most electrical and electronics equipment use .oltages o! .arious le.els throughout their
circuitry.
2ne circuit may require a C7$.olt supply/ another a (=7$.olt supply/ and still another a (B7$.olt
supply. These .oltage requirements could be supplied by three indi.idual power sources. This
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,
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method is e+pensi.e and requires a considerable amount o! room. The most common method
o! supplying these .oltages is to use a single .oltage source and a .oltage di.ider. 'e!ore
.oltage di.iders are e+plained/ a re.iew o! what was discussed earlier concerning .oltage
re!erences may be o! help.
"s you know/ some circuits are designed to supply both positi.e and negati.e .oltages. #erhaps
now you wonder i! a negati.e .oltage has any less potential than a positi.e .oltage. The answer
is that (77 .olts is (77 .olts. *hether it is negati.e or positi.e does not a!!ect the !eeling you get
when you are shocked.
Ioltage polarities are considered as being positi.e or negati.e in respect to a re!erence point/
usually ground. igure 6.=8 will help to illustrate this point.
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igure 6.=8 $ Ioltage polarities.
% igure 6.=8 D"E shows a series circuit with a .oltage source o! (77 .olts and !our =7$ohm
resistors connected in series. The ground/ or re!erence point/ is connected to one end o!
t
resistor @(. The current in this circuit determined by 2hm5s law is 7.= amp. Each resistor
% de.elops DdropsE )= .olts. The !i.e tap$o!! points indicated in the schematic are points at which
6$B3
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the .oltage can be measured. "s indicated on the schematic/ the .oltage measured at each o! the
points !rom point E to point " starts at )= .olts and becomes more negati.e in )= .olt steps to a
.alue o! positi.e Mero .olts.
In igure 6.=8 D'E/ the ground/ or re!erence point has been mo.ed to point '. The current in the
circuit is still 7.= amp and each resistor still de.elops )= .olts. The total .oltage de.eloped in the
circuit remains at (77 .olts/ but because the re!erence point has been changed/ the .oltage at point
" is negati.e )= .olts. #oint E/ which was at positi.e (77 .olts in igure 6.=8 D"E/ now has a .oltage
o! positi.e 8= .olts. "s you can see the .oltage at any point in the circuit is dependent on three
!actorsK the current through the resistor/ the ohmic .alue o! the resistor/ and the
re!erence point in the circuit.
" typical .oltage di.ider consists o! two or more resistors connected in series across a source
.oltage DEsE. The source .oltage must be as high or higher than any .oltage de.eloped by the
.oltage di.ider. "s the source .oltage is dropped in successi.e steps through the series
resistors/ any desired portion o! the source .oltage may be 1tapped o!!1 to supply indi.idual
.oltage requirements. The .alues o! the series resistors used in the .oltage di.ider are
determined by the .oltage and current requirements o! the loads.
igure 6.=B is used to illustrate the de.elopment o! a simple .oltage di.ider. The requirement !or
this .oltage di.ider is to pro.ide a .oltage o! )= .olts and a current o! C(7 milliamps to the load
!rom a source .oltage o! (77 .olts. igure 6.=B D"E pro.ides a circuit in which )= .olts is
a.ailable at point '. I! the load was connected between point ' and ground/ you might think that
the load would be supplied with )= .olts. This is not true since the load connected between
point ' and ground !orms a parallel network o! the load and resistor @(. D@emember that the
.alue o! resistance o! a parallel network is always less than the .alue o! the smallest resistor in the
network.E
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W (77I
@
8= 7.
F Es $$4S W )6I
(77I
%2"D
W)=I
C(7 ma
2I
D'E
igure 6.=B $ Simple .oltage di.ider.
Since the resistance o! the network would now be less than )= ohms/ the .oltage at point '
would be less than )= .olts. This would not satis!y the requirement o! the load.
To determine the siMe o! resistor used in the .oltage di.ider/ a rule$o!$thumb is used. The
current in the di.ider resistor should equal appro+imately (7 percent o! the load current. This
current/ which does not !low through any o! the load de.ices/ is called bleeder current.
<i.en this in!ormation/ the .oltage di.ider can be designed using the !ollowing steps.
Determine the load requirement and the a.ailable .oltage source.
ES R (77I
Eload R )=I
Ilaad R C(2m"
6$B=
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Select bleeder current by applying the (7] rule$o!$thumb.
I@(R (7] U5load
I@(R.(+C(7m"
I@(R C(m"
&alculate bleeder resistance.
E@I
@(R
I @(
@(
)=I
C(m"
@(R )8;.837
The .alue o! @( may be rounded o!! to )8= ohmsH
@( R )8=7
&alculate the total current Dload plus bleederE.
IT R IloadW I@(
ITR C(7m" W C(m"
ITR (" Drounded o!!E
&alculate the resistance o! the other di.ider resistorDsE.
E@) R Es $ E@(
E@) R(77I$)=I
E@) R8=I
@) R
E@)
IT
8=I
("
@) R8==)
The .oltage di.ider circuit can now be drawn as shown in
igure 6.=B
D'E.
i l
6$B6
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Multiple$%oad Ioltage Di.iders
" multiple$load .oltage di.ider is shown in igure 6.=C. "n important point that was not
emphasiMed be!ore is that when using the (7] rule$o!$thumb to calculate the bleeder current/
you must take (7] o! the total load current.
%:
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Es
rl
)B=I
2
$5I
!
%i
W(8=I
32m"
%2"D 3
W(=7I
( 2m"
%2"D )
(
WC2I
(7m"
%2"D (
igure 6.=C $ Multiple$load .oltage di.ider.
<i.en the in!ormation shown in igure 6.=C/ you can calculate the .alues !or the resistors
needed in the .oltage$di.ider circuits. The same steps will be !ollowed as in the pre.ious
.oltage di.ider problem.
i
,
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6$B8
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
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<i.enH
%oad (H E R C7I
I R (7m"
..a
%oad )HE R (=7I
(
I
R (7m"
%oad 3H E R (8=I
I R
32m"
Ec R )B=I
/
:
The bleeder current should be (7] o! the total load current.
SolutionH
I@( R (7] + I Dload totalE
I@( R (7] + D(7m" W (7m" W 32m"E
I@l R Sm"
Since the .oltage across @( DE@(E is equal to the .oltage requirement !or load (/ 2hm5s law can
be used to calculate the .alue !or @(.
SolutionH
@R E@((
I@(
C7I
@3RSm"
@( 4(Bkc
The current through @) DI@)E is equal to the current through @tplus the current through load (.
SolutionH
I@) R I@l W Iloadl
I@) R Sm" W (7m"
I!t) R (=m"
The .oltage across @) DE@)E is equal to the di!!erence between the .oltage requirements o! load (
and load ).
n
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8/
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E@) R Eload) $ Eloadl
E@) R(=7I $ C7I
E@) R 67I
%
r
%
2hm5s law can now be used to sol.e !or the .alue o! @).
SolutionH
@) R E@)
I@)
@ 67I
)
(Sm"
@) R ;kS
%
The current through @3 DI@3E is equal to the current through
I@3 R I@) W I(oad)
I@3 R (=m" W (7m"
I@3 R )=m"
The .oltage across @3 DE@3E equals the di!!erence between
and load ).
E@3 R Eload3 $ Eload)
E@3 R (8=I $ (=7I
E@3R )=I
%i
2hm5s law can now be used to sol.e !or the .alue o! @ 3.
SolutionH
E@3
@) plus the current through load ).
the .oltage requirement o! load 3
@3 R
I@3
@3 )=I
)Sm"
@3 R(kS
%
r$
The current through @; Dl@;E is equal to the current through
(@; is equal to total circuit current D( TE.
I@; R I@3 W Iload3
I@; R )=m" W 32m"
I@;RS=m"
@3 plus the current through load 3.
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The .oltage across @; DE@;E equals the di!!erence between the source .oltage and the .oltage
requirement o! load 3.
E@; R ES $ Eload3
E@; R )B=I $ (8=I
E@;R ((7I
2hm5s law can now be used to sol.e !or the .alue o! @ ;.
SolutionH
@; R
@;
E@;
(@;
((7I
==m"
@
;
R )kS
*ith the calculations 3ust e+plained/ the .alues o! the resistors used in the .oltage di.ider are as
!ollowsH
@l R (BkS
@V R ;k7
@3 R (kc
@; R )k7
(
6$C7
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Ioltage Di.ider with #ositi.e and Gegati.e Ioltage @equirements
In many cases the load !or a .oltage di.ider requires both positi.e and negati.e .oltages.
#ositi.e and negati.e .oltages can be supplied !rom a single source .oltage by connecting the
rK
%
u
% i
%
rl/
%
%
ground Dre!erence pointE between two o! the di.ider resistors. The e+act point in the circuit at
which the re!erence point is placed depends upon the .oltages required by the loads.
or e+ample/ a .oltage di.ider can be designed to pro.ide the .oltage and current to three
loads !rom a gi.en source .oltage.
<i.enH
%oad (H E F $)=I
I R322m"
%oad )K E F WS2I
I R S2m"
%oad 3H E F W)=7I
I R (22m"
ESR 3(7I
The circuit is drawn as shown in igure 6.67. Gotice the placement o! the ground re!erence
point. The .alues !or resistors @(/ @3/ and @; are computed e+actly as was done in the last
e+ample. I@( is the bleeder current and can be calculated as !ollowsH
6$C(
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
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W7
" @
;
@
7
E
3(7I
7
"
$7
n
W)=7I
C77m"
( %2"D 3
W67I
=2m"
%2"D )
;
$)=I
377m" n
%2"D I
i
igure 6.67 $ Ioltage di.ider pro.iding both positi.e and negati.e .oltages.
&alculate the .alue o! @(.
SolutionH
n
@
(R E@( (
I@I
F )=I
( ;=m"
@I R ==6=
&alculate the current through @) using 0irchho!!5s current law.
"t point "H
6$C)
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on page ) o! this &hapter.
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I@( W I(oad( W I@) W Iload) W Iload3 $ 7
;=m" W 377m" W I@) $ S2M" $ (22m" R 7
3;=m" W I@) $ (=7m" R 7
%5
r$
(C=m" W I@) R 7
I@)R $(C=m"
Dor (C=m" lea.ing point "E
Since E@) R E load )/ you can calculate the .alue o! @).
SolutionH
@) R E@)
I@)
=7I
@)
(C=m"
@ ) R )=6=
; I
u
%
$(/
%i
%i
&alculate the current through @3.
I@3 R I@) W Iload)
I@3 R (C=m" W =7m"
I@3 R );=m"
The .oltage across @3 DE@3E equals
and ).
SolutionH
E@3 R Eload3 $ Eload)
E@3 R )=7I $ =7I
E@3 R )77I
&alculate the .alue o! @3.
SolutionH
E@3
@ 3 R
I@3
F )77I
the di!!erence between the .oltage requirements o! loads 3
@3
);=m"
@3 R B(6=
,
&alculate the current through @;.
r i
,
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
6$C3
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n
I@" R I@3 W Iload3
I@; R );=m" W (77m"
8
IG R 3;=m"
The .oltage across E@; equals the source .oltage DEsE minus the .oltage requirement o! load 3
and the .oltage requirement o! load (. @emember 0irchho!!5s .oltage law which states that the
sum o! the .oltage drops and EMs around any closed loop is equal to Mero.
SolutionH
E@; R Eg $ Eload3 $ Eloadl
E@; R 3(7I $ )=7I $ )=.
E@; R 3=I
&alculate the .alue o! @;.
n
SolutionH
n
@; R E@;
I@;
r$.
:
3=I
@; R
3;=m"
%. :
@
;
R(7(.;7
*ith the calculations 3ust e+plained/ the .alues o! the resistors used in the .oltage di.ider are as
!ollowsH
@( R==(67

@) R)=67
@3 RB(67
@; R(7(7
n
rom the in!ormation 3ust calculated/ any other circuit quantity/ such as power/ total current/ or
resistance o! the load/ could be calculated.
,/ :
6$C;
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#ractical "pplication o! Ioltage Di.iders
In actual practice the computed .alue o! the bleeder resistor does not always come out to an e.en
.alue. Since the rule$o!$thumb !or bleeder current is only an estimated .alue/ the bleeder resistor
can be o! a .alue close to the computed .alue. DI! the computed .alue o! the resistance
% i
i %
i %
%:
iI
%
%.
were =(7 ohms/ a =77$ohm resistor could be used.E 2nce the actual .alue o! the bleeder
resistor is selected/ the bleeder current must be recomputed. The .oltage de.eloped by the
bleeder resistor must be equal to the .oltage requirement o! the load in parallel with the bleeder
resistor.
The .alue o! the remaining resistors in the .oltage di.ider is computed !rom the current through the
remaining resistors and the .oltage across them. These .alues must be used to pro.ide the
required .oltage and current to the loads.
I! the computed .alues !or the di.ider resistors are not e.en .aluesK series/ parallel/ or series$
parallel networks can be used to pro.ide the required resistance.
E+ampleH " .oltage di.ider is required to supply two loads !rom a (C7.= .olts source. %oad (
requires W;= .olts and )(7 milliampsK load ) requires W(6= .olts and (77 milliamps.
&alculate the bleeder current using the rule$o!$thumb.
<i.enH
Iload (R )(7r"
Iload) R (77i"
SolutionH
I@( R (7] + D)(7m" W (77m"E
I@( R 3(m"
&alculate the ohmic .alue o! the bleeder resistor.
<i.enH
E@(R;=I DEloadl E
I@I R 3(m"
SolutionH
@( R E@(
I@(
;=I
@(
3(m"
@ ( R(;=(.67
% i
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Since it would be di!!icult to !ind a resistor o! (;=(.6 ohms/ a practical choice !or @( is (=77
ohms.
&alculate the actual bleeder current using the selected .alue !or @(.
<i.enH
E@( R;=I
I@(R (.SkS
SolutionH
I @( @
(
;=I
n
%i
I @( R
(.=k
I @( R 37m"
,sing this .alue !or I@(/ calculate the resistance needed !or the ne+t di.ider resistor. The current
D(@)E is equal to the bleeder current plus the current used by load (.
<i.enH
I@( R 32m"
I(oad (R )(7m"
SolutionH
I@) R I@(W IloadI
I@) R 37m" W )(7m"
I@; R );7m"
The .oltage across @) DE@)E is equal to the di!!erence between the .oltage requirements o!
loads ) and(/ or ()7 .olts.
&alculate the .alue o! @).
<i.enH
E@) R ()7I
I@) R )(2m"
SolutionH
n
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8
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61C6
Module 3.6 D& &ircuits
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n
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%@) RE@)
I@)
%I @)
()7I
);7m"
@) R =77S
The .alue o! the !inal di.ider resistor is calculated with I@3 DI@) W I load )E equal to 3;7 m" and E @3
DEs $ E load )E equal to )=.=I.
<i.enH
E@3R )=/SI
&
i ?
,
%
%
I@3 R 3;2m"
SolutionH
@3 $E@3
I@3
F )=.=I
@ 3
3;7m"
@3 R8=7
%
n
%
,
" 8=$ohm resistor may not be easily obtainable/ so a network o! resistors equal to 8= ohms can
be used in place o! @3.
"ny combination o! resistor .alues adding up to 8= ohms could be placed in series to de.elop the
required network. or e+ample/ i! you had two 38.=$ohm resistors/ you could connect them in
series to get a network o! 8= ohms. 2ne =7$ohm and one )=$ohm resistor or se.en (7$ohm and
one =$ohm resistor could also be used.
" parallel network could be constructed !rom two (=7$ohm resistors or three ))=$ohm resistors.
Either o! these parallel networks would also be a network o! 8= ohms.
The network used in this e+ample will be a series$parallel network using three =7$ohm resistors.
*ith the in!ormation gi.en/ you should be able to draw this .oltage di.ider network.
2nce the .alues !or the .arious di.ider resistors ha.e been selected/ you can compute the
power used by each resistor using the methods pre.iously e+plained. *hen the power used by each
resistor is known/ the wattage rating required o! each resistor determines the physical siMe and type
needed !or the circuit. This circuit is shown in igure 6.6(.
I
6$C8
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4e=
so
@3
@;
so a .=7 S
ID
E s
(C7.=I
@)
Soo ,
$t$(6=I
(2,m"
%2"D )
W ;=I
V(7M"
%2"D (
igure 6.6( $ #ractical e+ample o! a .oltage di.ider.
%. i
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TTS Integrated
Training System
Module 3
%icence &atego
ry
'(A')
Electrical undamentals
3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
8$(
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%..
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photocopy/ electronic/ mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission o!
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'asic knowledge !or categories "/ '( and ') are indicated by the allocation o! knowledge le.els indicators D(/ ) or
3E against each applicable sub3ect. &ategory & applicants must meet either the category '( or the category ')
basic knowledge le.els.
The knowledge le.el indicators are de!ined as !ollowsH
%EIE% (
J " !amiliarisation with the principal elements o! the sub3ect.
2b3ecti.esH
J The applicant should be !amiliar with the basic elements o! the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to gi.e a simple description o! the whole sub3ect/ using common words and
e+amples.
J The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
%EIE% )
J " general knowledge o! the theoretical and practical aspects o! the sub3ect.
J "n ability to apply that knowledge.
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J The applicant should be able to gi.e a general description o! the sub3ect using/ as appropriate/ typical
e+amples.
J The applicant should be able to use mathematical !ormulae in con3unction with physical laws describing the
sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches/ drawings and schematics describing the
sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
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J " detailed knowledge o! the theoretical and practical aspects o! the sub3ect.
J " capacity to combine and apply the separate elements o! knowledge in a logical and comprehensi.e
manner.
2b3ecti.esH
J The applicant should know the theory o! the sub3ect and interrelationships with other sub3ects.
J The applicant should be able to gi.e a detailed description o! the sub3ect using theoretical !undamentals
and speci!ic e+amples.
J The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical !ormulae related to the sub3ect.
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describing the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manu!acturer5s
instructions.
J The applicant should be able to interpret results !rom .arious sources and measurements and apply
correcti.e action where appropriate.
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(( (
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Table o! &ontents
Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
DaE
@esisti.ity
Electrical @esistance
Standard &olour &ode Systems
@esistors in Series and #arallel
2peration and use o! #otentiometers and @heostats
2peration o! the *heatstone 'ridge
DbE
&onductance
Electrical @esistors
@esistor *attage @ating
&onstruction o! #otentiometers
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=
=
=
8
(7
(=
)=
37
33
33
3;
3=
36
Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
8$3
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Module 3.8 Enabling 2b3ecti.es
2b3ecti.e
@esistanceA@esistor
@esistance and a!!ecting !actors
Speci!ic resistance
@esistor colour code/ .alues and tolerances/ pre!erred
.alues/ wattage ratings
@esistors in series and parallel
&alculation o! total resistance using series/ parallel and
series parallel combinations
2peration and use o! potentiometers and rheostats
2peration o! *heatstone 'ridge
#ositi.e and negati.e temperature coe!!icient conductance
i+ed resistors/ stability/ tolerance and limitations/ methods
o! construction
Iariable resistors/ thermistors/ .oltage dependent resistors
&onstruction o! potentiometers and rheostats
&onstruction o! *heatstone 'ridge
E"S" 66 @e!erence%e.el
:
3.8
DaE )
it
DbE (
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8$;
Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
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r
Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
%LaE
@esisti.ity
Electrical resisti.ity Dalso known as speci!ic electrical resistanceE is a measure o! how
strongly a material opposes the !low o! electric current. " low resisti.ity indicates a material that
readily allows the mo.ement o! electrical charge. The SI unit o! electrical resisti.ity is the ohm
metre.
It di!!ers !rom resistance/ in that it depends only on the material/ and is a property o! the
material/ and is independent o! the dimensions o! the conductor.
The electrical resisti.ity p DrhoE o! a material is gi.en
by
R.
e
*hereH
p is the static resisti.ity Dmeasured in ohm
%K
>
,
metres/ S$mEK
@ is the electrical resistance o! a uni!orm
specimen o! the material Dmeasured in ohms/
F SEK
e is the length o! the piece o! material
Dmeasured in metres/ mEK
" is the cross$sectional area o! the
specimen Dmeasured in square metres/
m)E.
igure 8.( $ Dimensions o! a conductor
The unit o! resisti.ity is thus the ohm$metreK .alues may be obtained !rom tables where they are
usually quoted at 7&&. The resisti.ities o! some o! the more common materials in electrical use are
shown in table 8.(.
%
r$ 8
@esisti.ity is temperature dependant/ with most materials increasing in resisti.ity as
temperature increases. This is called a positi.e temperature coe!!icient. Some materials/
including all semiconductors/ ha.e a negati.e temperature coe!!icient. &arbon is a
semiconductor material.
Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
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@ESISTIIITP
Material T F
+
I metre m
Sil.er (.=(
&opper (.=C
<old ).7;
"luminium ).;=
#latinum C.B(
Iron B.C7
Lard Steel ;6
Mercury C;
Manganin ;(
&onstantan ;C
Gickrome ((7
&arbon 8777
@ESISIIITP TEM#E@"T,@E
@E%"TIIE T2 &2EI&IEGT
&2##E@ U(7$; #E@ a&
7.C= ;(
(.77 ;3
(.)B ;7
(.=; ;=
6.(8 3C.)
=.67 6=
)B.C (6
=C.) C
)6.( 7.(
37.B 7.;
6C (.=
;;)= Gegati.e
,SE
<ood
conductors
,sed as
conductors
because o! their
other properties
Stable resistors
Dlow temp.
coe!!icientE
Iery low cost
8
8
n
:
Table 8.(H @esisti.ities o! some common materials at 7a&
The !ormula quoted !or resisti.ity is usually transposed as !ollowsH
R>!L
"
This then pro.ides the resistance o! a conductor/ gi.en its resisti.ity/ length and cross sectional
area. These being the !actors which a!!ect resistance. More discussion on these !actors ne+t.
,se andtor disclosure !s
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er/ t ...o ti/nnan
l
($;
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Electrical @esistance
Designed in association with the
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It is known that the directed mo.ement o! electrons constitutes a current !low. It is also known
that the electrons do not mo.e !reely through a conductor5s crystalline structure. Some materials
o!!er little opposition to current !low/ while others greatly oppose current !low. This opposition to
current !low is known as resistance D@E/ and the unit o! measure is the ohm. The standard o!
measure !or one ohm is the resistance pro.ided at Mero degrees &elsius by a column o!
mercury ha.ing a cross$sectional area o! one square millimetre and a length o! (76.3
centimetres. " conductor has one ohm o! resistance when an applied potential o! one .olt
produces a current o! one ampere. The symbol used to represent the ohm is the <reek letter
omega DSE.
@esistance/ although an electrical property/ is determined by the physical structure o! a
material. The resistance o! a material is go.erned by many o! the same !actors that control
current !low. There!ore/ in a subsequent discussion/ the !actors that a!!ect current !low will be
used to assist in the e+planation o! the !actors a!!ecting resistance.
actors that "!!ect @esistance
The magnitude o! resistance is determined in part by the 1number o! !ree electrons1 a.ailable
%i
within the material. Since a decrease in the number o! !ree electrons will decrease the current
!low/ it can be said that the opposition to current !low DresistanceE is greater in a material with
!ewer !ree electrons. Thus/ the resistance o! a material is determined by the number o! !ree
electrons a.ailable in a material.
" knowledge o! the conditions that limit current !low and/ there!ore/ a!!ect resistance can now be
used to consider how the type o! material/ physical dimensions/ and temperature will a!!ect the
resistance o! a conductor.
Type o! Material D@esisti.ityE $ Depending upon their atomic structure/ di!!erent materials will
ha.e di!!erent quantities o! !ree electrons. There!ore/ the .arious conductors used in electrical
applications ha.e di!!erent .alues o! resistance.
,
This was discussed in the pre.ious section under 1@esisti.ity1.
&onsider a simple metallic substance. Most metals are crystalline in structure and consist o! atoms
that are tightly bound in the lattice network. The atoms o! such elements are so close together that
the electrons in the outer shell o! the atom are associated with one atom as much as with its
neighbour. DSee !igure 8.) .iew "E. "s a result/ the !orce o! attachment o! an outer electron with an
indi.idual atom is practically Mero. Depending on the metal/ at least one
electron/ sometimes two/ and in a !ew cases/ three electrons per atom e+ist in this state. In such a
case/ a relati.ely small amount o! additional electron energy would !ree the outer electrons !rom the
attraction o! the nucleus. "t normal room temperature materials o! this type ha.e many !ree
electrons and are good conductors. <ood conductors will ha.e a low resistance.
Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
8$8
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n
D'E
igure 8.) $ "tomic spacing in conductors.
I! the atoms o! a material are !arther apart/ as illustrated in !igure 8.) .iew '/ the electrons in the
outer shells will not be equally attached to se.eral atoms as they orbit the nucleus. They will be
attracted by the nucleus o! the parent atom only. There!ore/ a greater amount o! energy is
required to !ree any o! these electrons. Materials o! this type are poor conductors and there!ore
ha.e a high resistance.
Sil.er/ gold/ and aluminium are good conductors. There!ore/ materials composed o! their atoms
would ha.e a low resistance.
The element copper is the conductor most widely used throughout electrical applications. Sil.er
has a lower resistance than copper but its cost limits usage to circuits where a high conducti.ity is
demanded.
"luminium/ which is considerably lighter than copper/ is used as a conductor when weight is a
ma3or !actor.
E!!ect o! &ross$Sectional "rea $ &ross$sectional area greatly a!!ects the magnitude o!
resistance. I! the cross$sectional area o! a conductor is increased/ a greater quantity o!
electrons is a.ailable !or mo.ement through the conductor. There!ore/ a larger current will !low
!or a gi.en amount o! applied .oltage. "n increase in current indicates that when the cross$
sectional area o! a conductor is increased/ the resistance must ha.e decreased. I! the cross$
sectional area o! a conductor is decreased/ the number o! a.ailable electrons decreases and/
!or a gi.en applied .oltage/ the current through the conductor decreases. " decrease in current
!low indicates that when the cross$sectional area o! a conductor is decreased/ the resistance
must ha.e increased. Thus/ the resistance o! a conductor is in.ersely proportional to its
cross$sectional area.
$B
L
ii.
L
8
Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
,se andAor disclosure is
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% ?
,
,
E!!ect o! &onductor %ength $ The length o! a conductor is also a !actor which determines the
resistance o! a conductor. I! the length o! a conductor is increased/ the amount o! energy gi.en$
up increases. "s !ree electrons mo.e !rom atom to atom some energy is gi.en o!! as heat. The
longer a conductor is/ the more energy is lost to heat. The additional energy loss subtracts !rom the
energy being trans!erred through the conductor/ resulting in a decrease in current !low !or a gi.en
applied .oltage. " decrease in current !low indicates an increase in resistance/ since .oltage was
held constant. There!ore/ i! the length o! a conductor is increased/ the resistance increases. The
resistance o! a conductor is directly proportional to its length.
E!!ect o! Temperature $ Temperature changes a!!ect the resistance o! materials in di!!erent ways.
In some materials an increase in temperature causes an increase in resistance/ whereas in others/
an increase in temperature causes a decrease in resistance. The amount o! change o! resistance
per unit change in temperature is known as the temperature coe!!icient. I! !or an increase in
temperature the resistance o! a material increases/ it is said to ha.e a positi.e temperature
coe!!icient. " material whose resistance decreases with an increase in
temperature has a negati.e temperature coe!!icient. Most conductors used in electronic
applications ha.e a positi.e temperature coe!!icient. Lowe.er/ carbon/ a !requently used
material/ is a substance ha.ing a negati.e temperature coe!!icient. Se.eral materials/ such as the
alloys constantan and manganin/ are considered to ha.e a Mero temperature coe!!icient because
their resistance remains relati.ely constant !or changes in temperature.
The resistance @t at a temperature o! t Da&E can be calculated !rom the appro+imation
@tR@aD( WatE
*here
@. is the resistance at 74&.
a is the temperature coe!!icient per degree/ taking 2C& as the standard.
or e+ampleH The !ield winding o! a generator has a resistance o! ;7 S) at 2t. *hat is its
resistance at =7t? @esistance$Temperature coe!!icient o! copper is 7.77;3 pert at 7t Dsee
table 8.(E.
@t R @o D( W atE
R ;7D( W 7.77;3 + =7E
R;7+(.)(=R ;B.6=
Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
8$C
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Standard &olour &ode Systems
;$'and System
In the standard colour code system/ !our bands are painted on the resistor/ as shown in !igure
8.3.
Tolerance
(iiiItilElier
)nd digit
5(st digit
igure 8.3 $ " common ;$band resistor
The colour o! the !irst band indicates the .alue o! the !irst signi!icant digit. The colour o! the
second band indicates the .alue o! the second signi!icant digit. The third colour band
represents a decimal multiplier by which the !irst two digits must be multiplied to obtain the
resistance .alue o! the resistor. The colours !or the bands and their corresponding .alues are
shown in Table 8.).
PE% 2@G I;GT
(st \ )nd 3
d
%
n
bands
3rd band +( +(7
) ; 6 6 8 B C
+(77 +( 0+(70+(7702M +(7(.( nAanAa
Table 8.) $ Standard &olour &ode !or @esistors
n
%. :
8$(7
Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
TTS Integrated Training System
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,se andAor disclosure is
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go.erned by the statement
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on page ) o! this &hapter/
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*im!lifying the #olour #ode $ @esistors are the most common components used
in electronics. The technician must identi!y/ select/ check/ remo.e/ and replace resistors.
@esistors and resistor circuits are usually the easiest branches o! electronics to understand. The
resistor colour code sometimes presents problems to a technician. It really should not/ because
once the resistor colour code is learned/ you should remember it !or the rest o! your
li!e.
'lack/ brown/ red/ orange/ yellow/ green/ blue/ .iolet/ gray/ white $ this is the order o! colours you
should know automatically. There is a memory aid that will help you remember the code in
% i
%
%
%
u
its proper order. Each word starts with the !irst letter o! the colours. I! you match it up with the
colour code/ you will not !orget the code.
'ad 'oys @un 2.er Pellow <ardenias 'ehind Iictory <arden *alls/
'lack'ad
'rown'oys
@ed @un
2range2.er
PellowPellow
<reen<ardenias
'lue 'ehind
Iiolet Iictory
<ray<arden
*hite*alls
Table 8.3 $ @esistor colour order $ aid to memory
There are many other memory aid sentences that you might want to ask about !rom
e+perienced technicians. *e could not possibly print them here/ !or !ear o! o!!ending someone.
There is still a good chance that you will make a mistake on a resistor5s colour band. Most
technicians do at one time or another. I! you make a mistake on the !irst two signi!icant colours/ it
usually is not too serious. I! you make a mistake on the third band/ you are in trouble/ because the
.alue is going to be at least (7 times too high or too low.
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The !ourth band/ which is the tolerance band/ usually does not present too much o! a problem. I!
there is no !ourth band/ the resistor has a )7$percent toleranceK a sil.er !ourth band indicates a (7$
percent toleranceK and a gold !ourth band indicates a =$percent tolerance.
2@! R
Tolerance
'and (] )] 7.=] 7.)=]
Table 8.; $ =th 'and &olour &odes DTolerance 'andE
Some older ;$band resistors that con!orm to military
speci!ications ha.e a !i!th band. The !i!th band
indicates the reliability le.el per (/777 hours o!
operation as !ollowsH
i!th band colour%e.el
'rown (.7]
@ed 7.(]
2range 7.7(]
Pellow 7.77(]
Table 8.= $ =th colour band $ @eliability
l a2%DS%Pt$ $
7.(] 7.7=] =] (7]
igure 8.; $ " ;$band resistor with a
=th band !or reliability
or a resistor whose the !i!th band is colour coded brown/ the resistor5s chance o! !ailure will not
e+ceed ( percent !or e.ery (/777 hours o! operation.
In equipment such as the aircra!t5s comple+ computers/ the reliability le.el is .ery signi!icant. or
e+ample/ in a piece o! equipment containing (7/777 orange !i!th$band resistors/ no more than
one resistor will !ail during (/777 hours o! operation. This is .ery good reliability.
Lowe.er/ the reliability o! modern manu!actured resistors is now so high/ that the chance o!
!ailure is well under the 7.77(] o! the yellow band designated resistor. Lence the =th band is no
longer used to denote reliability. The !i.e band resistor is now used !or the high tolerance/ high
resolution resistors/ as will be e+plained ne+t.
L
8$()
Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
8$((
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
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n
Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
TTS Integrated Training System
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go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
%
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i %
!
,
,
%
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Integrated Training System
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=$'and System
@ead the colours !rom le!t to right 3ust like !or ;$band resistors. The !irst band is the !irst
signi!icant digit D(st numberE/ the second band is the second signi!icant digit D)nd numberE/ the
third band is the third signi!icant digit D3rd numberE/ the !ourth band is the multiplier band
Dnumber o! Meros to add to the two digit number/ again this band can also be <old or Sil.er to
mo.e the decimal point to the le!tE/ and the !i!th band is the tolerance band. Tolerance .alues
! or.eanresstors can only be 7.7=]/ 7.( ]/ 7.)=]/ 7.=] or ( ] Dgrey/ .iolet/ blue/ green/ !i
brownE. or most o! us/ we will only see ( ] tolerance resistors as the highest precision
components in electronic de.ices. I! you work on test instruments or specialiMed equipment/
you may see some o! the higher precision components.
%$$ Tolerance
r.lI:Itiplier
3rd digit
)nd digit
5Ist digit
igure 8.= $ " modern =$band resistor
?$Fand $ Tem!erature coeGcient
2ccasionally/ one can encounter resistors with si+ colour bands/ the last one o! which is
anomalous !or a tolerance class speci!ication Dorange/ yellow or whiteE.
In such cases/ the last band de!ines the worst$case temperature$dependence coe!!icient o! the
component.
The codes !or temperature coe!!icients are listed in Table 8.=.
Temperature$tolerance colour$coding is used .ery rarely and may di!!er
slightly among manu!acturers.
Table 8.= $
Temperature &oe!!icients
Teml!&o
(a ert3nce
rylitiltiplier
3rd digit
)nd digit
igure 8.6 $$ " 6$band resistor
5(st digit
Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
8$(3
Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
club66pro.co.uk question practice aid
&ombined ;$'and and =$'and &olour &hart
The same colour chart can be used to determine the .alue o! both ;$band and =$band resistors.
2n the ;$band resistor/ the 43rd$band5 column o! the chart is ignored.
;$band color code
(70 2hms_ =]
S%I 7.7(
S%I5_ (7]
irst Digit Second Digit Third Digit
<%@ 7.( <%D _ S] Temperature
'%0$7 '%0$7 B %0$7 '%0$(
&oe!!icient
'@G$( '@G$( '@G$(
'@G$(7
'@Gt/(]
@ED). @ED$) @ED$) C(R75$(77.
/
ft D ).]
m!t]
(( ED V *2/
PE%$;
PE%$; PE%$; PE%$(70 .:
<@G$6
<@G$6
<@G$6 <@G$(770
<@G _ 7.6/(Ao
'%,$6 '%,$6
' %,$6 S%,$( M
'%,$_ 7/)=]
I(<$8
I(7$8 I(;$8 I(7$(7M I(7 _ 7.(]
<(PJB <@P$B
<@P$B
*LT$C *LT$C
*LT$C
igure 8.8 $ &ombined ;$'and/ =$'and and 6$'and &hart
n
8$(;
Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
TTS Integrated Training System
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6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
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,
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,
@esistors in Series and #arallel
Series @esistance
@e!erring to igure 8.B/ the current in a series circuit must !low through each lamp to complete the
electrical path in the circuit. Each additional lamp o!!ers added resistance. In a series circuit/
the total circuit resistance D@TE is equal to the sum o! the indi.idual resistances.
"s an equationH @T R @( W @) W @3W . / . @n
G2TEH The subscript n denotes any number o! additional resistances that might be in the
equation.
%
,
%
%
'"SI& &I@&,IT SE@IES &I@&,IT
igure 8.B $ &omparison o! basic and series circuits.
Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
8$(=
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a
E+ampleH In igure 8.C a series circuit consisting o! three resistorsH one o! (7 ohms/ one o! (=
ohms/ and one o! 37 ohms/ is shown. " .oltage source pro.ides ((7 .olts. *hat is the total
resistance?
(((7 I
@ 3
37=E
igure 8.C $ Sol.ing !or total resistance in a series circuit.
<i.enH @t R (7 ohms
@) R (= ohms
@3 R 37 ohms
n
SoulutionH@TR@(W@)W@3
@T R (7 ohms W (= ohms
W 37 ohms
@T R == ohms
In some circuit applications/ the total resistance is known and the .alue o! one o! the circuit
resistors has to be determined. The equation @T R @( W @) W @3 can be transposed to sol.e !or the
.alue o! the unknown resistance.
E+ampleH In igure 8.(7 the total resistance o! a circuit containing three resistors is ;7 ohms.
Two o! the circuit resistors are (7 ohms each. &alculate the .alue o! the third resistor D@3E.
8$(6
Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
TTS Integrated Training System
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r$J$
,se andAor dlsctosure is
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(7=
@T
;7 S
i
%i
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,T
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@3
igure 8.(7 $ &alculating the .alue o! one resistance in a series circuit.
<i.enH
@(R ;7 ohms
@) R (7 ohms
@3R(7 ohms
SolutionH
@TR@(W@)W@3
DSubtract @( W @) !rom both sides
o! the equationE
@T$@($@)R@3
@3R@T$@($@)
@3 R ;7 ohms $ (7 ohms $ (7 ohms
@3 R ;7 ohms $ )7 ohms
@3 R )7 ohms
Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
8$(8
4. (
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#arallel @esistance
In the e+ample diagram/ igure 8.((/ there are two resistors connected in parallel across a =.olt
battery. Each has a resistance .alue o! (7 ohms. " complete circuit consisting o! two parallel
paths is !ormed and current !lows as shown.
("
8 =I
(oc
igure 8.(( $ Two equal resistors connected in parallel.
&omputing the indi.idual currents shows that there is one$hal! o! an ampere o! current through
each resistance. The total current !lowing !rom the battery to the 3unction o! the resistors/ and
returning !rom the resistors to the battery/ is equal to ( ampere.
The total resistance o! the circuit can be calculated by using the .alues o! total .oltage DETE and
total current DITE.
G2TEH rom this point on the abbre.iations and symbology !or electrical quantities will be used in
e+ample problems.
<i.enH
ETR=I
ITR ( "
I
SolutionH
@RE
I
@T RET
IT
H I %
@T ("
@T R=C)
This computation shows the total resistance to be = ohmsK one$hal! the .alue o! either o! the two
resistors.
8$(B
Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
,se andAor disclosure is
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/u
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Since the total resistance o! a parallel circuit is smaller than any o! the indi.idual resistors/ total
resistance o! a parallel circuit is not the sum o! the indi.idual resistor .alues as was the case in a
series circuit. The total resistance o! resistors in parallel is also re!erred to as equi.alent
resistance D@eqE. The terms total resistance and equi.alent resistance are used
interchangeably.
There are se.eral methods used to determine the equi.alent resistance o! parallel circuits. The
best method !or a gi.en circuit depends on the number and .alue o! the resistors. or the circuit
described abo.e/ where all resistors ha.e the same .alue/ the !ollowing simple equation is
usedH
@ eq
$ G
@eg R equi.alent parallel resistance
@ R ohmic .alue o! one resistor
G R number o! resistors
This equation is .alid !or any number o! parallel resistors o! equal .alue.
E+ample. our ;7$ohm resistors are connected in parallel. *hat is their equi.alent resistance?
%
<i.enH
Ir$
l
(9
@( W @) W @3 W @;
@(R;7S
SolutionH
@
@eg G
@ eg ;
@eg R(7 S
igure 8.() shows two resistors o! unequal .alue in parallel. Since the total current is shown/ the
equi.alent resistance can be calculated/
Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
8$(C
Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
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ES (2"
37I
(="
7
@( =" @)
3S 6$)
(
igure 8.() $ E+ample circuit with unequal parallel resistors.
<i.enH
ESR 375I
ITR (="
SolutionH
@ eq
@eq R
ES
I T
37I
(="
@eq R)7
The equi.alent resistance o! the circuit shown in igure 8.() is smaller than either o! the two
resistors D@
(/
@)E. "n important point to remember is that the equi.alent resistance o! a parallel
circuit is
always less than the resistance o! any branch.
Equi.alent resistance can be !ound i! you know the indi.idual resistance .alues and the source
.oltage. 'y calculating each branch current/ adding the branch currents to calculate total
current/ and di.iding the source .oltage by the total current/ the total can be !ound. This
method/ while e!!ecti.e/ is somewhat lengthy. " quicker method o! !inding equi.alent resistance is
to use the general !ormula !or resistors in parallelH
%/
( (
@ eg @(
W (
@)
W (
W (
@3 @n
8$)7
Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
,se andAor disclosure is
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
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6 &opyright )7(7
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I! you apply the general !ormula to the circuit shown in igure 6.;7 you will get the same .alue !or
equi.alent resistance D)!)E as was obtained in the pre.ious calculation that used source .oltage
and total current.
% <i.enH
,I5
@(R37
@) R 6=
SolutionH
(
(
(
@
eg @( @)
( ( (
@eg
3S 6S
N(
, &on.ert the !ractions to a common denominator.
Since both sides are reciprocals Ddi.ided into oneE/ disregard the reciprocal !unction.
@eg
R)7
The !ormula you were gi.en !or equal resistors in parallel
D@eg
@
R$E
is a simpli!ication o! the general !ormula !or resistors in parallel
(
@eg
R
( (
W(W(W...
@( @) @3 @.
There are other simpli!ications o! the general !ormula !or resistors in parallel which can be used
to calculate the total or equi.alent resistance in a parallel circuit.
%
8$)(
Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
Integrated Training System
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@eciprocal Method $ This method is based upon taking the reciprocal o! each side o! the
equation. This presents the general !ormula !or resistors in parallel asH
@ eq $
(
@(
(
(
@)
tF$
(
@
n
This !ormula is used to sol.e !or the equi.alent resistance o! a number o! unequal parallel
resistors. Pou must !ind the lowest common denominator in sol.ing these problems.
E+ampleH Three resistors are connected in parallel as shown in igure 8.(3. The resistor .alues
areH @( R )7 ohms/ @) R 37 ohms/ @3 R ;7 ohms. *hat is the equi.alent resistance? D,se the
reciprocal method.E
ES
@/
)77
O &
37=) ;=) (
igure 8.(3 $ E+ample parallel circuit with unequal branch resistors.
<i.enH
@( R )77
@) R 37=
@3 R ;77
,se andAor disclosure is
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91... .i.. ;.W nni n
l
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Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
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#roduct 2.er the Sum Method $ " con.enient method !or !inding the equi.alent/ or total/
resistance o! two parallel resistors is by using the !ollowing !ormula.
@ C
( @)
W
@( @ )
This equation/ called the product o.er the sum !ormula/ is used so !requently it should be
committed to memory.
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E+ampleH *hat is the equi.alent resistance o! a )7$ohm and a 37$ohm resistor connected in
I
parallel/ as in igure 8.(;?
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igure 8.(; $ #arallel circuit with two unequal resistors.
Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
8$)3
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Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
iTS Integrated Training System ,se andAor disclosure is
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2peration and use o! #otentiometers and @heostats
" potentiometer is a .ariable tapped resistor that can be used as a .oltage di.ider.
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#otentiometer Iariable @esistor @heostat
igure 8.(= $ Schematic symbol !or a potentiometer. The arrow
represents the mo.ing terminal/ called the wi!er.
,
,
" !orm o! potentiometer is used as an instrument to measure the potential Dor .oltageE in a
circuit by tapping o!! a !raction o! a known .oltage !rom a resisti.e slide wire and comparing it
with the unknown .oltage by means o! a gal.anometer. The sliding tap o! the potentiometer is
ad3usted and the gal.anometer brie!ly connected to both the sliding tap and the unknown potentialK
the de!lection o! the gal.anometer is obser.ed and the sliding tap ad3usted until the gal.anometer no
longer de!lects. "t that point the gal.anometer is drawing no current !rom the unknown source/ and
the magnitude o! .oltage can be calculated !rom the position o! the sliding contact. This null
balance method is a !undamental technique o! electrical metrology.
"s an electrical component/ potentiometer Dor5pot5 !or shortE describes a three$terminal resistor
with a sliding contact that !orms an ad3ustable .oltage di.ider. I! all three terminals are used/ it can
act as a .ariable .oltage di.ider. I! only two terminals are used Done side and the wiperE/ it acts as a
.ariable resistor or rheostat. #otentiometers are commonly used as controls !or
electrical de.ices such as a .olume control o! a radio. #otentiometers operated by a mechanism
can be used as position transducers/ !or e+ample/ in a 3oystick.
#otentiometer as Measuring Instrument
'e!ore the introduction o! the calibratable DsprungE mo.ing coil meter/ potentiometers were used in
measuring .oltage/ hence the 5$meter5 part o! their name. Today this method is con!ined to standards
work/ and is not normally used in other areas o! electronics.
The original potentiometer is a type o! bridge circuit !or measuring .oltages by comparison
between a small !raction o! the .oltage which could be precisely measured/ then balancing the
two circuits to get null current !low which could be precisely measured. The word itsel! deri.es
!rom the phrase 1.oltage potential/1 and 1potential1 was used to re!er to 1strength.1 The original
potentiometers are di.ided into !our main classes listed below.
&onstant &urrent #otentiometer
This is used !or measuring .oltages below (.= .olts. In this circuit/ the unknown .oltage is
connected across a section o! resistance wire the ends o! which are connected to a standard
electrochemical cell that pro.ides a constant current through the wire/ The unknown EM/ in
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series with a gal.anometer/ is then connected across a .ariable$length section o! the resistance
wire using a sliding contactDsE. The sliding contact is mo.ed until no current !lows into or out o! the
standard cell/ as indicated by a gal.anometer in series with the unknown EM. The .oltage across
the selected section o! wire is then equal to the unknown .oltage. "ll that remains is to calculate
the unknown .oltage !rom the current and the !raction o! the length o! the resistance wire that was
connected to the unknown EM. The gal.anometer does not need to be
calibrated/ as its only !unction is to read Mero. *hen the gal.anometer reads Mero/ no current is
drawn !rom the unknown electromoti.e !orce and so the reading is independent o! the source5s
internal resistance.
'ecause the resistance wire can be made .ery uni!orm in cross$section and resisti.ity/ and the
position o! the wiper can be measured easily/ this method can be analyMed to accurately
determine the uncertainties in the measurement. *hen measuring potentials larger than that
produced by a standard cell/ an e+ternal .oltage di.ider is used to scale the measured .oltage
down to appro+imately ( .olt !or measurement by the potentiometerK the uncertainties due to the
.oltage di.ider construction and the load placed on the source by the .oltage di.ider then
become part o! the uncertainty o! the o.erall measurement.
&onstant @esistance #otentiometer
The constant resistance potentiometer is a .ariation o! the basic idea in which a .ariable current is
!ed through a !i+ed resistor. These are used primarily !or measurements in the milli.olt and
micro.olt range.
t i:
Micro.olt #otentiometer
This is a !orm o! the constant resistance potentiometer described abo.e but designed to
minimiMe the e!!ects o! contact resistance and thermal EM. This equipment is satis!actorily
used down to readings o! (7 nI or so.
Thermocouple #otentiometer
"nother de.elopment o! the standard types was the 4thermocouple potentiometer5 especially
modi!ied !or per!orming temperature measurements with thermocouples. #otentiometers !or use
with thermocouples also measure the temperature at which the thermocouple wires are
connected/ so that cold$3unction compensation may be applied to correct the apparent
measured EM to the standard cold$3unction temperature o! 7 degrees &.
#otentiometer as an Electronic &omponent
" potentiometer is a potential di.ider/ a three terminal resistor where the position o! the sliding
connection is user ad3ustable .ia a knob or slider. #otentiometers are sometimes pro.ided with
one or more switches mounted on the same sha!t. or instance/ when attached to a .olume
control/ the knob can also !unction as an onAo!! switch at the lowest .olume.
2rdinarily potentiometers are rarely used to directly control anything o! signi!icant power Dmore
than a wattE. Instead they are used to ad3ust the le.el o! analogue signals De.g. .olume controls
on audio equipmentE/ and as control inputs !or electronic circuits. or e+ample/ a light dimmer
uses a potentiometer to control the switching o! a triac and so indirectly control the brightness o!
lamps.
.Fi
8$)6
Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
r$$/H
,se andAor disclosure Is
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@heostats
" rheostat is a two$terminal .ariable resistor. 2!ten these are designed to handle much higher
.oltage and current. Typically these are constructed as a resisti.e wire wrapped to !orm a
toroid coil with the wiper mo.ing o.er the upper sur!ace o! the toroid/ sliding !rom one turn o!
the wire to the ne+t. Sometimes a rheostat is made !rom resistance wire wound on a heat
resisting cylinder with the slider made !rom a number o! metal !ingers that grip lightly onto a
small portion o! the turns o! resistance wire. The 5!ingers5 can be mo.ed along the coil o!
resistance wire by a sliding knob thus changing the 5tapping5 point. They are usually used as
.ariable resistors rather than .ariable potential di.iders.
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igure 8.(6 $ " high power toroidal wire$wound rheostat.
"ny three$terminal potentiometer can be used as a two$terminal .ariable resistor/ by not
connecting to the 3rd terminal. It is common practice to connect the wiper terminal to the
unused end o! the resistance track to reduce the amount o! resistance .ariation caused by dirt on
the track.
"pplications o! #otentiometers
#otentiometers are widely used as user controls/ and may control a .ery wide .ariety o!
equipment !unctions.
The widespread use o! pots in consumer electronics has declined in the (CC7s/ with digital
controls now more common. Lowe.er they remain in use in many applications. ) o! the most
common applications are as .olume controls and as position sensors.
r$?
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.udio #ontrol
Sliding potentiometers D1!aders1E
2ne o! the most common uses !or
modern low$power potentiometers
is as audio control de.ices. 'oth
sliding pots Dalso known as !adersE
and rotary potentiometers
Dcommonly called knobsE are
regularly used to ad3ust loudness/
!requency attenuation and other
characteristics o! audio signals.
The 5log pot5 is used as the .olume
control in audio ampli!iers/ where
it is also called an 1audio taper
pot1/ because the amplitude
response o! the human ear is
also logarithmic. It ensures that/
on a .olume control marked 7 to
(
igure 8.(8 $ Sliding potentiometers. ,F:
(7/ !or e+ample/ a setting o! = sounds hal! as loud as a setting o! (7. There is also an anti$log
!ot or reverse audio ta!er which is simply the re.erse o! a log pot. It is almost always used
in a
ganged con!iguration with a log pot/ !or instance/ in an audio balance control.
#otentiometers used in combination with !ilter networks act as tone controls.
Transducers
#otentiometers are also .ery widely used as a part o! position transducers because o! the
simplicity o! construction and because they can gi.e a large output signal.
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Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
TTS Integrated Training System
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Theory o! 2peration
" potentiometer with a resisti.e load/ showing equi.alent !i+ed resistors !or clarity/ is shown in
!igure 8.(B.
igure 8.(B $ The potentiometer and its equi.alent circuit as a .oltage di.ider
The potentiometer can be used as a !otential divider Dor voltage dividerC to obtain a
manually ad3ustable output .oltage at the slider DwiperE !rom a !i+ed input .oltage applied across
the two ends o! the pot. This is the most common use o! pots.
2ne o! the ad.antages o! the potential di.ider compared to a .ariable resistor in series with the
source is that/ while .ariable resistors ha.e a ma+imum resistance where some current will always
!low/ di.iders are able to .ary the output .oltage !rom ma+imum DIsE to ground DMero .oltsE as the
wiper mo.es !rom one end o! the pot to the other. There is/ howe.er/ always a small amount o!
contact resistance.
In addition/ the load resistance is o!ten not known and there!ore simply placing a .ariable
resistor in series with the load could ha.e a negligible e!!ect or an e+cessi.e e!!ect/ depending
/ %
on the load.
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2peration o! the *heatstone 'ridge
" *heatstone bridge is a measuring instrument in.ented by Samuel Lunter &hristie in (B33
and impro.ed and populariMed by Sir &harles *heatstone in (B;3. It is used to measure an
unknown electrical resistance by balancing two legs o! a bridge circuit/ one leg o! which
includes the unknown component. Its operation is similar to the original potentiometer e+cept
that in potentiometer circuits the meter used is a sensiti.e gal.anometer.
The 'asic 'ridge &ircuit
The !undamental concept o! the *heatstone 'ridge is two .oltage di.iders/ both !ed by the
;
same input/ as shown to the right. The circuit output is taken !rom both .oltage di.ider outputs/ as
shown here.
@( @3
IG
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igure 8.(C $$ The basic *heatstone 'ridge circuit
In its classic !orm/ a gal.anometer Da .ery sensiti.e D& current meterE is connected between the
output terminals/ and is used to monitor the current !lowing !rom one .oltage di.ider to the other. I!
the two .oltage di.iders ha.e e+actly the same ratio D@(A@) R @3A@;E/ then the bridge is said to be
balanced and no current !lows in either direction through the gal.anometer. I! one o! the
resistors changes/ e.en a little bit in .alue/ the bridge will become unbalanced and current will
!low through the gal.anometer. Thus/ the gal.anometer becomes a .ery sensiti.e indicator
o! the balance condition.
:
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Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
TTS Integrated Training System
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,sing the *heatstone 'ridge
In its basic application/ a D& .oltage DEE is applied to the *heatstone 'ridge/ and a
gal.anometer D<E is used to monitor the balance condition. The .alues o! @i and @3 are
precisely known/ but do not ha.e to be identical. @) is a calibrated .ariable resistance/ whose
current .alue may be read !rom a dial or scale.
igure 8.)7 $ The practical *heatstone 'ridge
"n unknown resistor/ @+/ is connected as the !ourth side o! the circuit/ and power is applied. @) is
ad3usted until the gal.anometer/ </ reads Mero current. "t this point/ @+ R @)+@3A@(.
This circuit is most sensiti.e when all !our resistors ha.e similar resistance .alues. Lowe.er/ the
circuit works quite well in any e.ent. I! @) can be .aried o.er a (7H(
resistance range and @( is o! a
similar .alue/ we can switch decade .alues o! @3 into and out o! the circuit according to the range o!
.alue we e+pect !rom @U. ,sing this method/ we can accurately measure any .alue o! @+ by
mo.ing one multiple$position switch and ad3usting one precision potentiometer.
"pplications o! the *heatstone 'ridge
It is not possible to co.er all o! the practical .ariations and applications o! the *heatstone
'ridge/ let alone all types o! bridges/ in a single *eb page. Sir &harles *heatstone in.ented
many uses himsel!/ and others ha.e been de.eloped/ along with many .ariations/ since that
time. 2ne .ery common application in industry today is to monitor sensor de.ices such as strain
gauges. Such de.ices change their internal resistance according to the speci!ic le.el o! strain Dor
pressure/ temperature/ etc.E/ and ser.e as the unknown resistor @U. Lowe.er/ instead o! trying to
constantly ad3ust @) to balance the circuit/ the gal.anometer is replaced by a circuit that can be
calibrated to record the degree o! imbalance in the bridge as the .alue o! strain or other condition
being applied to the sensor.
" second application is used by electrical power distributors to accurately locate breaks in a
power line. The method is !ast and accurate/ and does not require a large number o! !ield
technicians.
Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
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Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
TTS Integrated Training System ,se andAor disclosure is
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
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DbE
&onductance
Electricity is a study that is !requently e+plained in terms o! opposites. The term that is the
opposite o! resistance is conductance. &onductance is the ability o! a material to pass
electrons. The !actors that a!!ect the magnitude o! resistance are e+actly the same !or
conductance/ but they a!!ect conductance in the opposite manner. There!ore/ conductance is
directly proportional to area/ and in.ersely proportional to the length o! the material. The
temperature o! the material is de!initely a !actor/ but assuming a constant temperature/ the
conductance o! a material can be calculated.
The unit o! conductance is the mho D<E/ which is ohm spelled backwards. @ecently the term
mho has been redesignated Siemens DSE. *hereas the symbol used to represent resistance
D@E is the <reek letter omega DS)E/ the symbol used to represent conductance D<E is DSE. The
relationship that e+ists between resistance D@E and conductance D<E or DSE is a reciprocal one. "
reciprocal o! a number is one di.ided by that number. In terms o! resistance and conductanceH
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#ositi.e and Gegati.e &oe!!icients o! &onductance
Since conductance is merely the reciprocal o! resistance/ it is temperature dependant.
Lowe.er/ the reciprocal nature o! its relationship with resistance means that where a material has
a positi.e temperature coe!!icient o! resistance/ it will ha.e a negati.e temperature
%
coe!!icient o! conductance/ and .ice .ersa.
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Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
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Electrical @esistors
@esistance is a property o! e.ery electrical component. "t times/ its e!!ects will be undesirable.
Lowe.er/ resistance is used in many .aried ways. @esistors are components manu!actured to
possess speci!ic .alues o! resistance. They are manu!actured in many types and siMes. *hen
drawn using its schematic representation/ a resistor is shown as a series o! 3agged lines/ as
illustrated in !igure 8.)(.
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igure 8.)( $ Types o! resistors.
&omposition o! @esistors
2ne o! the most common types o! resistors is the moulded composition/ usually re!erred to as the
carbon resistor. These resistors are manu!actured in a .ariety o! siMes and shapes. The chemical
composition o! the resistor determines its ohmic .alue and is accurately controlled by the
manu!acturer in the de.elopment process. They are made in ohmic .alues that range !rom one
ohm to millions o! ohms. The physical siMe o! the resistor is related to its wattage rating/ which is
the ability o! resistor to dissipate heat caused by the resistance.
&arbon resistors/ as you might suspect/ ha.e as their principal ingredient the element carbon. In the
manu!acturer o! carbon resistors/ !illers or binders are added to the carbon to obtain .arious resistor
.alues. E+amples o! these !illers are clay/ 'akelite/ rubber/ and talc. These !illers are doping agents
and cause the o.erall conduction characteristics to change.
8$3;
Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
TTS Integrated Training System
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,se andAor disclosure is
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&arbon resistors are the most common resistors !ound because they are easy to manu!acturer/
ine+pensi.e/ and ha.e a tolerance that is adequate !or most electrical and electronic
applications. Their prime disad.antage is that they ha.e a tendency to change .alue as they
age. 2ne other disad.antage o! carbon resistors is their limited power handling capacity.
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The disad.antage o! carbon resistors can be o.ercome by the use o! *I@E*2,GD resistors
D!ig. ($)C D'E and D&EE. *ire$wound resistors ha.e .e accurate .alues and possess a higher
current handling capability than carbon resistors. The material that is !requently used to
manu!acture wire$wound resistors is <erman sil.er which is composed o! copper/ nickel/ and
Minc. The qualities and quantities o! these elements present in the wire determine the resisti.ity
o! the wire. DThe resisti.ity o! the wire is the measure or ability o! the wire to resist current.
,sually the percent o! nickel in the wire determines the resisti.ity.E 2ne disad.antage o! the
wire$wound resistor is that it takes a large amount o! wire to manu!acture a resistor o! high
ohmic .alue/ thereby increasing the cost. " .ariation o! the wire$wound resistor pro.ides an
e+posed sur!ace to the resistance wire on one side. "n ad3ustable tap is attached to this side.
Such resistors/ sometimes with two or more ad3ustable taps/ are used as .oltage di.iders in
power supplies and other applications where a speci!ic .oltage is desired to be 1tapped1 o!!.
i+ed and Iariable @esistors
There are two kinds o! resistors/ i+ed and Iariable. The !i+ed resistor will ha.e one .alue and will
ne.er change Dother than through temperature/ age/ etc.E. The resistors shown in " and ' o! !igure
8.)( are classed as !i+ed resistors. The tapped resistor illustrated in ' has se.eral !i+ed taps and
makes more than one resistance .alue a.ailable. The sliding contact resistor shown in & has an
ad3ustable collar that can be mo.ed to tap o!! any resistance within the ohmic .alue range o! the
resistor.
There are two types o! .ariable resistors/ one called a potentiometer and the other a rheostat Dsee
.iews D and E o! !ig. 8.)(E "n e+ample o! the potentiometer is the .olume control on your radio/
and an e+ample o! the rheostat is the dimmer control !or the dash lights in an automobile. There is a
slight di!!erence between them. @heostats usually ha.e two connections/ one !i+ed and the other
mo.eable. "ny .ariable resistor can properly be called a rheostat. The
potentiometer always has three connections/ two !i+ed and one mo.eable. <enerally/ the rheostat
has a limited range o! .alues and a high current$handling capability. The potentiometer has a wide
range o! .alues/ but it usually has a limited current$handling capability. #otentiometers are always
connected as .oltage di.iders.
@esistor *attage @ating
*hen a current is passed through a resistor/ heat is de.eloped within the resistor. The resistor
, must be capable o! dissipating this heat into the surrounding airK otherwise/ the temperature o!
the resistor rises causing a change in resistance/ or possibly causing the resistor to burn out.
r The ability o! the resistor to dissipate heat depends upon the design o! the resistor itsel!. This
ability to dissipate heat depends on the amount o! sur!ace area which is e+posed to the air. "
resistor designed to dissipate a large amount o! heat must there!ore ha.e a large physical siMe.
The heat dissipating capability o! a resistor is measured in *atts. Some o! the more common
wattage ratings o! carbon resistors areH one$eighth watt/ one$!ourth watt/ one$hal! watt/ one
watt/ and two *atts. In some o! the newer state$o!$the$art circuits o! today/ much smaller
wattage resistors are used. <enerally/ the type that you will be able to physically work with are
o! the .alues gi.en. The higher the wattage rating o! the resistor the larger is the physical siMe.
Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
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@esistors that dissipate .ery large amounts o! power DwattsE are usually wire$wound resistors.
*ire$wound resistors with wattage ratings up to =7 watts are not uncommon.
&onstruction o! #otentiometers
igure 8.)) $ &onstruction o! a wire$wound circular
potentiometer.
The resisti.e element D(E o! the shown de.ice is
trapeMoidal/ gi.ing a non$linear relationship between
resistance and turn angle. The wiper D3E rotates with
the a+is D;E/ pro.iding the changeable resistance
between the wiper contact D6E and the !i+ed contacts
D=E and DCE. The .ertical position o! the a+is is !i+ed in
the body D)E with the ring D8E DbelowE and the bolt DBE
Dabo.eE.
" potentiometer is constructed using a !lat semi$circular graphite
resisti.e element/ with a sliding contact DwiperE. The wiper is
connected through another sliding contact to the third terminal.
2n panel pots/ the wiper is usually the centre terminal. or
single turn pots/ this wiper typically tra.els 3ust under one
re.olution around the contact. 5Multi$turn5 potentiometers also
e+ist/ where the resistor element may be helical and the wiper
may mo.e (7/ )7/ or more complete re.olutions. 'esides
graphite/ other materials may be used to make the resisti.e
element. These may be resistance wire/ or carbon particles in
plastic/ or a ceramicAmetal mi+ture called cermet.
igure 8.)3 $ " typical single turn potentiometer
2ne !orm o! rotary potentiometer is called a string !of. It is a multi$turn potentiometer with an
attached reel o! wire turning against a spring. It is con.enient !or measuring mo.ement and
there!ore acts as a position transducer.
In a linear slider pot/ a sliding control is pro.ided instead o! a dial control. The word linear also
describes the geometry o! the resisti.e element which is a rectangular strip/ not semi$circular as in
a rotary potentiometer. 'ecause o! the large opening !or the wiper and knob/ this type o! pot has a
greater potential !or getting contaminated.
#otentiometers can be obtained with either linear or logarithmic laws Dor 1tapers1E.
8$36
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Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
TTS Integrated Training System
,se andAor disclosure is
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
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rl r$/ ninhW on( 7
go.erned by the statement
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III
igure 8.); $ #&' mount trimmer potentiometers/ or 1trimpots1/ intended !or in!requent
ad3ustment.
%inear Taper #otentiometer
" linear taper potentiometer has a resisti.e element o! constant cross$section/ resulting in a
de.ice where the resistance between the contact DwiperE and one end terminal is proportional to
the distance between them. %inear taper describes the electrical characteristic o! the de.ice/ not
the geometry o! the resisti.e element. %inear taper potentiometers are used when an
appro+imately proportional relation is desired between sha!t rotation and the di.ision ratio o! the
potentiometerK !or e+ample/ controls used !or ad3usting the centreing o! Dan analogueE cathode$
ray oscilloscope.
i .5
%ogarithmic #otentiometer
" logarithmic taper potentiometer has a resisti.e element that either5tapers5 in !rom one end to the
other/ or is made !rom a material whose resisti.ity .aries !rom one end to the other. This results in
a de.ice where output .oltage is a logarithmic Dor in.erse logarithmic depending on
typeE !unction o! the mechanical angle o! the pot.
Most DcheaperE 1log1 pots are actually not logarithmic/ but use two regions o! di!!erent/ but
constant/ resisti.ity to appro+imate a logarithmic law. " log pot can also be simulated with a
linear pot and an e+ternal resistor. True log pots are signi!icantly more e+pensi.e.
%ogarithmic taper potentiometers are o!ten used in connection with audio ampli!iers.
Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor 8$38
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Intentionally 'lank
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Module 3.8 @esistanceA@esistor
TTS Integrated Training System
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,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
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*
15
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IT
Integrated Training System
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TTS Integrated
Training System
Module 3
%icence &ategory '(A')
,
,
%
Electrical undamentals
3.B #ower
Module 3.B #ower
B$(
on page ) o! this &hapter.
-
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&opyright Gotice
6 &opyright. "ll worldwide rights reser.ed. Go part o! this publication may be reproduced/
stored in a retrie.al system or transmitted in any !orm by any other means whatsoe.erH i.e.
photocopy/ electronic/ mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission o!
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'asic knowledge !or categories "/ '( and ') are indicated by the allocation o! knowledge le.els indicators D(/ ) or
3E against each applicable sub3ect. &ategory & applicants must meet either the category '( or the category ')
basic knowledge le.els.
The knowledge le.el indicators are de!ined as !ollowsH
%EIE% (
J " !amiliarisation with the principal elements o! the sub3ect.
2b3ecti.esH
J The applicant should be !amiliar with the basic elements o! the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to gi.e a simple description o! the whole sub3ect/ using common words and
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J The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
%EIE% )
J " general knowledge o! the theoretical and practical aspects o! the sub3ect.
J
"n ability to apply that knowledge.
2b3ecti.esH
J The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical !undamentals o! the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to gi.e a general description o! the sub3ect using/ as appropriate/ typical
e+amples.
J The applicant should be able to use mathematical !ormulae in con3unction with physical laws describing the
sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches/ drawings and schematics describing the
sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
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" detailed knowledge o! the theoretical and practical aspects o! the sub3ect.
J
" capacity to combine and apply the separate elements o! knowledge in a logical and comprehensi.e
manner.
2b3ecti.esH
J The applicant should know the theory o! the sub3ect and interrelationships with other sub3ects.
J The applicant should be able to gi.e a detailed description o! the sub3ect using theoretical !undamentals
and speci!ic e+amples.
J The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical !ormulae related to the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to read/ understand and prepare sketches/ simple drawings and schematics
describing the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manu!acturer5s
instructions.
J
The applicant should be able to interpret results !rom .arious sources and measurements and apply
correcti.e action where appropriate.
K(
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Module 3.B #ower
TTS Integrated Training System
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TTS Integrated Training System
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6 &opyright )7(7
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Table o! &ontents
re.
Module 3.B #ower
=
Introduction
=
#ower @ating
((
i %
#ower &on.ersion and E!!iciency
()
#ower in a Series &ircuit
(;
#ower Trans!er and E!!iciency
(6
t
%
#ower in a #arallel &ircuit (8
#ower in the Ioltage Di.ider
(B
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Module 3.B #ower
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Module 3.B Enabling 2b3ecti.es
2b3ecti.e
E"S" 66 @e!erence %e.el
#ower
3.B )
#ower/ work and energy Dkinetic and potentialE
Dissipation o! power by a resistor
#ower !ormula
&alculations in.ol.ing power/ work and energy
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Module 3.B #ower
TTS Integrated Training System ,se andAor disclosure is
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
DE &nn.rinht CM 7
6 &opyright )7(7
go.erned by the statement
on page ) o! this &hapter.
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Module 3.B #ower
i %
Introduction
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#ower/ whether electrical or mechanical/ pertains to the rate at which work is being done. *ork
is done whene.er a !orce causes motion. *hen a mechanical !orce is used to li!t or mo.e a
weight/ work is done. Lowe.er/ !orce e+erted without causing motion/ such as the !orce o! a
compressed spring acting between two !i+ed ob3ects/ does not constitute work.
#re.iously/ it was shown that .oltage is an electrical !orce/ and that .oltage !orces current to
!low in a closed circuit. Lowe.er/ when .oltage e+ists but current does not !low because the
circuit is open/ no work is done. This is similar to the spring under tension that produced no
motion. *hen .oltage causes electrons to mo.e/ work is done. The instantaneous rate at which
this work is done is called the electric power rate/ and is measured in *atts.
" total amount o! work may be done in di!!erent lengths o! time. or e+ample/ a gi.en number o!
electrons may be mo.ed !rom one point to another in ( second or in ( hour/ depending on the rate
at which they are mo.ed. In both cases/ total work done is the same. Lowe.er/ when the work is
done in a short time/ the wattage/ or instantaneous power rate/ is greater than when the same
amount o! work is done o.er a longer period o! time.
"s stated/ the basic unit o! power is the watt. #ower in watts is equal to the .oltage across a
circuit multiplied by current through the circuit. This represents the rate at any gi.en instant at
which work is being done. The symbol # indicates electrical power. Thus/ the basic power
!ormula is # R E + (/ where E is .oltage and I is current in the circuit. The amount o! power
changes when either .oltage or current/ or both .oltage and current/ are caused to change.
In practice/ the only !actors that can be changed are .oltage and resistance. In e+plaining the
di!!erent !orms that !ormulas may take/ current is sometimes presented as a quantity that is
changed. @emember/ i! current is changed/ it is because either .oltage or resistance has been
changed.
igure B.C shows a basic circuit using a source o! power that can be .aried !rom 7 to B .olts and a
graph that indicates the relationship between .oltage and power.
The resistance o! this circuit is ) ohmsK this .alue does not change. Ioltage DEE is increased Dby
! increasing the .oltage sourceE/ in steps o! ( .olt/ !rom 7 .olts to B .olts. 'y applying 2hm5s law/
%..K
the current DIE is determined !or each step o! .oltage. or instance/ when E is ( .olt/ the current
isH
Module 3.B #ower
B$=
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I R E
@
( .olt
) ohms
I R 7/= ampere
I"@I"'%E
#2*E@ S,##%P
@ DIUEDE
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# EI
# E)
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6 8 B E DI2%TSE
igure B.(
$ <raph o! power related to changing .oltage.
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Module 3.B #ower
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go.erned by the statement
n &nn.rinht )7(7
TTS Integrated Training System
,se andAor disclosure is
6 &opyright )7(7
go.erned by the statement
on page ) o! this &hapter.
Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
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#ower D#E/ in watts/ is determined by applying the basic power !ormulaH
#RE+I
#RI.olt +7.=ampere
#R2.Swatt
*hen E is increased to ) .oltsH
IuE
@
) .olts
) ohms
I R ( amp ere
and
# R E + I
# R ) .olts + ( ampere
# R ) watts
*hen E is increased to 3 .oltsH
I RE
@
3 .olts
) ohms
I R (.= amperes
and
#RE+I
# R 3 .olts + (.= ampere
#R;.=watts
Pou should notice that when the .oltage was increased to ) .olts/ the power increased !rom 7.=
watts to ) watts or ; times. *hen the .oltage increased to 3 .olts/ the power increased to ;.=
watts or C times. This shows that i! the resistance in a circuit is held constant/ the power .aries
directly with the square o! the .oltage.
"nother way o! pro.ing that power .aries as the square o! the .oltage when resistance is held
constant isH
Module 3.B #ower
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E
SinceH
@
'y substitution inH #RE+I
Pou getK # R E +
E @
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2rH
There!oreH
E+E
@
# R E)
@
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"nother important relationship may be seen by studying igure B.(7. Thus !ar/ power has been
calculated with .oltage and current D# R E + IE/ and with .oltage and resistance
E)
#
@
@e!erring to igure B.(7/ note that power also .aries as the square o! current 3ust as it does with
.oltage. Thus/ another !ormula !or power/ with current and resistance as its !actors/ is
p
R ()@. This
can be pro.ed byH
SinceH
E R I + @
'y substituition inH # R E + I
Pou getH #RI+@+I
2rH
#RI+I+@
There!oreH # R () + @
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Module 3.B #ower
,se andlor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
DcE &on.riaht )7(7
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
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DI"@I"'%E #2*E@ S,##%PE
@ DIUEDE
7 $ B I2%TS ) 2LMS
# R EI
# R I)@
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I D"M#SE
igure B.) $ <raph o! power related to changing current.
,p to this point/ !our o! the most important electrical quantities ha.e been discussed. These are
.oltage DEE/ current DIE/ resistance D@E/ and power D#E. Pou must understand the relationships
which e+ist among these quantities because they are used throughout your study o! electricity. In
the preceding paragraphs/ # was e+pressed in terms o! alternate pairs o! the other three
basic quantities E/ I/ and @. In practice/ you should be able to e+press any one o! these
quantities in terms o! any two o! the others.
igure B.3 is a summary o! () basic !ormulas you should know. The !our quantities E/ I/ @/ and #
are at the centre o! the !igure. "d3acent to each quantity are three segments. Gote that in
each segment/ the basic quantity is e+pressed in terms o! two other basic quantities/ and no two
segments are alike.
Module 3.B #ower B$C
Integrated Training System
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n
n
igure B.3 $ Summary o! basic !ormulas.
or e+ample/ the !ormula wheel in igure B.3 could be used to !ind the !ormula to sol.e the
!ollowing problemH
n
" circuit has a .oltage source that deli.ers 6 .olts and the circuit uses 3 watts o! power. *hat is
% (
the resistance o! the load?
Since @ is the quantity you ha.e been asked to !ind/ look in the section o! the wheel that has @ in
the centre. The segment
E)

contains the quantities you ha.e been gi.en. The !ormula you would use is
F
I
@E)
#
The problem can now be sol.ed.
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TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
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TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
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Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
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<i.enH E R 6 .olts
# R 3 watts
SoultionH @ R E
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3 watts
@ $36 R() ohms
3
#ower @ating
Electrical components are o!ten gi.en a power rating. The power rating/ in watts/ indicates the
rate at which the de.ice con.erts electrical energy into another !orm o! energy/ such as light/
heat/ or motion. "n e+ample o! such a rating is noted when comparing a (=7$watt lamp to a
(77$watt lamp. The higher wattage rating o! the (=7$watt lamp indicates it is capable o!
con.erting more electrical energy into light energy than the lamp o! the lower rating. 2ther
common e+amples o! de.ices with power ratings are soldering irons and small electric motors.
In some electrical de.ices the wattage rating indicates the ma+imum power the de.ice is
designed to use rather than the normal operating power. " (=7$watt lamp/ !or e+ample/ uses
(=7 watts when operated at the speci!ied .oltage printed on the bulb. In contrast/ a de.ice such
as a resistor is not normally gi.en a .oltage or a current rating. " resistor is gi.en a power rating
in watts and can be operated at any combination o! .oltage and current as long as the power
rating is not e+ceeded. In most circuits/ the actual power used by a resistor is considerably less
than the power rating o! the resistor because a =7] sa!ety !actor is used. or e+ample/ i! a
resistor normally used ) watts o! power/ a resistor with a power rating o! 3 watts would be used.
@esistors o! the same resistance .alue are a.ailable in di!!erent wattage .alues. &arbon
resistors/ !or e+ample/ are commonly made in wattage ratings o! (AB/ (A;/ (A)/ (/ and ) watts.
The larger the physical siMe o! a carbon resistor the higher the wattage rating. This is true
because a larger sur!ace area o! material radiates a greater amount o! heat more easily.
*hen resistors with wattage ratings greater than = watts are needed/ wirewound resistors are
used. *irewound resistors are made in .alues between = and )77 watts. Special types o!
wirewound resistors are used !or power in e+cess o! )77 watts.
"s with other electrical quantities/ pre!i+es may be attached to the word watt when e+pressing .ery
large or .ery small amounts o! power. Some o! the more common o! these are the kilowatt D(/777
wattsE/ the megawatt D(/777/777 wattsE/ and the milliwatt D(A(/777 o! a wattE.
B$((
Module 3.B #ower
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go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
nn Cno 7 o! ;h!e
Integrated Training System
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#ower &on.ersion and E!!iciency
The term power consumption is common in the electrical !ield. It is applied to the use o! power
in the same sense that gasoline consumption is applied to the use o! !uel in an automobile.
"nother common term is 4power con.ersion5.
#ower is used by electrical de.ices and is con.erted !rom one !orm o! energy to another. "n
electrical motor con.erts electrical energy to mechanical energy. "n electric light bulb con.erts
electrical energy into light energy and an electric range con.erts electrical energy into heat
energy. #ower used by electrical de.ices is measured in energy. This practical unit o! electrical
energy is equal to ( watt o! power used continuously !or ( hour. The term kilowatt hour Dk*hE is
used more e+tensi.ely on a daily basis and is equal to (/777 watt$hours.
The e!!iciency o! an electrical de.ice is the ratio o! power con.erted to use!ul energy di.ided by
the power consumed by the de.ice. This number will always be less than one D(.77E because o!
the losses in any electrical de.ice. I! a de.ice has an e!!iciency rating o! 7.C=/ it e!!ecti.ely
trans!orms C= watts into use!ul energy !or e.ery (77 watts o! input power. The other = watts are
lost to heat/ or other losses which cannot be used.
&alculating the amount o! power con.erted by an electrical de.ice is a simple matter. Pou need to
know the length o! time the de.ice is operated and the input power or horsepower rating.
Lorsepower/ a unit o! work/ is o!ten !ound as a rating on electrical motors. 2ne horsepower is
equal to 8;6 watts. E+ampleH " 3A;$hp motor operates B hours a day. Low much power is
con.erted by the motor per month? Low many k*h does this represent?
<i.enH
t R B hrs + 37 days
#R3A;hp
SolutionH &on.ert horsepower to watts
# R hp + 8;6 watts
#R3A;+8;6 watts
# R ==C watts
&on.ert watts to watt$hours
# R work + time
# R ==C watts + B + 37
# R (3;/777 watt$hours per month
DG2TEH These !igures are rounded to the nearest (777.E
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Module 3.B #ower
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6 &opyright )7(7
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Integrated Training System
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! liI4 To con.ert to k*h
#R#ower in watt$hours
(777
(3;/ 777 in watt$hours
Designed in association with the
club66pro.co.uk question practice aid
#R
# R (3; k*h
(777
I! the motor actually uses (38 k*h per month/ what is the e!!iciency o! the motor?
<i.enH
#ower con.erted R (3; k*h per month
L
El
#ower used R (38 k*h per month
SolutionH
#ower con.erted
E R
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E R(3; k*h per month
(38 k*h per month
E R/C8B D@ounded to three !iguresE
Module 3.B #ower
B$(3
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#ower in a Series &ircuit
Each o! the resistors in a series circuit consumes power which is dissipated in the !orm o! heat.
Since this power must come !rom the source/ the total power must be equal to the power
consumed by the circuit resistances. In a series circuit the total power is equal to the S,M o! the
power dissipated by the indi.idual resistors. Total power D#TE is equal toH
#TR#yW#)W#3...#n
E+ampleH " series circuit consists o! three resistors ha.ing .alues o! = ohms/ (7 ohms/ and (=
ohms. ind the total power when ()7 .olts is applied to the circuit. DSee igure B.;E
r$n
$ ET
()7I
@3
(==
igure B.; $ Sol.ing !or total power in a series circuit.
<i.enH
@( R = ohms
@) R (7 ohms
@3 R (= ohms
E R ()7 .olts
SolutionH The total resistance is !ound !irst.
@TR@(W@)W@3
@T R = ohms W (7 ohms W (= ohms
@T R 37 ohms
'y using the total resistance and the applied .oltage/ the circuit current is calculated.
B$(;
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Module 3.B #ower
TTS Integrated Training System
,se andAor disclosure is
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement n 5
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In
go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
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()7 .olts
37 ohms
%
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!
I > ; amps
'y means o! the power !ormulas/ the power can be calculated !or each resistorH
or @(H #( RI)+@(
#( RD;ampsE)+=ohms
#( R B7 watts
or @)H #) RI)+@)
#) R D ; ampsE) + (7 ohms
#) R (67 watts
or @3H #3 RI)+@3
#3 RD;ampsE)+(=ohms
#3 R );7 watts
or total powerH
#T R#( W#)W#3
#T R B7 watts W (67 watts
W );7 watts
#T R ;B7 watts
To check the answer/ the total power deli.ered by the source can be calculatedH
#source R I source
+
E source
# source R ; amps + ()7 .olts
#sotnrce R ;B7 watts
The total power is equal to the sum o! the power used by the indi.idual resistors.
@ule !or Series D& &ircuits
The total power in a series circuit is equal to the sum o! the indi.idual powers used by each
circuit component.
%
B$(=
Module 3.B #ower
l:
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,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the
statement
6 &opyright )7(7
Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
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#ower Trans!er and E!!iciency
Ma+imum power is trans!erred !rom the source to the load when the resistance o! the load is
equal to the internal resistance o! the source. *hen the load resistance is = ohms/ matching the
source resistance/ the ma+imum power o! =77 watts is de.eloped in the load.
The e!!iciency o! power trans!er Dratio o! output power to input powerE !rom the source to the load
increases as the load resistance is increased. The e!!iciency approaches (77 percent as the load
resistance approaches a relati.ely large .alue compared with that o! the source/ since less power is
lost in the source. The e!!iciency o! power trans!er is only =7 percent at the
ma+imum power trans!er point Dwhen the load resistance equals the internal resistance o! the
sourceE. The e!!iciency o! power trans!er approaches Mero e!!iciency when the load resistance is
relati.ely small compared with the internal resistance o! the source.
The problem o! a desire !or both high e!!iciency and ma+imum power trans!er is resol.ed by a
compromise between ma+imum power trans!er and high e!!iciency. *here the amounts o! power
in.ol.ed are large and the e!!iciency is important/ the load resistance is made large
relati.e to the source resistance so that the losses are kept small. In this case/ the e!!iciency is
high. *here the problem o! matching a source to a load is important/ as in communications
circuits/ a strong signal may be more important than a high percentage o! e!!iciency. In such cases/
the e!!iciency o! power trans!er should be only about =7 percentK howe.er/ the power trans!er
would be the ma+imum which the source is capable o! supplying.
%.
Pou should now understand the basic concepts o! series circuits. The principles which ha.e
been presented are o! lasting importance. 2nce equipped with a !irm understanding o! series
circuits/ you hold the key to an understanding o! the parallel circuits to be presented ne+t.
n
B$(6
Module 3.B #ower
TTS Integrated Training System
ed by t
go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
t i

%
#ower in a #arallel &ircuit
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#ower computations in a parallel circuit are essentially the same as those used !or the series
circuit. Since power dissipation in resistors consists o! a heat loss/ power dissipations are
additi.e regardless o! how the resistors are connected in the circuit. The total power is equal to the
sum o! the power dissipated by the indi.idual resistors. %ike the series circuit/ the total
power consumed by the parallel circuit isH
#TR#IW#)W/// #n
E+ampleH ind the total power consumed by the circuit in igure B.=.
@(
@)
=7y (7c9
)=S
%
igure B.= $ E+ample parallel circuit.
<i.enH
@(R(7c
I@SR ="
@) R )= S
Ii
I@)R )"
%
@3R=7S
I@3R ("
SolutionH
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Module 3.B #ower
B$(8
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#RI)@
#@( R DI@( E ) + @(
#@(RD="E)+ (77
#@K V37r.75tii
#@)RDI@)E)+@)
#@)RD)"E)+)=S
#@) R :)1
#@3RDI@3E)+@3
#@3RD("E)+ =77
#@3 R S2*
#T R #@I W #@) W#@3
#T R )=2* W S2*
#T R ;72*
SolutionH
#TRESgIT
#TR=7 +B"
#T R ;77 (
@ule !or #arallel D& &ircuits
The total power consumed in a parallel circuit is equal to the sum o! the power consumptions o!
the indi.idual resistances.
#ower in the Ioltage Di.ider
#ower in the .oltage di.ider is an e+tremely important quantity.
The power dissipated by the resistors in the .oltage di.ider should be calculated to determine
the power handling requirements o! the resistors. Total power o! the circuit is needed to
determine the power requirement o! the source.
The power !or the circuit shown in igure B.6 is calculated as !ollowsH
B$(B
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Module 3.B #ower
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,se andAor disclosu re is TTS Integrated Training System
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W75
%/
it
7
Es
)B=(
%
;
@ 3
37m"
%2"D 3
W(=7.
%
%
%
%
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igure B.6 $ Multiple$load .oltage di.ider.
<i.enH
E@I RC7I
E@(R Sm"
SolutionH
#@(RE@3UI@(
C7I
#@i R $;=*
The power in each resistor is calculated 3ust as !or @(. *hen the calculations are per!ormed/ the
!ollowing results are obtainedH
Module 3.B #ower B$(C
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#
@) R
C**
#@3 R
6)=]8(
#@; R 6.7=*
To calculate the power !or load (H
<i.enH
Eloadl R C7I
Iload (R
( 2m"
SolutionH
#loadl R Eloadl U Iloadl
#loadl R C2I + (7rn"
#loadl R .C
The power in each load is calculated 3ust as !or load (. *hen the calculations are per!ormed/ the
!ollowing results are obtained.
#loadl R ($=*
#load3 R =/)=*
Total power is calculated by summing the power consumed by the loads and the power
dissipated by the di.ider resistors. The total power in the circuit is (=.68= watts.
The power used by the loads and di.ider resistors is supplied by the source. This applies to all
electrical circuitsK power !or all components is supplied by the source.
Since power is the product o! .oltage and current/ the power supplied by the source is equal to the
source .oltage multiplied by the total circuit current DEs + ITE.
In the circuit o! igure B.6/ the total power can be calculated byH
<i.enH
ESR )B=I
IT R ==r"
DI@;E
SolutionH
#TR ES U IT
#TR )7=I + =Sm"
#TR (=.68=*
B$)7
Module 3.B #ower
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Module 3
%icence &ategory '(A')
Electrical undamentals
3.C &apacitanceA&apacitor
Module 3.C &apacitanceA&apacitor
C$(
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stored in a retrie.al system or transmitted in any !orm by any other means whatsoe.erH i.e.
photocopy/ electronic/ mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission o!
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'asic knowledge !or categories "/ '( and ') are indicated by the allocation o! knowledge le.els indicators D(/ ) or
3E against each applicable sub3ect. &ategory & applicants must meet either the category '( or the category ')
basic knowledge le.els.
The knowledge le.el indicators are de!ined as !ollowsH
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J " !amiliarisation with the principal elements o! the sub3ect.
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J The applicant should be !amiliar with the basic elements o! the sub3ect.
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The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical !undamentals o! the sub3ect.
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The applicant should be able to gi.e a general description o! the sub3ect using/ as appropriate/ typical
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The applicant should be able to gi.e a detailed description o! the sub3ect using theoretical !undamentals
and speci!ic e+amples.
J The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical !ormulae related to the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to read/ understand and prepare sketches/ simple drawings and schematics
describing the sub3ect.
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The applicant should be able to interpret results !rom .arious sources and measurements and apply
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$) Module 3.C &apacitanceA&apacitor
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Table o! &ontents
Module 3.C &apacitanceA&apacitor
Introduction
The Electrostatic ield
The Simple &apacitor
The arad
actors "!!ecting the Ialue o! &apacitance
ormula !or &apacitance
#ermitti.ity
Ioltage @ating o! &apacitors
&apacitor %osses
Energy Stored in a &apacitor
&harging and Discharging a &apacitor
&harge and Discharge o! an @& Series &ircuit
@& Time &onstant
&apacitors in Series and #arallel
The i+ed &apacitor
The Iariable &apacitor
&olour &odes !or &apacitors
'asic &apacitor Testing
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Module 3.C Enabling 2b3ecti.es
2b3ecti.e
&apacitanceA&apacitor
2peration and !unction o! a capacitor
actors a!!ecting capacitance area o! plates/ distance
between plates/ number o! plates/ dielectric and dielectric
constant/ working .oltage/ .oltage rating
&apacitor types/ construction and !unction
&apacitor colour coding
&alculations o! capacitance and .oltage in series and
parallel circuits
E+ponential charge and discharge o! a capacitor/ time
constants
Testing capacitors
C$;
E"S" 66 @e!erence %e.el
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Module 3.C &apacitanceA&apacitor
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Module 3.C &apacitanceA&apacitor
Introduction
" capacitor is a de.ice that stores electrical energy in an electrostatic !ield. The energy is
stored in such a way as to oppose any change in .oltage. :ust how capacitance opposes a
(((
change in .oltage is e+plained later in this chapter. Lowe.er/ it is !irst necessary to e+plain the
principles o! an electrostatic !ield as it is applied to capacitance.
The Electrostatic ield
Pou pre.iously learned that opposite electrical charges attract each other while like electrical
charges repel each other. The reason !or this is the e+istence o! an electrostatic !ield. "ny
charged particle is surrounded by in.isible lines o! !orce/ called electrostatic lines o! !orce. These
lines o! !orce ha.e some interesting characteristicsH
J They are polariMed !rom positi.e to negati.e.
J They radiate !rom a charged particle in straight lines and do not !orm closed loops.
J They ha.e the ability to pass through any known material.
J They ha.e the ability to distort the orbits o! tightly bound electrons.
E+amine igure C.(. This !igure represents two unlike charges surrounded by their electrostatic
!ield. 'ecause an electrostatic !ield is polariMed positi.e to negati.e/ arrows are shown radiating
away !rom the positi.e charge and toward the negati.e charge. Stated another way/ the !ield !rom
the positi.e charge is pushing/ while the !ield !rom the negati.e charge is pulling. The
e!!ect o! the !ield is to push and pull the unlike charges together.
.
igure C.( $ Electrostatic !ield attracts two unlike charged particles.
In igure C.)/ two like charges are shown with their surrounding electrostatic !ield. The e!!ect o! the
electrostatic !ield is to push the charges apart.
$ $
$
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((((((((($7$
igure C.) $ Electrostatic !ield repels two like charged particles.
I! two unlike charges are placed on opposite sides o! an atom whose outermost electrons
cannot escape their orbits/ the orbits o! the electrons are distorted as shown in igure C.3.
igure C.3 D"E shows the normal orbit. #art D'E o! the !igure shows the same orbit in the
presence o! charged particles. Since the electron is a negati.e charge/ the positi.e charge
Module 3.C &apacitanceA&apacitor
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attracts the electrons/ pulling the electrons closer to the positi.e charge. The negati.e charge
repels the electrons/ pushing them !urther !rom the negati.e charge. It is this ability o! an
electrostatic !ield to attract and to repel charges that allows the capacitor to store energy.
IE%D
igure C.3 $ Distortion o! electron orbital paths due to electrostatic !orce.
The Simple &apacitor
" simple capacitor consists o! two metal plates separated by an insulating material called a
dielectric/ as illustrated in igure C.;. Gote that one plate is connected to the positi.e terminal o! a
batteryK the other plate is connected through a closed switch DSiE to the negati.e terminal o! the
battery. @emember/ an insulator is a material whose electrons cannot easily escape their orbits.
Due to the battery .oltage/ plate " is charged positi.ely and plate ' is charged
negati.ely. DLow this happens is e+plained later in this chapter.E Thus an electrostatic !ield is set up
between the positi.e and negati.e plates. The electrons on the negati.e plate Dplate 'E are attracted
to the positi.e charges on the positi.e plate Dplate "E.
#%"TE "
DIE%E&T@I&
e 3 C C
C o
#%"TE '
2@'IT
2 C C
C C
igure C.; $ Distortion o! electron orbits in a dielectric.
Gotice that the orbits o! the electrons in the dielectric material are distorted by the electrostatic
!ield. The distortion occurs because the electrons in the dielectric are attracted to the top plate
while being repelled !rom the bottom plate. *hen switch S( is opened/ the battery is remo.ed
!rom the circuit and the charge is retained by the capacitor. This occurs because the dielectric
material is an insulator/ and the electrons in the bottom plate Dnegati.e chargeE ha.e no path to
reach the top plate Dpositi.e chargeE. The distorted orbits o! the atoms o! the dielectric plus the
C
$6 Module 3.C &apacitanceA&apacitor
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electrostatic !orce o! attraction between the two plates hold the positi.e and negati.e charges in
their original position. Thus/ the energy which came !rom the battery is now stored in the
electrostatic !ield o! the capacitor. Two slightly di!!erent symbols !or representing a capacitor are
shown in igure C.=. Gotice that each symbol is composed o! two plates separated by a space that
represents the dielectric. The cur.ed plate in D'E o! the !igure indicates the plate should be
connected to a negati.e polarity.
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Gormal Gormal Electrolytic Iariable
igure C.= $ &ircuit symbols !or capacitors.
The arad
&apacitance is measured in units called !arads. " one$!arad capacitor stores one coulomb Da unit
o! charge DSE equal to 6.)B U (7(B electronsE o! charge when a potential o! ( .olt is applied
%i
/
%[
across the terminals o! the capacitor. This can be e+pressed by the !ormulaH
&D!aradsE R S DcoulombsE
E D.oltsE
The !arad is a .ery large unit o! measurement o! capacitance. or con.enience/ the micro!arad
Dabbre.iated pE or the #ico!arad Dabbre.iated pE is used. 2ne D(.7E micro!arad is equal to
7.77777( !arad or ( U (7$6 !arad/ and (.7 #ico!arad is equal to 7.77777777777( !arad or (.7 U (71()
!arad. &apacitance is a physical property o! the capacitor and does not depend on circuit
characteristics o! .oltage/ current/ and resistance. " gi.en capacitor always has the same .alue o!
capacitance D!aradsE in one circuit as in any other circuit in which it is connected.
actors "!!ecting the Ialue o!
&apacitance
The .alue o! capacitance o! a capacitor
depends on three !actorsH
J The area D"E o! the plates.
J The distance DdE between the
plates.
J The dielectric constant
Dpermitti.ityEo! the material
between the plates.
igure C.6 $ &apacitor plates/ and the distance
between them
C$8
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#late area a!!ects the .alue o! capacitance in the same manner that the siMe o! a container
a!!ects the amount o! water that can be held by the container. " capacitor with the large plate
area can store more charges than a capacitor with a small plate area. Simply stated/ 1the larger
the plate area/ the larger the capacitance1.
The second !actor a!!ecting capacitance is the distance between the plates. Electrostatic lines o!
!orce are strongest when the charged particles that create them are close together. *hen the
charged particles are mo.ed !urther apart/ the lines o! !orce weaken/ and the ability to store a
charge decreases.
The third !actor a!!ecting capacitance is the dielectric constant Dalso called #ermitti.ityE. o! the
insulating material between the plates o! a capacitor. The .arious insulating materials used as the
dielectric in a capacitor di!!er in their ability to respond to DpassE electrostatic lines o!
!orce. " dielectric material/ or insulator/ is rated as to its ability to respond to electrostatic lines
o! !orce in terms o! a !igure called the dielectric constant. " dielectric material with a high
dielectric constant is a better insulator than a dielectric material with a low dielectric constant.
Dielectric constants !or some common materials are gi.en in the !ollowing listH
Material &onstant
Iacuum (.7777
"ir (.7776
#ara!!in paper 3.=
<lass
= to (7
Mica 3 to 6
@ubber ).= to 3=
*ood ).= to B
<lycerine D(=&&E =6
#etroleum
)
#ure *ater
B(
Table C.( $ Some common .alues o!
@elati.e #ermitti.ity Ddielectric
constantsE
Gotice the dielectric constant !or a .acuum. Since a .acuum is the standard o! re!erence/ it is
assigned a constant o! one. The dielectric constants o! all materials are compared to that o! a
.acuum. Since the dielectric constant o! air has been determined to be appro+imately the same as
that o! a .acuum/ the dielectric constant o! air is also considered to be equal to one.
C$B
Module 3.C &apacitanceA&apacitor
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%
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ormula !or &apacitance
The capacitance o! the ma3ority o! capacitors used in electronic circuits is se.eral orders o!
magnitude smaller than the !arad. The most common subunits o! capacitance in use today are the
milli!arad DmE/ micro!arad DYE/ the nano!arad DnE and the #ico!arad DpE
The capacitance can be calculated i! the geometry o! the conductors and the dielectric properties
o! the insulator between the conductors are known. or e+ample/ the capacitance o! a parallel$
plate capacitor constructed o! two parallel plates o! area " separated by a distance d is
appro+imately equal to the !ollowingH
P RE.a/Ep$
a
where
& is the capacitance in !arads/
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" is the area o! each plate/ measured in square metres


Er is the relati.e static permitti.ity Dsometimes called the dielectric constantE o! the
material between the plates/ D.acuum R(E
Eo is the permitti.ity o! !ree space where Eo R B.B=;+(7
()
Am
d is the separation between the plates/ measured in metres
#ermitti.ity
#ermitti.ity is a physical quantity that describes how an electric !ield a!!ects and is a!!ected by a
dielectric medium/ and is determined by the ability o! a material to polariMe in response to the !ield/
and thereby reduce the total electric !ield inside the material. Thus/ permitti.ity relates to a material5s
ability to transmit Dor 1permit1E an electric !ield.
It is directly related to electric susceptibility. or e+ample/ in a capacitor/ an increased permitti.ity
allows the same charge to be stored with a smaller electric !ield Dand thus a smaller .oltageE/
leading to an increased capacitance.
ree Space #ermitti.ity is the permitti.ity o! a .acuum Dree SpaceE/ also known as the
Electrical &onstant and has the symbol Eo
`o R B.B=; + (7() Am
@elati.e #ermitti.ity is the permitti.ity o! other mediums/ and is a measure o! permitti.ity
relati.e to that o! ree Space. It has the symbol Er
"bsolute #ermitti.ity is the #ermitti.ity o! other mediums relati.e to Mero/ and has the symbol E
Dno su!!i+E.
Gote that
cR Er U Eo
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Ioltage @ating o! &apacitors
In selecting or substituting a capacitor !or use/ consideration must be gi.en to D(E the .alue o!
capacitance desired and D)E the amount o! .oltage to be applied across the capacitor. I! the
.oltage applied across the capacitor is too great/ the dielectric will break down and arcing will
occur between the capacitor plates. *hen this happens the capacitor becomes a short$circuit
and the !low o! direct current through it can cause damage to other electronic parts. Each
capacitor has a .oltage rating Da working .oltageE that should not be e+ceeded.
The working .oltage o! the capacitor is the ma+imum .oltage that can be steadily applied
E l
without danger o! breaking down the dielectric. The working .oltage depends on the type o!
material used as the dielectric and on the thickness o! the dialectic. D" high$.oltage capacitor
that has a thick dielectric must ha.e a relati.ely large plate area in order to ha.e the same
capacitance as a similar low$.oltage capacitor ha.ing a thin dielectric.E The working .oltage also
depends on the applied !requency because the losses/ and the resultant heating e!!ect/
increase as the !requency increases.
" capacitor with a .oltage rating o! =77 .olts dc cannot be sa!ely sub3ected to an alternating
.oltage or a pulsating direct .oltage ha.ing an e!!ecti.e .alue o! =77 .olts. Since an alternating
8(
.oltage o! =77 .olts D@MSE has a peak .alue o! 878 .olts/ a capacitor to which it is applied
should ha.e a working .oltage o! at least 8=7 .olts. In practice/ a capacitor should be selected so
that its working .oltage is at least =7 percent greater than the highest e!!ecti.e .oltage to be
applied to it.
&apacitor %osses
#ower loss in a capacitor may be attributed to dielectric hysteresis and dielectric leakage.
Dielectric hysteresis may be de!ined as an e!!ect in a dielectric material similar to the hysteresis
!ound in a magnetic material. It is the result o! changes in orientation o! electron orbits in the
dielectric because o! the rapid re.ersals o! the polarity o! the line .oltage. The amount o! power
loss due to dielectric hysteresis depends upon the type o! dielectric used. " .acuum dielectric has
the smallest power loss.
Dielectric leakage occurs in a capacitor as the result o! leakage current through the dielectric.
Gormally it is assumed that the dielectric will e!!ecti.ely pre.ent the !low o! current through the
capacitor. "lthough the resistance o! the dielectric is e+tremely high/ a minute amount o! current
does !low. 2rdinarily this current is so small that !or all practical purposes it is ignored. Lowe.er/ i!
the leakage through the dielectric is abnormally high/ there will be a rapid loss o! charge and an
o.erheating o! the capacitor.
The power loss o! a capacitor is determined by loss in the dielectric. I! the loss is negligible and the
capacitor returns the total charge to the circuit/ it is considered to be a per!ect capacitor with a
power loss o! Mero.
C$(7
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Energy Stored in a &apacitor
" capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected !rom its charging circuit/ so it can be
used like a temporary battery. &apacitors are commonly used in electronic de.ices to maintain
power supply while batteries are being changed. DThis pre.ents loss o! in!ormation in .olatile
memory.E
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Module 3.C &apacitanceA&apacitor
C$((
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&harging and Discharging a &apacitor
&harging
In order to better understand the action o! a capacitor in con3unction with other components/ the
charge and discharge actions o! a purely capaciti.e circuit are analysed !irst. or ease o!
e+planation the capacitor and .oltage source shown in igure C.8 are assumed to be per!ect Dno
internal resistanceE/ although this is impossible in practice.
In igure C.8 D"E/ an uncharged capacitor is shown connected to a !our$position switch. *ith the
switch in position I the circuit is open and no .oltage is applied to the capacitor. Initially each plate
o! the capacitor is a neutral body and until a di!!erence o! potential is impressed across the
capacitor/ no electrostatic !ield can e+ist between the plates.
D"E,G&L"@<ED
D((e
DBE &L"@<IG<
igure C.8 $ &harging a capacitor.
To charge the capacitor/ the switch must be thrown to position )/ which places the capacitor
across the terminals o! the battery. ,nder the assumed per!ect conditions/ the capacitor would
reach !ull charge instantaneously. Lowe.er/ the charging action is spread out o.er a period o!
time in the !ollowing discussion so that a step$by$step analysis can be made.
"t the instant the switch is thrown to position ) Digure C.8 D'EE/ a displacement o! electrons
occurs simultaneously in all parts o! the circuit. This electron displacement is directed away
!rom the negati.e terminal and toward the positi.e terminal o! the source Dthe batteryE. " brie!
surge o! current will !low as the capacitor charges.
I! it were possible to analyse the motion o! the indi.idual electrons in this surge o! charging
current/ the !ollowing action would be obser.ed. See igure C.B.
a.(
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igure C.B $ Electron motion during charge.
"t the instant the switch is closed/ the positi.e terminal o! the battery e+tracts an electron !rom
the bottom conductor. The negati.e terminal o! the battery !orces an electron into the top
conductor. "t this same instant an electron is !orced into the top plate o! the capacitor and another
is pulled !rom the bottom plate. Thus/ in e.ery part o! the circuit a clockwise
displacement o! electrons occurs simultaneously.
"s electrons accumulate on the top plate o! the capacitor and others depart !rom the bottom
plate/ a di!!erence o! potential de.elops across the capacitor. Each electron !orced onto the top
,
,
,
plate makes that plate more negati.e/ while each electron remo.ed !rom the bottom causes the
bottom plate to become more positi.e. Gotice that the polarity o! the .oltage which builds up across
the capacitor is such as to oppose the source .oltage. The source .oltage DEME !orces electron
!low around the circuit o! igure C.B in a clockwise direction. The EM de.eloped
across the capacitor/ howe.er/ has a tendency to !orce the current in a counter$clockwise
direction/ opposing the source EM. "s the capacitor continues to charge/ the .oltage across
the capacitor rises until it is equal to the source .oltage. 2nce the capacitor .oltage equals the
source .oltage/ the two .oltages balance one another and current ceases to !low in the circuit. In
studying the charging process o! a capacitor/ you must be aware that no current !lows
through the capacitor. The material between the plates o! the capacitor must be an insulator.
Lowe.er/ to an obser.er stationed at the source or along one o! the circuit conductors/ the
action has all the appearances o! a true !low o! current/ e.en though the insulating material
between the plates o! the capacitor pre.ents the current !rom ha.ing a complete path. The
current which appears to !low through a capacitor is called displacement current.
*hen a capacitor is !ully charged and the source .oltage is equalled by the counter
electromoti.e !orce Dback$EME across the capacitor/ the electrostatic !ield between the plates o!
the capacitor is ma+imum. Since the electrostatic !ield is ma+imum the energy stored in the
dielectric is also ma+imum.
I! the switch is now opened as shown in igure C.B D"E/ the electrons on the upper plate are
isolated. The electrons on the top plate are attracted to the charged bottom plate. 'ecause the
dielectric is an insulator/ the electrons can not cross the dielectric to the bottom plate. The
charges on both plates will be e!!ecti.ely trapped by the electrostatic !ield and the capacitor will
remain charged inde!initely. Pou should note at this point that the insulating dielectric material in a
practical capacitor is not per!ect and small leakage current will !low through the dielectric. This
current will e.entually dissipate the charge. Lowe.er/ a high quality capacitor may hold its
charge !or a month or more.
C$(3
Module 3.C &apacitanceA&apacitor
Integrated Training System
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!)(
.(o I
D"E &L"@<ED
D3( C D;E
D)(
J
D3(
DD;E
& 5
&
D'E DIS&L"@<IG<
igure C.C $ Discharging a capacitor.
To re.iew brie!ly/ when a capacitor is connected across a .oltage source/ a surge o! charging
current !lows. This charging current de.elops a back$EM across the capacitor which opposes
the applied .oltage. *hen the capacitor is !ully charged/ the back$EM is equal to the applied
.oltage and charging current ceases. "t !ull charge/ the electrostatic !ield between the plates is
at ma+imum intensity and the energy stored in the dielectric is ma+imum. I! the charged
capacitor is disconnected !rom the source/ the charge will be retained !or some period o! time.
The length o! time the charge is retained depends on the amount o! leakage current present.
Since electrical energy is stored in the capacitor/ a charged capacitor can act as a source back$
EM.
Discharging
To discharge a capacitor/ the charges on the two plates must be neutraliMed. This is
accomplished by pro.iding a conducting path between the two plates as shown in igure C.C
D'E. *ith the switch in position D;E the e+cess electrons on the negati.e plate can !low to the
positi.e plate and neutraliMe its charge. *hen the capacitor is discharged/ the distorted orbits o! the
electrons in the dielectric return to their normal positions and the stored energy is returned
to the circuit. It is important !or you to note that a capacitor does not consume power. The
energy the capacitor draws !rom the source is reco.ered when the capacitor is discharged.
C$(;
Module 3.C &apacitanceA&apacitor
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement i
,se andAor disclosure is
go.erned by the statement
TTS Integrated Training System
nn none 7 nA .hic &hanter e r$ // ohW Cn(n
(
I
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
i
(8
%
% &harge and Discharge o! an @& Series &ircuit
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2hm5s law states that the .oltage across a resistance is equal to the current through the
resistance times the .alue o! the resistance. This means that a .oltage is de.eloped across a
resistance only when current !lows through the resistance.
i
%
i
%
" capacitor is capable o! storing or holding a charge o! electrons. *hen uncharged/ both plates
o! the capacitor contain essentially the same number o! !ree electrons. *hen charged/ one
plate contains more !ree electrons than the other plate. The di!!erence in the number o!
electrons is a measure o! the charge on the capacitor. The accumulation o! this charge builds
up a .oltage across the terminals o! the capacitor/ and the charge continues to increase until
this .oltage equals the applied .oltage. The charge in a capacitor is related to the capacitance
and .oltage as !ollowsH
SF Er
in which S is the charge in coulombs/ & the capacitance in !arads/ and E the EM across the
capacitor in .olts.
&harge &ycle
" .oltage di.ider containing resistance and capacitance is connected in a circuit by means o! a
switch/ as shown at the top o! igure C.(7. Such a series arrangement is called an @& series
circuit.
&I@&,IT
&L"@<E
s t
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igure C.(7 $ &harge o! an @& series circuit.
I
C$(=
Module 3.C &apacitanceA&apacitor
Integrated Training System
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In e+plaining the charge and discharge cycles o! an @& series circuit/ the time inter.al !rom time to
Dtime Mero/ when the switch is !irst closedE to time t( Dtime one/ when the capacitor reaches !ull
charge or discharge potentialE will be used. DGote that switches S( and S) mo.e at the same time
and can ne.er both be closed at the same time.E
*hen switch S( o! the circuit in igure C.(7 is closed at to/ the source .oltage DEsE is instantly !elt
across the entire circuit. <raph D"E o! the !igure shows an instantaneous rise at time to !rom Mero to
source .oltage DEs R 6 .oltsE. The total .oltage can be measured across the circuit
between points ( and ). Gow look at graph D'E which represents the charging current in the
capacitor DiaE. "t time to/ charging current is ma+imum. "s time elapses toward time t (/ there is a
continuous decrease in current !lowing into the capacitor. The decreasing !low is caused by the
.oltage build$up across the capacitor. "t time t(/ current !lowing in the capacitor stops. "t this time/
the capacitor has reached !ull charge and has stored ma+imum energy in its
electrostatic !ield. <raph D&E represents the .oltage drop De rE across the resistor D@E. The .alue
o! er is determined by the amount o! current !lowing through the resistor on its way to the
capacitor. "t time to the current !lowing to the capacitor is ma+imum. Thus/ the .oltage drop across
the resistor is ma+imum DE R I@E. "s time progresses toward time t(/ the current !lowing to the
capacitor steadily decreases and causes the .oltage de.eloped across the resistor D@E to steadily
decrease. *hen time t ( is reached/ current !lowing to the capacitor is stopped and the .oltage
de.eloped across the resistor has decreased to Mero.
0 M H77
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67
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@& )@& 3@& ;@&
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igure C.(( $ The capacitor charge cur.e
The capacitor charge cur.e is logarithmic.
Pou should remember that capacitance opposes a change in .oltage. This is shown by
comparing graph C.(7 D"E to graph DDE. In graph D"E the .oltage changed instantly !rom 7 .olts
to 6 .olts across the circuit/ while the .oltage de.eloped across the capacitor in graph DDE took
the entire time inter.al !rom time to to time t( to reach 6 .olts. The reason !or this is that in the
!irst instant at time to/ ma+imum current !lows through @ and the entire circuit .oltage is dropped
across the resistor. The .oltage impressed across the capacitor at to is Mero .olts. "s time
progresses toward t(/ the decreasing current causes progressi.ely less .oltage to be dropped
across the resistor D@E/ and more .oltage builds up across the capacitor D&E. "t time t(i the
.oltage !elt across the capacitor is equal to the source .oltage D6 .oltsE/ and the .oltage
dropped across the resistor D@E is equal to Mero. This is the complete charge cycle o! the
capacitor.
C$(6
Module 3.C &apacitanceA&apacitor
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
,se andAor disclosure is
go.erned by the statement
TTS Integrated Training System
8
nn none C o! thk nhorder
D
nnn.rk.hr )n
In
6 &opyright )7(7 on page ) o! this &hapter.
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"s you may ha.e noticed/ the processes which take place in the time inter.al to to t( in a series @&
circuit are e+actly opposite to those in a series %@ circuit.
Discharge &ycle
In igure C.() at time to/ the capacitor is !ully charged. *hen S( is open and S) closes/ the
capacitor discharge cycle starts. "t the !irst instant/ circuit .oltage attempts to go !rom source
potential D6 .oltsE to Mero .olts/ as shown in graph D"E. @emember/ though/ the capacitor during the
charge cycle has stored energy in an electrostatic !ield.
S(
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7
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igure C.() $ Discharge o! an @& Series circuit.
'ecause S) is closed at the same time S( is open/ the stored energy o! the capacitor now has a
path !or current to !low. "t to/ discharge current DidE !rom the bottom plate o! the capacitor
,
through the resistor D@E to the top plate o! the capacitor D&E is ma+imum. "s time progresses
toward t(/ the discharge current steadily decreases until at time t( it reaches Mero/ as shown in
graph D'E.
C$(8
Module 3.C &apacitanceA&apacitor
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O%og
6
: 67
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7 @& )@& 3@& $(@& =@6 6@&
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igure C.(3 $ The capacitor discharge cur.e
The capacitor discharge is an e+ponential decay.
The discharge causes a corresponding .oltage drop across the resistor as shown in !igure C.()
graph D&E. "t time to/ the current through the resistor is ma+imum and the .oltage drop DerE across
the resistor is ma+imum. "s the current through the resistor decreases/ the .oltage drop across
the resistor decreases until at t( it has reached a .alue o! Mero. <raph DDE shows the .oltage
across the capacitor DecE during the discharge cycle. "t time t o the .oltage is ma+imum and as
time progresses toward time t (/ the energy stored in the capacitor is depleted. "t the same time
the .oltage across the resistor is decreasing/ the .oltage De &E across the capacitor is decreasing
until at time t ( the .oltage De7E reaches Mero.
'y comparing graph D"E with graph DDE o! igure C.()/ you can see the e!!ect that capacitance has
on a change in .oltage. I! the circuit had not contained a capacitor/ the .oltage would ha.e ceased
at the instant S( was opened at time to. 'ecause the capacitor is in the circuit/ .oltage is applied
to the circuit until the capacitor has discharged completely at t(. The e!!ect o!
capacitance has been to oppose this change in .oltage.
@& Time &onstant
The time required to charge a capacitor to 63 percent Dactually 63.) percentE o! !ull charge or to
discharge it to 38 percent Dactually 36.B percentE o! its initial .oltage is known as the time
constant DT&E o! the circuit. The charge and discharge cur.es o! a capacitor are shown in
igure C.(;. Gote that the charge cur.e is like the cur.e in igure C.((/ and the discharge cur.e
like the cur.e in igure C.(3.
C$(B
(
;
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Module 3.C &apacitanceA&apacitor
,se andAor disclosure Is
TTS Integrated Training System go.erned by the statement
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
# I
Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
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(77
C7
so
87
67
=7
;7
37
)7
(7
7
(@&
&L"@<E 6IS&L"@<E
= CC
6.=
36.B
)@& 3@& ;@& =@& TIME$$$2$
igure C.(; $ @& time constant.
The .alue o! the time constant in seconds is equal to the product o! the circuit resistance in
ohms and the circuit capacitance in !arads. The .alue o! one time constant is e+pressed
mathematically as t R @&. Some !orms o! this !ormula used in calculating @& time constants
areH
tDinsecondsE R @DinohmsE + &Din
!aradsE
tDin secondsE R @DinmegohmsE + &Din
mid r o!a r a ds E
t Din micros e c ondsE R @DinohmsE + &Din
micr o!ara ds E
t Din rnicr o s e c ondsE R @ Din m egohmsE + & Din
r
pic o! ar ads E
The graphs shown in igure C.(( and C.(3 are not entirely complete. That is/ the charge or
discharge Dor the growth or decayE is not quite complete in = @& time constants. Lowe.er/ when
the .alues reach 7.CC o! the ma+imum Dcorresponding to = @&E/ the graphs may be considered
,
accurate enough !or all practical purposes
a/
C$(C
Module 3.C &apacitanceA&apacitor
Integrated Training System
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&apacitors in Series and #arallel
&apacitors may be connected in series or in parallel to obtain a resultant .alue which may be
either the sum o! the indi.idual .alues Din parallelE or a .alue less than that o! the smallest
capacitance Din seriesE.
&apacitors in Series
The o.erall e!!ect o! connecting capacitors in series is to mo.e the plates o! the capacitors
!urther apart. This is shown in igure C.(=. Gotice that the 3unction between &( and &) has both a
negati.e and a positi.e charge. This causes the 3unction to be essentially neutral. The total
capacitance o! the circuit is de.eloped between the le!t plate o! &( and the right plate o! &).
'ecause these plates are !arther apart/ the total .alue o! the capacitance in the circuit is
decreased. Sol.ing !or the total capacitance D&TE o! capacitors connected in series is similar to
sol.ing !or the total resistance D@TE o! resistors connected in parallel.
tlr
I!
e
I
&(
"
M
$ t $
&
ES
$ a
aIlls
T r
&)
igure C.(= $ &apacitors in series.
Gote the similarity between the !ormulas !or @T and &TH
@ T R
aTR
( W ( W
#d @)
W ( W
(
&d &)
(
@n
:
&
n
I! the circuit contains more than two capacitors/ use the abo.e !ormula. I! the circuit contains
only two capacitors/ use the below !ormulaH
C
$
)
7
,se andAor
disclosure Is go.erned by the statement
TTS Integrated Training System
cF.
Module 3.C &apacitanceA&apacitor
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
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F 5i &)
&(W &)
GoteH "ll .alues !or &T/ &(/ &)/ &3/... & n should be in !arads. It should be e.ident !rom the
abo.e !ormulas that the total capacitance o! capacitors in series is less than the capacitance o!
any o! the indi.idual capacitors.
E+ampleH Determine the total capacitance o! a series circuit containing three capacitors whose
.alues are 7.7( p/ 7.)= p/ and =7/777 p/ respecti.ely.
<i.enH
SolutionH
& $$T
&l R 7.7( #/ s
&) R 7.)= !c s
&3 R =7/772p
(
( ( (
$W$W$
&T R
&T R
&T F
&I &)
.7(/
(
i W
(
7
(
(
)=% =7/777p
(

( (
)= W =
(
(77+(76W;+(76W)7+(76
&T F (

();+(76
&T R 7.77B p
The total capacitance o! 7.77Bp is slightly smaller than the smallest capacitor D7.7( pE.
&apacitors in #arallel
*hen capacitors are connected in parallel/ one plate o! each capacitor is connected directly to
one terminal o! the source/ while the other plate o! each capacitor is connected to the other
terminal o! the source. igure C.(6 shows all the negati.e plates o! the capacitors connected
together/ and all the positi.e plates connected together. & T/ there!ore/ appears as a capacitor
with a plate area equal to the sum o! all the indi.idual plate areas. "s pre.iously mentioned/
capacitance is a direct !unction o! plate area. &onnecting capacitors in parallel e!!ecti.ely
increases plate area and thereby increases total capacitance.
C$)(
Module 3.C &apacitanceA&apacitor
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..F..F(
I It it
(
DI
I
(
(
I
<) &3 _T$

$ t
&T
igure C.(6 $ #arallel capaciti.e circuit.
or capacitors connected in parallel the total capacitance is the sum o! all the indi.idual
capacitances. The total capacitance o! the circuit may by calculated using the !ormulaH
&T R&lW&)W&3 W...
[/ &
n
where all capacitances are in the same units.
E+ampleH Determine the total capacitance in a parallel capaciti.e circuit containing three
capacitors whose .alues are 7.73 p/ ).7 p/ and 7.)= p/ respecti.ely.
<i.enH
&(R 7.73 .&
&) R )p.
<3 R :.DI .J
SolutionH & T R &(W &) W &3
&T R 7.73 pW ).7 " W 7/)=.
&T R).)B.
l l
C$))
Module 3.C &apacitanceA&apacitor
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
,se andAor disclosure is
go.erned by the statement
TTS Integrated Training System
A(]91... .i.. ;.t 2rkin
6 &opyright )7(7
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The i+ed &apacitor
" !i+ed capacitor is constructed in such manner that it possesses a !i+ed .alue o! capacitance
which cannot be ad3usted. " !i+ed capacitor is classi!ied according to the type o! material used as
its dielectric/ such as paper/ oil/ mica/ or electrolyte.
" #aper &apacitor is made o! !lat thin strips o! metal !oil conductors that are separated by
wa+ed paper Dthe dielectric materialE. #aper capacitors usually range in .alue !rom about 377
pico!arads to about ; micro!arads. The working .oltage o! a paper capacitor rarely e+ceeds 677
.olts. #aper capacitors are sealed with wa+ to pre.ent the harm!ul e!!ects o! moisture and to
pre.ent corrosion and leakage.
Many di!!erent kinds o! outer co.ering are used on paper capacitors/ the simplest being a
tubular cardboard co.ering. Some types o! paper capacitors are encased in .ery hard plastic.
These types are .ery rugged and can be used o.er a much wider temperature range than can the
tubular cardboard type. igure C.(8 D"E shows the construction o! a tubular paper capacitorK igure
C.(8 D'E shows a completed cardboard$encased capacitor.
IGS,%"T2@
D'E
igure C.(8 $ #aper capacitor.
" Mica &apacitor is made o! metal !oil plates that are separated by sheets o! mica Dthe
dielectricE. The whole assembly is encased in moulded plastic. igure C.(B D"E shows a cut$
away .iew o! a mica capacitor. 'ecause the capacitor parts are moulded into a plastic case/
corrosion and damage to the plates and dielectric are pre.ented. In addition/ the moulded
plastic case makes the capacitor mechanically stronger. Iarious types o! terminals are used on
mica capacitors to connect them into circuits. These terminals are also moulded into the plastic
case.
Mica is an e+cellent dielectric and can withstand a higher .oltage than can a paper dielectric o! the
same thickness. &ommon .alues o! mica capacitors range !rom appro+imately =7
Module 3.C &apacitanceA&apacitor
C$)3
,se andAor disclosure is
go.erned by the statement
TTS Integrated Training System
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pico!arads to 7.7) micro!arad. Some di!!erent shapes o! mica capacitors are shown in igure
C.(B D'E.
TE@MIG"%
D'E
igure C.(B $ Typical mica capacitors.
" &eramic &apacitor is so named because it contains a ceramic dielectric. 2ne type o!
ceramic capacitor uses a hollow ceramic cylinder as both the !orm on which to construct the
capacitor and as the dielectric material. The plates consist o! thin !ilms o! metal deposited on the
ceramic cylinder.
" second type o! ceramic capacitor is manu!actured in the shape o! a disk. "!ter leads are
attached to each side o! the capacitor/ the capacitor is completely co.ered with an insulating
moisture$proo! coating. &eramic capacitors usually range in .alue !rom ( #ico!arad to 7.7(
micro!arad and may be used with .oltages as high as 37/777 .olts. Some di!!erent shapes o!
ceramic capacitors are shown in igure C.(C.
C$);
Module 3.C &apacitanceA&apacitor
,se andlor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
nn nano ) o! this &hnntar
&cl DHnn.rinht 2D( n
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I
,
igure C.(C $ &eramic capacitors.
"n Electrolytic &apacitor is used where a large amount o! capacitance is required. "s the
name implies/ an electrolytic capacitor contains an electrolyte. This electrolyte can be in the
!orm o! a liquid Dwet electrolytic capacitorE. The wet electrolytic capacitor is no longer in popular
use due to the care needed to pre.ent spilling o! the electrolyte.
" dry electrolytic capacitor consists essentially o! two metal plates separated by the electrolyte. In
most cases the capacitor is housed in a cylindrical aluminium container which acts as the
negati.e terminal o! the capacitor Dsee igure C.)7E. The positi.e terminal Dor terminals i! the
capacitor is o! the multisection typeE is a lug Dor lugsE on the bottom end o! the container. The
capacitance .alueDsE and the .oltage rating o! the capacitor are generally printed on the side o! the
aluminium case.
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,
igure C.)7 $ &onstruction o! an electrolytic capacitor.
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Module 3.C &apacitanceA&apacitor
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"n e+ample o! a multisection electrolytic
capacitor is illustrated in igure C.)7 D'E. The !our
lugs at the end o! the cylindrical aluminium
container indicate that !our electrolytic
8(
capacitors are enclosed in the can. Each
section o! the capacitor is electrically
independent o! the other sections. It is possible
!or one section to be de!ecti.e while the other
sections are still good. The can is the common
igure C.)( $ "n electrolytic capacitor
negati.e connection to the !our capacitors. n
Separate terminals are pro.ided !or the positi.e
plates o! the capacitors. Each capacitor is
identi!ied by an embossed mark ad3acent to the
lugs/ as shown in igure C.)7 D'E. Gote the
identi!ying marks used on the electrolytic
capacitor are the hal! moon/ the triangle/ the
square/ and no embossed mark. 'y looking at
the bottom o! the container and the identi!ying sheet pasted to the side o! the container/ you can
easily identi!y the .alue o! each section.
Internally/ the electrolytic capacitor is constructed similarly to the paper capacitor. The positi.e
plate consists o! aluminium !oil co.ered with an e+tremely thin !ilm o! o+ide. This thin o+ide !ilm
Dwhich is !ormed by an electrochemical processE acts as the dielectric o! the capacitor. Ge+t to and
in contact with the o+ide is a strip o! paper or gauMe which has been impregnated with a paste$like
electrolyte. The electrolyte acts as the negati.e plate o! the capacitor. " second strip o! aluminium
!oil is then placed against the electrolyte to pro.ide electrical contact to the
negati.e electrode Dthe electrolyteE. *hen the three layers are in place they are rolled up into a
cylinder as shown in igure C.)7 D"E.
"n electrolytic capacitor has two primary disad.antages compared to a paper capacitor in that
the electrolytic type is polariMed and has a low leakage resistance. This means that should the
positi.e plate be accidentally connected to the negati.e terminal o! the source/ the thin o+ide !ilm
dielectric will dissol.e and the capacitor will become a conductor Di/e./ it will shortE.
The polarity o! the terminals is normally marked on the case o! the capacitor. Since an
H (
electrolytic capacitor is polarity sensiti.e/ its use is ordinarily restricted to a do circuit or to a
circuit where a small ac .oltage is superimposed on a dc .oltage. Special electrolytic capacitors
are a.ailable !or certain ac applications/ such as a motor starting capacitor. Dry electrolytic
capacitors .ary in siMe !rom about ; micro!arads to se.eral thousand micro!arads and ha.e a
working .oltage o! appro+imately =77 .olts.
The type o! dielectric used and its thickness go.ern the amount o! .oltage that can sa!ely be
applied to the electrolytic capacitor. I! the .oltage applied to the capacitor is high enough to
cause the atoms o! the dielectric material to become ionised/ arcing between the plates will
occur. In most other types o! capacitors/ arcing will destroy the capacitor. Lowe.er/ an
electrolytic capacitor has the ability to be sel!$healing. I! the arcing is small/ the electrolytic will
regenerate itsel!. I! the arcing is too large/ the capacitor will not sel!$heal and will become
de!ecti.e/
C$)6
Module 3.C &apacitanceA&apacitor
,se andAor disclosure is
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igure C.)) $ 2il capacitors
The Iariable &apacitor
club66pro.co.uk question practice aid
2il &apacitors are o!ten used in high$power electronic
equipment. "n oil$!illed capacitor is nothing more than a
paper capacitor that is immersed in oil. Since oil
impregnated paper has a high dielectric constant/ it can be
used in the production o! capacitors ha.ing a high
capacitance .alue. Many capacitors will use oil with
another dielectric material to pre.ent arcing between the
plates. I! arcing should occur between the plates o! an oil$
!illed capacitor/ the oil will tend to reseal the hole caused
by the arcing. Such a capacitor is re!erred to as a sel!$
healing capacitor.
" .ariable capacitor is constructed in such manner that its .alue o! capacitance can be .aried. "
typical .ariable capacitor Dad3ustable capacitorE is the rotor$stator type. It consists o! two sets o!
,
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metal plates arranged so that the rotor plates mo.e between the stator plates. "ir is the
dielectric. "s the position o! the rotor is changed/ the capacitance .alue is likewise changed.
This type o! capacitor is used !or tuning most radio recei.ers. Its physical appearance and its
symbol are shown in igure C.)3.
@2T2@
SPM'2%
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igure C.)3 $ @otor$stator type .ariable capacitor.
"nother type o! .ariable capacitor Dtrimmer capacitorE and its symbol are shown in igure C.)3.
This capacitor consists o! two plates separated by a sheet o! mica. " screw ad3ustment is used to
.ary the distance between the plates/ thereby changing the capacitance.
Module 3.C &apacitanceA&apacitor
C$)8
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MI&"
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igure C.)3 $ Trimmer capacitor.
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on page ) o! this &hapter.
((
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&olour &odes !or &apacitors
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"n International colour coding scheme was de.eloped many years ago as a simple way o!
identi!ying capacitor .alues and tolerances. It consists o! coloured bands Din spectral orderE
whose meanings are illustrated belowH
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(2n/)7] ;An/ (7]
(77I
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igure C.); $ &eramic capacitor colour bands
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or each o! these codes/ collared dots or bands are used to indicate the .alue o! the capacitor.
" mica capacitor/ it should be noted/ may be marked with either three dots or si+ dots. 'oth the
three$ and the si+$dot codes are similar/ but the si+$dot code contains more in!ormation about
electrical ratings o! the capacitor/ such as working .oltage and temperature coe!!icient.
The capacitor shown in igure C.)= represents either a mica capacitor or a moulded paper
capacitor. To determine the type and .alue o! the capacitor/ hold the capacitor so that the three
arrows point le!t to right DbE. The !irst dot at the base o! the arrow sequence Dthe le!t$most dotE
represents the capacitor type. This dot is either black/ white/ sil.er/ or the same colour as the
capacitor body. Mica is represented by a black or white dot and paper by a sil.er dot or dot
ha.ing the same colour as the body o! the capacitor. The two dots to the immediate right o! the type
dot indicate the !irst and second digits o! the capacitance .alue. The dot at the bottom right
represents the multiplier to be used. The multiplier represents pico!arads. The dot in the bottom
centre indicates the tolerance .alue o! the capacitor.
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Module 3.C &apacitanceA&apacitor
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DI@E&TI2G 2
@E"DIG< D2TS
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igure C.)= $ The capacitor dot$code $ order o! reading.
&olour
J
5 $ J
Pellow
<reen
Iiolet
*hite
Digit Digit Multiplier Tolerance Tolerance
" ' D T b (7p! T g (7p!
7 7 +( _ )7] _ ).2p
( ( +(7 _ ( ] t 7.( p
) ) +(77 _)]t$ 7.)=p
3 3 +(777 _ 3]
; ; +(2k W(77]/$7]
= = +(77k _=] t 7.=p
6 6 +( m
8 8
B B +2.7( WB7]/$)7]
C C +7.( t (7]
Temperature *orking
&oe!!icient .oltage
T& I
$33+(7$6
$8=+(7$6 )=7.
$(=7+(7 6
$))7+(7$6 ;77.
$337+(76 (77.
$;87+(76 637.
$8=7+(7$6
Table C.) $ &olour code !or capacitors.
igure C.)6 $ Mica capacitors
C$37
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E+ample o! mica capacitors.
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To read the capacitor colour code on the abo.e capacitorH
Lold the capacitor so the arrows point le!t to right.
@ead the !irst dot.
*LITE
@ead the !irst digit dot.
'@2*G
@ead the second digit dot and apply it to the !irst digit.
@ED
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@ead the multiplier dot and multiply the !irst two digits by multiplier D@emember that the
multiplier is in pico!aradsE.
@ED
%astly/ read the tolerance dot.
'%,E
"ccording to the coding Dsee Table C.)E/ the capacitor is a mica capacitor whose capacitance is
()77 p with a tolerance o! WA$ 6].
The si+ digits indicate a capacitance o! ))77 p with a WA$;7] tolerance and a working .oltage o!
;; .olts.
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&on.erting p $$ n $ p
&apacitor colour code systems are .ery similar to resistor colour code systems/ e+cept that the
units are in the order o! (7$() DpE
These units can be con.erted to n and p in accordance with table C.3.
GoteH
( p R (7$6
(
n R (71C
( p R (7$()
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micro!arads DpE nano!arads DnE pico!arads DpE
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7/77777(Y R 7.77( n R ( p
7.7777( p R 7.7( n R (7p
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7.777(Y R 7.(n R (77p
7.77( p
R ( n
R (777p
7.7(Y
R (2n
R (7/777p
7.(Y R (77n R (77/777p
(Y R (777n R (/777/777p
(7Y R (7/777n R (7/777/777p
(77Y R (77/777n
R (77/777/777p
Table C.3 $ &on.ersion o! capacitor units
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C$33
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Gumeric &odes
%ike resistors/ small capacitors such as !ilm or disk types con!orm to the 'S(B=) Standard
where the colours are replaced by a letter coded system. The code consists o! ) or 3 numbers and
an optional tolerance letter code. *here a two number code is used the .alue o! the
capacitor only is gi.en in pico!arads Di.e. ;8 R ;8 pE. " three letter code consists o! the two .alue
digits and a multiplier much like a resistor colour code Di.e. ;8( R ;8 + (7 R ;87pE. Three digit
codes are o!ten accompanied by an additional tolerance letter code.
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igure C.)8 is a ceramic disc capacitor that has the code ;83: printed onto its body. This
translates toH
;8p + (/777 D3 Mero5sE R ;8/777 p/ ;8n or 7.7;8 p
the : indicates a tolerance o! WA$ =]
The written letters used to identi!y the tolerance .alue are gi.en belowK
'R_7.(p/
& R _ 7/)=p/
DR_7.=p/
R_(por_(]/
<R_)por_)]/
L R_3]/
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0R_(7]/
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# R W(77]/$7]
V R WB7]/$)7].
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'asic &apacitor Testing
Some Digital Multimeters DDMMsE ha.e modes !or capacitor testing. These work well to
determine appro+imate t rating. Lowe.er/ !or most applications/ they do not test at anywhere
near the normal working .oltage or test !or leakage. Gormally/ this type o! testing requires
disconnecting at least one lead o! the suspect capacitor !rom the circuit to get a reasonably
accurate reading $ or any reading at all.
Lowe.er/ newer models may also test capacitors in$circuit. 2! course/ all power must be
remo.ed and the capacitors should be discharged. This will generally work as long as the
components attached to the capacitor are either semiconductors Dwhich won5t conduct with the
low test .oltageE or passi.e components with a high enough impedance to not load the tester too
much. The reading may not be as accurate in$circuit/ but probably won5t result in a !alse negati.e
Dcalling a capacitor good that is badE.
&autionH or this and any other testing o! large capacitors andAor capacitors in power
supply/ power ampli!ier/ or similar circuits/ make sure the capacitor is !ully discharged or
t
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your multimeter may be damaged or destroyed9
Iolt$2hm Meters DI2MsE or DMMs without capacitance ranges can make certain types o! tests. or
small capacitors D7.7( p ! or lessE/ all you can really test is !or shorts or leakage. DLowe.er/ on an
analogue multimeter on the high ohms scale you may see a momentary de!lection when you touch
the probes to the capacitor or re.erse them. " DMM may not pro.ide any indication at all.E "ny
capacitor that measures a !ew ohms or less is bad. Most should test in!inite e.en on the highest
resistance range.
or electrolytic capacitors in the p range or abo.e/ you should be able to see the capacitor
charge when you use a high ohms scale with the proper polarity $ the resistance will increase
until it goes to DnearlyE in!inity. I! the capacitor is shorted/ then it will ne.er charge. I! it is open/ the
resistance will be in!inite immediately and won5t change. I! the polarity o! the probes is
re.ersed/ it will not charge properly either.
GoteH It is important to determine the polarity o! the meter $ they are not all the same. @ed is
usually negati.e with DanalogueE I2Ms but positi.e with most DMMs.
i! the resistance ne.er goes .ery high/ the capacitor is leaky.
The best way to really test a capacitor is to substitute a known good one. " I2M or DMM will
not test the capacitor under normal operating conditions or at its !ull rated .oltage. Lowe.er/ it is
a quick way o! !inding ma3or !aults.
" simple way o! determining the capacitance !airly accurately is to build an oscillator using a
=== timer. Substitute the cap in the circuit and then calculate the & .alue !rom the !requency.
*ith a !ew resistor .alues/ this will work o.er quite a wide range.
"lternati.ely/ using a D& power supply and series resistor/ capacitance can be calculated by
measuring the rise time to 63] o! the power supply .oltage !rom TR@& or &RTA@.
C$3=
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Module 3
%icence &ategory '(A')
Electrical undamentals
3.(7 Magnetism
%
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Module 3.(7 Magnetism
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&opyright Gotice
6 &opyright. "ll worldwide rights reser.ed. Go part o! this publication may be reproduced/
stored in a retrie.al system or transmitted in any !orm by any other means whatsoe.erH i.e.
photocopy/ electronic/ mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission o!
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'asic knowledge !or categories "/ 'i and ') are indicated by the allocation o! knowledge le.els indicators D(/ ) or
3E against each applicable sub3ect. &ategory & applicants must meet either the category '( or the category ')
basic knowledge le.els.
The knowledge le.el indicators are de!ined as !ollowsH
%EIE% (
J " !amiliarisation with the principal elements o! the sub3ect.
2b3ecti.esH
J The applicant should be !amiliar with the basic elements o! the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to gi.e a simple description o! the whole sub3ect/ using common words and
e+amples.
J The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
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" general knowledge o! the theoretical and practical aspects o! the sub3ect.
J "n ability to apply that knowledge.
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J The applicant should be able to gi.e a general description o! the sub3ect using/ as appropriate/ typical
e+amples.
J The applicant should be able to use mathematical !ormulae in con3unction with physical laws describing the
sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches/ drawings and schematics describing the
sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
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" capacity to combine and apply the separate elements o! knowledge in a logical and comprehensi.e
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and speci!ic e+amples.
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The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical !ormulae related to the sub3ect.
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The applicant should be able to read/ understand and prepare sketches/ simple drawings and schematics
describing the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manu!acturer5s
instructions.
J The applicant should be able to interpret results !rom .arious sources and measurements and apply
correcti.e action where appropriate.
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Module 3.(7 Magnetism
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Table o! &ontents
Module 3.(7 Magnetism
DaE
Magnetic Materials
erromagnetic Materials
Gatural Magnets
"rti!icial Magnets
#ermeability
Types o! Magnetism
Magnetic #oles
The Earth5s Magnetism
Theories o! Magnetism
E!!ect o! 'reaking a 'ar Magnet
Magnetic ields
Magnetic E!!ects
Magnetic lu+
Magnetic Induction
Magnetic Shielding
Magnet Shapes
&are o! Magnets
DbE
Electromagnetism
orce on a &onductor in a Magnetic ield
Electromagnets
#ermeance
Electrical and Magnetic &ircuit &omparison
Lysteresis
Summary o! Magnetism Terms and Symbols
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Module 3.(7 Enabling 2b3ecti.es
2b3ecti.e
Magnetism
Theo o! magnetism
#roperties o! a magnet
"ction o! a magnet suspended in the Earth5s magnetic !ield
Magnetisation and demagnetisation
Magnetic shielding
Iarious types o! magnetic material
Electromagnets construction and principles o! operation
Land clasp rules to determineH magnetic !ield around
current carrying conductor
Magnetomoti.e !orce/ !ield strength/ magnetic !lu+ density/
permeability/ hysteresis loop/ retenti.ity/ coerci.e !orce
reluctance/ saturation point/ eddy currents
#recautions !or care and storage o! magnets
(7$;
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Module 3.(7 Magnetism
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Magnetic Materials
Magnetism is generally de!ined as that property o! a material which enables it to attract pieces o!
iron. " material possessing this property is known as a magnet. The word originated with the
ancient <reeks/ who !ound stones possessing this characteristic. Materials that are attracted by a
magnet/ such as iron/ steel/ nickel and cobalt/ ha.e the ability to become magnetiMed. These are
called magnetic materials. Materials/ such as paper/ wood/ glass/ or tin/ which are not
attracted by magnets/ are considered nonmagnetic. Gonmagnetic materials are not able to
become magnetiMed.
erromagnetic Materials
The most important group o! materials connected with electricity and electronics are the
!erromagnetic materials. erromagnetic materials are those which are relati.ely easy to
magnetiMe/ such as iron/ steel/ cobalt/ and the alloys "lnico and #ermalloy. D"n alloy is made by
combining two or more elements/ one o! which must be a metalE. These new alloys can be .ery
strongly magnetiMed/ and are capable o! obtaining a magnetic strength great enough to li!t =77 times
their own weight.
: Gatural Magnets
Magnetic stones such as those !ound by the ancient <reeks are considered to be natural
magnets. These stones had the ability to attract small pieces o! iron in a manner similar to the L
magnets which are common today. Lowe.er/ the magnetic properties attributed to the stones
were products o! nature and not the result o! the e!!orts o! man. The <reeks called these
substances magnetite.
The &hinese are said to ha.e been aware o! some o! the e!!ects o!
magnetism as early as )677 '.&. They obser.ed that stones similar to
magnetite/ when !reely suspended/ had a tendency to assume a nearly
north and south direction. 'ecause o! the directional quality o! these
stones/ they were later re!erred to as lodestones or leading
stones.
Gatural magnets/ which presently can be !ound in the ,nited States/
Gorway/ and Sweden/ no longer ha.e any practical use/ !or it is now
possible to easily produce more power!ul magnets.
igure (7.( $ %oadstone $
a natural magnet
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Module 3.(7 Magnetism
Integrated Training System
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"rti!icial Magnets
Magnets produced !rom magnetic materials are called arti!icial magnets. They can be made in a
.ariety o! shapes and siMes and are used e+tensi.ely in electrical apparatus. "rti!icial magnets are
generally made !rom special iron or steel alloys which are usually magnetiMed electrically. The
material to be magnetiMed is inserted into a coil o! insulated wire and a hea.y !low o!
electrons is passed through the wire. Magnets can also be produced by stroking a magnetic
material with magnetite or with another arti!icial magnet. The !orces causing magnetiMation are
represented by magnetic lines o! !orce/ .ery similar in nature to electrostatic lines o! !orce.
"rti!icial magnets are usually classi!ied as permanent or temporary/ depending on their ability to
retain their magnetic properties a!ter the magnetiMing !orce has been remo.ed. Magnets made
!rom substances/ such as hardened steel and certain alloys which retain a great deal o!
their magnetism/ are called permanent magnets. These materials are relati.ely di!!icult to
magnetiMe because o! the opposition o!!ered to the magnetic lines o! !orce as the lines o! !orce try
to distribute themsel.es throughout the material. The opposition that a material o!!ers to the
magnetic lines o! !orce is called reluctance. "ll permanent magnets are produced !rom
materials ha.ing a high reluctance.
" material with a low reluctance/ such as so!t iron or annealed silicon steel/ is relati.ely easy to
magnetiMe but will retain only a small part o! its magnetism once the magnetiMing !orce is
remo.ed. Materials o! this type that easily lose most o! their magnetic strength are called
temporary magnets. The amount o! magnetism which remains in a temporary magnet is
re!erred to as its residual magnetism. The ability o! a material to retain an amount o! residual
magnetism is called the retenti.ity o! the material.
The di!!erence between a permanent and a temporary magnet has been indicated in terms o!
reluctance/ a permanent magnet ha.ing a high reluctance and a temporary magnet ha.ing a
low reluctance. Magnets are also described in terms o! the permeability o! their materials/ or
the ease with which magnetic lines o! !orce distribute$themsel.es throughout the material. "
permanent magnet/ which is produced !rom a material with a high reluctance/ has a low
permeability. " temporary magnet/ produced !rom a material with a low reluctance/ would ha.e a
high permeability.
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#ermeability
In magnetism/ permeability is the degree o! magnetiMation o! a material that responds linearly
to an applied magnetic !ield. Magnetic permeability is represented by the <reek letter p.
In SI units/ permeability is measured in henries per metre DLAmE/ or Gewtons per ampere
squared DGA")E.
The constant .alue po is known as the magnetic constant or the permeability o! !ree space
D.acuumE/ and has the e+act or de!ined .alue #o R ;Tr+l 7$8 LAm D(.)=6638( LAmE.
@elati.e permeability/ sometimes denoted by the symbol p/ is the ratio o! the permeability o! a
speci!ic medium to the permeability o! !ree space gi.en by the magnetic constant poH
4t
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Materials may ha.e their relati.e or absolute permeability quoted. rom
the transposition o!
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#ermeability DpE U/ 716
Mu$metal )=/777 LAm
#ermalloy (7/777 LAm
Trans!ormer iron =777 LAm
Steel B8= LAm
Gickel ()= LAm
#latinum (.)=6C87( LAm
"luminium (.)=666=7 LAm
Lydrogen (.)=6638( LAm
Iacuum (.)=6638( LAm DpoE
Sapphire (.)=6636B LAm
&opper (.)=66)C7 LAm
*ater (.)=66)87 LAm
Table (7.( $ #ermeabilities o! some materials
5$R
Module 3.(7 Magnetism
(7$8
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Types o! Magnetism
Diamagnetism
Diamagnetism is a weak repulsion !rom a magnetic !ield. It is a !orm o! magnetism that is only
e+hibited by a substance in the presence o! an e+ternally applied magnetic !ield.
"ll materials show a diamagnetic response in an applied magnetic !ield. In !act/ diamagnetism is
a .ery general phenomenon. Lowe.er/ !or materials which show some other !orm o! magnetism
Dsuch as !erromagnetism or paramagnetismE/ the diamagnetism is completely o.erpowered.
Substances which only/ or mostly/ display diamagnetic beha.iour are termed diamagnetic
materials/ or diamagnets. Materials that are said to be diamagnetic are those which are
usually considered by non$physicists as 1non$magnetic1/ and include water/ most organic
compounds such as petroleum and some plastics/ and many metals including copper/
particularly the hea.y ones with many core electrons/ such as mercury/ gold and bismuth.
Diamagnetic materials ha.e a relati.e permeability that is less than (/ and are there!ore
repelled by magnetic !ields. Lowe.er/ since diamagnetism is such a weak property its e!!ects
are not obser.able in e.ery$day li!e.
#aramagnetism
#aramagnetism is a !orm o! magnetism which occurs only in the presence o! an e+ternally
applied magnetic !ield. #aramagnetic materials are attracted to magnetic !ields/ hence ha.e a
relati.e permeability greater than one. The !orce o! attraction generated by the applied !ield is
linear in the !ield strength and rather weak. It typically requires a sensiti.e analytical balance to
detect the e!!ect. ,nlike !erromagnets/ paramagnets do not retain any magnetiMation in the absence
o! an e+ternally applied magnetic !ield. Thus the total magnetiMation will drop to Mero when the
applied !ield is remo.ed. E.en in the presence o! the !ield there is only a small
induced magnetiMation. This !raction is proportional to the !ield strength and this e+plains the
linear dependency. The attraction e+perienced by !erromagnets is non$linear and much
stronger/ so that it is easily obser.ed on the door o! one5s re!rigerator.
erromagnetism
erromagnetism is the 1normal1 !orm o! magnetism with which most people are !amiliar/ as
e+hibited in horseshoe magnets and re!rigerator magnets. It is responsible !or most o! the
magnetic beha.iour encountered in e.eryday li!e. The attraction between a magnet and
!erromagnetic material is 1the quality1 o! magnetism !irst apparent to the ancient world/ and to us
today/1 according to a classic te+t on !erromagnetism.
erromagnetism is de!ined as the phenomenon by which materials/ such as iron/ in an e+ternal
magnetic !ield become magnetiMed and remain magnetiMed !or a period a!ter the material is no
longer in the !ield.
"ll permanent magnets are !erromagnetic/ as are the metals that are noticeably attracted to
them.
Listorically/ the term !erromagnet was used !or any material that could e+hibit spontaneous
magnetiMationH a net magnetic moment in the absence o! an e+ternal magnetic !ield. This
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Module 3.(7 Magnetism
TTS Integrated Training System
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general de!inition is still in common use. More recently/ howe.er/ di!!erent classes o!
spontaneous magnetisation ha.e been identi!ied. "ll o! these magnetic e!!ects only occur at
temperatures below a certain critical temperature/ called the &urie temperature.
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Magnetic #oles
The magnetic !orce surrounding a magnet is not uni!orm. There e+ists a great concentration o!
!orce at each end o! the magnet and a .ery weak !orce at the centre. #roo! o! this !act can be
obtained by dipping a magnet into iron !ilings D!igure (7.)E. It is !ound that many !ilings will cling to
the ends o! the magnet while .ery !ew adhere to the centre. The two ends/ which are the regions
o! concentrated lines o! !orce/ are called the poles o! the magnet. Magnets ha.e two magnetic
poles and both poles ha.e equal magnetic strength.
igure (7.) $ " magnet dipped in iron !ilings
%aw o! Magnetic #oles
I! a bar magnet is suspended !reely on a string/ as shown in !igure (7.3/ it will align itsel! in a north
and south direction. *hen this e+periment is repeated/ it is !ound that the same pole o! the magnet
will always swing toward the north magnetic pole o! the earth. There!ore/ it is called the north$
seeking pole or simply the north$pole. The other pole o! the magnet is the south$
seeking pole or the south$pole.
,
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igure (7.3 $ Gorth$pole and South$pole
" practical use o! the directional characteristic o! the magnet is the compass/ a de.ice in which a
!reely rotating magnetiMed needle indicator points toward the Gorth$pole. The realiMation that
Module 3.(7 Magnetism
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the poles o! a suspended magnet always mo.e to a de!inite position gi.es an indication that the
opposite poles o! a magnet ha.e opposite magnetic polarity.
The law pre.iously stated regarding the attraction and repulsion o! charged bodies may also be
applied to magnetism i! the pole is considered as a charge. The north$pole o! a magnet will
always be attracted to the south$pole o! another magnet and will show a repulsion to a north$
pole. The law !or magnetic poles isH
%ike poles repel/ unlike poles attract
The Earth5s Magnetism
The !act that a compass needle always aligns itsel! in a particular direction/ regardless o! its
location on earth/ indicates that the earth is a huge natural magnet. The distribution o! the
magnetic !orce about the earth is the same as that which might be produced by a giant bar
magnet running through the centre o! the earth D!igure (7.;E. The magnetic a+is o! the earth is
located about (=a!rom its geographical a+is thereby locating the magnetic poles some distance
!rom the geographical poles. The ability o! the north$pole o! the compass needle to point toward
the north geographical pole is due to the presence o! the magnetic pole nearby. This magnetic
pole is named the magnetic Gorth$pole. Lowe.er/ in actuality/ it must ha.e the polarity o! a south
magnetic pole since it attracts the north$pole o! a compass needle Dsee !igure (7.;E. The reason
!or this con!lict in terminology can be traced to the early users o! the compass. 0nowing little
about magnetic e!!ects/ they called the end o! the compass needle that pointed towards the north
geographical pole/ the north$pole o! a compass. *ith our present knowledge o!
magnetism/ we know the north$pole o! a compass needle Da small bar magnetE can be attracted
only by an unlike magnetic pole/ that is/ a pole o! south magnetic polarity.
] <eographic pole
<eomagnetic pole T
<eographic equator 5
<eomagnetic equator
igure (7.; $ The earth5s magnetic !ield
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Magnetic Iariation
The earth5s magnetic poles are some distance !rom the geographic or ;true; poles. The
magnetic lines o! !orce do not pass o.er the sur!ace in a neat geometric pattern because they are
in!luenced by the .arying mineral content o! the earth5s crust. or these reasons/ there is usually
an angular di!!erence/ or .ariation/ between true north and magnetic north !rom a gi.en geographic
location. "lthough this .ariation is not equal at all points on the earth/ it does !ollow a pattern.
#oints o! equal .ariation can be connected by an isogonic line/ which can be plotted accurately on
a chart. In some places this .ariation is easterlyK other places it is westerly. This .ariation is shown
on sectional and I@ charts.
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igure (7.= $ %ines o! .ariation $ o! the ,S" De+ampleE/ and on I@ charts
Magnetic Inclination DDipE
The lines o! !orce in the earth5s magnetic !ield pass through
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bend around to re$enter at the opposite pole. Gear the DI#
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o! the earth. Lowe.er/ as they near the poles/ they tilt
toward the earth until in the immediate area o! the G2
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magnetic poles they dip rather sharply into the earth.
'ecause the poles o! a compass tend to align themsel.es
with the magnet lines o! !orce/ the magnet within the
compass tends to tilt or dip toward the earth in the same
manner as the lines o! !orce. This angle o! inclination Dor
4dip5E can be measured with a specially constructed
compass.
Module 3.(7 Magnetism
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Theories o! Magnetism
*eber5s Theory
" popular theory o! magnetism considers the molecular alignment o! the material. This is known as
*eber5s theory. This theory assumes that all magnetic substances are composed o! tiny
molecular magnets.
igure (7.6 $ The5 tiny magnet5 composition o! *eber5s Theory
"ny unmagni!ied material has the magnetic !orces o! its molecular magnets neutraliMed by
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ad3acent molecular magnets/ thereby eliminating any magnetic e!!ect. " magnetiMed material
will ha.e most o! its molecular magnets lined up so that the north$pole o! each molecule points in
one direction/ and the south$pole !aces the opposite direction. " material with its molecules thus
aligned will then ha.e one e!!ecti.e north$pole/ and one e!!ecti.e south$pole. "n illustration o!
*eber5s Theory is shown in !igure (7.8/ where a steel bar is magnetiMed by stroking. *hen a steel
bar is stroked se.eral times in the same direction by a magnet/ the magnetic !orce !rom the north$
pole o! the magnet causes the molecules to align themsel.es.
'"@ 'EIG< M"<GETIVED
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Module 3.(7 Magnetism
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Domain Theory %:
" more modern theory o! magnetism is based on the electron spin principle. rom the study o!
atomic structure it is known that all matter is composed o! .ast quantities o! atoms/ each atom
containing one or more orbital electrons. The electrons are considered to orbit in .arious shells
:
and sub$shells depending upon their distance !rom the nucleus. The structure o! the atom has
pre.iously been compared to the solar system/ wherein the electrons orbiting the nucleus
correspond to the planets orbiting the sun. "long with its orbital motion about the sun/ each
planet also re.ol.es on its a+is. It is belie.ed that the electron also re.ol.es on its a+is as it orbits
the nucleus o! an atom.
It has been e+perimentally pro.en that an electron has a magnetic !ield about it along with an
electric !ield. The e!!ecti.eness o! the magnetic !ield o! an atom is determined by the number o!
electrons spinning in each direction. I! an atom has equal numbers o! electrons spinning in
opposite directions/ the magnetic !ields surrounding the electrons cancel one another/ and the
atom is unmagni!ied. Lowe.er/ i! more electrons spin in one direction than another/ the atom is
magnetiMed. "n atom with an atomic number o! )6/ such as iron/ has )6 protons in the nucleus and
)6 re.ol.ing electrons orbiting its nucleus. I! (3 electrons are spinning in a clockwise
direction and (3 electrons are spinning in a counter$clockwise direction/ the opposing magnetic
!ields will be neutraliMed. *hen more than (3 electrons spin in either direction/ the atom is
magnetiMed. "n e+ample o! a magnetiMed atom o! iron is shown in !igure (7.B.
G,M'E@ 2
G,M'E@ 2
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Module 3.(7 Magnetism
TTS Integrated Training System
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E!!ect o! 'reaking a 'ar Magnet
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The molecular theory o! magnetism is supported by the !act that i! a brittle bar o! hard steel/
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such as a hacksaw blade/ is magnetiMed and then broken/ each piece will be a magnet/ as
shown in !igure (7.C. Theoretically/ i! each piece could be broken up into smaller and smaller
pieces until each was a molecule/ all would still be indi.idual magnets.
igure (7.C $ E!!ect o! breaking a bar magnet.
Magnetic ields
The space surrounding a magnet where magnetic !orces act is known as the magnetic !ield. "
pattern o! this directional !orce can be obtained by per!orming an e+periment with iron !ilings. "
piece o! glass is placed o.er a bar magnet and the iron !ilings are then sprinkled on the
sur!ace o! the glass. The magnetiMing !orce o! the magnet will be !elt through the glass and each
iron !iling becomes a temporary magnet. I! the glass is now tapped gently/ the iron particles will
align themsel.es with the magnetic !ield surrounding the magnet 3ust as the compass needle did
pre.iously. The !ilings !orm a de!inite pattern/ which is a .isible
representation o! the !orces comprising the magnetic !ield. E+amination o! the arrangements o!
iron !ilings in !igure (7.(7 will indicate that the magnetic !ield is .ery strong at the poles and
weakens as the distance !rom the poles increases. It is also apparent that the magnetic !ield
e+tends !rom one pole to the other/ constituting a loop about the magnet.
Module 3.(7 Magnetism
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igure (7.(7 $ Magnetic !lu+ lines
Small compasses placed in the magnetic !ield will indicate the direction o! the lines o!
magnetism being !rom the north$pole to the south$pole.
%ines o! orce
To !urther describe and work with magnet phenomena/ lines are used to represent the !orce
e+isting in the area surrounding a magnet Dre!er to !igure (7.((E. These lines/ called magnetic
lines o! !orce/ do not actually e+ist but are imaginary lines used to illustrate and describe the
pattern o! the magnetic !ield. The magnetic lines o! !orce are assumed to emanate !rom the
north$pole o! a magnet/ pass through surrounding space/ and enter the south$pole. The lines o!
!orce then tra.el inside the magnet !rom the south$pole to the north$pole/ thus completing a
closed loop.
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Module 3.(7 Magnetism
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,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
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TTS Integrated Training System
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igure (7.(( $ Magnetic lines o! !orce
*hen two magnetic poles are brought close together/ the mutual attraction or repulsion o! the
poles produces a more complicated pattern than that o! a single magnet. These magnetic lines o!
!orce can be plotted by placing a compass at .arious points throughout the magnetic !ield/ or they
can be roughly illustrated by the use o! iron !ilings as be!ore. " diagram o! magnetic poles placed
close together is shown in !igure (7.().
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"lthough magnetic lines o! !orce are imaginary/ a simpli!ied .ersion o! many magnetic
phenomena can be e+plained by assuming the magnetic lines to ha.e certain real properties.
The lines o! !orce can be compared to rubber bands which stretch outward when a !orce is
e+erted upon them and contract when the !orce is remo.ed. The characteristics o! magnetic
lines o! !orce can be described as !ollowsH
J Magnetic lines o! !orce are continuous and will always !orm closed loops.
J Magnetic lines o! !orce will ne.er cross one another.
J #arallel magnetic lines o! !orce tra.elling in the same direction repel one another.
#arallel magnetic lines o! !orce tra.elling in opposite directions tend to unite with
each other and !orm into single lines tra.elling in a direction determined by the
magnetic poles creating the lines o! !orce.
J Magnetic lines o! !orce tend to shorten themsel.es. There!ore/ the magnetic lines
o! !orce e+isting between two unlike poles cause the poles to be pulled together.
J Magnetic lines o! !orce pass through all materials/ both magnetic and
nonmagnetic.
J Magnetic lines o! !orce always enter or lea.e a magnetic material at right angles to
the sur!ace.
Magnetic E!!ects
J Magnetic lu+. The total number o! magnetic lines o! !orce lea.ing or entering the pole
o! a magnet is called magnetic !lu+. The number o! !lu+ lines per unit area is known as
!lu+ density.
J ield Intensity. The intensity o! a magnetic !ield is directly related to the magnetic !orce
e+erted by the !ield.
J "ttractionA@epulsion. The intensity o! attraction or repulsion between magnetic poles
may be described by a law almost identical to &oulomb5s %aw o! &harged 'odies. The
!orce between two poles is directly proportional to the product o! the pole strengths and
in.ersely proportional to the square o! the distance between the poles.
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Magnetic lu+
The lines o! magnetic !orce pre.iously described/ are more properly known as lines o! !lu+. The
unit o! magnetic !lu+ is the *eber D*bE named a!ter *ilhelm Edouard *eber D(B7;$C(E and the
symbol !or magnetic !lu+ is (
lu+ Density
The e!!ecti.eness o! a magnetic !ield is determined not by the total amount o! !lu+ but by the
density o! !lu+. " gi.en !lu+ spread o.er a greater cross$sectional area will produce a !ield o!
less intensity. 2n the other hand/ i! the !lu+ can be concentrated into a smaller cross$section a
more e!!ecti.e !ield is produced. Thus/ an important property o! a magnetic !ield is the !lu+
density D'E/ de!ined as the !lu+ per unit area o! cross$section.
lu+ Density D'E lu+ D7E
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The unit o! !lu+ density is the Tesla DTE/ named a!ter Gikola Tesla D(B=8$(C;3E.
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Magnetic Induction
It has been pre.iously stated that all substances that are attracted by a magnet are capable o!
becoming magnetiMed. The !act that a material is attracted by a magnet indicates the material
must itsel! be a magnet at the time o! attraction.
nt
*ith the knowledge o! magnetic !ields and magnetic lines o! !orce de.eloped up to this point/ it
is simple to understand the manner in which a material becomes magnetiMed when brought
near a magnet. "s an iron nail is brought close to a bar magnet D!igure (7.(;E/ some !lu+ lines
emanating !rom the north$pole o! the magnet pass through the iron nail in completing their
magnetic path. Since magnetic lines o! !orce tra.el inside a magnet !rom the south$pole to the
north$pole/ the nail will be magnetiMed in such a polarity that its south$pole will be ad3acent to the
north$pole o! the bar magnet. There is now an attraction between the two magnets.
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igure (7.(; $ Magnetic induction
I! another nail is brought in contact with the end o! the !irst nail/ it would be magnetiMed by
induction. This process could be repeated until the strength o! the magnetic !lu+ weakens as
distance !rom the bar magnet increases. Lowe.er/ as soon as the !irst iron nail is pulled away !rom
the bar magnet/ all the nails will !all. The reason being that each nail becomes a temporary
magnet/ and as soon as the magnetiMing !orce is remo.ed/ their domains once again assume a
random distribution.
Magnetic induction will always produce a pole polarity on the material being magnetiMed
opposite that o! the ad3acent pole o! the magnetiMing !orce. It is sometimes possible to bring a
weak north$pole o! a magnet near a strong magnet north$pole and note attraction between the
poles. The weak magnet/ when placed within the magnetic !ield o! the strong magnet/ has its
magnetic polarity re.ersed by the !ield o! the stronger magnet. There!ore/ it is attracted to the
opposite pole. or this reason/ you must keep a .ery weak magnet/ such as a compass needle/
away !rom a strong magnet.
Magnetism can be induced in a magnetic material by se.eral means. The magnetic material
may be placed in the magnetic !ield/ brought into contact with a magnet/ or stroked by a
(7$)7
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magnet. Stroking and contact both indicate actual contact with the material but are considered in
magnetic studies as magnetiMing by induction.
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lator !or magnetic !lu+. I! a nonmagnetic material is placed in a
magnetic !ield/ there is no appreciable change in !lu+ $ that is/ the !lu+ penetrates the
nonmagnetic material. or e+ample/ a glass plate placed between the poles o! a horseshoe
magnet will ha.e no appreciable e!!ect on the !ield although glass itsel! is a good insulator in an
electric circuit. I! a magnetic material D!or e+ample/ so!t ironE is placed in a magnetic !ield/ the !lu+
may be redirected to take ad.antage o! the greater permeability o! the magnetic material/ as shown
in !igure (7.(=. #ermeability/ as discussed earlier/ is the quality o! a substance which determines
the ease with which it can be magnetiMed.
igure (7.(= $ lu+ lines !ollow the path o! least permeability
The sensiti.e mechanisms o! electric instruments and meters can be in!luenced by stray
magnetic !ields which will cause errors in their readings. 'ecause instrument mechanisms
cannot be insulated against magnetic !lu+/ it is necessary to employ some means o! directing
the !lu+ around the instrument. This is accomplished by placing a so!t$iron case/ called a
magnetic screen or shield/ about the instrument. 'ecause the !lu+ is established more readily
through the iron De.en though the path is longerE than through the air inside the case/ the
instrument is e!!ecti.ely shielded/ as shown by the watch and so!t$iron shield in !igure (7.(6.
Module 3.(7 Magnetism
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so!t iron
igure (7.(6 $ Magnetic shielding
Magnet Shapes
'ecause o! the many uses o! magnets/ they are !ound in .arious shapes and siMes. Lowe.er/
magnets usually come under one o! three general classi!icationsH bar magnets/ horseshoe
magnets/ or ring magnets.
The bar magnet is most o!ten used in schools and laboratories !or studying the properties and
e!!ects o! magnetism. In the preceding material/ the bar magnet pro.ed .ery help!ul in
demonstrating magnetic e!!ects.
igure (7.(8 $ 'ar magnets
"nother type o! magnet is the ring magnet/ which is used !or computer memory cores. "
common application !or a temporary ring magnet would be the shielding o! electrical
instruments.
igure (7.(B $ @ing magnets
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The shape o! the magnet most !requently used in electrical and electronic equipment is called the
horseshoe magnet. " horseshoe magnet is similar to a bar magnet but is bent in the shape
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o! a horseshoe. The horseshoe magnet pro.ides much more magnetic strength than a bar
magnet o! the same siMe and material because o! the closeness o! the magnetic poles. The
magnetic strength !rom one pole to the other is greatly increased due to the concentration o! the
magnetic !ield in a smaller area. Electrical measuring de.ices quite !requently use horseshoe$
type magnets.
igure (7.(C $ Lorseshoe magnet
&are o! Magnets
" piece o! steel that has been magnetiMed can lose much o! its magnetism by improper handling. I!
it is 3arred or heated/ there will be a misalignment o! its domains resulting in the loss o! some o! its
e!!ecti.e magnetism. Lad this piece o! steel !ormed the horseshoe magnet o! a meter/ the meter
would no longer be operable or would gi.e inaccurate readings. There!ore/ care must be e+ercised
when handling instruments containing magnets. Se.ere 3arring or sub3ecting the instrument to high
temperatures will damage the de.ice.
" magnet may also become weakened !rom loss o! !lu+. Thus when storing
magnets/ one should always try to a.oid e+cess leakage o! magnetic !lu+.
" horseshoe magnet should always be stored with a keeper/ a so!t iron bar
used to 3oin the magnetic poles. 'y using the keeper while the magnet is
being stored/ the magnetic !lu+ will continuously circulate through the
magnet and not leak o!! into space.
igure (7.)7 $ Lorseshow
magnet and keeper
*hen bar magnets are stored/ the same principle must be
remembered. There!ore/ bar magnets should always be stored in
pairs with a north$pole and a south$pole placed together/ ideally
also with keepers. This pro.ides a complete path !or the magnetic
!lu+ without any !lu+ leakage.
igure (7.)( $ 'ar magnets
$ stored end$to$end with keepers
Module 3.(7 Magnetism (7$)3
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Integrated Training System
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(7$);
Module 3.(7 Magnetism
ITS Integrated Training System
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on page ) o! this &hapter.
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Electromagnetism
Integrated Training System
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During a lecture demonstration in (B)7 the Danish scientist Lans &hristian 2ersted D(887$
(B=(E noticed that a compass needle/ placed near to a current$carrying wire/ was de!lected !rom its
normal Gorth$South position. This may not sound a .ery remarkable disco.ery/ but 2ersted realiMed
that it was e.idence o! a !undamental and !ar reaching !act. " magnetic !ield is
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established around any conductor when current is passing through it. The lines o! !orce which
depict such a !ield take the !orm o! concentric circles disposed around the sur!ace o! the conductor.
The relationship between direction o! current through the conductor and the direction o! !lu+
produced around the conductor is the same as that o! the !orward mo.ement and rotation o! a screw
with a right$hand thread or the !amiliar corkscrew.
"n electric current !lowing towards you "n electric current !lowing away !rom you
produces a magnetic !ield that circulates in produces a magnetic !ield that circulates in
a counter$clockwise direction. a clockwise direction.
igure (7.)) $ Magnetism around a current carrying wire/ and the &orkscrew @ule
The same relationship can be described with the @ight
Land &lasp rule. Lere/ the !ingers are imagined to be Thumb #oints
clasped around the conductor/ with the thumb pointing In Direction o!
&urrent low
in the direction o! con.entional current !low/ and the
!ingers point in the direction o! magnetic !low around
the conductor.
ingers #oint In
Direction o!
Magnetic ield
igure (7.)3 $ The @ight Land &lasp @ule
&urrerit$&arrying *ire
Module 3.(7 Magnetism
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&onsider the circumstances when two conductors carrying current lie parallel with each other.
Each conductor is surrounded with a magnetic !ield/ the lines o! !orce being o! elastic nature
and because they cannot intersect each other/ their !orm is modi!ied to constitute a resultant
!ield as shown.
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igure (7.); $ "ttraction and @epulsion o! Two &onductors
Gote how/ with current !lowing in the same direction in both conductors/ the lines o! !orce tend to
encircle the two conductors and so produce mutual attraction between them. *ith current
!lowing in opposite directions in the conductors/ then the mutual repulsion between the two
indi.idual !ields tends to dri.e the conductors apart.
orce on a &onductor in a Magnetic ield
I! a current carrying conductor is introduced into a magnetic !ield at right angles to it/ the
conductor will e+perience a !orce directed at right angles to both the direction o! the lines o! !lu+
and the direction o! current. The rule !or remembering these directions is called leming5s %e!t
Land DMotorE @ule. To apply the rule/ set the thumb/ !irst !inger and second !inger o! the le!t hand
at right angles to each other as shown. The thuMb indicates the direction o! Motion when the irst
!inger is in the direction o! the magnetic lines o! lu+/ and the se&ond !inger is in the direction o! the
con.entional &urrent !low in the wire.
(7$)6
Module 3.(7 Magnetism
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go.erned by the statement
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on page ) o! this chapter.
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I
direction
o! &urrent
igure (7.)= $ leming5s %e!t Land @ule
The magnitude o! the !orce on a current carrying conductor at right angles to a magnetic !ield
depends on three !actors.
(. The magnetic !lu+ density D'E.
).
The magnitude o! the current !lowing in the conductor DIE.
3.
The length o! the conductor in the magnetic !ield . DMmetresE
There!ore !orce/ orce R 'IM
In the case where the conductor is not at right angles to the magnetic !ield/ the angle between
the conductor and the !ield DDDE has to be taken into account and the !ormula becomes
R 'Ii sin 7
tud.c.d !ore.
>a.t o! pope r3
igure (7.)6 $ &onductor Got at @ight "ngles to the Magnetic ield
4TTTTk
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Module 3.(7 Magnetism
(7$)8
I
Integrated Training System
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Electromagnets
I! a current carrying conductor is !ormed into a single loop/ the lines o! !orce encircling the
conductor will all pass through the loop in the same direction. " coil or solenoid is simply a
conductor !ormed into a number o! loops and the lines o! !orce tra.els the coil lengthwise and
complete themsel.es through the surrounding medium. The !orm o! the !ield o! a solenoid is thus
similar to that o! a simple bar magnet. The polarity o! a solenoid is !ound by using the
@ight Land <rasp @uleK imagine the solenoid grasped by the right hand with the !ingers
pointing in the direction o! the con.entional current/ then the outstretched thumb will point
towards the Gorth$pole o! the solenoid.
n
:
igure (7.)8 $ @ight Land <rasp @ule
*hen current is !lowing in a solenoid it produces a Magneto Moti.e orce DMME and its .alue is
a product o! the current and the number o! turns on the coil/ GI or "mpere Turns D"TE. The
magnetic !ield strength DSymbol LE o! a solenoid is de!ined in terms o! Magneto Moti.e orce per
unit length D(
MetreE and is there!ore measured In "mpere$Turns per metre.
LRG(
"mpere$Turns per Metre.
8
&ompared with a permanent magnet/ a solenoid carrying current produces remarkably little
magnetic !lu+/ but the output can be increased enormously by inserting an iron core into the coil.
This is because iron has a permeability se.eral thousand times that o! air.
#ermeability Dthe relati.e ease with which lines o! !orce per.ade a materialE is de!ined by the
ratio o! !lu+ density ' to magnetic !ield strength L at any point in !ree space and is called the
permeability o! !ree space. It is represented by the symbol (uo. Thus in !ree space
'
#o L
(7$)B
Module 3.(7 Magnetism
TTS Integrated Training System
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,se andAor disclosure is
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#ermeance
In electromagnetic theory/ permeance is the in.erse o! reluctance. #ermeance is a measure o! the
quantity o! !lu+ !or a number o! current$turns in magnetic circuit. " magnetic circuit almost acts as
though the !lu+ is 5conducted5/ there!ore permeance is larger !or large cross sections o! a material
and smaller !or longer lengths. This concept is analogous to that o! electrical
conductance.
It di!!ers !rom permeability in that it includes the dimensions o! the magnetic medium/ whereas
permeability does not. This is in the same way that/ in electrical terms/ resistance di!!ers !rom
resisti.ity.
The equation !or permeance isH
DD
*hereH
" R #ermeance
7 R lu+
GI R &urrent$turns Dcurrent + number o! coilsE
The SI unit o! permeance is 5*ebers per "mpere$turn5 gi.en as *bA"t
Module 3.(7 Magnetism (7$)C
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go.erned by the statement &oE &nn.rinht )7(7
-
Integrated Training System
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n
Electrical and Magnetic &ircuit &omparison
Electricity and magnetism ha.e a lot in common in terms o! their beha.iour. *hen applied to an
electric circuit and a magnetic circuit respecti.ely/ only the symbols and units di!!er.
E@@ITE &2@E
U
%2* @E%,&T"G&E
@ M.m.!. G
9
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e.w. t_.
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igure (7.)B $$$ Electrical and Magnetic circuits
Electric &ircuit
Magnetic &ircuit
Suantity ,nit Suantity ,nit
E.M.. Iolt DIE bM.M.. "mpere$turn D"tE
&urrent DIE
"mpere D"E bmagnetic !lu+ DtE*eber D*bE
@esistance D@E
2hm DSE
b@eluctance D@E
"mpere$turnA*eber D"tA*bE
&onductance D&ESiemens DSE
E.M.. R I + @
b#ermeance D"E
b
*ebersA"mpere$turn D*bA"tE
M.M.. RDD + @
Table (7.) $ &omparison o! electrical and magnetic terms
The magnetic circuit di!!ers !rom the electric circuit in the !ollowing important respectsH$
aE
The current in the electric circuit is con!ined to a de!ined path by insulating material on
the circuit conductorsK the !lu+ in the magnetic circuit cannot be restrained in this manner/
since there is no known 1insulator1 !or magnetic !lu+ Dnot e.en a .acuumE $ the !lu+ can
only be 1lured1 into the desired path by making the latter o! low reluctance.
bE
The resistance o! an electric circuit is almost constant/ the reluctance o! a magnetic
circuit/ on the other hand/ .aries o.er a wide range by reason o! changes in permeability
which decreases rapidly as saturation point is approached.
(7$37
Module 3.(7 Magnetism
TTS Integrated Training System
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on page ) o! this &hapter/
#(
%
TI
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Lysteresis
Saturation point in a material being magnetiMed is reached when an increase in magnetic !ield
strength produces only a small increase in !lu+ density. "t this stage all the magnetic domains
Dgroups o! atoms with the electron orbits aligned/ which can be thought o! as little magnetsE in
the material are aligned and the increase in !lu+ density is only that which would occur in !ree
space. The e!!ect is clearly shown by the graphs o! F+M cur.es !or a number o! !erromagnetic
materials.
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(777 )777 377>E ;777 =777 6777
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igure (7.)C $ '$L &ur.es
These cur.es ha.e been drawn on the assumption that the iron had no trace o! magnetism at
the commencement. I!/ howe.er/ the iron is already magnetiMed to some e+tent/ the new
magnetism may aid or oppose that which e+ists. I! it opposes the e+isting magnetism it is !ound
that the change in !lu+ density lags behind the magnetic !ield strength. This e!!ect is called
1Lysteresis1 and it is usually studied by considering a complete cycle o! magnetism/ which entails
magnetiMing in one direction o! polarity/ then in the opposite direction and !inally in the initial
direction again. " typical graph !or a sample o! iron is shown/ the arrows indicating the direction o!
magnetism !rom the commencement. It should be noted that in this case the iron has been
magnetiMed to saturation in both directions.
%
(7$3(
Module 3.(7 Magnetism
Integrated Training System
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igure (7.37 $ Lysteresis %oop
The graph/ known as a 1Lysteresis %oop1/ makes clear the magnetic properties o! the material
concerned. The intercept on the F a+is ErC is the 1@esidual1 !lu+ density when M has been
reduced to Mero and is called the 1@emanence1 o! the material. The intercept on the L a+is DcE
is the 1&oerci.e orce1 required to reduce the residual !lu+ to Mero and is called the coerci.ity o!
the material.
The three properties o! a magnetic material/ permeability/ remanence and coerci.ity/ indicate its
use!ulness !or a particular application. or e+ample/ a suitable material !or permanent
magnets would ha.e high coerci.ity and high remanenceK a suitable material !or electro$
magnets would ha.e high permeability but low remanence and low coerci.ity. Typical
Lysteresis %oops areH$
'
L
hard steel
igure (7.3( $ Lysteresis %oops !or So!t Iron and Lard Steel
The area enclose by the Lysteresis %oop is a measure o! the energy wasted Dcon.erted to heatE
in magnetiMing and demagnetiMing a material. The wasted energy is known as 1Lysteresis
%oss1.
(7$3)
Module 3.(7 Magnetism
TTS Integrated Training System
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Summary o! Magnetism Terms and Symbols
%i
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Game Description SI ,nit
Magnetic " measure o! quantity o! magnetism/ taking into
lu+ account the strength and the e+tent o! a magnetic 7 *eber D*bE
!ield.
The amount o! magnetic !lu+ through a unit area
Magnetic
lu+ Density taken perpendicular to the direction o! the magnetic ' Teslas DTE
!lu+. "lso called magnetic induction. &alculated by
magnetic Nux di.ided by cross sectional area
" .ector quantity indicating the ability o! a magnetic
Magnetic
"mpere$
!orceE
Magneto
magnetic !ermeability o! the space where the !ield
e+ists. It is measured in amperes per meter. "lso
called magnetic intensity.
LturnsAMetre
D"tAmE
Moti.e orce "ny physical cause that produces magnetic !lu+ MM"mpere$turns D
"tE
%
@eluctance
#ermeance
y
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" measure o! the opposition to magnetic !lu+/
analogous to electric resistance.
The ability o! a substance to allow magnetism to
The constant .alue Go is known as the magnetic
constant or the permeability o! .acuum/ and has the
e+act or de!ined.alue #o R ;rr+(7$8 LAm.
The degree to *iich a material admits a !low o!
magnetism. Thein.erse o! reluctance.
The !orce whichin iron or steel produces a slowness
di!!iculty in irrparting magnetism to it/ and also
interposes an olstacle to the return o! a bar to its
natural state whn acti.e magnetism has ceased. "
!orm o! Magnets !ield strength.
The magnetic !le+ density remaining in a material/
especially a !eromagnetic material/ a!ter remo.al o!
@
p
"
L
"mpere$
D
D"tA*bE
LenriesAmetre
DLAmE
*ebers per
"mpere$turn5
D*bA"E
"mperesAMetre
DgymE
@emanence
Lysteresis
the magnetiMinc!ield. <ood permanent magnets 'Teslas DTE
ha.e a high depee o! remanence. "lso called
retentivity, or rsidual magnetism.
The magnetiMabn o! a material such as iron
depends not ory on the magnetic !ield it is e+posed to
but on pre.ics e+posures to magnetic !ields.
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Module 3.(7 Magnetism
(7$33
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Module 3.(7 Magnetism
TTS Integrated Training System
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,se andlor disclosure is
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$$d by Ih# StelemenI
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Integrated Training System
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TTS Integrated
Training System
Module 3
I %
%icence &ategory '(A')
Electrical undamentals
3.(( InductanceAInductor
%
Module 3.(( InductanceAInductor
(($(
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&opyright Gotice
6 &opyright. "ll worldwide rights reser.ed. Go part o! this publication may be reproduced/
stored in a retrie.al system or transmitted in any !orm by any other means whatsoe.erH i.e.
photocopy/ electronic/ mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission o!
Total Training Support %td.
0nowledge %e.els $ &ategory "/ '(/ ') and & "ircra!t Maintenance
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'asic knowledge !or categories "/ '( and ') are indicated by the allocation o! knowledge le.els indicators D(/ ) or
3E against each applicable sub3ect. &ategory & applicants must meet either the category '( or the category ')
basic knowledge le.els.
The knowledge le.el indicators are de!ined as !ollowsH
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J " !amiliarisation with the principal elements o! the sub3ect.
2b3ecti.esH
J The applicant should be !amiliar with the basic elements o! the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to gi.e a simple description o! the whole sub3ect/ using common words and
e+amples.
J The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
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J "n ability to apply that knowledge.
2b3ecti.esH
J The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical !undamentals o! the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to gi.e a general description o! the sub3ect using/ as appropriate/ typical
e+amples.
J
The applicant should be able to use mathematical !ormulae in con3unction with physical laws describing the
sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches/ drawings and schematics describing the
sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
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" detailed knowledge o! the theoretical and practical aspects o! the sub3ect.
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" capacity to combine and apply the separate elements o! knowledge in a logical and comprehensi.e
manner.
2b3ecti.esH
J The applicant should know the theory o! the sub3ect and interrelationships with other sub3ects.
J The applicant should be able to gi.e a detailed description o! the sub3ect using theoretical !undamentals
and speci!ic e+amples.
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The applicant should be able to read/ understand and prepare sketches/ simple drawings and schematics
describing the sub3ect.
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The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manu!acturer5s
instructions.
J The applicant should be able to interpret results !rom .arious sources and measurements and apply
correcti.e action where appropriate.
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Table o! &ontents
I
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,
Module 3.(( InductanceAInductor =
&haracteristics o! Inductance =
Electromoti.e orce DEME =
Sel!$Inductance 8
actors "!!ecting &oil Inductance (7
,nit o! Inductance (;
Energy in an Inductor (;
<rowth and Decay o! &urrent in an %@ Series &ircuit (=
,@ Time &onstant (8
#ower %oss in an Inductor (B
Mutual Inductance )7
"dding Inductors ))
"pplications o! Inductors );
Inductor construction )=
Module 3.(( InductanceAInductor
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Module 3.(( Enabling 2b3ecti.es
2b3ecti.e
InductanceAInductor
araday5s %aw
"ction o! inducing a .oltage in a conductor mo.ing in a
magnetic !ield
Induction principles
E!!ects o! the !ollowing on the magnitude o! an induced
.oltageH magnetic !ield strength/ rate o! change o! !lu+/
number o! conductor turns
Mutual induction
The e!!ect the rate o! change o! primary current and mutual
inductance has on inducted .oltage
actors a!!ecting mutual inductanceH number o! turns in coil/
physical siMe o! coil/ permeability o! coil/ position o! coils
with respect to each other
%enM5s %aw and polarity determining rules
'ack EM/ sel! induction
Saturation point
#rinciple uses o! inductors
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Module 3.(( InductanceAInductor
TTS Integrated Training System
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go.erned by the statement
rn r 1rHnti qni
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on page ) o! this &hapter.
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Module 3.(( InductanceAInductor
&haracteristics o! Inductance
Inductance is the characteristic o! an electrical circuit that opposes the starting/ stopping/ or a
change in .alue o! current. The abo.e statement is o! such importance to the study o!
inductance that it bears repeating. Inductance is the characteristic o! an electrical conductor that
opposes change in current. The symbol !or inductance is % and the basic unit o! inductance is the
LEG@P DLE. 2ne Lenry is equal to the inductance required to induce one .olt in an inductor by a
change o! current o! one ampere per second.
Pou do not ha.e to look !ar to !ind a physical analogy o! inductance. "nyone who has e.er had
to push a hea.y load Dwheelbarrow/ car/ etc.E is aware that it takes more work to start the load
mo.ing than it does to keep it mo.ing. 2nce the load is mo.ing/ it is easier to keep the load mo.ing
than to stop it again. This is because the load possesses the property o! inertia. Inertia is the
characteristic o! mass which opposes a change in .elocity. Inductance has the same e!!ect on
current in an electrical circuit as inertia has on the mo.ement o! a mechanical ob3ect. It requires
more energy to start or stop current than it does to keep it !lowing.
Electromoti.e orce DEME
Pou ha.e learned that an electromoti.e !orce is de.eloped whene.er there is relati.e motion
between a magnetic !ield and a conductor.
Electromoti.e !orce is a di!!erence o! potential or .oltage which e+ists between two points in an
electrical circuit. In generators and inductors the EM is de.eloped by the action between the
magnetic !ield and the electrons in a conductor. This is shown in igure ((.(/ ((.)/ ((.3 and
((.;.
igure ((.( $ <eneration o! an EM in an electrical conductor
(($=
Module 3.((
InductanceAInductor
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*hen a magnetic !ield mo.es through a stationary metallic conductor/ electrons are dislodged
!rom their orbits. The electrons mo.e in a direction determined by the mo.ement o! the
magnetic lines o! !lu+. This is shown belowH
IDI@E&TI2G 2 I
$$$M"<GETI&
M2IEMEGT o! %,U
%,U %IGE
igure ((.) $ <eneration o! an EM in an electrical conductor
The electrons mo.e !rom one area o! the conductor into another area. The area that the
electrons mo.ed !rom has !ewer negati.e charges DelectronsE and becomes positi.ely charged.
The area the electrons mo.e into becomes negati.ely charged. This is shown belowH
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igure ((.3 $ <eneration o! an EM in an electrical conductor.
The di!!erence between the charges in the conductor is equal to a di!!erence o! potential Dor
.oltageE. This .oltage caused by the mo.ing magnetic !ield is called electromoti.e !orce DEME.
In simple terms/ the action o! a mo.ing magnetic !ield on a conductor can be compared to the
action o! a broom. &onsider the mo.ing magnetic !ield to be a mo.ing broom. "s the magnetic
broom mo.es along DthroughE the conductor/ it gathers up and pushes electrons be!ore it/ as
shown belowH
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igure ((.; $ <eneration o! an EM in an electrical conductor
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Module 3.(( InductanceAInductor
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K
The area !rom which electrons are mo.ed becomes positi.ely charged/ while the area into
% which electrons are mo.ed becomes negati.ely charged. The potential di!!erence between
these two areas is the electromoti.e !orce or EM.
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Sel!$Inductance
E.en a per!ectly straight length o! conductor has some inductance. "s you know/ current in a
conductor produces a magnetic !ield surrounding the conductor. *hen the current changes/ the
magnetic !ield changes. This causes relati.e motion between the magnetic !ield and the
conductor/ and an electromoti.e !orce DEME is induced in the conductor. This EM is called a
sel!$induced EM because it is induced in the conductor carrying the current. The EM
produced by this mo.ing magnetic !ield is also re!erred to as back electromoti.e !orce Dback$
EME. The polarity o! the counter electromoti.e !orce is in the opposite direction to the applied
.oltage o! the conductor. The o.erall e!!ect will be to oppose a change in current magnitude.
This e!!ect is summariMed by %enM5s law which states thatH
The induced EM in any circuit is always in a direction to oppose the e!!ect that
produced it.
I! the shape o! the conductor is changed to !orm a series o! loops/ then the electromagnetic !ield
around each portion o! the conductor cuts across some other portion o! the same conductor. This is
shown in its simplest !orm in igure ((.=.
igure ((.6 $ " simple inductor/ with a .ariable current
" length o! conductor is looped so that two portions o! the conductor lie ne+t to each other. *hen the
con.entional current is !lowing in the conductor it produces a magnetic !ield around all portions o!
the conductor. or simplicity/ the magnetic !ield De+panding lines o! !lu+E is shown in a single plane
that is perpendicular to the loops. *ith increasing current/ the !lu+ !ield e+pands outward !rom the
centre o! the inductor/ cutting across the loops o! the conductor. This results in an induced EM in
the loops. Gote that the induced EM is in the opposite direction to Din opposition toE the battery
current and .oltage/ as stated in %enM5s law.
(($8
Module 3.(( InductanceAInductor
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motion or !orce
I
magnetic !ield =
:
induced current 9
igure ((.6 $ Sel!$inductance
The direction o! this induced .oltage may be determined by applying the right$hand rule !or
generators Dsee igure ((.=E. This rule is applied to one o! the loops o! the conductor. This rule
states that i! you point the thuMb o! your right hand in the direction o! relati.e Motion o! the
conductor and your irst !inger in the direction o! the magnetic ield/ your se&ond !inger/ e+tended
as shown/ will now indicate the direction o! the induced con.entional &urrent which will generate
the induced .oltage Dback$EME as shown.
In igure ((/=/ i! the current were to be reduced/ the !lu+ !ield would be collapsing. "pplying the
right$hand rule in this case shows that the re.ersal o! !lu+ mo.ement has caused a re.ersal in the
direction o! the induced .oltage. The induced .oltage is now in the same direction as the
battery .oltage. The most important thing !or you to note is that the sel!$induced .oltage opposes
both changes in current. That is/ when the current is increasing/ this .oltage tries to delay the
build$up o! current by opposing the battery .oltage. *hen the current is decreasing/ it tries to keep
the current !lowing in the same direction by aiding the battery .oltage.
Thus/ !rom the abo.e e+planation/ you can see that when a current is building up it produces an
e+panding magnetic !ield. This !ield induces an EM in the direction opposite to the actual !low o!
current. This induced EM opposes the growth o! the current and the growth o! the magnetic !ield.
I! the increasing current had not set up a magnetic !ield/ there would ha.e been no
opposition to its growth. The whole reaction/ or opposition/ is caused by the creation or collapse o!
the magnetic !ield/ the lines o! which as they e+pand or contract/ cut across the conductor and
de.elop the back$EM.
Since all circuits ha.e conductors in them/ you can assume that all circuits ha.e inductance.
Lowe.er/ inductance has its greatest e!!ect only when there is a change in current. Inductance
does not oppose current/ only a change in current. *here current is constantly changing as in
an "& circuit/ inductance has more e!!ect.
To increase the property o! inductance/ the conductor can be !ormed into a greater number o!
loops or coils. " coil is also called an inductor. igure ((.8 shows a conductor !ormed into a coil.
&urrent through one loop produces a magnetic !ield that encircles the loop in the direction as
shown in igure ((.8 D"E. "s current increases/ the magnetic !ield e+pands and cuts all the
(($B Module 3.(( InductanceAInductor
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loops as shown in igure ((.8 D'E. The current in each loop a!!ects all other loops. The !ield
cutting the other loop has the e!!ect o! increasing the opposition to a current change.
D'E
igure ((.8 $ Inductance.
Inductors are classi!ied according to core type. The core is the centre o! the inductor 3ust as the
core o! an apple is the centre o! an apple. The inductor is made by !orming a coil o! wire around a
core. The core material is normally one o! two basic typesH so!t$iron or air. "n iron$core
inductor and its schematic symbol Dwhich is represented with lines across the top o! it to indicate
the presence o! an iron coreE are shown/ in igure ((.B D"E. The air$core inductor may be
nothing more than a coil o! wire/ but it is usually a coil !ormed around a hollow !orm o! some
nonmagnetic material such as cardboard. This material ser.es no purpose other than to hold
the shape o! the coil. "n air$core inductor and its schematic symbol are shown in igure ((.B
D'E.
IGD,&T2@/ I@2G &2@E IGD,&T2@/ "I@ &"@E
D"E D'E
igure ((.B $ Inductor types and schematic symbols.
(($C
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actors "!!ecting &oil Inductance
There are se.eral physical !actors which a!!ect the inductance o! a coil. They include the
number o! turns in the coil/ the diameter o! the coil/ the coil length/ the type o! material used in the
core/ and the number o! layers o! winding in the coils.
Inductance depends entirely upon the physical construction o! the circuit/ and can only be
measured with special laboratory instruments. 2! the !actors mentioned/ consider !irst how the
number o! turns a!!ects the inductance o! a coil. igure ((.C shows two coils. &oil D"E has two turns
and coil D'E has !our turns. In coil D"E/ the !lu+ !ield set up by one loop cuts one other loop. In coil
D'E/ the !lu+ !ield set up by one loop cuts three other loops. Doubling the number o! turns in the coil
will produce a !ield twice as strong/ i! the same current is used. " !ield twice as
strong/ cutting twice the number o! turns/ will induce !our times the .oltage. There!ore/ it can be
said that the inductance .aries as the square o! the number o! turns.
D"E
D'E
igure ((.C $ Inductance !actor DturnsE.
The second !actor is the coil diameter. In igure ((.(7 you can see that the coil in .iew ' has twice
the diameter o! coil .iew ". #hysically/ it requires more wire to construct a coil o! large diameter
than one o! small diameter with an equal number o! turns. There!ore/ more lines o! !orce e+ist to
induce a counter EM in the coil with the larger diameter. "ctually/ the inductance o! a coil
increases directly as the cross$sectional area o! the core increases. @ecall the !ormula !or the
area o! a circleH " R Trr). Doubling the radius o! a coil increases the inductance
by a !actor o! !our.
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D"E D'E
igure ((.(7 $ Inductance !actor DdiameterE.
(($(7 Module 3.(( InductanceAInductor
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The third !actor that a!!ects the inductance o! a coil is the length o! the coil. igure ((.(( shows
two e+amples o! coil spacings. &oil D"E has three turns/ rather widely spaced/ making a
relati.ely long coil. " coil o! this type has !ew !lu+ linkages/ due to the greater distance between
each turn. There!ore/ coil D"E has a relati.ely low inductance. &oil D'E has closely spaced turns/
making a relati.ely short coil. This close spacing increases the !lu+ linkage/ increasing the
inductance o! the coil. Doubling the length o! a coil while keeping the same number o!
turns hal.es the .alue o! inductance.
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igure ((.((
$ Inductance !actor Dcoil lengthE. &losely wound
The !ourth physical !actor is the type o! core material used with the coil. igure ((.() shows two
,

,
coilsH &oil D"E with an air core/ and coil D'E with a so!t$iron core. The magnetic core o! coil D'E is
a better path !or magnetic lines o! !orce than is the nonmagnetic core o! coil D"E. The so!t$iron
magnetic core5s high permeability has less reluctance to the magnetic !lu+/ resulting in more
magnetic lines o! !orce. This increase in the magnetic lines o! !orce increases the number o! lines
o! !orce cutting each loop o! the coil/ thus increasing the inductance o! the coil. It should now be
apparent that the inductance o! a coil increases directly as the permeability o! the core
material increases.
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D"E "I@ &2@E D'E S2T$I@2G &2@E
igure ((.() $ Inductance !actor Dcore materialE. S2T$I@2G &2@E
"nother way o! increasing the inductance is to wind the coil in layers. igure ((.(3 shows three
cores with di!!erent amounts o! layering. The coil in igure ((.(3 D"E is a poor inductor
compared to the others in the !igure because its turns are widely spaced and there is no
layering. The !lu+ mo.ement/ indicated by the dashed arrows/ does not link e!!ecti.ely because
there is only one layer o! turns. " more inducti.e coil is shown in igure ((.(3 D'E. The turns are
closely spaced and the wire has been wound in two layers. The two layers link each other with a
greater number o! !lu+ loops during all !lu+ mo.ements. Gote that nearly all the turns/ such as U/ are
ne+t to !our other turns DshadedE. This causes the !lu+ linkage to be increased.
n
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D"E
D'E
D&E
igure ((.(3 $ &oils o! .arious inductances.
(($()
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" coil can be made still more inducti.e by winding it in three layers/ as shown in igure ((.(3
D&E. The increased number o! layers Dcross$sectional areaE impro.es !lu+ linkage e.en more.
Gote that some turns/ such as P/ lie directly ne+t to si+ other turns DshadedE. In actual practice/
layering can continue on through many more layers. The important !act to remember/ howe.er/ is
that the inductance o! the coil increases with each layer added.
1here, !
% R Inductance o! coil in Lenrys
G R Gumber o! turns in wire coil Dstraight wire R (E
(R #ermeability o! core material Dabsolute/ not relati.eE
3%t R @elati.e permeability/ dimensionless ( !or airE
!%o R (.)6 + (7
Fg
T$m!"t permeability o! !ree space
" R "rea o! coil in square meters R 8tr5
I ".erage length o! coil in meters
igure ((.(; $ The !ormula !or the inductance o! a coil
"s you ha.e seen/ se.eral !actors can a!!ect the inductance o! a coil/ and all o! these !actors are
.ariable. They are all physical !actors. Many di!!erently constructed coils can ha.e the same
inductance. The important in!ormation to remember/ howe.er/ is that inductance is dependent
upon the degree o! linkage between the wire conductorDsE and the electromagnetic !ield.
In a straight length o! conductor/ there is .ery little !lu+ linkage between one part o! the
conductor and another. There!ore/ its inductance is e+tremely small. It was shown that
conductors become much more inducti.e when they are wound into coils. This is true because
there is ma+imum !lu+ linkage between the conductor turns/ which lie side by side in the coil.
It should be noted that he abo.e !ormula is 3ust an appro+imation/ and is .alid only within a normal
working range o! current. 'eyond a certain current le.el/ the core o! the inductor becomes
saturated and the permeability o! the core medium changes. Thus the inductance o! the inductor
cannot be predicted with as much ease as the !ormula may suggest.
(($(3
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InductanceAInductor
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,nit o! Inductance
"s stated be!ore/ the basic unit o! inductance D%E is the Lenry DLE/ named a!ter :oseph Lenry/
the co$disco.erer with araday o! the principle o! electromagnetic induction.
"n inductor has an inductance o! ( Lenry i! an EM o! ( .olt is induced in the inductor
when the current through the inductor is changing at the rate o! ( ampere per second.
The relationship between the induced .oltage/ the inductance/ and the rate o! change o! current
with respect to time is stated mathematically asH
EindR% lesi
"t
where Eind is the induced EM in .oltsK % is the inductance in henrysK and "l is the change in
current in amperes occurring in "t seconds. The symbol " D<reek letter deltaE/ means 1a
change in ... .1. The Lenry is a large unit o! inductance and is used with relati.ely large
inductors. *ith small inductors/ the millihenry is used. D" millihenry is equal to ( + (7$3 Lenry/ and
one Lenry is equal to (/777 millihenrys.E or still smaller inductors the unit o! inductance is the
microhenry DpLE. D" pL R ( + (7$6L/ and one Lenry is equal to (/777/777 microhenrys.E
Energy in an Inductor
The energy Dmeasured in 3oules/ in SIE stored by an inductor is equal to the amount o! work
required to establish the current through the inductor/ and there!ore the magnetic !ield. This is
gi.en byH
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where % is inductance and I is the current !lowing through the inductor.
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Module 3.(( InductanceAInductor
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% <rowth and Decay o! &urrent in an %@ Series &ircuit
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*hen a battery is connected across a 1pure1 inductance/ the current builds up to its !inal .alue
at a rate determined by the battery .oltage and the internal resistance o! the battery. The
current build$up is gradual because o! the counter EM generated by the sel!$inductance o! the
coil. *hen the current starts to !low/ the magnetic lines o! !orce mo.e outward !rom the coil.
%
These lines cut the turns o! wire on the inductor and build up a counter EM that opposes the
EM o! the battery. This opposition causes a delay in the time it takes the current to build up to a
steady .alue. *hen the battery is disconnected/ the lines o! !orce collapse. "gain these lines cut
the turns o! the inductor and build up an EM that tends to prolong the !low o! current.
" .oltage di.ider containing resistance and inductance may be connected in a circuit by means o!
a special switch/ as shown in igure ((.(= D"E. Such a series arrangement is called an %@ series
circuit.
S. &%2cES TLE
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*hen switch S( is closed Das shownE/ a .oltage E. appears across the .oltage di.ider. "t this
instant the current will attempt to increase to its ma+imum .alue. Lowe.er/ this instantaneous
current change causes coil % to produce a back$EM/ which is opposite in polarity and almost equal
to the EM o! the source. This back EM opposes the rapid current change. igure ((.(= D'E
shows that at the instant switch S( is closed/ there is no measurable growth current DIgE/ a
minimum .oltage drop is across resistor @/ and ma+imum .oltage e+ists across inductor %.
"s current starts to !low/ a .oltage De@E appears across @/ and the .oltage across the inductor is
reduced by the same amount. The !act that the .oltage across the inductor D%E is reduced
means that the growth current DigE is increased and consequently e@ is increased.
igure ((.(= D'E shows that the .oltage across the inductor De%E !inally becomes Mero when the
growth current Di7E stops increasing/ while the .oltage across the resistor De@E builds up to a
.alue equal to the source .oltage DEsE.
Electrical inductance is like mechanical inertia/ and the growth o! current in an inducti.e circuit can
be likened to the acceleration o! a boat on the sur!ace o! the water. The boat does not
mo.e at the instant a constant !orce is applied to it. "t this instant all the applied !orce is used to
o.ercome the inertia o! the boat. 2nce the inertia is o.ercome the boat will start to mo.e. "!ter a
while/ the speed o! the boat reaches its ma+imum .alue and the applied !orce is used up in
o.ercoming the !riction o! the water against the hull.
*hen the battery switch DSiE in the %@ circuit o! igure ((.(= D"E is closed/ the rate o! the
current increase is ma+imum in the inducti.e circuit. "t this instant all the battery .oltage is used
in o.ercoming the EM o! sel!$induction which is a ma+imum because the rate o! change o!
current is ma+imum. Thus the battery .oltage is equal to the drop across the inductor and the
.oltage across the resistor is Mero. "s time goes on more o! the battery .oltage appears across
the resistor and less across the inductor. The rate o! change o! current is less and the induced
EM is less. "s the steady$state condition o! the current is approached/ the drop across the
inductor approaches Mero and all o! the battery .oltage is 1dropped1 across the resistance o! the
circuit.
Thus the .oltages across the inductor and the resistor change in magnitude during the period o!
growth o! current the same way the !orce applied to the boat di.ides itsel! between the e!!ects o!
inertia and !riction. In both e+amples/ the !orce is de.eloped !irst across the inertiaAinducti.e
e!!ect and !inally across the !rictionAresisti.e e!!ect.
igure ((.(= D&E shows that when switch S) is closed Dsource .oltage Es remo.ed !rom the
circuitE/ the !lu+ that has been established around the inductor D%E collapses through the
windings. This induces a .oltage el$ in the inductor that has a polarity opposite to Es and is
essentially equal to Es in. magnitude. The induced .oltage causes decay current DidE to !low in
resistor @ in the same direction in which current was !lowing originally Dwhen S
(
was closedE. "
.oltage De@E that is initially equal to source .oltage DEsE is de.eloped across @. The .oltage
across the resistor De@E rapidly !alls to Mero as the .oltage across the inductor DetFE !alls to Mero due
to the collapsing !lu+.
:ust as the e+ample o! the boat was used to e+plain the growth o! current in a circuit/ it can also
be used to e+plain the decay o! current in a circuit. *hen the !orce applied to the boat is
remo.ed/ the boat still continues to mo.e through the water !or a while/ e.entually coming to a
stop. This is because energy was being stored in the inertia o! the mo.ing boat. "!ter a period o!
(($(6
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Module 3.(( InductanceAInductor
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time the !riction o! the water o.ercomes the inertia o! the boat/ and the boat stops mo.ing. :ust
as inertia o! the boat stored energy/ the magnetic !ield o! an inductor stores energy. 'ecause o!
this/ e.en when the power source is remo.ed/ the stored energy o! the magnetic !ield o! the
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inductor tends to keep current !lowing in the circuit until the magnetic !ield collapse.
,@ Time &onstant
The ,@ time constant is a .aluable tool !or use in determining the time required !or current in
an inductor to reach a speci!ic .alue. "s shown in igure ((.(6/ one %A@ time constant is the
time required !or the current in an inductor to increase to 63 percent Dactually 63.)]E o! the
ma+imum current. Each time constant is equal to the time required !or the current to increase by
63.) percent o! the di!!erence in .alue between the current !lowing in the inductor and the
ma+imum current. Ma+imum current !lows in the inductor a!ter !i.e %A@ time constants are
completed. The !ollowing e+ample should clear up any con!usion about time constants. "ssume that
ma+imum current in an %@ circuit is (7 amperes. "s you know/ when the circuit is
energiMed/ it takes time !or the current to go !rom Mero to (7 amperes. *hen the !irst time constant
is completed/ the current in the circuit is equal to 63.)] o! (7 amperes. Thus the amplitude o!
current at the end o! ( time constant is 6.3) amperes.
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In a similar way to the .oltage increase and decay in a capacitor/ the current increase in an
inductor is logarithmic/ and the current decay is an e+ponential decay.
During the second time constant/ current again increases by 63.)] D7.63)E o! the di!!erence in
.alue between the current !lowing in the inductor and the ma+imum current. This di!!erence is
(7 amperes minus 6.3) amperes and equals 3.6B amperesK 63.)] o! 3.6B amperes is ).3)
amperes. This increase in current during the second time constant is added to that o! the !irst time
constant. Thus/ upon completion o! the second time constant/ the amount o! current in the %@
circuit is 6.3) amperes W ).3) amperes R B.6; amperes.
During the third constant/ current again increasesH
(($(8
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(7 amperes $ B.6; amperes R(36 ampere s
(.36 amperes + .63) R 7.B67 ampere
B/6; amperes W7/B67ampere R C.=7amperes
During the !ourth time constant/ current again increasesH
(7 amperes $ C/=7 amperes R 7.= ampere
7.= ampere + .63) R 7.3(6 ampere
C.=7 amperes W 7.3(6ampere R C.B)amperes
During the !i!th time constant/ current increases as be!oreH
(7amperes $ C.B)amperes R 7.(Bampere
7/(B ampere + /63) R 7/((; ampere
C.B) amperes W /((; ampere R C.C3 amperes
Thus/ the current at the end o! the !i!th time constant is almost equal to (7.7 amperes/ the
ma+imum current. or all practical purposes the slight di!!erence in .alue can be ignored. *hen
an %@ circuit is de$energiMed/ the circuit current decreases DdecaysE to Mero in !i.e time constants
at the same rate that it pre.iously increased. I! the growth and decay o! current in an %@ circuit
are plotted on a graph/ the cur.e appears as shown in igure ((.(6. Gotice that current increases
and decays at the same rate in !i.e time constants.
The .alue o! the time constant in seconds is equal to the inductance in henrys di.ided by the
circuit resistance in ohms.
The !ormula used to calculate one %A@ time constant isH
Time &onstant DTS in seconds R % Din henrys E
@DinohmsE
#ower %oss in an Inductor
Since an inductor DcoilE consists o! a number o! turns o! wire/ and since all wire has some
resistance/ e.ery inductor has a certain amount o! resistance. Gormally this resistance is small. It
is usually neglected in sol.ing .arious types o! ac circuit problems because the reactance o! the
inductor Dthe opposition to alternating current/ which will be discussed laterE is so much greater
than the resistance that the resistance has a negligible e!!ect on the current.
Lowe.er/ since some inductors are designed to carry relati.ely large amounts o! current/
considerable power can be dissipated in the inductor e.en though the amount o! resistance in
the inductor is small. This power is wasted power and is called copper loss. The copper loss o!
(($(B Module 3.(( inductanceAInductor
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an inductor can be calculated by multiplying the square o! the current in the inductor by the
resistance o! the winding D()@E.
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In addition to copper loss/ an iron$core coil DinductorE has two iron losses. These are called
hysteresis loss and eddy$current loss. Lysteresis loss is due to power that is consumed in
re.ersing the magnetic !ield o! the inductor core each time the direction o! current in the inductor
changes.
Eddy$current loss is due to heating o! the core by circulating currents that are induced in the
iron core by the magnetic !ield around the turns o! the coil. These currents are called eddy
currents and circulate within the iron core only.
"ll these losses dissipate power in the !orm o! heat. Since this power cannot be returned to the
electrical circuit/ it is lost power.
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Module 3.(( InductanceAInductor
K. 3
Integrated Training System
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Mutual Inductance
*hene.er two coils are located so that the !lu+ !rom one coil links with the turns o! the other coil/
a change o! !lu+ in one coil causes an EM to be induced in the other coil. This allows the energy
!rom one coil to be trans!erred or coupled to the other coil. The two coils are said to be coupled or
linked by the property o! mutual inductance DME. The amount o! mutual inductance depends on
the relati.e positions o! the two coils. This is shown in igure ((.(8. I! the coils are separated a
considerable distance/ the amount o! !lu+ common to both coils is small and the mutual
inductance is low. &on.ersely/ i! the coils are close together so that nearly all the !lu+ o! one coil
links the turns o! the other/ the mutual inductance is high. The mutual inductance can be increased
greatly by mounting the coils on a common iron core.
%/
D"E IGD,&T2@S &%2SE $$ %"@<E M
D'E IGD,&T2@S "@ "#"@T $ SM"%% M
D&E IGD,&T2@ "UES #E@#EGDI&,%"@$ G2 M
igure ((.(8 $ The e!!ect o! position o! coils on mutual inductance DME.
Two coils are placed close together as shown in igure ((.(B. &oil ( is connected to a battery
through switch S/ and coil ) is connected to an ammeter D"E. *hen switch S is closed as in
igure ((.(B D"E/ the current that !lows in coil ( sets up a magnetic !ield that links with coil )/
causing an induced .oltage in coil ) and a momentary de!lection o! the ammeter. *hen the current
in coil ( reaches a steady .alue/ the ammeter returns to Mero. I! switch S is now opened
as in igure ((.(B D'E/ the ammeter D"E de!lects momentarily in the opposite direction/ indicating a
momentary !low o! current in the opposite direction in coil )/ This current in coil ) is produced by
the collapsing magnetic !ield o! coil (.
(($)7 Module 3.(( InductanceAInductor
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The mutual inductance o! two ad3acent coils is dependent upon the physical dimensions o! the
two coils/ the number o! turns in each coil/ the distance between the two coils/ the relati.e
positions o! the a+es o! the two coils/ and the permeability o! the cores.
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The coe!!icient o! coupling between two coils is equal to the ratio o! the !lu+ cutting one coil to
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the !lu+ originated in the other coil. I! the two coils are so positioned with respect to each other
so that all o! the !lu+ o! one coil cuts all o! the turns o! the other/ the coils are said to ha.e a
unity coe!!icient o! coupling. It is ne.er e+actly equal to unity D(E/ but it approaches this .alue in
certain types o! coupling de.ices. I! all o! the !lu+ produced by one coil cuts only hal! the turns o!
the other coil/ the coe!!icient o! coupling is 7.=. The coe!!icient o! coupling is designated by the
letter 0.
The mutual inductance between two coils/ %( and %)/ is e+pressed in terms o! the inductance o!
each coil and the coe!!icient o! coupling 0. "s a !ormulaH
MR0 %(%)
whereH MR Mutual inductance in henrys
0R &oe!!icient o! coupling
%(/ %) R Inductance o! coil in henrys
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E+ample problemH
2ne ( 7$L coil and one )7$L coil are connected in series and are physically close enough to
each other so that their coe!!icient o! coupling is 7.=. *hat is the mutual inductance between the
coils?
,se the !ormulaH MR0 %(%)
M R 7.= D(7LED)7LE
M R 7.=
)77 L
M R 7.= + (;.(;L
M R 8.78L
"dding Inductors
Series Inductors without Magnetic &oupling
*hen inductors are well shielded or are located !ar enough apart !rom one another/ the e!!ect o!
mutual inductance is negligible. I! there is no mutual inductance Dmagnetic couplingE and the
inductors are connected in series/ the total inductance is equal to the sum o! the indi.idual
inductances. "s a !ormulaH
%T R%( W%)W%3W/.%$n
where %T is the total inductanceK % (/ %)/ %3 are the inductances o! %(/ %)/ %3i and %n means that
any number DnE o! inductors may be used. The inductances o! inductors in series are added
together like the resistances o! resistors in series.
Series Inductors *ith Magnetic &oupling
*hen two inductors in series are so arranged that the !ield o! one links the other/ the combined
inductance is determined as !ollowsH
%T R %(W%) _)M
whereH % T R The total inductan ce
% (.% ) R The inductances o! %(.%)
M R The mutu al induc tanc e between
the two inductors
The plus sign is used with M when the magnetic !ields o! the two inductors are aiding each
other/ as shown in igure ((.( C.The minus sign is used with M when the magnetic !ield o! the
two inductors oppose each other/ as shown in igure ((.)7. The !actor )M accounts !or the
in!luence o! %( on %) and %) on %(.
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!rl &nn.rinh! CD((7
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igure ((.(C $ Series inductors with aiding !ields.
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igure ((.)7 $ Series inductors with opposing !ields.
E+ample problemH
" (7$L coil is connected in series with a =$L coil so the !ields aid each other. Their mutual inductance
is 8 L. *hat is the combined inductance o! the coils?
,sethe!ormulaH %T R%(W%)W)M
%TR(7LW=LW)D8LE
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Module 3.(( InductanceAInductor
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#arallel Inductors without &oupling
The total inductance D%TE o! inductors in parallel is calculated in the same manner that the total
resistance o! resistors in parallel is calculated/ pro.ided the coe!!icient o! coupling between the
coils is Mero. E+pressed mathematicallyH
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Gote that the !ormula !or parallel inductors with coupling is not pro.ided. This is because it is
not possible !or magnetic coupling between parallel conductors to take place/ as it would require
lines o! !lu+ !rom one conductor to cross o.er the lines o! !lu+ !rom the other conductor/ and this is
contrary to the rules that predict the beha.iour o! lines o! !lu+. *hilst there may be some
disruption due to the distortion o! the lines o! !lu+ when in!luenced by neighbouring inductors/
there are too many .ariables to take into account/ and the e!!ect on inductance is so minimal/
that a !ormula is neither possible nor necessary.
"pplications o! Inductors
Inductors are used e+tensi.ely in analogue circuits and signal processing. Inductors in
con3unction with capacitors and other components !orm tuned
circuits which can emphasiMe or !ilter out speci!ic signal !requencies.
This can range !rom the use o! large inductors as chokes in power
supplies/ which in con3unction with !ilter capacitors remo.e residual
hum or other !luctuations !rom the direct current output/ to such
small inductances as generated by a !errite bead or torus around a
cable to pre.ent radio !requency inter!erence !rom being transmitted
down the wire. Smaller inductorAcapacitor combinations pro.ide
tuned circuits used in radio reception and broadcasting/ !or instance.
igure ((.)( $ " choke with two ;8mL windings/ such as might be
!ound in a power supply.
Two Dor moreE inductors which ha.e coupled magnetic !lu+ !orm a trans!ormer/ which is a
!undamental component o! e.ery electric utility power grid. The e!!iciency o! a trans!ormer
decreases as the !requency increases but siMe can be decreased as wellK !or this reason/
aircra!t used ;77 hertM alternating current rather than the usual =7 or 67 hertM/ allowing a great
sa.ings in weight !rom the use o! smaller trans!ormers.
"n inductor is used as the energy storage de.ice in some switchmode power supplies. The
inductor is energiMed !or a speci!ic !raction o! the regulator5s switching !requency/ and de$
energiMed !or the remainder o! the cycle. This energy trans!er ratio determines the input$.oltage to
output$.oltage ratio. This U% is used in complement with an acti.e semiconductor de.ice to
maintain .ery accurate .oltage control.
Inductors are also employed in electrical transmission systems/ where they are used to
intentionally depress system .oltages or limit !ault current. In this !ield/ they are more commonly
re!erred to as reactors.
(($); Module 3.(( InductanceAInductor
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"s inductors tend to be larger and hea.ier than other components/ their use has been reduced in
modern equipmentK solid state switching power supplies eliminate large trans!ormers/ !or instance/
and circuits are designed to use only small inductors/ i! anyK larger .alues are simulated by use o!
gyrator circuits.
Inductor construction
"n inductor is usually constructed as a coil o! conducting material/ typically copper wire/
wrapped around a core either o! air or o! !erromagnetic material. &ore
materials with a higher permeability than air con!ine the magnetic
!ield closely to the inductor/ thereby increasing the inductance.
Inductors come in many shapes. Most are constructed as enamel
coated wire wrapped around a !errite bobbin with wire e+posed on
; i n the outside/ while some enclose the wire completely in !errite and are
called shielded . Some Inductors na.e an ad3ustable core/ which
enables changing o! the inductance. Inductors used to block .ery
b lg requencles are some lrrtes ma a wl a wire passing roug a t th h
!errite cylinder or bead.
igure ((.)) $ Inductors. Ma3or scale in centimetres
Small inductors can be etched directly onto a printed circuit board by laying out the trace in a spiral
pattern. Small .alue inductors can also be built on integrated circuits using the same
processes that are used to make transistors. In these cases/ aluminium interconnect is typically
used as the conducting material. Lowe.er/ practical constraints make it !ar more common to use a
circuit called a 1gyrator1 which uses a capacitor and acti.e components to beha.e
similarly to an inductor.
igure ((.)3 $ Iarious !orms o! iron cored inductors
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TTS Integrated
Training System
Module 3
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%icence &ategory '(A')
Electrical undamentals
3.() D& MotorA<enerator Theory
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Module 3.() D& MotorA<enerator Theory
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&opyright Gotice
6 &opyright. "ll worldwide rights reser.ed. Go part o! this publication may be reproduced/
stored in a retrie.al system or transmitted in any !orm by any other means whatsoe.erH i.e.
photocopy/ electronic/ mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission o!
Total Training Support %td.
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'asic knowledge !or categories "/ '( and ') are indicated by the allocation o! knowledge le.els indicators D(/ ) or
3E against each applicable sub3ect. &ategory & applicants must meet either the category '( or the category ')
basic knowledge le.els.
The knowledge le.el indicators are de!ined as !ollowsH
%EIE% (
J " !amiliarisation with the principal elements o! the sub3ect.
2b3ecti.esH
J The applicant should be !amiliar with the basic elements o! the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to gi.e a simple description o! the whole sub3ect/ using common words and
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J The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
%EIE% )
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J "n ability to apply that knowledge.
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J The applicant should be able to gi.e a general description o! the sub3ect using/ as appropriate/ typical
e+amples.
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sub3ect.
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sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
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J The applicant should be able to gi.e a detailed description o! the sub3ect using theoretical !undamentals
and speci!ic e+amples.
J The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical !ormulae related to the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to read/ understand and prepare sketches/ simple drawings and schematics
describing the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manu!acturer5s
instructions.
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Table o! &ontents
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Module 3.() D& MotorA<enerator Theory =
D& <enerators =
Introduction =
#rinciples o! 2peration =
&ommutation ()
Motor @eaction in a <enerator (3
"rmature %osses (;
&onstruction eatures o! D.&. <enerators (6
Types o! D.&. <enerators ))
Three$*ire <enerators )6
"rmature @eaction )8
<enerator @atings )C
D.&. <enerator Maintenance 37
ield E+citation 3)
D& Motors 33
Introduction 33
#rinciples o! 2peration 33
'asic D.&. Motor 36
D.&. Motor &onstruction 3C
"rmature @eaction ;7
Types o! D.&. Motors ;)
'ack$EM ;=
Types o! Duty ;6
@e.ersing Motor Direction ;6
Motor Speed ;B
Energy %osses in D.&. Motors ;C
Inspection and Maintenance o! D.&. Motors =(
Starter$<enerator Systems =)
()$3
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Module 3.() Enabling 2b3ecti.es
2b3ecti.e
D& MotorA<enerator Theory
'asic motor and generator theory
&onstruction and purpose o! components in D& generator
2peration o!/ and !actors a!!ecting output and direction o!
current !low in D& generators
2peration o!/ and !actors a!!ecting output power/ torque/
speed and direction o! rotation o! D& motors
Series wound/ shunt wound and compound motors
Starter <enerator construction
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E"S" 66 @e!erence %e.el
3.() )
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Module 3.() D& MotorA<enerator Theory
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Module 3.() D& MotorA<enerator Theory
D& <enerators
Introduction
Energy !or the operation o! most electrical equipment in an aeroplane depends upon the elec$
trical energy supplied by a generator. " generator is any machine which con.erts mechanical
energy into electrical energy by electromagnetic induction. " generator designed to produce
alternating$current energy is called an "& generator/ or alternator/ a generator which produces
direct$current energy is called a D& generator. 'oth types operate by inducing an "& .oltage in
coils by .arying the amount and direction o! the magnetic !lu+ cutting through the coil
or aeroplanes equipped with direct$current electrical systems/ the D& generator is the regular
source o! electrical energy. 2ne or more D& generators/ dri.en by the engine/ supply electrical
energy !or the operation o! all units in the electrical system/ as well as energy !or charging the
battery. The number o! generators used is determined by the power requirement o! a particular
aeroplane. In most cases/ only one generator is dri.en by each engine/ but in some large
aeroplanes/ two generators are dri.en by a single engine. "ircra!t equipped with alternating$
current systems use electrical energy supplied by "& generators/ also called alternators.
#rinciples o! 2peration
" generator is a machine that con.erts mechanical energy into electrical energy by using the
principle o! magnetic induction. This principle is e+plained as !ollowsH
*hene.er a conductor is mo.ed within a magnetic !ield in such a way that the conductor
cuts across magnetic lines o! !lu+/ .oltage is generated in the conductor.
The amount o! .oltage generated depends on D(E the strength o! the magnetic !ield/ D)E the
angle at which the conductor cuts the magnetic !ield/ D3E the speed at which the conductor is
mo.ed/ and D;E the length o! the conductor within the magnetic !ield.
The polarity o! the .oltage depends on the direction o! the magnetic lines o! !lu+ and the
direction o! mo.ement o! the conductor. To determine the direction o! current in a gi.en
situation/ the right$hand rule !or generators is used. This rule is e+plained in the !ollowing
manner.
E+tend the thumb/ !irst !inger/ and second !inger o! your right hand at right angles to one
another/ as shown in igure ().(.
#oint your thuMb in the direction the conductor Mo.ement. #oint your irst !inger in the direction o!
magnetic lu+ D!rom north to southE. Pour se&ond !inger will then point in the direction o!
con.entional &urrent !low in an e+ternal circuit to which the .oltage is applied.
Module 3.() D& MotorA<enerator Theory
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igure ().( $ @ight$hand rule !or generators.
*hen lines o! magnetic !orce are cut by a conductor passing through them/ .oltage is induced
in the conductor. The strength o! the induced .oltage is dependent upon the speed o! the
conductor and the strength o! the magnetic !ield. I! the ends o! the conductor are connected to
!orm a complete circuit/ a current is induced in the conductor. The conductor and the magnetic
!ield make up an elementary generator. This simple generator is illustrated in !igure ().)/
together with the components o! an e+ternal generator circuit which collect and use the energy
produced by the simple generator. The loop o! wire D" and ' o! !igure ().)E is arranged to rotate in
a magnetic !ield. *hen the plane o! the loop o! wire is parallel to the magnetic lines o! !orce/
the .oltage induced in the loop causes a current to !low in the direction indicated by the arrows
in !igure ().). The .oltage induced at this position is ma+imum/ since the wires are cutting the
lines o! !orce at right angles and are thus cutting more !ines o! !orce per second than in any
other position relati.e to the magnetic !ield.
igure ().) $ Inducing ma+imum .oltage in an elementary generator
()$6
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"s the loop approaches the .ertical position shown in !igure ().3/ the induced .oltage decreases
because both sides o! the loop D" and 'E are appro+imately parallel to the lines o! !orce and the
rate o! cutting is reduced.
igure ().3 $ Inducing minimum .oltage in an elementary generator
igure ().; $ Inducing ma+imum .oltage in an elementary generator
igure ().= $ Inducing a minimum .oltage in the opposite direction
*hen the loop is .ertical/ no lines o! !orce are cut since the wires are momentarily tra.elling
loop continues the number o! lines o! !orce cut increases until the loop has rotated an additional
,
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C7ato a horiMontal plane. "s shown in !igure ().=/ the number o! lines o! !orce cut and the
induced .oltage once again are ma+imum. The direction o! cutting/ howe.er/ is in the opposite
direction to that occurring in !igure ().3 and ().=/ so the direction DpolarityE o! the induced
.oltage is re.ersed.
"s rotation o! the loop continues the number o! lines o! !orce ha.ing been cut again decreases/
and the induced .oltage becomes Mero at the position shown in !igure ().=/ since the wires " and
' are again parallel to the magnetic line5 o! !orce.
I! the .oltage induced throughout the entire 367ao! rotation is plotted/ the cur.e shown in !igure
().6 results. This .oltage is called an alternating .oltage because o! its re.ersal !rom positi.e to
negati.e .alues $ !irst in one direction and then in the other.
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igure ().6 $$ 2utput o! an elementary generator
To use the .oltage generated in the loop !or producing a current !low in an e+ternal circuit/ some
means must be pro.ided to connect the loop o! wire in series with the e+ternal circuit. Such an
electrical connection can be e!!ected by opening the loop o! wire and connecting its two ends to two
metal rings/ called slip rings/ against which two metal or carbon brushes ride. The brushes are
connected to the e+ternal circuit.
'y replacing the slip rings o! the basic "& generator with two hal!$cylinders/ called a com$
mutator/ a basic D& generator D!igure ().8E/ is obtained/ In this illustration the black side o! the
coil is connected to the black segment and the white side o! the coil to the white segment. The
segments are insulated !rom each other. The two stationary brushes are placed on opposite sides
o! the commutator and are so mounted that each brush contacts each segment o! the commutator
as the latter re.ol.es simultaneously with the loop. The rotating parts o! a D&
generator Dcoil and commutatorE are called an armature.
The generation o! an EM by the loop rotating in the magnetic !ield is the same !or both "& and
D& generators/ but the action o! the commutator produces a D& .oltage. This generation o! a D&
.oltage is described as !ollows !or the .arious positions o! the loop rotating in a magnetic !ield/ with
re!erence to !igure ().B.
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igure ().8 $ 'asic D& generator
The loop in position " o! !igure ().B is rotating clockwise/ but no lines o! !orce are cut by the coil
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sides and no EM is generated. The black brush is shown coming into contact with the black
segment o! the commutator/ and the white brush is 3ust coming into contact with the white
segment.
In position ' o! !igure ().B/ the !lu+ is being cut at a ma+imum rate and the induced EM i=
ma+imum. "t this time/ the black brush is contacting the black segment and the white brush is
contacting the white segment. The de!lection o! the meter is toward the right/ indicating the
polarity o! the output .oltage.
"t position & o! !igure ().B/ the loop has completed (B7ao! rotation. "gain/ no !lu+ lines are
being cut and the output .oltage is Mero. The important condition to obser.e at position & is the
action o! the segments and brushes. The black brush at the (B7aangle is contacting both black
and white segments on one side o! the commutator/ and the white brush is contacting both
segments on the other side o! the commutator. "!ter the loop rotates slightly past the (B7a
points the black brush is contacting only the white segment and the white brush is contacting only
the black segment.
'ecause o! ibis switching o! commutator elements/ the black brush is always in contact with the
coil side mo.ing downward/ and the white brush is always in contact with the coil side mo.ing
upward. Though the current actually re.erses its direction in the loop in e+actly the same way as in
the "& generator/ commutator action causes the current to !low always iin the same
direction through the e+ternal circuit or meter.
" graph o! one cycle o! operation is shown in !igure ().B. The generation o! the EM !or positions
"/ ' and & is the same as !or the basic "& generator/ but at position D/ commutator action
re.erses the current in the e+ternal circuit/ and the second hal!$cycle has the same wa.e!orm as
the !irst hal!$cycle.
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igure ().B $ 2peration o! a basic D& generator
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The progress o! commutation is sometimes called recti!ication/ since recti!ication is the
con.erting o! an "& .oltage to a D& .oltage.
"t the instant that each brush is contacting two segments on the commutator Dpositions "/ &/ and
E in !igure ().BE/ a direct short circuit is produced. I! an EM were generated in the loop at this
time/ a high current would !low in the circuit/ causing an arc and thus damaging the
commutator. or this reason/ the brushes must be placed in the e+act position where the short
will occur when the generated EM is Mero. This position is called the neutral plane.
The .oltage generated by the basic D& generator in !igure ().B .aries !rom Mero to its ma+imum
.alue twice !or each re.olution o! the loop. This .ariation o! .oltage is called 4ripple/1 and may be
reduced by using more loops/ or coils/ as shown in " o! !igure ().C. "s the number o! loops is
increased/ the .ariation between ma+imum and minimum .alues o! .oltage is reduced D' o!
!igure ().CE/ and the output .oltage o! the generator approaches a steady D& .alue. In " o! !igure
().C the number o! commutator segments is increased in direct proportion to the number o!
loopsK that is/ there are two segments !or one loop/ !our segments !or two loops/ and eight
segments !or !our loops.
()$(7 Module 3.() D& MotorA<enerator Theory
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igure ().C $ Increasing the number o! coils reduces the ripple in the .oltage
The .oltage induced in a single$turn loop is small. Increasing the number o! loops does not
increase the ma+imum .alue o! generated .oltage/ but increasing the number o! turns in each
loop will increase this .alue. *ithin narrow limits/ the output .oltage o! a D& generator is
determined by the product o! the number o! turns per loop/ the total !lu+ per pair o! poles in
the machine/ and the speed o! rotation o! the armature.
"n "& generator/ or alternator/ and a D& generator are identical as !ar as the method o!
generating .oltage in the rotating loop is concerned. Lowe.er/ i! the current is taken !rom the
loop by slip rings/ it is an alternating current/ and the generator is called an "& generator/ or
alternator. I! the current is collected by a commutator/ it is direct current/ and the generator is
called a D& generator.
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&ommutation
&ommutation is the process by which a D& .oltage output is taken !rom an armature that has an ac
.oltage induced in it. Pou should remember !rom our discussion o! the elementary D& generator
that the commutator mechanically re.erses the armature loop connections to the e+ternal circuit.
This occurs at the same instant that the .oltage polarity in the armature loop re.erses. " D&
.oltage is applied to the load because the output connections are re.ersed as each commutator
segment passes under a brush. The segments are insulated !rom each other.
In igure ().(7/ commutation occurs simultaneously in the two coils that are brie!ly short$
circuited by the brushes. &oil ' is short$circuited by the negati.e brush. &oil P/ the opposite coil/
is short$circuited by the positi.e brush. The brushes are positioned on the commutator so that
each coil is short$circuited as it mo.es through its own electrical neutral plane. "s you ha.e seen
pre.iously/ there is no .oltage generated in the coil at that time. There!ore/ no sparking
can occur between the commutator and the brush. Sparking between the brushes and the
commutator is an indication o! improper commutation. Improper brush placement is the main
cause o! improper commutation.
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igure ().(7 $ &ommutation o! a D& generator.
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Motor @eaction in a <enerator
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*hen a generator deli.ers current to a load/ the armature current creates a magnetic !orce that
opposes the rotation o! the armature. This is called motor reaction. " single armature
conductor is represented in igure ().((/ .iew ". *hen the conductor is stationary/ no .oltage is
generated and no current !lows. There!ore/ no !orce acts on the conductor. *hen the
conductor is mo.ed downward Digure ().((/ .iew 'E and the circuit is completed through an
e+ternal load/ current !lows through the conductor in the direction indicated. This sets up lines o!
!lu+ around the conductor in a clockwise direction.
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igure ().(( $ Motor reaction in a generator.
The interaction between the conductor !ield and the main !ield o! the generator weakens the !ield
abo.e the conductor and strengthens the !ield below the conductor. The main !ield consists o! lines
that now act like stretched rubber bands. Thus/ an upward reaction !orce is produced that acts in
opposition to the downward dri.ing !orce applied to the armature conductor. I! the current in the
conductor increases/ the reaction !orce increases. There!ore/ more !orce must be applied to the
conductor to keep it mo.ing.
*ith no armature current/ there is no magnetic DmotorE reaction. There!ore/ the !orce required to
turn the armature is low. "s the armature current increases/ the reaction o! each armature
conductor against rotation increases. The actual !orce in a generator is multiplied by the number o!
conductors in the armature. The dri.ing !orce required to maintain the generator armature speed
must be increased to o.ercome the motor reaction. The !orce applied to turn the armature must
o.ercome the motor reaction !orce in all D& generators. The de.ice that
pro.ides the turning !orce applied to the armature is called the prime mo.er. The prime mo.er
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may be an electric motor/ a gasoline engine/ a steam turbine/ or any other mechanical de.ice
that pro.ides turning !orce.
"rmature %osses
In D& generators/ as in most electrical de.ices/ certain !orces act to decrease the e!!iciency.
These !orces/ as they a!!ect the armature/ are considered as losses and may be de!ined as
!ollowsH
J
()@/ or copper loss in the winding
J Eddy current loss in the core
J Lysteresis loss Da sort o! magnetic !rictionE
&opper %osses
The power lost in the !orm o! heat in the armature winding o! a generator is known as copper loss.
Leat is generated any time current !lows in a conductor. &opper loss is an ()@ loss/ which
increases as current increases. The amount o! heat generated is also proportional to the
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resistance o! the conductor. The resistance o! the conductor .aries directly with its length and
in.ersely with its cross$sectional area. &opper loss is minimiMed in armature windings by using
large diameter wire.
Eddy &urrent %osses
The core o! a generator armature is made !rom so!t iron/ which is a conducting material with
desirable magnetic characteristics. "ny conductor will ha.e currents induced in it when it is
rotated in a magnetic !ield. These currents that are induced in the generator armature core are
called eddy currents. The power dissipated in the !orm o! heat/ as a result o! the eddy currents/ is
considered a loss.
Eddy currents/ 3ust like any other electrical currents/ are a!!ected by the resistance o! the
material in which the currents !low. The resistance o! any material is in.ersely proportional to its
cross$sectional area. igure ().()/ .iew "/ shows the eddy currents induced in an armature
core that is a solid piece o! so!t iron. igure ().()/ .iew '/ shows a so!t iron core o! the same
siMe/ but made up o! se.eral small pieces insulated !rom each other. This process is called
lamination. The currents in each piece o! the laminated core are considerably less than in the
solid core because the resistance o! the pieces is much higher. D@esistance is in.ersely
proportional to cross$sectional area.E The currents in the indi.idual pieces o! the laminated core
are so small that the sum o! the indi.idual currents is much less than the total o! eddy currents
in the solid iron core.
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Module 3.() D& MotorA<enerator Theory
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igure ().() $ Eddy currents in D& generator armature cores.
"s you can see/ eddy current losses are kept low when the core material is made up o! many
thin sheets o! metal. %aminations in a small generator armature may be as thin as (A6; inch.
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The laminations are insulated !rom each other by a thin coat o! lacquer or/ in some instances/
simply by the o+idation o! the sur!aces. 2+idation is caused by contact with the air while the
laminations are being annealed. The insulation .alue need not be high because the .oltages
induced are .ery small.
Most generators use armatures with laminated cores to reduce eddy current losses.
Lysteresis %osses
Lysteresis loss is a heat loss caused by the magnetic properties o! the armature. *hen an
armature core is in a magnetic !ield/ the magnetic particles o! the core tend to line up with the
magnetic !ield. *hen the armature core is rotating/ its magnetic !ield keeps changing direction. The
continuous mo.ement o! the magnetic particles/ as they try to align themsel.es with the magnetic
!ield/ produces molecular !riction. This/ in turn/ produces heat. This heat is transmitted to the
armature windings. The heat causes armature resistances to increase.
To compensate !or hysteresis losses/ heat$treated silicon steel laminations are used in most D&
generator armatures. "!ter the steel has been !ormed to the proper shape/ the laminations are
heated and allowed to cool. This annealing process reduces the hysteresis loss to a low .alue.
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&onstruction eatures o! D.&. <enerators
<enerators used on aircra!t may di!!er somewhat in design since they are made by .arious
manu!acturers. "ll/ howe.er/ are o! the same general construction and operate similarly. The ma3or
parts/ or assemblies/ o! a D& generator are a !ield !rame Dor yokeE/ a rotating armature/ and a
brush assembly. The parts o! a typical aircra!t generator are shown in !igure ().(3.
Dri.e end
!rame
&ommutator
W Steel ring
&ommutator 4Pe 4 a 0)M Dri.e aba!t
end !rame
igure ().(3 $$ " typical );$.olt aircra!t generator
ield rame
The !ield !rame is also called the yoke/ which is the !oundation or !rame !or the generator. The
!rame has two !unctionsH It completes the magnetic circuit between the poles and acts as a
mechanical support !or the other parts o! the generator. In " o! !igure ().(;/ the !rame !or a two
pole generator is shown in cross sectional .iew. " !our$pole generator !rame is shown in ' o!
!igure ().(;.
In small generators/ the !rame is made o! one piece o! iron/ but in larger generators/ it is usually
made up o! two parts bolted together. The !rame has high magnetic properties and/ together
with the pole pieces/ !orms the ma3or part o! the magnetic circuit. The !ield poles/ shown in
!igure ().(;/ are bolted to the inside o! the !rame and !orm a core on which the !ield coil
windings are mounted. The poles are usually laminated to reduce eddy current losses and ser.e
the same purpose as the iron core o! an electromagnetK that is/ they concentrate the lines o! !orce
produced by the !ield coils. The entire !rame/ including !ield poles/ is made !rom high$
quality magnetic iron or sheet steel.
()$(6 Module 3.() D& MotorA<enerator Theory
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TTS Integrated Training System
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6 &opyright )7(7 on page ) o! this &hapter.
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" practical D& generator uses electromagnets instead o! permanent magnets. To produce a
magnetic !ield o! the necessary strength with permanent magnets would greatly increase the
physical siMe o! the generator.
The !ield coils are made up o! many turns o! insulated wire and are usually wound on a !orm ,
which !its o.er the iron core o! the pole to which it is securely !astened D!igure ().(=E. The
e+citing current/ which is used to produce the magnetic !ield and which !lows through the !ield
i W coils/ is obtained !rom an e+ternal source or !rom the generated "& o! the machine/ Go
electrical connection e+ists between the windings o! the !ield coils and the pole pieces.
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igure ().(= $ " !ield coil remo.ed !rom a !ield pole
Most !ield coils are connected in such a manner that the poles show alternate polarity. Since
there is always one north pole !or each south pole/ there must always be an e.en number o!
poles in any generator.
Gote that the pole pieces in !igure ().(; pro3ect !rom the !rame. 'ecause air o!!ers a great
amount o! reluctance to the magnetic !ield/ this design reduces the length o! the air gap
between the poles and the rotating armature and increases the e!!iciency o! the generator.
*hen the pole pieces are made to pro3ect as shown in !igure ().(;/ they are called salient
poles.
"rmature
The armature assembly consists o! armature coils wound on an iron core/ a commutator/ and
associated mechanical parts. Mounted on a. sha!t/ it rotates through the magnetic !ield
produced by the !ield coils. The core o! the armature acts as an iron conductor in the magnetic
!ield and/ !or this reason/ is laminated to pre.ent the circulation o! eddy currents.
There are two general kinds o! armaturesH the ring Dor <ramme ringE and the drum. igure ().(6
shows a ring type armature made up o! an iron core/ an eight section winding/ and an eight$
segment commutator. This kind o! armature is rarely usedK most generators use the drum$type
armature.
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igure ().(6 $"n eight$section/ ring$type armature
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" drum type armature D!igure ().(8E has coils placed in slots in the core/ but there is no
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electrical connection to the coils and core. The use o! slots increases the mechanical sa!ety o!
the armature. ,sually/ the coils are held in place in the slots by means o! wooden or !iber
wedges. The connections o! the indi.idual coils/ called coil ends/ are brought out to indi.idual
segments on the commutator.
&ommutator slots
&oils
igure ().(8 $ " drum$type armature
Drum$type armatures are wound with either o! two types o! windings $ the lap winding or the
wa.e winding.
The lap winding is illustrated in igure ().(B/ .iew "
This type o! winding is used in D& generators designed !or high$current applications. The
windings are connected to pro.ide se.eral parallel paths !or current in the armature. or this
reason/ lap$wound armatures used in D& generators require se.eral pairs o! poles and brushes.
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igure ().(B $ Types o! windings used on drum$type armatures.
igure ().(B/ .iew '/ shows a wa.e winding on a drum$type armature. This type o! winding is used
in D& generators employed in high$.oltage applications. Gotice that the two ends o! each coil are
connected to commutator segments separated by the distance between poles. This
con!iguration allows the series addition o! the .oltages in all the windings between brushes. This
type o! winding only requires one pair o! brushes. In practice/ a practical generator may ha.e
se.eral pairs to impro.e commutation.
igure ().(C shows a cross$sectional .iew o! a typical commutator. The commutator is located at
the end o! an armature and consists o! wedge$shaped segments o! hard$drawn copper/
insulated !rom each other by thin sheets o! mica. The segments are held in place by steel I$
rings or clamping !langes !itted with bolts. @ings o! mica insulate the segments !rom the !langes.
The raised portion o! each segment is called a riser/ and the leads !rom the armature coils are
soldered to the risers. *hen the segments ha.e no risers/ the leads are soldered to short slits in the
ends o! the segments.
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The brushes ride on the sur!ace o! the commutator/ !orming the electrical contact between the
armature coils and the e+ternal circuit. " !le+ible/ braided$copper conductor/ commonly called a
pigtail/ connects each brush to the e+ternal circuit.
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Module 3.() D& MotorA<enerator Theory
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Slots
'ack I$ring
with mica inner and
outer rings !or insulation
igure ().(C $$ &ommutator with portion remo.ed to show construction
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The brushes/ usually made o! high$grade carbon and held in place by brush holders insulated
!rom the !rame/ are !ree to slide up and clown in their holders in order to !ollow any irregularities in
the sur!ace o! the commutator. The brushes are usually ad3ustable so that the pressure o! the
brushes on the commutator can be .aried and the position o! the brushes with respect to the
segments can be ad3usted.
The constant making and breaking o! connections to the coils in which a .oltage is being
induced necessitates the use o! material !or brushes which has a de!inite contact resistance.
"lso/ this material must be such that the !riction between the commutator and the brush is low/
to pre.ent e+cessi.e wear. or these reasons/ the material commonly used !or brushes is high
grade carbon. The carbon must be so!t enough to pre.ent undue wear o! the commutator and
yet hard enough to pro.ide reasonable brush li!e. Since the contact resistance o! carbon is !airly
high/ the brush must be quite large to pro.ide a large area o! contact. The commutator sur!ace
is highly polished to reduce !riction as much as possible. 2il or grease must ne.er be used on a
commutator/ and e+treme care must be used when cleaning it to a.oid marring or scratching the
, sur!ace.
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Types o! D.&. <enerators
There are three types o! "& generatorsH series wound/ shunt$wound/ and shunt$series or
compound wound. The di!!erence in type depends on the relationship o! the !ield winding to the
e+ternal circuit.
Series$*ound D.&. <enerators
The !ield winding o! a series generator is connected in series with the e+ternal circuit/ called the
load D!igure ().)7E/ The !ield coils are composed o! a !ew turns o! large ireK the magnetic !ield
strength depends more on the current !low rather than the number o! turns in the coil. Series
generators ha.e .ery poor .oltage regulation under changing load/ since the greater the current
through the !ield coils to the e+ternal circuit the greater the induced EM and the greater the
terminal or output .oltage. There!ore/ when the load is increased/ the .oltage increasesK
likewise/ when the load is decreased the .oltage decreases.
The output .oltage o! a series$wound generator may be controlled by a rheostat in parallel with
the !ield windings as shown in " o! !igure ().)7. Since the series$wound generator has such poor
regulation/ it is ne.er employed as an aeroplane generator.
ield rheostat
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igure ().)7 $ Diagram and schematic o! a series$wound generator
<enerators in aeroplanes ha.e !ield windings which are connected either in shunt or in
compound.
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Shunt$*ound D.&. <enerators
" generator ha.ing a !ield winding connected in parallel with the e+ternal circuit is called a shunt
generator/ as shown in " and ' o! !igure ().)(. The !ield coils o! a shunt generator contains many
turns o! small wireK the magnetic strength is deri.ed !rom the large number o! turns rather
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than the current strength through the coils. I! a constant .oltage is desired/ the shunt$wound
generator is not suitable !or rapidly !luctuating loads. "n increase in load causes a decrease in the
terminal or output .oltage/ and any decrease in load causes an increase in terminal .oltageK once
the armature and the load are connected in series/ all current !lowing in the e+ternal circuit passes
through the armature winding. 'ecause o! the resistance in the armature winding/ there is a
.oltage drop DI@ drop R current + resistanceE. "s the load increases/ the armature current increases
and the I@ drop in the armature increases. The .oltage deli.ered to the terminals is the di!!erence
between the induced .oltage and the .oltage dropK there!ore/ there is a decrease in terminal
.oltage. This decrease in .oltage causes a decrease in !ield strength/ because the current in the
!ield coils decreases in proportion to the decrease in terminal .oltageK with a
weaker !ield/ the .oltage is !urther decreased.
*hen the load decreases/ the output .oltage increases accordingly/ and a larger current !lows in
the windings. This action is cumulati.e/ so the output .oltage continues to rise to a point called
!ield saturation/ a!ter which there is no !urther increase in output .oltage.
The terminal .oltage o! a shunt generator can be controlled by means o! a rheostat inserted in
series with the !ield windings as shown in " o! !igure ().)(. "s the resistance is increased/ the
!ield current is reducedK consequently/ the generated .oltage is reduced also. or a gi.en
setting o! the !ield rheostat/ the terminal .oltage at the armature brushes will be appro+imately
equal to the generated .oltage minus the I@ drop produced by the load current in the armatureK
thus/ the .oltage at the terminals o! the generator will drop as the load is applied. &ertain
.oltage$sensiti.e de.ices are a.ailable which automatically ad3ust the !ield rheostat to
compensate !or .ariations in load. *hen these de.ices are used/ the terminal .oltage remains
essentially constant.
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&ompound$*ound D& <enerators
" compound$wound generator combines a series winding and a shunt winding in such a way that
the characteristics o! each are used to ad.antage. The series !ield coils are made o! a
relati.ely small number o! turns o! large copper conductor/ either circular or rectangular in cross
section and are connected in series with the armature circuit.
These coils are mounted on the same poles on which the shunt !ield coils are mounted and
there!ore/ contribute a magneto$moti.e$!orce which in!luences the main !ield !lu+ o! the
generator. " diagrammatic and a schematic illustration o! a compound$wound generator is
shown in " and ' o! !igure ().)).
I! the ampere$turns o! the series !ield act in the same direction as those o! the shunt !ield/ the
combined magneto$moti.e$!orce is equal to the sum o! the series and shunt !ield components.
%oad is added to a compound generator in the same manner in which load is added to a shunt
generator/ by increasing the number o! parallel paths across the generator terminals. Thus/ the
decrease in total load resistance with added load is accompanied by an increase in armature
circuit and series$!ield circuit current
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The e!!ect o! die additi.e series !ield is that o! increased !ield !lu+ with increased load. The
e+tent o! the increased !ield !lu+ depends on the degree o! saturation o! the !ield as determined by
the shunt !ield current. Thus/ the terminal .oltage o! the generator may increase or decrease with
load/ depending on the in!luence o! the series load coils. This in!luence is re!erred to as the degree
o! compounding.
" !lat$compound generator is one in which the no$load and !ull$load .oltages ha.e the same
.alueK whereas an under$compound generator has a !ull$load .oltage less than the no$load
.alue/ and an o.er$compound generator has a lull$load .oltage which is higher than the no$load
.alue. &hanges in terminal .oltage with increasing load depends upon the degree o!
compounding.
()$);
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I! the series !ield aids the shunt !ield/ the generator is said to be cumulati.e$compounded D' o!
!igure ().))E i! the series !ield opposes the shunt !ield/ the machine is said to be di!!erentially
compounded/ and is called a di!!erential generator.
&ompound generators are usually designed to be o.er$compounded. This !eature permits
.aried degrees o! compounding by connecting a .ariable shunt across the series !ield. Such a
shunt is sometimes called a di.erter. &ompound generators are used where .oltage regulation is
o! prime importance.
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Di!!erential generators ha.e somewhat the same characteristics as series generators in that
they are essentially constant$current generators. Lowe.er/ they generate rated .oltage at no
load/ the .oltage dropping materially as the load current increases.
&u n$,latiti.e t+irpouynding
Scrics c anection
2utput curry ttt or load (77]
igure ().)3 $ <enerator characteristics
&onstant$current generators are ideally suited as power sources !or electric arc welders and are
used almost uni.ersally in electric arc welding.
I! the shunt !ield o! a compound generator is connected across both the armature and the series
!ield/ it is known as a long$shunt connection/ but i! the shunt !ield is connected across the armature
alone/ it is called a short$shunt connection. These connections produce essentially the same
generator characteristics.
" summary o! the characteristics o! the .arious types o! generators discussed is shown
graphically in !igure ().)3. These characteristics ha.e been !urther simpli!ied/ !or comparison/ in
!igure ().);.
"ctual cur.es are seldom/ i! e.er/ as per!ect as shown.
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igure ().); $ Ioltage output characteristics o! the series$/ shunt$/ and compound$wound D&
generators.
Three$*ire <enerators
Some D& generators/ called three$wire generators/ are designed to deli.er )(7 .olts/ or ()7
.olts !rom either side o! a neutral wire D!igure ().)=E. This is accomplished by connecting a re$
actance coil to opposite sides o! the commutator/ with the neutral connected to the midpoint o! the
reactance coil. Such a reactance coil acts as a low$loss .oltage di.ider. I! resistors were used/ the
I@ loss would be prohibiti.e unless the two loads were per!ectly matched. The coil is built into
some generators as part o! the armature/ with the midpoint connected to a single slip
ring which the neutral contacts by means o! a brush. In other generators/ the two connections to
the commutator are connected/ in turn/ to two slip rings/ and the reactor is located outside the
generator. In either case/ the load unbalance on either side o! the neutral must not be more
than )= percent o! the rated current output o! the generator. The three$wire generator permits
simultaneous operation o! ()7$.olt lighting circuits and );7$.olt motors !rom the same
generator.
58
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igure ().)= $ Three wire generator
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"rmature @eaction
&urrent !lowing through the armature sets up electromagnetic !ields in the windings. These new
!ields tend to distort or bend the magnetic !lu+ between the poles o! the generator !rom a
straight line path. Since armature current increases with load/ the distortion becomes greater
with an increase in load. This distortion o! the magnetic !ield is called armature reaction and is
illustrated in !igure ().)6.
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igure ().)6 $"rmature reaction
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"rmature windings o! a generator are spaced in such a way that/ during rotation o! the
armature/ there are certain positions when the brushes contact two ad3acent segments/ thereby
shorting the armature windings to these segments. ,sually/ when the magnetic !ield is not
distorted/ there is no .oltage being induced in the shorted windings/ and/ there!ore/ no harm!ul
results occur !rom the shorting o! the windings. Lowe.er/ when the !ield is distorted/ a .oltage is
induced in these shorted windings and sparking takes place between the brushes and the
commutator segments. &onsequently/ the commutator becomes pitted. The wear on the
brushes becomes e+cessi.e/ and the output o! the generator is reduced. To correct this
condition/ the brushes are set so that the plane o! the coils which are shorted by the brushes is
perpendicular to the distorted magnetic !ield/ which is accomplished by mo.ing the brushes
!orward in the direction o! rotation. This operation is called shi!ting the brushes to the neutral
plane/ or plane o! commutation. The neutral plane is the position where the plane o! the two
opposite coils is perpendicular to the magnetic !ield in the generator. 2n a !ew generators/ the
brushes can be shi!ted manually ahead o! the normal neutral plane to the neutral plane caused
by !ield distortion. 2n nonad3ustable brush generators/ the manu!acturer sets the brushes !or
minimum sparking.
Interpoles may be used to counteract some o! the e!!ects o! !ield distortion. Since shi!ting the
brushes is incon.enient and unsatis!actory/ especially when the speed and load o! the
generator are changing constantly. "n interpole is a pole placed between the main poles o! a
generator. or e+ample/ a !our$pole generator has !our interpoles/ which are north and south
poles/ alternately/ as are the main poles. " !our$pole generator with interpoles is shown in !igure
().)8.
"n interpole has the same polarity as the ne+t main pole in the direction o! rotation. The
magnetic !lu+ produced by an interpole causes the current in the armature to change direction
as an armature winding passes under it. This cancels the electromagnetic !ields about the
armature windings. The magnetic strength o! the interpoles .aries with the load on the
generator and since !ield distortion .aries with the load the magnetic !ield o! the interpoles
counteracts the e!!ects o! the !ield set up around the armature windings and minimiMes !ield
distortion.
igure ().)8 $ <enerator with interpoles
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Thus/ the interpole tends to keep the neutral plant in the same position !or all loads on the
generatorK there!ore/ !ield distortion is reduced by the interpoles and the e!!iciency o! output/
and ser.ice li!e o! the brushes are impro.ed.
<enerator @atings
" generator is rated in power output. Since a generator is designed to operate at a speci!ied
.oltage/ the rating usually is gi.en as the number o! amperes the generator can sa!ely supply at
its rated .oltage.
<enerator rating and per!ormance data are stamped on the name plate attached to the
generator. *hen replacing a generator/ it is important to choose one o! the proper rating.
The rotation o! generators is termed either clockwise or anticlockwise as .iewed !rom the dri.en
end. ,sually the direction o! rotation is stamped on the data plate. I! no direction is stamped on
the plate/ the rotation may be marked by an arrow on the co.er plate o! the brush housing. It is
important that a generator with the correct direction o! rotation be usedK otherwise the .oltage
will be re.ersed.
,
The speed o! an aircra!t engine .aries !rom idle @#M to takeo!! @#M. Lowe.er/ during the
ma3or portion o! a !light/ it is at a constant cruising speed. The generator dri.e is usually geared
to re.ol.e the generator between ( ] and ((A) times the engine cranksha!t speed. Most aircra!t
generators ha.e a speed at which they begin to produce their normal .oltage. Termed the
n/ 4coming$in1 speed/ it is usually about (/=77 @#M.
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D.&. <enerator Maintenance
Inspection
The !ollowing in!ormation about the inspection and maintenance o! D& generator systems is
general in nature because o! the large number o! di!!ering aircra!t generator systems. These
procedures are !or !amiliariMation only. "lways !ollow the applicable manu!acturer5s instructions !or
a gi.en generator system.
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In general/ the inspection o! the generator installed in the aircra!t should include the !ollowing
3
itemsH
(. Security o! generator mounting.
). &ondition o! electrical connections.
3. Dirt and oil in the generator. I! oil is present/ check engine oil seal. 'low out dirt with
compressed air.
;.
&ondition o! generator brushes.
=. <enerator operation.
6. Ioltage regulator operation.
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" detailed discussion o! items ;. = and 6 is presented in the !ollowing paragraphs.
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&ondition o! <enerator 'rushes
Sparking o! brushes quickly reduces the e!!ect o! brush area in contact with the commutator
bars. The degree o! such sparking should be determined. E+cessi.e wear warrants a detailed
inspection.
The !ollowing in!ormation pertains to brush seating/ brush pressure/ high$mica condition/ and
brush wear.
Manu!acturers usually recommend the !ollowing procedures to seat bru;hes which do not make
good contact with slip rings or commutators.
The brush should be li!ted su!!iciently to permit the insertion o! a strip o! Go. 777/ or !iner/
sandpaper under the brush/ rough side out D!igure ().)BE. #ull sandpaper in the direction o!
armature rotation/ being care!ul to keep the ends o! the sandpaper as close to the slip ring or
commutator sur!ace as possible in order to a sold rounding the edges o! the brush. *hen pulling
the
sandpaper back to the starting point/ the brush should be raised so it does not ride on the
sandpaper. The brush should be sanded only in the direction o! rotation.
"!ter the generator has run !or a short period/ brushes should be inspected to make sure that
pieces o! sand ha.e not become embedded in the brush and are collecting copper.
,nder no circumstances should emery cloth or similar abrasi.es be used !or seating brushes Dor
smoothing commutatorsE/ since they contain conducti.e materials which will cause arcing between
brushes and commutator bars.
()$37
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Go. 777 sandpaper
DSand side ne+t to bnishE
igure ().)B $ Seating brushes with sandpaper
E+cessi.e pressure will cause rapid wear o! brushes. Too little pressure/ howe.er/ will allow
1bouncing1 o! the brushes/ resulting in burned and pitted sur!aces.
" carbon$graphite or light metaliMed brush should e+ert a pressure o! ((A)
to )(A) #SI on the
commutator. The pressure recommended by the manu!acturer should be checked with the use o!
a spring scale graduated in ounces. 'rush spring tension is usually ad3usted between 3) to 36
ouncesK howe.er/ the tension may di!!er slightly !or each speci!ic generator.
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*hen a spring scale is used/ the measurement o! the pressure which a brush e+erts on the
commutator is read directly on the scale. The scale is applied at the point o! contact between
, the spring arm and the top o! the brush/ with the brush installed in the guide. The scale is drawn
up until the arm 3ust li!ts o!! the brush sur!ace. "t this instant/ the !orce on the scale should be
rT5 read.
le+ible low$resistance pigtails are pro.ided on most hea.y current carrying brushes/ and their
connections should be securely made and checked at !requent inter.als
The pigtails should ne.er be permitted to alter or restrict the !ree motion o! the brush.
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The purpose o! the pigtail is to conduct the current/ rather than sub3ecting the brush spring to
currents which would alter its spring action by o.erheating. The pigtails also eliminate any
possible sparking to the brush guides caused by the mo.ement o! the brushes within the holder/
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thus minimiMing side wear o! the brush.
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&arbon dust resulting !rom brush sanding should be thoroughly cleaned !rom all parts o! the
generators a!ter a sanding operation. Such carbon dust has been the cause o! se.eral serious
!ires as well as costly damage to the generator.
2peration o.er e+tended periods o! time o!ten results in the mica insulation between
commutator bars protruding almost to the sur!ace o! the bars. This condition is called 1high
mica1 and inter!eres with the contact o! the brushes to the commutator.
*hene.er this condition e+ists/ or i! the armature has been turned on a lathe/ care!ully undercut
the mica insulation to a depth equal to the width o! the mica/ or appro+imately 7.7)7 inch.
Each brush should be a speci!ied length to work properly. I! a brush is too short the contact it
makes with the commutator will be !aulty/ which can also reduce the spring !orce holding the
brush in place. Most manu!acturers speci!y the amount o! wear permissible !rom a new brush
length. *hen a brush has worn to the minimum length permissible/ it must be replaced.
Some special generator brushes should not be replaced because o! a slight groo.ing o! the !ace o!
the brush. These groo.es are normal and will appear in a D& and "& generator brushes which are
installed in some models o! aircra!t generators. These brushes ha.e two cores made o! a harder
material with a higher e+pansion rate than the material used in the main body o! the brush.
D,sually/ the main body o! the brush !ace rides on the commutator. Lowe.er/ at certain
temperatures/ the cores e+tend and wear through any !ilm on the commutator.
ield E+citation
*hen a D& .oltage is applied to the !ield windings o! a D& generator/ current !lows through the
windings and sets up a steady magnetic !ield. This is called !ield e+citation Dor !ield!lashE.
This e+citation .oltage can be produced by the generator itsel! or it can be supplied by an
outside source/ such as a battery. " generator that supplies its own !ield e+citation is called a sel!$
e+cited generator. Sel!$e+citation is possible only i! the !ield pole pieces ha.e retained a slight
amount o! permanent magnetism/ called residual magnetism. *hen the generator starts rotating/
the weak residual magnetism causes a small .oltage to be generated in the armature. This small
.oltage applied to the !ield coils causes a small !ield current. "lthough small/ this !ield current
strengthens the magnetic !ield and allows the armature to generate a higher .oltage. The higher
.oltage increases the !ield strength/ and so on. This process continues until the
output .oltage reaches the rated output o! the generator.
<enerator !ield !lashing is required when generator .oltage does not build up and the
generating system Dincluding the .oltage regulatorE does not ha.e !ield!lash capability. This
condition is usually caused by insu!!icient residual magnetism in the generator !ields. In some
cases/ a generator that has been out$o!$ser.ice !or an e+tended period may lose its residual
magnetism and require !lashing. @esidual magnetism can be restored by !lashing the !ield
thereby causing a current surge in the generator.
To restore the generator5s !ield!lash capability/ it is necessary to manually !lash the !ield. This is
done by applying 3ump leads connected to a suitably siMed battery/ to the !ield terminals !or a !ew
moments/ to restore the residual magnetism. Ideally the procedure should be done whilst turning
the generator on start$up/ but this is not always possible !or sa!ety reasons.
()$3) Module 3.() D& MotorA<enerator Theory
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D& Motors
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Introduction
Most de.ices in aircra!t !rom the starter to the automatic pilot depend upon mechanical energy
!urnished by direct$current motors. " direct$current motor is a rotating machine which trans!orms
direct current energy into mechanical energy. It consists o! two principal parts $ a !ield assembly and
an armature assembly. The armature is the rotating part in which current$carrying wires are acted
upon by the magnetic !ield.
#rinciples o! 2peration
Stated .ery simply/ a D& motor rotates as a result o! two magnetic !ields interacting with each
other. The armature o! a D& motor acts like an electromagnet when current !lows through its
coils. Since the armature is located within the magnetic !ield o! the !ield poles/ these two
*hene.er a current$carrying wire is placed in the !ield o! a magnet/ a !orce acts on the wire. The
!orce is not one o! attraction or repulsionK howe.er/ it is at right angles to the wire and also at right
angles to the magnetic !ield set up by the magnet.
The action o! the !orce upon a current$carrying wire placed in a magnetic !ield is shown in !igure C$
68. " wire is located between two permanent magnets. The lines o! !orce in the magnetic !ield are
!rom the north pole to the south pole. *hen no current !lows/ as in diagram "/ no !orce is e+erted on
the wire/ but when current !lows through the wire/ a magnetic !ield is set up about it/ as shown in
!igure ().)C. The direction o! the !ield depends on the direction o! current !low. &urrent in one
direction creates a clockwise !ield about the wire/ and current in the other
direction/ an anticlockwise !ield.
iHk
*ire without tirrestt *ire with current l tant !ield and direction
located in a magnetic !ield and accompanying !ield o! !orce on wire
" ((3 &
igure ().)C $ orce on a current$carrying wire
Since the current$carrying wire produces a magnetic !ield/ a reaction occurs between the !ield
about the wire and the magnetic !ield between the magnets. *hen the current !lows in a
direction to create a anticlockwise magnetic !ield about the wire/ this !ield and the !ield between
the magnets add or rein!orce at the bottom o! the wire because the lines o! !orce are in the
same direction. "t the top o! the wire/ they subtract or neutraliMe/ since the lines o! !orce in the
two !ields are opposite in direction. Thus/ the resulting !ield at the bottom is strong and the one
at the top is weak. &onsequently/ the wire is pushed upward as shown in diagram & o! !igure
().)C. The wire is always pushed away !rom the side where the !ield is strongest.
()$33
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I! current !low through the wire were re.ersed in direction/ the two !ields would add at the top and
subtract at the bottom. Since a wire is always pushed away !rom the strong !ield/ the wire would
be pushed downs
orce 'etween #arallel &onductors
Two wires carrying current in the .icinity o! one another e+ert a !orce on each other because o!
their magnetic !ields. "n end .iew o! two conductors is shown in !igure ().37.
"
igure ().37 $ ields surrounding parallel conductors
In "/ electron !low in both conductors is toward the reader/ and the magnetic !ields are
anticlockwise around the conductors between the wires/ the !ields cancel because the directions o!
the two !ields oppose each other. The wires are !orced in the direction o! the weaker !ield/ toward
each other. This !orce is one o! attraction.
In '/ the electron !low in the two wires is in opposite directions. The magnetic !ields are/
there!ore/ clockwise in one and anticlockwise in the other/ as shown. The !ields rein!orce each other
between the wires/ and the wires are !orced in the direction o! the weaker !ield/ away !rom each
other. This !orce is one o! repulsion.
To summariMeH &onductors carrying current in the same direction tend to be drawn togetherK
conductors carrying current in opposite directions tend to be repelled !rom each other.
De.eloping Torque
I! a coil in which current is !lowing is placed in a magnetic !ield/ a !orce is produced which will
cause the coil to rotate. In the coil shown in !igure ().3(/ con.entional current !lows inward on
side " and outward on side '.
()$3;
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Torque
igure ().3( $ De.eloping a torque
club66pro.co.uk question practice aid
The magnetic !ield about ' is anticlockwise and that about "/ clockwise. "s pre.iously
e+plained/ a !orce will de.elop which pushes side ' downward. "t the same time/ the !ield o! the
%
magnets and the !ield about "/ in which the current is inward/ will add at the bottom and
subtract at the top. There!ore/ " will mo.e upward. The coil will thus rotate until its plane is
perpendicular to the magnetic lines between the north and south poles o! the magnet/ as
, indicated in !igure ().3( by the white coil at right angles to the black coil.
The tendency o! a !orce to produce rotation is called torque. *hen the steering wheel o! a car is ,
turned/ torque is applied. The engine o! an airplane gi.es torque to the propeller.
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,Torque is de.eloped also by the reacting magnetic !ields about the current$carrying coil 3ustdescribed. This is the torque which turns the coil.
The le!t$hand motor rule can be used to determine the direction a current carrying wire will
, mo.e in a magnetic !ield. "s illustrated in !igure ().3)/ i! the irst !inger o! the le!t band is
pointed in the direction o! the magnetic ield and the se&ond !inger in the direction o!
&on.entional &urrent !low/ the thuMb will indicate the direction the current$carrying wire will
Mo.e.
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Direction
o! &urrent
igure ()$3) $ %e!t$hand rule !or motors.
The amount o! torque de.eloped in a coil depends upon se.eral !actorsH the strength o! the
magnetic !ield/ the number o! turns in the coil/ and the position o! the coil in the !ield. Magnets are
made o! special steel which produces a strong !ield. Since there is a torque acting on each turn/ the
greater the number o! turns on the coil/ the greater the torque. In a coil carrying a
steady current located in a uni!orm magnetic !ield/ the torque will .ary at successi.e positions o!
rotation. *hen the plane o! the coil is parallel to the lines o! !orce/ the torque is Mero. *hen its
plane cuts the lines o! !orce at right angles/ the torque is (77 percent.
"t intermediate positions/ the torque ranges between Mero and (77 percent.
'asic D.&. Motor
" coil o! wire through which the current !lows will rotate when placed in a magnetic !ield. This is
the technical basis go.erning the construction o! a D& motor. igure ().3) shows a coil
mounted in a magnetic !ield in which it can rotate. Lowe.er/ i! the connecting wires !rom the
battery were permanently !astened to the terminals o! the coil and there was a !low o! current/
the coil would rotate only until it lined itsel! up with the magnetic !ield. Then/ it would stop/
because the torque at that point would he Mero. " motor/ o! course/ must continue rotating.
()$36 Module 3.() D& MotorA<enerator Theory
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Torque
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igure ().3) $ 'asic D& motor operation
It is necessary there!ore/ to design a de.ice that will re.erse the current in the coil 3ust at the time
the coil becomes parallel to the lines o! !orce. This will create torque again and cause the coil to
rotate. I! the current re.ersing de.ice set up to re.erse the current each time the coil is about to
stop/ the coil can be made to continue rotating as long as desired.
2ne method o! doing this is to connect the circuit so that/ as the coil rotates/ each contact slides
o!! the terminal to which it connects and slides onto the terminal o! opposite polarity. In other
words/ the coil contacts switch terminals continuously as the coil rotates/ preser.ing the torque
and keeping the coil rotating. In !igure ().3)/ the coil terminal segments are labelled " and '.
"s the coil rotates/ the segments slide onto and past the !i+ed terminals or brushes. *ith this
arrangement/ the direction o! current in the side o! the coil ne+t to the north seeking pole !lows
toward the reader/ and the !orce acting on that side o! the coil turns it downward. The part o! the
motor which changes the current !rom one wire to another is called the commutator.
*hen the coil is positioned as shown in " o! !igure ().3)/ current will !low !rom the positi.e
terminal o! the battery to the positi.e brush/ to segment ' o! the commutator/ through the loop
%i to segment " o! the commutator/ to the negati.e brush/ and then/ back to the negati.e terminal
o! the battery. 'y using the le!t$hand motor rule/ it is seen that the coil will rotate anticlockwise.
!
% The torque at this position o! the coil is ma+imum since the greatest number o! lines o! !orce are
being cut by the coil.
%i *hen the coil has rotated C77 to the position shown in ' o! !igure ().3). segments " and ' o!
the commutator no longer make contact with the battery circuit and no current can !low through
Module 3.() D& MotorA<enerator Theory
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the coil. "t this position/ the torque has reached a minimum .alue/ since a minimum number o!
lines o! !orce are being cut. Lowe.er/ the momentum o! the coil carries it beyond this position until
the segments again make contact with the brushes/ and current again enters the coilK this time/
though/ it enters through segment " and lea.es through segment '. Lowe.er/ since the positions
o! segments " and ' ha.e also been re.ersed/ the e!!ect o! the current is as be!ore/ the torque
acts in the same direction/ and the coil continues its anticlockwise rotation. 2n
passing through the position shown in & o! !igure ().3)/ the torque again reaches ma+imum.
&ontinued rotation carries the coil again to a position o! minimum torque/ as in D o! !igure ().3). "t
this position the brushes no longer carry current/ but once more the momentum rotates the coil to
the point where current enters through segment ' and ha.e/ through ". urther rotation brings the
coil to the starting point and/ thus/ one re.olution is completed.
The switching o! the coil terminals !rom the positi.e to the negati.e brushes occurs twice per
re.olution o! the coil.
The torque in a motor containing only a single coil is neither continuous nor .ery e!!ecti.e/ !or there
are two positions where there is actually no torque at all. To o.ercome this/ a practical D& motor
contains a large number o! coils wound on the armature. These coils are so spaced that/ !or any
position o! the armature/ there will be coils near the poles o! the magnet. This makes the torque
both continuous and strong. The commutator/ likewise/ contains a large number o!
segments instead o! only two.
The armature in a practical motor is not placed between the poles o! a permanent magnet but
between those o! an electromagnet/ since a much stronger magnetic !ield can be !urnished. The
core is usually made o! a mild or annealed steel/ which can be magnetiMed strongly by
induction. The current magnetiMing the electromagnet is !rom the same source that supplies the
current to the armature/
()$3B Module 3.() D& MotorA<enerator Theory
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D.&. Motor &onstruction
The ma3or parts in a practical motor are the armature assembly/ the !ield assembly/ the brush
assembly/ and the end !rame. DSee !igure ().33.E
Ent9 i5ht e
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"rmature
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"rmature "ssembly
igure ().33 $ &utaway .iew o! a practical D& motor
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The armature assembly contains a laminated/ so!t iron core/ coils/ and a commutator/ all
mounted on a rotating steel sha!t. %aminations made o! stacks o! so!t iron/ insulated !rom each
other/ !orm the armature core. Solid iron is not used/ since a solid iron core re.ol.ing in the
magnetic !ield would heat and use energy needlessly. The armature windings are insulated
copper wire/ which are inserted in slots insulated with !ibre paper D!ish paperE to protect the
windings. The ends o! the windings are connected to the commutator segments. *edges or
steel bands hold the windings in place to pre.ent them !rom !lying out o! the slots when the
armature is rotating at high speeds. The commutator consists o! a large number o! copper
segments insulated !rom each other and the armature sha!t by pieces o! mica. Insulated wedge
rings hold the segments in place.
ield "ssembly
The !ield assembly consists o! the !ield !rame/ the pole pieces and the !ield coils. The !ield !rame is
located along the inner wall o! the motor housing. It contains laminated so!t steel pole pieces on
which the !ield coil is wound. " coil/ consisting o! se.eral turns o! insulated wire/ !its o.er
each pole piece and/ together with the pole/ constitutes a !ield pole. Some motors ha.e as !ew as
two poles/ others as many as eight.
'rush "ssembly
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The brush assembly consists o! the brushes and their holders. The brushes are usually small
blocks o! graphitic carbon/ since this material has a long ser.ice li!e and also causes minimum
wear to the commutator. The holders permit some play in the brushes so they can !ollow any
irregularities in the sur!ace o! the commutator and make good contact. Springs hold the brushes
!irmly against the commutator. " commutator and two pairs o! brushes are shown in !igure
().3;.
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igure ().3; $ &ommutator and brushes
End rame
The end !rame is the part o! the motor opposite the commutator usually the end !rame is
designed so that it can be connected to the unit to be dri.en. The bearing !or the dri.e end is
also located in the end !rame. Sometimes the end !rame is made a part o! the unit dri.en by the
motor. *hen this is done/ the bearing on the dri.e end may be located in any one o! a number
o! places.
"rmature @eaction
Pou will remember that the sub3ect o! armature reaction was co.ered in the section on D&
generators. The reasons !or armature reaction and the methods o! compensating !or its e!!ects are
basically the same !or D& motors as !or D& generators.
igure ().36 reiterates !or you the distorting e!!ect that the armature !ield has on the !lu+
between the pole pieces. Gotice/ howe.er/ that the e!!ect has shi!ted the neutral plane
backward/ against the direction o! rotation. This is di!!erent !rom a D& generator/ where the
neutral plane shi!ted !orward in the direction o! rotation.
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Module 3.() D& MotorA<enerator Theory
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Module 3.() D& MotorA<enerator Theory
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"s be!ore/ the brushes must be shi!ted to the new neutral plane. "s shown in !igure ().3=/ the
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shi!t is anticlockwise. "gain/ the proper location is reached when there is no sparking !rom the
brushes.
&ompensating windings and interpoles/ two more 1old1 sub3ects/ cancel armature reaction in D&
motors. Shi!ting brushes reduces sparking/ but it also makes the !ield less e!!ecti.e. &ancelling
armature reaction eliminates the need to shi!t brushes in the !irst place.
&ompensating windings and interpoles are as important in motors as they are in generators.
&ompensating windings are relati.ely e+pensi.eK there!ore/ most large D& motors depend on
interpoles to correct armature reaction. &ompensating windings are the same in motors as they are
in generators. Interpoles/ howe.er/ are slightly di!!erent. The di!!erence is that in a generator the
interpole has the same polarity as the main pole ahead o! it in the direction o! rotation.
In a motor the interpole has the same polarity as the main pole !ollowing it.
The interpole coil in a motor is connected to carry the armature current the same as in a
generator. "s the load .aries/ the interpole !lu+ .aries/ and commutation is automatically
corrected as the load changes. It is not necessary to shi!t the brushes when there is an increase or
decrease in load.
The brushes are located on the no$load neutral plane. They remain in that position !or all
conditions o! load.
The D& motor is re.ersed by re.ersing the direction o! the current in the armature. *hen the
armature current is re.ersed/ the current through the interpole is also re.ersed. There!ore/ the
interpole still has the proper polarity to pro.ide automatic commutation.
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Types o! D.&. Motors
There are three basic types o! D& motorsH D(E series motors/ D)E shunt motors/ and D3E
compound motors. They di!!er largely in the method in which their !ield and armature coils are
connected.
Series D& Motor
In the series motor/ the !ield windings/ consisting o! a relati.ely !ew turns o! hea.y wire/ are
connected in series with the armature winding. 'oth a diagrammatic and a schematic illustration
o! a series motor is shown in !igure ().36. The same current !lowing through the !ield winding
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also !lows through the armature winding. "ny increase in currents there!ore/ strengthens the
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magnetism o! both the !ield and the armature.
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Diagrammatic
Schematic
igure ().36 $ Series motor
'ecause o! the low resistance in the !ield winding/ the series motor is able to draw a large
current in starting. This starting current/ in passing through both the !ield and armature
windings/ produces a high starting torque/ which is the series motor5s principal ad.antage.
The speed o! a series motor is dependent upon the load. "ny change in load is
accompanied by a substantial change in speed. " series motor will run at high speed when it
has a light load and at low speed with a hea.y load. I! the load is remo.ed entirely/ the motor
may operate at such a high speed that the armature will !ly apart. I! high starting torque is
needed under hea.y load conditions/ series motors ha.e many applications. Series motors are
o!ten used in aircra!t as engine starters and !or raising and lowering landing gear/ cowl !laps/
and wing !laps.
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Module 3.() D& MotorA<enerator Theory
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Shunt D.&. Motor
In the shunt motor the !ield winding is connected in parallel or in shunt with the armature
winding. DSee !igure ().38E. The resistance in the !ield winding is high. Since the !ield
winding is connected directly across the power supply/ the current through the !ield is constant.
The !ield current does not .ary with motor speed as in the series motor and/ there!ore/ the
torque o! the shunt motor will .ary only with the current through the armature. The torque
de.eloped at starting is less than that de.eloped by a series motor o! equal siMe.
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igure ().38 $ Shunt motor
The speed o! the shunt motor .aries .ery little with changes in load. *hen all load is remo.ed/ it
assumes a speed slightly higher than the loaded speed. This motor is particularly suitable !or use
when constant speed is desired and when high starting torque is not needed.
&ompound D.&. Motor
" compound motor has two !ield windings/ as shown in !igure ().3B. 2ne is a shunt !ield
connected in parallel with the armatureK the other is a series !ield that is connected in series with the
armature.
The shunt !ield gi.es this type o! motor the constant speed ad.antage o! a regular shunt motor. The
series !ield gi.es it the ad.antage o! being able to de.elop a large torque when the motor is started
under a hea.y load. It should not be a surprise that the compound motor has both shunt$
and series$motor characteristics.
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Module 3.() D& MotorA<enerator Theory
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igure ().3B $ &ompound$wound D& motor.
*hen the shunt !ield is connected in parallel with the series !ield and armature/ it is called a
1long shunt1 as shown in !igure ().3B/ D.iew "E. 2therwise/ it is called a 1short shunt1/ as shown in
!igure ().3B/ D.iew 'E.
The shunt winding is composed o! many turns o! !ine wire and is connected in parallel with the
armature winding. The series winding consists o! a !ew turns o! large wire and is connected in
series with the armature winding. The starting torque is higher than in the shunt motor but lower
than in the series motor. Iariation o! speed with load is less than in a series$wound rid motor hut
greater than in a shunt motor. The compound motor is used whene.er the combined
characteristics o! the series and shunt motors are desired.
(8
%ike the compound generator the compound motor has both series and shunt !ield windings. The
series winding may either aid the shunt wind Dcumulati.e compoundE or oppose the shunt
winding Ddi!!erential compoundE.
The starting and load characteristics o! the cumulati.e$compound motor are somewhere
between those o! the series and those o! the shunt motor.
'ecause o! the series !ield/ the cumulati.e$compound motor has a higher starting torque than a
shunt motor. &umulati.e$compound motors are used in dri.ing machines which are sub3ect to
sudden changes in load. They are also used where a high starting torque is desired/ but a
series motor cannot be used easily.
l.S
In the di!!erential compound motor/ an increase in load creates an increase5in current and a
decrease in total !lu+ in this type o! motor. These two tend to o!!set each other and the result is
a practically constant speed. Lowe.er/ since an increase in load tends to decrease the !ield
strength/ the speed characteristic becomes unstable. @arely is this type o! motor used in aircra!t
systems.
:
" graph o! the .ariation in speed with changes o! load o! the .arious types o! D& motors is
shown in !igure ().3C
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Module 3.() D& MotorA<enerator Theory
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TTS Integrated Training System
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Di!!erential cotupcundiisg
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igure ().3C $ %oad characteristics o! D& motors
'ack$EM
The armature resistance o! a small/ )B$.olt D& motor is e+tremely low/ about 7.( ohm. *hen the
armature is connected across the )B$.olt source/ current through the armature will
apparently be
E )B
7.(
i )B7 alrnpolm.s./
This high .alue o! current !low is not only impracticable but also unreasonable/ especially when the
current drain/ during normal operation o! a motor/ is !ound to be about ; amperes.
This is because the current through a motor armature during operation is determined by more
!actors than ohmic resistance.
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This .oltage is called the back or 'ack$EM Delectromoti.e !orceE and is opposite in direction to
the .oltage applied to the motor !rom the e+ternal source. 'ack$EM opposes the current which
causes the armature to rotate. The current !lowing through the armature/ there!ore/ decreases
as the back$EM increases. The !aster the armature rotates/ the greater the 'ack$EM. or this
reason/ a motor connected to a battery may draw a !airly high current on starting/ but as the
armature speed increases the current !lowing through the armature decreases. "t rated speed/
the 'ack$EM may be only a !ew .olts less than the battery .oltage. Then/ i! the load on the
motor is increased/ the motor will slow down/ less 'ack$EM will be generated/ and the current
drawn !rom the e+ternal source will increase. In a shunt motor/ the back$EM a!!ects only the
current in the armature/ since the !ield is connected in parallel across the power source. "s the
motor slows down and the back$EM decreases/ more current !lows through the armature/ but
the magnetism in the !ield is unchanged. *hen the series motor slows down/ the 'ack$EM
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decreases and more current !lows through the !ield and the armature/ thereby strengthening
their magnetic !ields. 'ecause o! these characteristics/ it is more di!!icult to stall a series motor
than a shunt motor.
Types o! Duty
Electric motors are called upon to operate under .arious conditions. Some motors are used !or
intermittent operationK others operate continuously. Motors built !or intermittent duty can be
operated !or short periods only and/ then/ must be allowed to cool be!ore being operated again.
I! such a motor is operated !or long periods under !ull load/ the motor will be o.erheated. Motors
built !or continuous duty may be operated at rated power !or long periods.
@e.ersing Motor Direction
'y re.ersing the direction o! current !low in either the armature or the !ield windings/ the
direction o! a motor5s rotation may be re.ersed. This will re.erse the magnetism o! either the
armature or the magnetic !ield in which the armature rotates. I! the wires connecting the motor to
an e+ternal source are interchanged/ the direction o! rotation will not be re.ersed/ since
changing these wires re.erses the magnetism o! both !ield and armature and leases the torque in
the same direction as be!ore.
2ne method !or re.ersing direction o! rotation employs two !ield windings wound in opposite
directions on the same pole. This type o! motor is called a split !ield motor. igure ().;7 shows a
series motor with a split !ield winding.
igure ().;7 $ Split !ield series motor
The single pole/ double$throw switch makes it possible to direct current through either o! the two
windings. *hen the switch is placed in the lower position/ current !lows through the lower !ield
winding/ creating a north pole at the lower !ield winding and at the lower pole piece/ and a south
pole at the upper pole piece. *hen the switch is placed in the upper position/ current !lows
through the upper !ield winding/ the magnetism o! the !ield is re.ersed/ and the armature rotates
()$;6 Module 3.() D& MotorA<enerator Theory
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TTS Integrated Training System
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in the opposite direction. Some split !ield motors are built with two separate !ield windings would
on alternate poles. The armature in such a motor/ a !our$pole re.ersible motor/ rotates in one
direction when current !lows through the windings o! one set o! opposite pole pieces/ and in the
opposite direction when current !lows through the other set o! windings.
"nother method o! direction re.ersal/ called the switch method/ employs a double$pole/ double$
throw switch which changes the direction o! current !lows in either the armature or the !ield. In the
illustration o! the switch method shown in !igure ().;(/ current direction may be re.ersed through
the !ield but not through the armature.
*hen the switch is thrown to the 1up1 position/ current !lows through the !ield winding to
establish a north pole at the right side o! the motor and a south pole at the le!t side o! the motor.
*hen the switch is thrown to the 1down1 position/ this polarity is re.ersed and the armature rotates
in the opposite direction.
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Motor Speed
Motor speed can be controlled by .arying the current in the !ield windings. *hen the amount o!
current !lowing through the !ield windings is increased/ the !ield strength increases/ but the
motor slows down since a greater amount o! back$EM is generated in the armature windings.
*hen the !ield current is decreased/ the !ield strength decreases/ and the motor speeds up
because the back$EM is reduced. " motor in which speed can be controlled is called a
.ariable$speed motor. It may be either a shunt or series motor.
In the shunt motor/ speed is controlled by a rheostat in series with the !ield windings D!igure
().;)E. The speed depends on the amount o! current which !lows through the rheostat to the
!ield windings. To increase the motor speed/ the resistance in the rheostat is increased/ which
decreases the !ield current. "s a result/ there is a decrease in the strength o! the magnetic !ield
and in the back$EM. This momentarily increases the armature current and the torque. The
motor will then automatically speed up until the back$EM increases and causes the armature
current to decrease to its !ormer .alue. *hen this occurs/ the motor will operate at a higher
!i+ed speed than be!ore.
rttm/
1((((/it !ield
#ole
igure ().;) $ Shunt motor with .ariable speed control
To decrease the motor speed/ the resistance o! the rheostat is decreased. More current !lows
through the !ield windings and increases the strength o! the !ieldK then/ the back$EM increases
momentarily and decreases the armature current. "s a result/ the torque decreases and the
motor slows down until the back$EM decreases to its !ormer .alueK then the motor operates at a
lower !i+ed speed than be!ore.
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In the series motor D!igure C$B)E/ the rheostat speed control is connected either in parallel or in
series with the motor !ield/ or in parallel with the armature. *hen the rheostat is set !or
ma+imum resistance/ the motor speed is increased in the parallel armature connection by a
decrease in current. *hen the rheostat resistance is ma+imum in the series connection/ motor
speed is reduced by a reduction in .oltage across the motor. or abo.e normal speed
operation/ the rheostat is in parallel with the series !ield. #art o! the series !ield current is
bypassed and the motor speeds up.
ast
Slow
'elow normal speed Gormal speed "bo.e normal speed
igure ().;3 $ &ontrolling the speed o! a series D& motor
Energy %osses in D.&. Motors
%osses occur when electrical energy is con.erted to mechanical energy Din the motorE/ or
mechanical energy is con.erted to electrical energy Din the generatorE. or the machine to be
e!!icient/ these losses must be kept to a minimum. Some losses are electrical/ others are
mechanical. Electrical losses are classi!ied as copper losses and iron lossesK mechanical losses
occur in o.ercoming the !riction o! .arious parts o! the machine.
&opper losses occur when electrons are !orced through the copper windings o! the armature and
the !ield. These losses are proportional to the square o! the current. They are sometimes called
()@ losses/ since they are due to the power dissipated in the !orm o! beat in the
resistance o! the !ield and armature windings.
Iron losses are subdi.ided in hysteresis and eddy current losses. Lysteresis losses are caused by
the armature re.ol.ing in an alternating magnetic !ield. It/ there!ore/ becomes magnetiMed
L !irst in 2ne direction and then in the other. The residual magnetism o! the iron or steel o! which :
the armature is made causes these losses. Since the !ield magnets are always magnetiMed in
one direction DD& !ieldE/ they ha.e no hysteresis losses.
, Eddy current losses occur because the iron core o! the armature is a conductor re.ol.ing in a
magnetic !ield. This sets up an e.m.!. across portions o! the core/ causing currents to !low
,
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within the core. These currents heat the core and/ i! they become e+cessi.e/ may damage the
windings. "s !ar as the output is concerned/ the power consumed by eddy currents is a loss. To
reduce eddy currents to a minimum/ a laminated core usually is used. " laminated core is made o!
thin sheets o! iron electrically insulated !rom each other. The insulation between laminations
reduces eddy current/ because it is 1trans.erse1 to the direction in which the currents tend to !low.
Lowe.er/ it has no e!!ect on the magnetic circuit. The thinner the laminations/ the more e!!ecti.ely
this method reduces eddy current losses.
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Module 3.() D& MotorA<enerator Theory
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, Inspection and Maintenance o! D.&. Motors
,se the !ollowing procedures to make inspection and maintenance cheeksH
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allation.
). &heck all wiring/ connections/ terminals/ !uses/ and switches !or general condition
and security.
3. 0eep motors clean and mounting bolts tight.
;.
correct spring tension/ and procedures !or replacing brushes are gi.en in the
applicable manu!acturer5s instructions
=. Inspect commutator !or cleanliness/ pitting/ scoring/ roughness/ corrosion or burning.
&heck !or high mica Di! the copper wears down below the mica the mica will insulate
the brushes !rom the commutatorE. &lean dirty commutators with a cloth moistened
with the recommended cleaning sol.ent. #olish rough or corroded commutators with
!ine sandpaper D777 or !inerE and blow out with compressed air. Ge.er use emery
paper since it contains metallic particles which may cause shorts. @eplace the motor
i! the commutator is burned/ badly pitted/ groo.ed/ or worn to the e+tent that the mica
insulation is !lush with the commutator sur!ace.
6. Inspect all e+posed wiring !or e.idence o! o.erheating. @eplace the motor i! the
insulation on leads or windings is burned/ cracked/ or brittle.
8. %ubricate only i! called !or by the manu!acturer5s instructions co.ering the motor.
Most motors used in today5s aeroplanes require no lubrication between o.erhauls.
B. "d3ust and lubricate the gearbo+ or unit which the motor dri.es/ in accordance with
the applicable manu!acturer5s instructions co.ering the unit.
*hen trouble de.elops in a D& motor system/ check !irst to determine the source o! the trouble.
@eplace the motor only when the trouble is due to a de!ect in the motor itsel!. In most cases/ the
!ailure o! a motor to operate is caused by a de!ect in the e+ternal electrical circuit/ or by
mechanical !ailure in the mechanism dri.en by the motor.
&heck the e+ternal electrical circuit !or loose or dirty connections and !or improper connection o!
wiring. %ook !or open circuits/ grounds/ and shorts by !ollowing the applicable manu!acturer5s
circuit$testing procedure. I! the !use is not blown/ !ailure o! the motor to operate is usually due to an
open circuit. " blown !use usually indicates an accidental ground or short circuit. The
chattering o! the relay switch which controls the motor is usually caused by a low battery. *hen the
battery is low/ the open$circuit .oltage o! the battery is su!!icient to close the relay/ but with the
hea.y current draw o! the motor/ the .oltage drops below the le.el required to hold the relay closed.
*hen the relay opens/ the .oltage in the battery increases enough to close the relay again. This
cycle repeats and causes chattering/ which is .ery harm!ul to the relay switch/ due to the hea.y
current causing an arc which will burn the contacts.
&heck the unit dri.en by the motor !or !ailure o! the unit or the mechanism. I! the motor has
!ailed as a result o! a !ailure in the dri.en unit/ the !ault must be corrected be!ore installing a new
motor.
()$=(
Module 3.() D& MotorA<enerator Theory
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I! it has been determined that the !ault is in the motor itsel! Dby checking !or correct .oltage at the
motor terminals and !or !ailure o! the dri.en unitE/ inspect the commutator and brushes. " dirty
commutator or de!ecti.e or binding brushes may result in poor contact between brushes and
commutator &lean the commutator/ brushes/ and brush holders with a cloth moistened with the
recommended cleaning sol.ent. I! brushes are damaged or worn to the speci!ied minimum length/
install new brushes in accordance with the applicable manu!acturer5s instructions
co.ering the motor. I! the motor still !ails to operate/ replace it with a ser.iceable motor/
Manual and "utomatic Starters
'ecause the D& resistance o! most motor armatures is low D7.7= to 7.= ohmE/ and because the
back EM does not e+ist until the armature begins to turn/ it is necessary to use an e+ternal
starting resistance in series with the armature o! a D& motor to keep the initial armature current
to a sa!e .alue. "s the armature begins to turn/ back EM increasesK and/ since the back EM
opposes the applied .oltage/ the armature current is reduced.
The e+ternal resistance in series with the armature is decreased or eliminated as the motor
comes up to normal speed and !ull .oltage is applied across the armature.
&ontrolling the starting resistance in a D& motor is accomplished either manually/ by an
operator/ or by any o! se.eral automatic de.ices. The automatic de.ices are usually 3ust
switches controlled by motor speed sensors. "utomatic starters are not co.ered in detail in this
module.
Starter$<enerator Systems
Se.eral types o! turbine powered aircra!t are equipped with starter systems which utiliMe a prime
mo.er ha.ing the dual !unction o! engine starting and o! supplying power to the aircra!t5s
electrical system. Starter$generator units are basically compound$wound machines with
compensating windings and interpoles/ and are permanently coupled with the appropriate
engine .ia a dri.e sha!t and gear train. or starting purposes/ the unit !unctions as a !ully
compounded motor/ the shunt winding being supplied with current .ia a !ield changeo.er relay.
*hen the engine reaches sel!$sustaining speed and the starter circuit is isolated !rom the power
supply/ the changeo.er relay is also automatically de$energiMed and its contacts connect the
shunt$!ield winding to a .oltage regulator. The relay contacts also permit D& to !low through the
shunt winding to pro.ide initial e+citation o! the !ield. Thus/ the machine !unctions as a
con.entional D& generator/ its output being connected to the bus bar on reaching the regulated
le.el.
()$=)
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Module 3.() D& MotorA<enerator Theory
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,se andAor disclosure is
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%i
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TTS Integrated
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Module 3
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,
Electrical undamentals
3.(3 "& Theory
,
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Module 3.(3 "& Theory
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&opyright Gotice
6 &opyright. "ll worldwide rights reser.ed. Go part o! this publication may be reproduced/
stored in a retrie.al system or transmitted in any !orm by any other means whatsoe.erH i.e.
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'asic knowledge !or categories "/ '( and ') are indicated by the allocation o! knowledge le.els indicators D(/ ) or 3E
against each applicable sub3ect. &ategory & applicants must meet either the category '( or the category ')
basic knowledge le.els.
The knowledge le.el indicators are de!ined as !ollowsH
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J " !amiliarisation with the principal elements o! the sub3ect.
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J The applicant should be !amiliar with the basic elements o! the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to gi.e a simple description o! the whole sub3ect/ using common words and
e+amples.
J The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
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J " general knowledge o! the theoretical and practical aspects o! the sub3ect.
J "n ability to apply that knowledge.
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J The applicant should be able to gi.e a general description o! the sub3ect using/ as appropriate/ typical
e+amples.
J The applicant should be able to use mathematical !ormulae in con3unction with physical laws describing the
sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches/ drawings and schematics describing the
sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
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J " detailed knowledge o! the theoretical and practical aspects o! the sub3ect.
J " capacity to combine and apply the separate elements o! knowledge in a logical and comprehensi.e
manner.
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J The applicant should be able to gi.e a detailed description o! the sub3ect using theoretical !undamentals
and speci!ic e+amples.
J The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical !ormulae related to the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to read/ understand and prepare sketches/ simple drawings and schematics
describing the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manu!acturer5s
instructions.
J The applicant should be able to interpret results !rom .arious sources and measurements and apply
correcti.e action where appropriate.
(3$) Module 3.(3 "& Theory
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Table o! &ontents
%
L
L Module 3.(3 "& Theory =
*hat is "lternating &urrent D"&E? =
Direct .s "lternating &urrent =
"& *a.e!orms 6
2ther *a.e!orms C
Measurements o! "& magnitude ()
Simple "& circuit calculations (B
"& phase )7
Single and 3$#hase #rinciples ))
Three$#hase #ower Systems )B
#hase @otation 33
Three$#hase P and " &on!igurations 3=
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Module 3.(3 "& Theory
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Module 3.(3 Enabling 2b3ecti.es
2b3ecti.e
E"S" 66 @e!erence %e.el
"& Theory
3.(3 )
Sinusoidal wa.e!ormH phase/ period/ !requency/ cycle
Instantaneous/ a.erage/ root mean square/ peak/ peak to
peak current .alues and calculations o! these .alues/ in
relation to .oltage/ current and power
TriangularASquare wa.es
SingleA3 phase principles
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Module 3.(3 "& Theory
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Ell
Module 3.(3 "& Theory
*hat is "lternating &urrent D"&E?
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Direct &urrent DD&E/ is electricity !lowing in a constant direction/ andAor possessing a .oltage with
constant polarity. D& is the kind o! electricity made by a battery Dwith de!inite positi.e and
negati.e terminalsE/ or the kind o! charge generated by rubbing certain types o! materials
against each other.
"s use!ul and as easy to understand as D& is/ it is not the only 1kind1 o! electricity in use.
&ertain sources o! electricity Dmost notably/ rotary electro$mechanical generatorsE naturally
produce .oltages alternating in polarity/ re.ersing positi.e and negati.e o.er time. Either as a
.oltage switching polarity or as a current switching direction back and !orth/ this 1kind1 o!
,
L9,
%
I
electricity is known as "lternating &urrent D"&E.
DI@E&T &,@@EGT
DD&E
I
( $ $
"%TE@G"TIG< &,@@EGT
D"&E
$r$$$$(
igure (3.( $ D& and "& comparison
Direct .s "lternating &urrent
*hereas the !amiliar battery symbol is used as a generic symbol !or any D& .oltage source/ the
circle with the wa.y line inside is the generic symbol !or any "& .oltage source.
(1(
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2ne might wonder why anyone would bother with such a thing as "&. It is true that in some
cases "& holds no practical ad.antage o.er D&. In applications where electricity is used to
dissipate energy in the !orm o! heat/ the polarity or direction o! current is irrele.ant/ so long as
there is enough .oltage and current to the load to produce the desired heat Dpower dissipationE.
Lowe.er/ with "& it is possible to build electric generators/ motors and power distribution
systems that are !ar more e!!icient than D&/ and so we !ind "& used predominately across the
world in high power applications. To e+plain the details o! why this is so/ a bit o! background
knowledge about "& is necessary.
I! a machine is constructed to rotate a magnetic !ield around a set o! stationary wire coils with
the turning o! a sha!t/ "& .oltage will be produced across the wire coils as that sha!t is rotated/
in accordance with araday5s %aw o! electromagnetic induction. This is the basic operating
principle o! an "& generator/ also known as an alternatorH
L
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"& *a.e!orms
% :
*hen an alternator produces "& .oltage/ the .oltage switches polarity o.er time/ but does so in
8
a .ery particular manner. *hen graphed o.er time/ the 1wa.e1 traced by this .oltage o! 9
i
alternating polarity !rom an alternator takes on a distinct shape/ known as a sine wa.e.
Dthe sine waveC
Time
E$
igure (3.) $ The sine wa.e/ as produced by an "& generator.
In the .oltage plot !rom an electromechanical alternator/ the change !rom one polarity to the
other is a smooth one/ the .oltage le.el changing most rapidly at the Mero D1crosso.er1E point
and most slowly at its peak. I! we were to graph the trigonometric !unction o! 1sine1 o.er a
horiMontal range o! 7 to 367 degrees/ we would !ind the e+act same pattern as in Table (3.(.
"ngle DaE sinDangleE wa.e"ngle DaEsinDangleE wa.e
7 7.7777 Mero (B7 7.7777 Mero
(= 7.)=BB W (C= $7.)=BB $
37 7.=777 W )(7
$7.=777
$
;= 7.878( W ))= $7.878( $
67 7.B667 W );7
$7.B667
$
8= 7.C6=C W )== $7.C6=C $
C7 (.7777 W peak )87 $(.7777 $ peak
(7= 7.C6=C W )B= $7.C6=C $
()7 7.B667 W 377
$7.B667
$
(3= 7.878( W 3(= $7.878( $
(=7 7.=777 W
337 $7.=777 $
(6=
7.)=BB W 3;= 7.)=BB $
(B7 7.7777 Mero
367 7.7777 Mero
Table (3.( $ Trigonometric 1sine1 !unction
The reason why an electromechanical alternator outputs sine$wa.e "& is due to the physics o!
its operation. The .oltage produced by the stationary coils by the motion o! the rotating magnet
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is proportional to the rate at which the magnetic !lu+ is changing perpendicular to the coils
Daraday5s %aw o! Electromagnetic InductionE. That rate is greatest when the magnet poles are
closest to the coils/ and least when the magnet poles are !urthest away !rom the coils.
Mathematically/ the rate o! magnetic !lu+ change due to a rotating magnet !ollows that o! a sine
!unction/ so the .oltage produced by the coils !ollows that same !unction.
I! we were to !ollow the changing .oltage produced by a coil in an alternator !rom any point on the
sine wa.e graph to that point when the wa.e shape begins to repeat itsel!/ we would ha.e marked
e+actly one cycle o! that wa.e. This is most easily shown by spanning the distance between
identical peaks/ but may be measured between any corresponding points on the
graph. The degree marks on the horiMontal a+is o! the graph represent the domain o! the
trigonometric sine !unction/ and also the angular position o! our simple two$pole alternator sha!t
as it rotates.
!$;
one wa.e cycle $$$D
7 C7
)87 67 C7 (1)87 <o
D7E
taE
one wa.e cycle
$L
"lternator sha!t
Go
position DdegreesE
igure (3.3 $ "lternator .oltage as !unction o! sha!t position DtimeE.
Since the horiMontal a+is o! this graph can mark the passage o! time as well as sha!t position in
degrees/ the dimension marked !or one cycle is o!ten measured in a unit o! time/ most o!ten
seconds or !ractions o! a second. *hen e+pressed as a measurement/ this is o!ten called the
period o! a wa.e. The period o! a wa.e in degrees is always 367/ but the amount o! time one
,
,
i $/
:
!5
period occupies depends on the rate .oltage oscillates back and !orth.
" more popular measure !or describing the alternating rate o! an "& .oltage or current wa.e
than period is the rate o! that back$and$!orth oscillation. This is called !requency. The modern
unit !or !requency is the LertM Dabbre.iated LME/ which represents the number o! wa.e cycles
completed during one second o! time. In the ,nited States o! "merica/ the standard power$line
!requency is 67 LM/ meaning that the "& .oltage oscillates at a rate o! 67 complete back$and$
!orth cycles e.ery second. In Europe/ where the power system !requency is =7 LM/ the "&
.oltage only completes =7 cycles e.ery second. " radio station transmitter broadcasting at a
!requency o! (77 MLM generates an "& .oltage oscillating at a rate o! (77 million cycles e.ery
second.
#rior to the canoniMation o! the LertM unit/ !requency was simply e+pressed as 1cycles per
second.1 2lder meters and electronic equipment o!ten bore !requency units o! 1&#S1 D&ycles
#er SecondE instead o! LM. Many people belie.e the change !rom sel!$e+planatory units like
&#S to LertM constitutes a step backward in clarity. " similar change occurred when the unit o!
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1&elsius1 replaced that o! 1&entigrade1 !or metric temperature measurement. The name
&entigrade was based on a (77$count D1&enti$1E scale D1$grade1E representing the melting and
boiling points o! L)2 respecti.ely The name &elsius on the other hand !i.es no hint as to the/g
unit5s origin or meaning.
l !
#eriod and !requency are mathematical reciprocals o! one another. That is to say/ i! a wa.e has
a period o! (7 seconds/ its !requency will be 7.( LM/ or (A(7 o! a cycle per secondH
(
requency in LertM R
#eriod in seconds
"n instrument called an oscilloscope/ igure (3.;/ is used to display a changing .oltage o.er
time on a graphical screen. Pou may be !amiliar with the appearance o! an E&< or E0<
DelectrocardiographE machine/ used by physicians to graph the oscillations o! a patient5s heart
o.er time. The E&< is a special$purpose oscilloscope e+pressly designed !or medical use.
<eneral$purpose oscilloscopes ha.e the ability to display .oltage !rom .irtually any .oltage
source/ plotted as a graph with time as the independent .ariable. The relationship between
period and !requency is .ery use!ul to know when displaying an "& .oltage or current wa.e!orm
on an oscilloscope screen. 'y measuring the period o! the wa.e on the horiMontal a+is o! the
oscilloscope screen and reciprocating that time .alue Din secondsE/ you can determine the
!requency in LertM.
2S&I%%2S&2#E
T.T
(/ ( 6H c iu Dl:Hlo r 8 $$ a$ K.
y r A y
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requency R (
period
R R 6).= LM
(6 ms
igure (3.; $ Time period o! sinewa.e is shown on oscilloscope.
Ioltage and current are by no means the only physical .ariables sub3ect to .ariation o.ertime.
Much more common to our e.eryday e+perience is sound/ which is nothing more than the
alternating compression and decompression Dpressure wa.esE o! air molecules/ interpreted by
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our ears as a physical sensation. 'ecause alternating current is a wa.e phenomenon/ it shares
many o! the properties o! other wa.e phenomena/ like sound. or this reason/ sound Despecially
structured musicE pro.ides an e+cellent analogy !or relating "& concepts.
2ther *a.e!orms
*hile electromechanical alternators and many other physical phenomena naturally produce sine
wa.es/ this is not the only kind o! alternating wa.e in e+istence. 2ther 1wa.e!orms1 o! "& are
commonly produced within electronic circuitry. Lere are but a !ew sample wa.e!orms and
%
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..
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their common designations in !igure (3.=.
Square wave Triangle wave
l$Q$ one wa.e cycle $L k one wa.e cycle $$$ Q4(
Sawtooth wave
igure (3.= $ Some common wa.eshapes Dwa.e!ormsE.
These wa.e!orms are by no means the only kinds o! wa.e!orms in e+istence. They5re simply a !ew
that are common enough to ha.e been gi.en distinct names. E.en in circuits that are supposed to
mani!est 1pure1 sine/ square/ triangle/ or sawtooth .oltageAcurrent wa.e!orms/ the real$li!e result is
o!ten a distorted .ersion o! the intended wa.eshape. Some wa.e!orms are so comple+ that they
de!y classi!ication as a particular 1type1 Dincluding wa.e!orms associated with many kinds o!
musical instrumentsE. <enerally speaking/ any wa.eshape bearing close resemblance to a per!ect
sine wa.e is termed sinusoidal/ anything di!!erent being labeled as non$sinusoidal. 'eing that the
wa.e!orm o! an "& .oltage or current is crucial to its impact in a circuit/ we need to be aware o! the
!act that "& wa.es come in a .ariety o! shapes.
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Mark$to$Space @atio
The high time o! the pulse wa.e!orm is called the mark/ while the low time is called the space.
The mark and space do not need to be o! equal duration. The mark$to$space ratio is gi.en byH
period T
s pace
mark
P
I
LI<L
I %2*
t
igure (3.6 $$ @ectangular wa.e!orm5s Mark and Space
mark space ratio P LI<L time
%2* time
M"@P. S#"&E @"TI2 R 7.=
I
M"@0 S#"&E @"TI2 R 3.7
mark
LI<L
%$ %2*
t
mark
LI<L
% %2*
$(.$
t
igure (3.8H E+amples o! di!!erent Mark$to$Space ratios
I T
" mark$to$space ratio R (.7 means that the high and low times are equal/ while a mark$
tospace ratio R 7.= indicates that the high time is hal! as long as the low timeK
" mark$to$space ratio o! 3.7 corresponds to a longer high time/ in this case/ three times as long as
the space.
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Duty &ycle
"nother way o! describing the same types o! wa.e!orm uses the duty cycle/ whereH
duty cycle R LI<L time +(77]
period
*hen the duty cycle is less than =7]/ the high time is shorter than the low time/ and so on.
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Measurements o! "& magnitude
So !ar we know that "& .oltage alternates in polarity and "& current alternates in direction. *e also
know that "& can alternate in a .ariety o! di!!erent ways/ and by tracing the alternation o.er time
we can plot it as a 1wa.e!orm.1 *e can measure the rate o! alternation by measuring the time it
takes !or a wa.e to e.ol.e be!ore it repeats itsel! Dthe 1period1E/ and e+press this as
cycles per unit time/ or 1!requency.1 In music/ !requency is the same as pitch/ which is the
essential property distinguishing one note !rom another.
Lowe.er/ we encounter a measurement problem i! we try to e+press how large or small an "&
quantity is. *ith D&/ where quantities o! .oltage and current are generally stable/ we ha.e little
trouble e+pressing how much .oltage or current we ha.e in any part o! a circuit. 'ut how do you
grant a single measurement o! magnitude to something that is constantly changing?
2ne way to e+press the intensity/ or magnitude Dalso called the amplitudeE/ o! an "& quantity is to
measure its peak height on a wa.e!orm graph. This is known as the peak or crest .alue o! an "&
wa.e!orm.
Time
igure (3.B $ #eak .oltage o! a wa.e!orm
"nother way is to measure the total height between opposite peaks. This is known as the peak$
to$peak D#$#E .alue o! an "& wa.e!orm.
Time $$$7
igure (3.C $ #eak$to$peak .oltage o! a wa.e!orm
,n!ortunately/ either one o! these e+pressions o! wa.e!orm amplitude can be misleading when
comparing two di!!erent types o! wa.es. or e+ample/ a square wa.e peaking at (7 .olts is
ob.iously a greater amount o! .oltage !or a greater amount o! time than a triangle wa.e peaking at
(7 .olts. The e!!ects o! these two "& .oltages powering a load would be quite di!!erent.
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(7I
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D a
((
Time
Dsame load resistanceE
;
DpeakE
pe kE
r
more heat energy
dissi!ated
less heat
energy
dissi!ated
igure (3.(7 $ " square wa.e produces a greater heating e!!ect than the same peak .oltage
triangle wa.e.
2ne way o! e+pressing the amplitude o! di!!erent wa.eshapes in a more equi.alent !ashion is to
mathematically a.erage the .alues o! all the points on a wa.e!orm5s graph to a single/
aggregate number. This amplitude measure is known simply as the a.erage .alue o! the
wa.e!orm. I! we a.erage all the points on the wa.e!orm algebraically Dthat is/ to consider their sign/
either positi.e or negati.eE/ the a.erage .alue !or most wa.e!orms is technically Mero/
because all the positi.e points cancel out all the negati.e points o.er a !ull cycleH igure below
%
True average value of all !oints
Dconsidering their signsC is /eroL
igure (3.((
$ The a.erage .alue o! a sinewa.e is Mero
This/ o! course/ will be true !or any wa.e!orm ha.ing equal$area portions abo.e and below the
1Mero1 line o! a plot. Lowe.er/ as a practical measure o! a wa.e!orm5s aggregate .alue/
1a.erage1 is usually de!ined as the mathematical mean o! all the points5 absolute .alues o.er a
cycle. In other words/ we calculate the practical a.erage .alue o! the wa.e!orm by considering all
points on the wa.e as positi.e quantities/ as i! the wa.e!orm looked like that shown in !igure
(3.().
I %
(3$(3
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W ; W
WFW
W
W
"
a
(ractical average of points/
all .alues assumed to be
!ositive.
igure (3.() $ *a.e!orm seen by "& 1a.erage responding1 meter
#olarity$insensiti.e mechanical meter mo.ements Dmeters designed to respond equally to the
positi.e and negati.e hal!$cycles o! an alternating .oltage or currentE register in proportion to the
wa.e!orm5s DpracticalE a.erage .alue/ because the inertia o! the pointer against the tension o!
the spring naturally a.erages the !orce produced by the .arying .oltageAcurrent .alues o.er
time. &on.ersely/ polarity$sensiti.e meter mo.ements .ibrate uselessly i! e+posed to "&
.oltage or current/ their needles oscillating rapidly about the Mero mark/ indicating the true
DalgebraicE a.erage .alue o! Mero !or a symmetricalK wa.e!orm. *hen the 1a.erage1 .alue o! a
wa.e!orm is re!erenced in this te+t/ it will be assumed that the 1practical1 de!inition o! a.erage is
intended unless otherwise speci!ied.
"nother method o! deri.ing an aggregate .alue !or wa.e!orm amplitude is based on the
wa.e!orm5s ability to do use!ul work when applied to a load resistance. ,n!ortunately/ an "&
measurement based on work per!ormed by a wa.e!orm is not the same as that wa.e!orm5s
1a.erage1 .alue/ because the power dissipated by a gi.en load Dwork per!ormed per unit timeE is
not directly proportional to the magnitude o! either the .oltage or current impressed upon it.
@ather/ power is proportional to the square o! the .oltage or current applied to a resistance D# R
I)A@/ and
p
R ()@E. "lthough the mathematics o! such an amplitude measurement might not be
straight!orward/ the utility o! it is.
&onsider a bandsaw and a 3igsaw/ two pieces o! modern woodworking equipment. 'oth types o!
saws cut with a thin/ toothed/ motor$powered metalH blade to cut wood. 'ut while the bandsaw uses
a continuous motion o! the blade to cut/ the 3igsaw uses a back$and$!orth motion. The
comparison o! alternating current D"&E to direct current DD&E may be likened to the comparison o!
these two saw types.
(3$(; Module 3.(3 "& Theory
n
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'andsaw
%3
:igsaw
blade
m oti on/
Mood
T
blade
motion
Danalogous to D&E Danalogous to "&E
igure (3.(3 $ 'andsaw$3igsaw analogy o! D& .s "&
The problem o! trying to describe the changing quantities o! "& .oltage or current in a single/
aggregate measurement is also present in this saw analogyH how might we e+press the speed
!5/ o! a 3igsaw blade? " bandsaw blade mo.es with a constant speed/ similar to the way D&
.oltage pushes or D& current mo.es with a constant magnitude. " 3igsaw blade/ on the other
hand/ mo.es back and !orth/ its blade speed constantly changing. *hat is more/ the back$and$
!orth motion o! any two 3igsaws may not be o! the same type/ depending on the mechanical
design o! the saws. 2ne 3igsaw might mo.e its blade with a sine$wa.e motion/ while another
with a triangle$wa.e motion. To rate a 3igsaw based on its peak blade speed would be quite
misleading when comparing one 3igsaw to another Dor a 3igsaw with a handsaw9E. Despite the
!act that these di!!erent saws mo.e their blades in di!!erent manners/ they are equal in one
respectH they all out wood/ and a quantitati.e comparison o! this common !unction can ser.e as
a common basis !or which to rate blade speed.
#icture a 3igsaw and bandsaw side$by$side/ equipped with identical blades Dsame tooth pitch/
angle/ etc.E/ equally capable o! cutting the same thickness o! the same type o! wood at the
same rate. *e might say that the two saws were equi.alent or equal in their cutting capacity.
Might this comparison be used to assign a 1bandsaw equi.alent1 blade speed to the 3igsaw5s
back$and$!orth blade motionK to relate the wood$cutting e!!ecti.eness o! one to the other? This is the
general idea used to assign a 1D& equi.alent1 measurement to any "& .oltage or currentH
whate.er magnitude o! D& .oltage or current would produce the same amount o! heat energy
dissipation through an equal resistance.

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$o$= " @GI S $$ $ .$
% 2 I
@MS
$ $=" @M SG
=7
power
dissipated
=" $ =7*
power
dissipated
E<ual ! o wet dissipa t
through
equal resistance loads
igure (3.(; $ "n @MS .oltage produces the same heating e!!ect as a the same D& .oltage
In the two circuits abo.e/ we ha.e the same amount o! load resistance D) EE dissipating the
same amount o! power in the !orm o! heat D=7 wattsE/ one powered by "& and the other by D&.
'ecause the "& .oltage source pictured abo.e is equi.alent Din terms o! power deli.ered to a
loadE to a (7 .olt D& battery/ we would call this a 1(7 .olt1 "& source. More speci!ically/ we would
denote its .oltage .alue as being (7 .olts @MS. The quali!ier 1@MS1 stands !or root
mean square/ the algorithm used to obtain the D& equi.alent .alue !rom points on a graph
Dessentially/ the procedure consists o! squaring all the positi.e and negati.e points on a
H:
wa.e!orm graph/ a.eraging those squared .alues/ then taking the square root o! that a.erage to
obtain the !inal answerE. Sometimes the alternati.e terms equi.alent or D& equi.alent are used
instead o! 1@MS/1 but the quantity and principle are both the same.
@MS amplitude measurement is the best way to relate "& quantities to D& quantities/ or other "&
quantities o! di!!ering wa.e!orm shapes/ when dealing with measurements o! electric power. or
other considerations/ peak or peak$to$peak measurements may be the best to employ. or
instance/ when determining the proper siMe o! wire DampacityE to conduct electric power !rom a
source to a load/ @MS current measurement is the best to use/ because the principal concern with
current is o.erheating o! the wire/ which is a !unction o! power dissipation caused by
current through the resistance o! the wire. Lowe.er/ when rating insulators !or ser.ice in high$
.oltage "& applications/ peak .oltage measurements are the most appropriate/ because the
principal concern here is insulator 1!lasho.er1 caused by brie! spikes o! .oltage/ irrespecti.e o!
time.
#eak and peak$to$peak measurements are best per!ormed with an oscilloscope/ which can
capture the crests o! the wa.e!orm with a high degree o! accuracy due to the !ast action o! the
cathode$ray$tube in response to changes in .oltage. or @MS measurements/ analogue meter
mo.ements DD5"rson.al/ *eston/ iron .ane/ electrodynamometerE will work so long as they
ha.e been calibrated in @MS !igures. 'ecause the mechanical inertia and dampening e!!ects o!
an electromechanical meter mo.ement makes the de!lection o! the needle naturally proportional
to the a.erage .alue o! the "&/ not the true @MS .alue/ analog meters must be speci!ically
calibrated Dor mis$calibrated/ depending on how you look at itE to indicate .oltage or current in
@MS units. The accuracy o! this calibration depends on an assumed wa.eshape/ usually a sine
wa.e.
,se andAor disclosure Is
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(3$(6
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Electronic meters speci!ically designed !or @MS measurement are best !or the task. Some
instrument manu!acturers ha.e designed ingenious methods !or determining the @MS .alue o!
any wa.e!orm. 2ne such manu!acturer produces 1True$@MS1 meters with a tiny resisti.e
heating element powered by a .oltage proportional to that being measured. The heating e!!ect o!
that resistance element is measured thermally to gi.e a true @MS .alue with no mathematical
rFT
,
calculations whatsoe.er/ 3ust the laws o! physics in action in !ul!illment o! the de!inition o! @MS.
The accuracy o! this type o! @MS measurement is independent o! wa.eshape.
or 1pure1 wa.e!orms/ simple con.ersion coe!!icients e+ist !or equating #eak/ #eak$to$#eak/
".erage Dpractical/ not algebraicE/ and @MS measurements to one another.
@MS R 7.878 D#eakE
"I< R 7.638 D#eakE
#$# R ) D#eakE
@MS R #eak
"I< R #eak
#$# R ) D#eakE
@MS R 7.=88 D#eakE
"I< R 7.= D#eakE
#$# R ) D#eakE
igure (3.(= $ &on.ersion !actors !or common wa.e!orms.
In addition to @MS/ a.erage/ peak DcrestE/ and peak$to$peak measures o! an "& wa.e!orm/ there
are ratios e+pressing the proportionality between some o! these !undamental
measurements. The crest !actor o! an "& wa.e!orm/ !or instance/ is the ratio o! its peak DcrestE
.alue di.ided by its @MS .alue. The !orm !actor o! an "& wa.e!orm is the ratio o! its @MS .alue
di.ided by its a.erage .alue. Square$shaped wa.e!orms always ha.e crest and !orm !actors equal
to (/ since the peak is the same as the @MS and a.erage .alues. Sinusoidal wa.e!orms ha.e an
@MS .alue o! 7.878 Dthe reciprocal o! the square root o! )E and a !orm !actor o! (.(( D7.878A7.636E.
Triangle$ and sawtooth$shaped wa.e!orms ha.e @MS .alues o!
7.=88 Dthe reciprocal o! square root o! 3E and !orm !actors o! (.(= D7.=88A7.=E.
'ear in mind that the con.ersion constants shown here !or peak/ @MS/ and a.erage amplitudes o!
sine wa.es/ square wa.es/ and triangle wa.es hold true only !or pure !orms o! these wa.eshapes.
The @MS and a.erage .alues o! distorted wa.eshapes are not related by the
same ratios.
i %
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@MS $FCCC
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ "I< R ???
#$# R ) D#eakE
igure (3.(6 $ "rbitrary wa.e!orms ha.e no simple con.ersions.
This is a .ery important concept to understand when using an analog meter mo.ement to
measure "& .oltage or current. "n analog mo.ement/ calibrated to indicate sine$wa.e @MS
amplitude/ will only be accurate when measuring pure sine wa.es. I! the wa.e!orm o! the
.oltage or current being measured is anything but a pure sine wa.e/ the indication gi.en by the
meter will not be the true @MS .alue o! the wa.e!orm/ because the degree o! needle de!lection in
an analog meter mo.ement is proportional to the a.erage .alue o! the wa.e!orm/ not the
@MS. @MS meter calibration is obtained by 1skewing1 the span o! the meter so that it displays a
small multiple o! the a.erage .alue/ which will be equal to be the @MS .alue !or a particular
wa.eshape and a particular wa.eshape only.
Since the sine$wa.e shape is most common in electrical measurements/ it is the wa.eshape
assumed !or analog meter calibration/ and the small multiple used in the calibration o! the meter is
(.((78 Dthe !orm !actorH 7.878A7.636H the ratio o! @MS di.ided by a.erage !or a sinusoidal
wa.e!ormE. "ny wa.eshape other than a pure sine wa.e will ha.e a di!!erent ratio o! @MS and
a.erage .alues/ and thus a meter calibrated !or sine$wa.e .oltage or current will not indicate
true @MS when reading a non$sinusoidal wa.e. 'ear in mind that this limitation applies only to
simple/ analog "& meters not employing 1True$@MS1 technology.
Simple "& circuit calculations
"& circuit measurements and calculations can get .ery complicated due to the comple+ nature o!
alternating current in circuits with inductance and capacitance. Lowe.er/ with simple circuits
D!igure belowE in.ol.ing nothing more than an "& power source and resistance/ the same laws
and rules o! D& apply simply and directly.
;77 Sa
igure (3.(8 $ "& circuit calculations !or resisti.e circuits are the same as !or D&.
(3$(B Module 3.(3 "& Theory
K .(
/8
3 3
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,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
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n rHnn.rinht C!l(7
TTS Integrated Training System
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6 &opyright )7(7 on page ) o! this &hapter.
I!
l.
.i
Integrated Training System
,
i
@ l R @tW@/W@/
( $
@total R I l S?
E total
5total R
@total
Ertt R5total@l
E@tRII
I
5total R (7 5total R (7 m"
( kS?
E@3 R Itotal @.3
E@? R5total@3
Ea/R=I E@KR;I
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i s Series resistances still add/ parallel resistances still diminish/ and the %aws o! 0irchho!! and
2hm still hold true. "ctually/ as we will disco.er later on/ these rules and laws always hold true/ it5s
3ust that we ha.e to e+press the quantities o! .oltage/ current/ and opposition to current in more
ad.anced mathematical !orms. *ith purely resisti.e circuits/ howe.er/ these comple+ities o! "&
are o! no practical consequence/ and so we can treat the numbers as though we were dealing with
simple D& quantities.
'ecause all these mathematical relationships still hold true/ we can make use o! the 1table1
method o! organiMing circuit .alues 3ust as with D&H
@I @/ @
3
Total
E ( = ; (7 Iolts
I (7((( (7m tom tom "mps
@ (77 =77
;77 (k 2hms
Table (3.3 $ 2hms %aw in tabular !ormat
2ne ma3or ca.eat needs to be gi.en hereH all measurements o! "& .oltage and current must be
e+pressed in the same terms Dpeak/ peak$to$peak/ a.erage/ or @MSE. I! the source .oltage is gi.en
in peak "& .olts/ then all currents and .oltages subsequently calculated are cast in terms
o! peak units. I! the source .oltage is gi.en in "& @MS .olts/ then all calculated currents and
.oltages are cast in "& @MS units as well. This holds true !or any calculation based on 2hm5s
%aws/ 0irchho!!5s %aws/ etc. ,nless otherwise stated/ all .alues o! .oltage and current in "&
circuits are generally assumed to be @MS rather than peak/ a.erage/ or peak$to$peak. In some
areas o! electronics/ peak measurements are assumed/ but in most applications Despecially
industrial electronicsE the assumption is @MS.
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"& phase
Things start to get complicated when we need to relate two or more "& .oltages or currents that
are out o! step with each other. 'y 1out o! step/1 I mean that the two wa.e!orms are not
synchroniMedH that their peaks and Mero points do not match up at the same points in time. The
graph in !igure (3.(6 illustrates an e+ample o! this.
"' " '
" ' " '
igure (3.(B $ 2ut o! phase wa.e!orms
The two wa.es shown abo.e D" .ersus 'E are o! the same amplitude and !requency/ but they
are out o! step with each other. In technical terms/ this is called a phase shi!t. Earlier we saw
how we could plot a 1sine wa.e1 by calculating the trigonometric sine !unction !or angles ranging
!rom 7 to 367 degrees/ a !ull circle. The starting point o! a sine wa.e was Mero amplitude at Mero
degrees/ progressing to !ull positi.e amplitude at C7 degrees/ Mero at (B7 degrees/ !ull negati.e at
)87 degrees/ and back to the starting point o! Mero at 367 degrees. *e can use this angle
scale along the horiMontal a+is o! our wa.e!orm plot to e+press 3ust how !ar out o! step one
wa.e is with another.
degrees
D7E D7E
" 7 C7 (B7 )87 367 C7 (B7 )87 367
( (
' 7 C7 (B7 )87 367 C7 (B7 )87 367
D7K D7E
degrees
igure (3.(C $ *a.e " leads wa.e ' by ;=7
(3$)7 Module 3.(3 "& Theory
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The shi!t between these two wa.e!orms is about ;= degrees/ the 1"1 wa.e being ahead o! the 1'1
wa.e. " sampling o! di!!erent phase shi!ts is gi.en in the !ollowing graphs to better illustrate this
concept.
#hase shi!t R C7 degrees
" is ahead o! '
D" 1leads1 'E
#hase shi!t R C7 degrees
' is ahead o! "
D' 1leads1 "E
#hase shi!t R (B7 degrees
" and ' wa.e!orms are
mirror$images o! each other
#hase shi!t R 7 degrees
" and ' wa.e!orms are
in per!ect step with each other
igure (3.)7 $ E+amples o! phase shi!ts.
'ecause the wa.e!orms in the abo.e e+amples are at the same !requency/ they will be out o! step
by the same angular amount at e.ery point in time. or this reason/ we can e+press phase shi!t
!or two or more wa.e!orms o! the same !requency as a constant quantity !or the entire
wa.e/ and not 3ust an e+pression o! shi!t between any two particular points along the wa.es.
That is/ it is sa!e to say something like/ 1.oltage 5"5 is ;= degrees out o! phase with .oltage 5'5.1
*hiche.er wa.e!orm is ahead in its e.olution is said to be leading and the one behind is said to
be lagging.
#hase shi!t/ like .oltage/ is always a measurement relati.e between two things. There5s really no
such thing as a wa.e!orm with an absolute phase measurement because there5s no known
uni.ersal re!erence !or phase. Typically in the analysis o! "& circuits/ the .oltage wa.e!orm o! the
power supply is used as a re!erence !or phase/ that .oltage stated as 1+++ .olts at 7
degrees.1 "ny other "& .oltage or current in that circuit will ha.e its phase shi!t e+pressed in
terms relati.e to that source .oltage.
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This is what makes "& circuit calculations more complicated than D&. *hen applying 2hm5s
%aw and 0irchho!!5s %aws/ quantities o! "& .oltage and current must re!lect phase shi!t as well as
amplitude. Mathematical operations o! addition/ subtraction/ multiplication/ and di.ision must
operate on these quantities o! phase shi!t as well as amplitude. ortunately/ there is a
mathematical system o! quantities called 5comple+ numbers5 ideally suited !or this task o!
representing amplitude and phase. Lowe.er/ this is beyond the scope o! the E"S" #art$66
syllabus/ and will not be discussed.
Single and 3$#hase #rinciples
Single$#hase #ower Systems
Depicted in igure (3.)(
is a .ery simple "& circuit. I! the load resistor5s power dissipation were
substantial/ we might call this a 1power circuit1 or 1power system1 instead o! regarding it as 3ust a
regular circuit. The distinction between a 1power circuit1 and a 1regular circuit1 may seem
arbitrary/ but the practical concerns are de!initely not.
load load
f( f)
igure (3.)(K Single phase power system schematic diagram.
2ne such concern is the siMe and cost o! wiring necessary to deli.er power !rom the "& source to
the load. Gormally/ we do not gi.e much thought to this type o! concern i! we5re merely
analyMing a circuit !or the sake o! learning about the laws o! electricity. Lowe.er/ in the real
world it can be a ma3or concern. I! we gi.e the source in the abo.e circuit a .oltage .alue and
also gi.e power dissipation .alues to the two load resistors/ we can determine the wiring needs !or
this particular circuit.
load load
f(
f)
3
# R (7 k* #R (2 k*
igure (3.))H "s a practical matter/ the wiring !or the )7 k* loads at ()7 Iac is rather
substantial D(68 "E.
(3$))
Module 3.(3 "& Theory
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()7 I
(R B3.33 "
Efor each load resistorC
lrotal (loadfl W ItoK f
#total R D(7 k*E W D(7 k*E
(mt1((
DB3.33 "E W DB3.33 "E #w5tal R )7 k*
ltoaal R (66.68 "
B3.33 amps !or each load resistor in igure (3.)) adds up to (66.66 amps total circuit current.
This is no small amount o! current/ and would necessitate copper wire conductors o! at least (A7
gage. Such wire is well o.er (A; inch D6 mmE in diameter/ weighing o.er 377 pounds per
thousand !eet. 'ear in mind that copper is not cheap either9 It would be in our best interest to
!ind ways to minimiMe such costs i! we were designing a power system with long conductor
lengths.
2ne way to do this would be to increase the .oltage o! the power source and use loads built to
dissipate (7 k* each at this higher .oltage. The loads/ o! course/ would ha.e to ha.e greater
resistance .alues to dissipate the same power as be!ore D(7 k* eachE at a greater .oltage than
be!ore. The ad.antage would be less current required/ permitting the use o! smaller/ lighter/ and
cheaper wire.
);7 I
,
t i
i
load . load
f( f)
#R (2k* #R (7 k*
igure (3.)3 $ Same (7 k* loads at );7 Iac requires less substantial wiring than at ()7 Iac
DB3 "E.
,
Module 3.(3 "& Theory
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I$ #
E
(7 k*
);7I
I R ;(.68 " Efor each load resistorC
Itot ul R Aloadfl W Ilo fa #totol R D(7 k*E W D(7 k*E
Itotal R D;(.68 "E W D;(.68 "E #total R )7 k*
ItotKtl R B3.33 "
Gow our total circuit current is B3.33 amps/ hal! o! what it was be!ore. *e can now use number
; gage wire/ which weighs less than hal! o! what (A7 gage wire does per unit length. This is a
considerable reduction in system cost with no degradation in per!ormance. This is why power
distribution system designers elect to transmit electric power using .ery high .oltages Dmany
thousands o! .oltsEH to capitaliMe on the sa.ings realiMed by the use o! smaller/ lighter/ cheaper
wire.
Lowe.er/ this solution is not without disad.antages. "nother practical concern with power
circuits is the danger o! electric shock !rom high .oltages. "gain/ this is not usually the sort o!
thing we concentrate on while learning about the laws o! electricity/ but it is a .ery .alid concern in
the real world/ especially when large amounts o! power are being dealt with. The gain in
e!!iciency realiMed by stepping up the circuit .oltage presents us with increased danger o!
electric shock. #ower distribution companies tackle this problem by stringing their power lines
along high poles or towers/ and insulating the lines !rom the supporting structures with large/
porcelain insulators.
"t the point o! use Dthe electric power consumerE/ there is still the issue o! what .oltage to use !or
powering loads. Ligh .oltage gi.es greater system e!!iciency by means o! reduced
conductor current/ but it might not always be practical to keep power wiring out o! reach at the
point o! use the way it can be ele.ated out o! reach in distribution systems. This tradeo!!
between e!!iciency and danger is one that European power system designers ha.e decided to
risk/ all their households and appliances operating at a nominal .oltage o! );7 .olts instead o! ()7
.olts as it is in Gorth "merica. That is why tourists !rom "merica .isiting Europe must carry small
step$down trans!ormers !or their portable appliances/ to step the );7 I"& D.olts "&E
power down to a more suitable ()7 I"&.
Is there any way to realiMe the ad.antages o! both increased e!!iciency and reduced sa!ety
haMard at the same time? 2ne solution would be to install step$down trans!ormers at the end$
point o! power use/ 3ust as the "merican tourist must do while in Europe. Lowe.er/ this would
be e+pensi.e and incon.enient !or anything but .ery small loads Dwhere the trans!ormers can
(3$); Module 3.(3 "& Theory
8
..:
n
lr../
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be built cheaplyE or .ery large loads Dwhere the e+pense o! thick copper wires would e+ceed the
e+pense o! a trans!ormerE.
"n alternati.e solution would be to use a higher .oltage supply to pro.ide power to two lower
.oltage loads in series. This approach combines the e!!iciency o! a high$.oltage system with the
sa!ety o! a low$.oltage system.
$$$ B3.33 "
load
f(
);7 I
load
t)7I
(7 k*
);7I
W
()7 I
f)
(7 k*
B3.33 " (
igure (3.); $ Series connected ()7 Iac loads/ dri.en by );7 Iac source at B3.3 " total
current.
,i
l
r
n
Gotice the polarity markings DW and $E !or each .oltage shown/ as well as the unidirectional
arrows !or current. or the most part/ I5.e a.oided labeling 1polarities1 in the "& circuits we5.e been
analyMing/ e.en though the notation is .alid to pro.ide a !rame o! re!erence !or phase. In later
sections o! this chapter/ phase relationships will become .ery important/ so I5m introducing this
notation early on in the chapter !or your !amiliarity.
The current through each load is the same as it was in the simple ()7 .olt circuit/ but the currents
are not additi.e because the loads are in series rather than parallel. The .oltage across each load is
only ()7 .olts/ not );7/ so the sa!ety !actor is better. Mind you/ we still ha.e a !ull );7 .olts across
the power system wires/ but each load is operating at a reduced .oltage. I! anyone is going to get
shocked/ the odds are that it will be !rom coming into contact with the conductors o! a particular
load rather than !rom contact across the main wires o! a power
system.
There5s only one disad.antage to this designH the consequences o! one load !ailing open/ or
being turned o!! Dassuming each load has a series onAo!! switch to interrupt currentE are not good.
'eing a series circuit/ i! either load were to open/ current would stop in the other load as well. or
this reason/ we need to modi!y the design a bit.
(3$)=
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iB3.33"
);7 I
B3.3 3 " $Dh
igure (3.)= $ "ddition o! neutral conductor allows loads to be indi.idually dri.en.
Etotil RD()7I %77EW D()7I A77E
Etot1(t
(R
(R
R );7 I % 7a
#
E
(7 k*
()7 I
#total R D(7 k*E W D(7 k*E
#t7tH( I R )7 k*
(R B3.33 " Efor each load resistorC
Instead o! a single );7 .olt power supply/ we use two ()7 .olt supplies Din phase with each
other9E in series to produce );7 .olts/ then run a third wire to the connection point between the
loads to handle the e.entuality o! one load opening. This is called a split$phase power system.
Three smaller wires are still cheaper than the two wires needed with the simple parallel design/
so we5re still ahead on e!!iciency. The astute obser.er will note that the neutral wire only has to
carry the di!! erence o! current between the two loads back to the source. In the abo.e case/
with per!ectly 1balanced1 loads consuming equal amounts o! power/ the neutral wire carries Mero
current.
Gotice how the neutral wire is connected to earth ground at the power supply end. This is a
common !eature in power systems containing 1neutral1 wires/ since grounding the neutral wire
ensures the least possible .oltage at any gi.en time between any 1hot1 wire and earth ground. "n
essential component to a split$phase power system is the dual "& .oltage source.
ortunately/ designing and building one is not di!!icult. Since most "& systems recei.e their
i i
power !rom a step$down trans!ormer anyway Dstepping .oltage down !rom high distribution
le.els to a user$le.el .oltage like ()7 or );7E/ that trans!ormer can be built with a center$tapped
secondary winding.
t
(3$)6
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*te!$down transformer with
center$ta!!ed secondary winding
()7 I
()7 I
8
);7 I
igure (3.)6 $ "merican ()7A);7 Iac power is deri.ed !rom a center tapped utility trans!ormer.
I! the "& power comes directly !rom a generator DalternatorE/ the coils can be similarly
centertapped !or the same e!!ect. The e+tra e+pense to include a center$tap connection in a
trans!ormer or alternator winding is minimal.
Lere is where the DWE and D$E polarity markings really become important. This notation is o!ten used
to re!erence the phasings o! multiple "& .oltage sources/ so it is clear whether they are aiding
D1boosting1E each other or opposing D1bucking1E each other. I! not !or these polarity
markings/ phase relations between multiple "& sources might be .ery con!using. Gote that the
split$phase sources in the schematic Deach one ()7 .olts Z 7aE/ with polarity marks DWE to D$E 3ust
like series$aiding batteries can alternati.ely be represented as such.
!
,
);7 I
% 7a
,5
igure (3.)8 $ Split phase ()7A);7 Iac source is equi.alent to two series aiding ()7 Iac
sources.
To mathematically calculate .oltage between 1hot1 wires/ we must subtract .oltages/ because %
their polarity marks show them to be opposed to each otherH
r
&$( $
i
(olar Rectangular
()7 % 7& ()7 W 32 I
()7A (B77 $ D$()7W37EI
,
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u
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);7%77 );7W32I
I! we mark the two sources5 common connection point Dthe neutral wireE with the same polarity
mark D$E/ we must e+press their relati.e phase shi!ts as being (B7a apart. 2therwise/ we5d be
l
(3$)8
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denoting two .oltage sources in direct opposition with each other/ which would gi.e 7 .olts
between the two 1hot1 conductors. *hy am I taking the time to elaborate on polarity marks and
phase angles? It will make more sense in the ne+t section9
#ower systems in "merican households and light industry are most o!ten o! the split$phase
.ariety/ pro.iding so$called ()7A);7 I"& power. The term 1split$phase1 merely re!ers to the
split$.oltage supply in such a system. In a more general sense/ this kind o! "& power supply is
called single phase because both .oltage wa.e!orms are in phase/ or in step/ with each other. The
term 1single phase1 is a counterpoint to another kind o! power system called 1polyphase1 which
we are about to in.estigate in detail. The ad.antages o! polyphase power systems are more
ob.ious i! one !irst has a good understanding o! single phase systems.
Three$#hase #ower Systems
Split$phase power systems achie.e their high conductor e!!iciency and low sa!ety risk by
splitting up the total .oltage into lesser parts and powering multiple loads at those lesser
.oltages/ while drawing currents at le.els typical o! a !ull$.oltage system. This technique/ by the
way/ works 3ust as well !or D& power systems as it does !or single$phase "& systems. Such
systems are usually re!erred to as three$wire systems rather than split$phase because 1phase1 is a
concept restricted to "&.
'ut we know !rom our e+perience with .ectors and comple+ numbers that "& .oltages don5t
always add up as we think they would i! they are out o! phase with each other. This principle/
applied to power systems/ can be put to use to make power systems with e.en greater
conductor e!!iciencies and lower shock haMard than with split$phase.
Suppose that we had two sources o! "& .oltage connected in series 3ust like the split$phase
system we saw be!ore/ e+cept that each .oltage source was ()7a out o! phase with the otherH
;
()7 I
a
L :
()7 I
)()7a
;
B3.33" %7a
1hat1
( :
a
L :
;neutral; P
load J ()7I
f) % ()7a
1 ;
hot
B3.33 " % ()7a
A
)78.B= I
% $37a
igure (3.)B $ #air o! ()7 Iac sources phased ()7a/ similar to split$phase.
Since each .oltage source is ()7 .olts/ and each load resistor is connected directly in parallel
with its respecti.e source/ the .oltage across each load must be ()7 .olts as well. <i.en load
currents o! B3.33 amps/ each load must still be dissipating (7 kilowatts o! power. Lowe.er/
n
(3$)B
Module 3.(3 "& Theory
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.oltage between the two 1hot1 wires is not );7 .olts D()7 L :R $ ()7 L (B7aE because the phase
di!!erence between the two sources is not (B7a. Instead/ the .oltage isH
EtotaI R D()7 I % 7aE $ D()7 I 5 ()77E
Erotal R )78.B= I % $37a
Gominally/ we say that the .oltage between 1hot1 conductors is )7B .olts Drounding upE/ and
thus the power system .oltage is designated as ()7A)7B.
I! we calculate the current through the 1neutral1 conductor/ we !ind that it is not Mero/ e.en with
balanced load resistances. 0irchho!!5s &urrent %aw tells us that the currents entering and e+iting the
node between the two loads must be Mero.
$ B3.33 " % 7a
ShotS
W
;neutral
;
5 5neutral
1hot1
load
f(
load
f)
()7I %2a
Gode
()7 I % ()7a
$
B3.33 "
)().7a
igure (3.)C $ Geutral wire carries a current in the case o! a pair o! ()7a phased sources.
$((oadf(
$ 5loadf) $ 5neutral R 7
$5neutral 5londfl W ll7H f)
5neutral R $(lordf( $5loKrl_)
rK
5neutral
R $ DB3.33 " % 7aE $ DB3.33 " % ()7
7E
5neutral R B3.33 " % );7a or
B3.33 " % $()7a
So/ we !ind that the 1neutral1 wire is carrying a !ull B3.33 amps/ 3ust like each 1hot1 wire.
Gote that we are still con.eying )7 k* o! total power to the two loads/ with each load5s 1hot1
wire carrying B3.33 amps as be!ore. *ith the same amount o! current through each 1hot1 wire/ we
must use the same gage copper conductors/ so we ha.en5t reduced system cost o.er the split$
phase ()7A);7 system. Lowe.er/ we ha.e realiMed a gain in sa!ety/ because the o.erall
.oltage between the two 1hot1 conductors is 3) .olts lower than it was in the split$phase system
D)7B .olts instead o! );7 .oltsE.
,
(3$)C
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The !act that the neutral wire is carrying B3.33 amps o! current raises an interesting possibilityH
since it5s carrying current anyway/ why not use that third wire as another 1hot1 conductor/
powering another load resistor with a third ()7 .olt source ha.ing a phase angle o! );7a? That
way/ we could transmit more power Danother (7 k*E without ha.ing to add any more
conductors. %et5s see how this might look.
$; Ba. 3 "%77
()7 I
% a
C(3 3 " % 5);77a
%)7 I
% );7a
(. )7 8T (
W V %)7a
$$S3.(3"% %)7a
load
f(
load f3
%)7 I
(7 k*
Ioad
f)
()7 I
%7 k* T .
)7B I t. .:
% -o
()7 IF
%7 k*
igure (3.37 $ *ith a third load phased ()7a to the other two/ the currents are the same as !or two
loads.
%et5s sur.ey the ad.antages o! a three$phase power system o.er a single$phase system o!
equi.alent load .oltage and power capacity. " single$phase system with three loads connected
directly in parallel would ha.e a .ery high total current DB3.33 times 3/ or )=7 amps.
()7I
)=7 " $$
load load load
f( f) f3
(7 k* (7 k* (7 k*
igure (3.3( $ or comparison/ three (7 0w loads on a ()7 Iac system draw )=7 ".
:
This would necessitate 3A7 gauge copper wire D.ery large9E/ at about =(7 pounds per thousand
!eet/ and with a considerable price tag attached. I! the distance !rom source to load was (777 !eet/
we would need o.er a hal!$ton o! copper wire to do the 3ob. 2n the other hand/ we could build a
split$phase system with two (= k*/ ()7 .olt loads. Digure belowE
(3$37
Module 3.(3 "& Theory
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$$ ()="%7a
1hot[
%i
()7I
%7a
.;
()7 I
% (B7a
;
neutral
; r
7"
S
load ()7I
f( (= k* W
);7 I
% 7a
Ioad ()7 I
f) (= k*
hotS
$ ()="% (B77
igure (3.3) $ Split phase system draws hal! the current o! ()= " at );7 Iac compared to ()7
Iac system.
2ur current is hal! o! what it was with the simple parallel circuit/ which is a great impro.ement. *e
could get away with using number ) gage copper wire at a total mass o! about 677 pounds/
%:
ri
t i
%
i
% i
!iguring about )77 pounds per thousand !eet with three runs o! (777 !eet each between source
and loads. Lowe.er/ we also ha.e to consider the increased sa!ety haMard o! ha.ing );7 .olts
present in the system/ e.en though each load only recei.es ()7 .olts. 2.erall/ there is greater
potential !or dangerous electric shock to occur.
*hen we contrast these two e+amples against our three$phase system Digure abo.eE/ the
ad.antages are quite clear. irst/ the conductor currents are quite a bit less DB3.33 amps .ersus
()= or )=7 ampsE/ permitting the use o! much thinner and lighter wire. *e can use number ;
gage wire at about ()= pounds per thousand !eet/ which will total =77 pounds D!our runs o! (777
!eet eachE !or our e+ample circuit. This represents a signi!icant cost sa.ings o.er the split$phase
system/ with the additional bene!it that the ma+imum .oltage in the system is lower D)7B .ersus
);7E.
2ne question remains to be answeredH how in the world do we get three "& .oltage sources
whose phase angles are e+actly ()7a apart? 2b.iously we can5t center$tap a trans!ormer or
alternator winding like we did in the split$phase system/ since that can only gi.e us .oltage
wa.e!orms that are either in phase or (B7a out o! phase. #erhaps we could !igure out some way to
use capacitors and inductors to create phase shi!ts o! ()7a/ but then those phase shi!ts would
depend on the phase angles o! our load impedances as well Dsubstituting a capaciti.e or
inducti.e load !or a resisti.e load would change e.erything9E.
The best way to get the phase shi!ts we5re looking !or is to generate it at the sourceH construct the
"& generator DalternatorE pro.iding the power in such a way that the rotating magnetic !ield passes
by three sets o! wire windings/ each set spaced ()7a apart around the circum!erence o! the
machine as in igure (3.33.
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H.:
Three !hase alternator Db,E
*ingle$!hase alternator DaE
winding winding
lb
! .
winding winding
)a 3a
winding
winding
3b
igure (3.33 $ DaE Single$phase alternator/ DbE Three$phase alternator.
Together/ the si+ 1pole1 windings o! a three$phase alternator are connected to comprise three
winding pairs/ each pair producing "& .oltage with a phase angle ()77 shi!ted !rom either o! the
other two winding pairs. The interconnections between pairs o! windings Das shown !or the
single$phase alternatorH the 3umper wire between windings ( a and ( bE ha.e been omitted !rom the
three$phase alternator drawing !or simplicity.
In our e+ample circuit/ we showed the three .oltage sources connected together in a 1P1
con!iguration Dsometimes called the 1star1 con!igurationE/ with one lead o! each source tied to a
n
common point Dthe node where we attached the 1neutral1 conductorE. The common way to
depict this connection scheme is to draw the windings in the shape o! a 1P1 like igure (3.3;.
7
$
;5 ()7I
igure (3.3; $ "lternator 1P1 con!iguration.
The 1P1 con!iguration is not the only option open to us/ but it is probably the easiest to
understand at !irst. More to come on this sub3ect later in the chapter.
n
(3$3)
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#hase @otation
%et5s take the three$phase alternator design laid out earlier Digure (3.3=E and watch what
happens as the magnet rotates.
winding winding
%
&..t
I
)a 3a
ran r 5
w i ing
b
wi;(ding
igure (3.3= $ Three$phase alternator
The phase angle shi!t o! ()7a is a !unction o! the actual rotational angle shi!t o! the three pairs o!
windings Digure (3.36E. I! the magnet is rotating clockwise/ winding 3 will generate its peak
instantaneous .oltage e+actly ()7a Do! alternator sha!t rotationE a!ter winding )/ which will hits its
peak ()7a a!ter winding (. The magnet passes by each pole pair at di!!erent positions in the
rotational mo.ement o! the sha!t. *here we decide to place the windings will dictate the amount o!
phase shi!t between the windings5 "& .oltage wa.e!orms. I! we make winding ( our
1re!erence1 .oltage source !or phase angle D7aE/ then winding ) will ha.e a phase angle o! $()7a
D()7a lagging/ or );7a leadingE and winding 3 an angle o! $);7a Dor ()7a leadingE.
This sequence o! phase shi!ts has a de!inite order. or clockwise rotation o! the sha!t/ the order is ($
)$3 Dwinding ( peaks !irst/ them winding )/ then winding 3E. This order keeps repeating itsel!
as long as we continue to rotate the alternator5s sha!t..
phase sequenceH
( $)$3$( $)$3$( $)$3
( ) 3
TIME $ $
igure (3.)6 $ &lockwise rotation phase sequenceH ($)$3
Lowe.er/ i! we re.erse the rotation o! the alternator5s sha!t Dturn it counter$clockwiseE/ the magnet
will pass by the pole pairs in the opposite sequence. Instead o! ($)$3/ we5ll ha.e 3$)$(. Gow/
winding )5s wa.e!orm will be leading ()7a ahead o! ( instead o! lagging/ and 3 will be another ()7a
ahead o! ).
(3$33
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phase sequence$
3 $ ) $ ( $ 3 $ ) $ ( $ 3$ )$ (
3 ) (
TIME
igure (3.38 $ "nticlockwise rotation phase sequenceH 3$)$(.
The order o! .oltage wa.e!orm sequences in a polyphase system is called phase rotation or
phase sequence. I! we5re using a polyphase .oltage source to power resisti.e loads/ phase
rotation will make no di!!erence at all. *hether ($)$3 or 3$)$(/ the .oltage and current
magnitudes will all be the same. There are some applications o! three$phase power/ that
depend on ha.ing phase rotation being one way or the other.
*e5.e in.estigated how phase rotation is produced Dthe order in which pole pairs get passed by the
alternator5s rotating magnetE and how it can be changed by re.ersing the alternator5s sha!t rotation.
Lowe.er/ re.ersal o! the alternator5s sha!t rotation is not usually an option open to an end$user o!
electrical power supplied by a nationwide grid D1the1 alternator actually being the
combined total o! all alternators in all power plants !eeding the gridE. There is a much easier way to
re.erse phase sequence than re.ersing alternator rotationH 3ust e+change any two o! the
three 1hot1 wires going to a three$phase load.
This trick makes more sense i! we take another look at a running phase sequence o! a
threephase .oltage sourceH
($)$3 rotationH ($)$3$($)$3$($)$3$($)$3$($)$3 ...
3$)$(
rotationH
3$)$($3$)$($3$)$($3$)$($3$)$(
*hat is commonly designated as a 1($)$31 phase rotation could 3ust as well be called 1)$3$(1 or
13$($)/1 going !rom le!t to right in the number string abo.e. %ikewise/ the opposite rotation D3$)$
(E could 3ust as easily be called 1)$($31 or 1($3$).1
Starting out with a phase rotation o! 3$)$(/ we can try all the possibilities !or swapping any two o!
the wires at a time and see what happens to the resulting sequence in igure below.
(3$3;
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2riginal ($)$3
phase rotation
(
,
)
3
(
End result
3
(
Dwires ( and ) swappedE
phase rotation R )$($3
Dwires ) and 3 swappedE
phase rotation R ($3$)
Dwires ( and 3 swappedE
phase rotation R 3$)$(
igure (3.3B $ "ll possibilities o! swapping any two wires.
Go matter which pair o! 1hot1 wires out o! the three we choose to swap/ the phase rotation ends up
being re.ersed D($)$3 gets changed to )$($3/ ($3$) or 3$)$(/ all equi.alentE.
% i
Three$#hase P and " &on!igurations
Initially we e+plored the idea o! three$phase power systems by connecting three .oltage
sources together in what is commonly known as the 1P1 Dor 1star1E con!iguration. This
con!iguration o! .oltage sources is characteriMed by a common connection point 3oining one side o!
each source.
()7.
7a
()7 .

% ()7a
,L ,
D igure (3.3C $ Three$phase 1P1 connection has three .oltage sources connected to a common
%i
point.
Module 3.(3 "& Theory
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I! we draw a circuit showing each .oltage source to be a coil o! wire Dalternator or trans!ormer
windingE and do some slight rearranging/ the 1P1 con!iguration becomes more ob.ious in
igure(3.;7.
;line,;
;lureS
;neutral;
;Tne;
igure (3.;7 $ Three$phase/ !our$wire 1P1 connection uses a 1common1 !ourth wire.
The three conductors leading away !rom the .oltage sources DwindingsE toward a load are
typically called lines/ while the windings themsel.es are typically called phases. In a P$
connected system/ there may or may not be a neutral wire attached at the 3unction point in the
middle/ although it certainly helps alle.iate potential problems should one element o! a three$
phase load !ail open/ as discussed earlier.
U$!hase, U$wire ;V; connection
9lineo!
;Tne;
Eno ;neutral; wireC
1line1
igure (3.;( $ Three$phase/ three$wire 1P1 connection does not use the neutral wire.
*hen we measure .oltage and current in three$phase systems/ we need to be speci!ic as to
where we5re measuring. %ine .oltage re!ers to the amount o! .oltage measured between any two
line conductors in a balanced three$phase system. *ith the abo.e circuit/ the line .oltage is
roughly )7B .olts. #hase .oltage re!ers to the .oltage measured across any one component
Dsource winding or load impedanceE in a balanced three$phase source or load. or the circuit
shown abo.e/ the phase .oltage is ()7 .olts. The terms line current and phase current !ollow the
same logicH the !ormer re!erring to current through any one line conductor/ and the latter to current
through any one component.
(3$36 Module 3.(3 "& Theory
$(
n
(
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P$connected sources and loads always ha.e line .oltages greater than phase .oltages/ and line
currents equal to phase currents. I! the P$connected source or load is balanced/ the line .oltage
will be equal to the phase .oltage times the square root o! 3H
Jor ;V; circuits2
Elilte
lEi ne
3 EE/l/ase
F.
lph Ise
Lowe.er/ the 1P1 con!iguration is not the only .alid one !or connecting three$phase .oltage
%i
source or load elements together. "nother con!iguration is known as the 1Delta/1 !or its
geometric resemblance to the <reek letter o! the same name D"E. Take close notice o! the
polarity !or each winding in igure below.
,lineS
,W
line,W
%i
Sliner,
igure (3.;) $ Three$phase/ three$wire " connection has no common.
"t !irst glance it seems as though three .oltage sources like this would create a short$circuit/
electrons !lowing around the triangle with nothing but the internal impedance o! the windings to
hold them back. Due to the phase angles o! these three .oltage sources/ howe.er/ this is not
the case.
2ne quick check o! this is to use 0irchho!!4s Ioltage %aw to see i! the three .oltages around the
loop add up to Mero. I! they do/ then there will be no .oltage a.ailable to push current around and
around that loop/ and consequently there will be no circulating current. Starting with the top winding
and progressing counter$clockwise/ our 0I% e+pression looks something like thisH
D()7I %7:EWD()7I L );7aEWD()7I L ()7aE
0oes it all e<ual : X
Ves Y
Indeed/ i! we add these three .ector quantities together/ they do add up to Mero. "nother way to
.eri!y the !act that these three .oltage sources can be connected together in a loop without
(3$38
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resulting in circulating currents is to open up the loop at one 3unction point and calculate .oltage
across the break.
.$
Elreak should equal 7 I
igure (3.;3 $ Ioltage across open 7 should be Mero.
Starting with the right winding D()7 I Z ()7aE and progressing counter$clockwise/ our 0I%
equation looks like thisH
D()7 I % ()7aE W D()7 % 7aE W D()7 I % );7aE W E%/renlH R 7
7WEr!e!IR7
Erleok R 7
Sure enough/ there will be Mero .oltage across the break/ telling us that no current will circulate
within the triangular loop o! windings when that connection is made complete.
La.ing established that a "$connected three$phase .oltage source will not burn itsel! to a crisp
due to circulating currents/ we turn to its practical use as a source o! power in three$phase
circuits. 'ecause each pair o! line conductors is connected directly across a single winding in a
" circuit/ the line .oltage will be equal to the phase .oltage. &on.ersely/ because each line
conductor attaches at a node between two windings/ the line current will be the .ector sum o!
the two 3oining phase currents. Got surprisingly/ the resulting equations !or a 7 con!iguration are
as !ollowsH
Jord E;delta9C circuits2
Eliite R Ephyse
Aline RFTA 3
5p:i se
%et5s see how this works in an e+ample circuitH Digure (3/;;E
(3$3B
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r5
%)7 I
,
% );77 4D 5P V ()71 %2 k* ;$ s5 %7 M
igure (3.;; $ The load on the " source is wired in a ".
*ith each load resistance recei.ing ()7 .olts !rom its respecti.e phase winding at the source/ the
current in each phase o! this circuit will be B3.33 ampsH
(R #
E
(7k*
(R
()7 I
(R B3.3 3 " Efor each load resistor and source windingC
5line R I 3 5phase
5line
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ki
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3 DB3.33 "E
(lilia R (;;.3; "
So each line current in this three$phase power system is equal to (;;.3; amps/ which is
substantially more than the line currents in the P$connected system we looked at earlier. 2ne
might wonder i! we5.e lost all the ad.antages o! three$phase power here/ gi.en the !act that we
ha.e such greater conductor currents/ necessitating thicker/ more costly wire. The answer is no.
"lthough this circuit would require three number ( gage copper conductors Dat (777 !eet o!
distance between source and load this equates to a little o.er 8=7 pounds o! copper !or the
whole systemE/ it is still less than the (777W pounds o! copper required !or a single$phase
system deli.ering the same power D37 k*E at the same .oltage D()7 .olts conductor$to$
conductorE.
2ne distinct ad.antage o! a "$connected system is its lack o! a neutral wire. *ith a P$
connected system/ a neutral wire was needed in case one o! the phase loads were to !ail open
Dor be turned o!!E/ in order to keep the phase .oltages at the load !rom changing. This is not
necessary Dor e.en possible9E in a "$connected circuit. *ith each load phase element directly
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connected across a respecti.e source phase winding/ the phase .oltage will be constant
regardless o! open !ailures in the load elements.
#erhaps the greatest ad.antage o! the "$connected source is its !ault tolerance. It is possible !or
one o! the windings in a "$connected three$phase source to !ail open without a!!ecting load
.oltage or current9
igure (3.;= $ E.en with a source winding !ailure/ the line .oltage is still ()7 I/ and load phase
.oltage is still
()7 I. The only di!!erence is e+tra current in the remaining !unctional source
windings.
The only consequence o! a source winding !ailing open !or a "$connected source is increased
phase current in the remaining windings. &ompare this !ault tolerance with a P$connected system
su!!ering an open source winding in igure below.
igure (3.;6 $ 2pen 1P1 source winding hal.es the .oltage on two loads o! a " connected load.
*ith a "$connected load/ two o! the resistances su!!er reduced .oltage while one remains at the
original line .oltage/ )7B. " P$connected load su!!ers an e.en worse !ate Digure belowE with the
same winding !ailure in a P$connected source.
!
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%)7 I %)7 I
% 7a F % ()77
winding
!ailed open9
%7; I 4k "$ %7F( I
r
7
igure (3.;8 $ 2pen source winding o! a 1P$P1 system hal.es the .oltage on two loads/ and
looses one load entirely.
In this case/ two load resistances su!!er reduced .oltage while the third loses supply .oltage
completely9 or this reason/ "$connected sources are pre!erred !or reliability. Lowe.er/ i! dual
.oltages are needed De.g. ()7A)7BE or pre!erred !or lower line currents/ P$connected systems are
the con!iguration o! choice.
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3.(; @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and
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Table o! &ontents
Module 3.(; @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
=
Inducti.e and &apaciti.e @eactance
=
@eactance/ Impedance and #ower @elationships in "& &ircuits
()
2hms %aw !or "&
(B
#ower in "& &ircuits
)7
#ower actor
)6
Series @%& &ircuits )C
#arallel @%& &ircuits
3)
@esonant &ircuits
3C
(
%
Module 3.(; @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
(;$3
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Module 3.(; Enabling 2b3ecti.es
2b3ecti.e
E"S" 66 @e!erence%e.el
@esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits 3.(; )
#hase relationship o! .oltage and current in %/ & and @
circuits/ parallel/ series and series parallel
#ower dissipation in %/ & and @ circuits
Impedance/ phase angle/ power !actor and current
calculations
True power/ apparent power and reacti.e power
calculations
(;$; Module 3.(; @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
TTS Integrated Training System
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,se andAor disclosure is
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TTS Integrated Training System
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter/
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Module 3.(; @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and
Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
Inducti.e and &apaciti.e @eactance
Pou ha.e already learned how inductance and capacitance indi.idually beha.e in a direct
current circuit. In this chapter you will be shown how inductance/ capacitance/ and resistance
a!!ect alternating current.
Inductance and "lternating &urrent
This might be a good place to recall what you learned about phase in chapter (. *hen two things
are in step/ going through a cycle together/ !alling together and rising together/ they are in phase.
*hen they are out o! phase/ the angle o! lead or lag$the number o! electrical degrees by which
one o! the .alues leads or lags the other$is a measure o! the amount they are out o! step. The time
it takes the current in an inductor to build up to ma+imum and to !all to Mero is important !or another
reason. It helps illustrate a .ery use!ul characteristic o! inducti.e circuits$
the current through the inductor always lags the .oltage across the inductor.
" circuit ha.ing pure resistance Di! such a thing were possibleE would ha.e the alternating
current through it and the .oltage across it rising and !ailing together. This is illustrated in igure
(;.( D"E/ which shows the sine wa.es !or current and .oltage in a purely resisti.e circuit ha.ing
an "& source. The current and .oltage do not ha.e the same amplitude/ but they are in phase. In
the case o! a circuit ha.ing inductance/ the opposing !orce o! the back$EM would be enough to
keep the current !rom remaining in phase with the applied .oltage. Pou learned that in a dc circuit
containing pure inductance the current took time to rise to ma+imum e.en though the !ull applied
.oltage was immediately at ma+imum. igure (;.( D'E shows the wa.e !orms !or a purely inducti.e
"& circuit in steps o! quarter$cycles.
Module 3.(; @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
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D"E
(
(
; &P&%E
&P&%E
a&P&%E
8
l !
7a C7a D
c7a )875
3=7a
igure (;.( $ Ioltage and current wa.e!orms in an inducti.e circuit.
*ith an "& .oltage/ in the !irst quarter$cycle D7a to C7C the applied "& .oltage is continually
increasing. I! there was no inductance in the circuit/ the current would also increase during this
!irst quarter$cycle. Pou know this circuit does ha.e inductance. Since inductance opposes any
change in current !low/ no current !lows during the !irst quarter$cycle. In the ne+t quarter$cycle
DC7ato (B7C the .oltage decreases back to MeroK c urrent begins to !low in the circuit and
reaches a ma+imum .alue at the same instant the .oltage reaches Mero. The applied .oltage
now begins to build up to ma+imum in the other direction/ to be !ollowed by the resulting current.
*hen the .oltage again reaches its ma+imum at the end o! the third quarter$cycle D)87C all
.alues are e+actly opposite to what they were during the !irst hal!$cycle. The applied .oltage
leads the resulting current by one quarter$cycle or C7 degrees. To complete the !ull 367acycle
o! the .oltage/ the .oltage again decreases to Mero and the current builds to a ma+imum .alue.
Pou must not get the idea that any o! these .alues stops cold at a particular instant. ,ntil the
applied .oltage is remo.ed/ both current and .oltage are always changing in amplitude and
direction.
(;$6 Module 3.(;
@esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
,se andAor
disclosure is go.erned by the statement
,S Integrated Training System
Drl D4nn.rinht C((( r(
TTS Integrated Training System
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on page ) o! this &hapter.
I9
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"s you know the sine wa.e can be compared to a circle. :ust as you mark o!! a circle into 367
degrees/ you can mark o!! the time o! one cycle o! a sine wa.e into 367 electrical degrees. This
relationship is shown in igure (;.). 'y re!erring to this !igure you can see why the current is
said to lag the .oltage/ in a purely inducti.e circuit/ by C7 degrees. urthermore/ by re!erring to
!igures 8$) and 8$( D"E you can see why the current and .oltage are said to be in phase in a
purely resisti.e circuit. In a circuit ha.ing both resistance and inductance then/ as you would
e+pect/ the current lags the .oltage by an amount somewhere between 7 and C7 degrees.
C7a (B71 )877 367a
goo
)877
igure (;.) $ &omparison o! sine wa.e and circle in an inducti.e circuit.
" simple memory aid to help you remember the relationship o! .oltage and current in an inducti.e
circuit is the word II%. Since I is DsometimesE the symbol !or .oltage/ % is the symbol !or
inductance/ and I is the symbol !or currentK the word II% demonstrates that current comes a!ter
DlagsE .oltage in an inductor.
Module 3.(; @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
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Inducti.e @eactance
*hen the current !lowing through an inductor continuously re.erses itsel!/ as in the case o! an "&
source/ the inertia e!!ect o! the back$EM is greater than with dc. The greater the amount o!
inductance D%E/ the greater the opposition !rom this inertia e!!ect. "lso/ the !aster the re.ersal o!
current/ the greater this inertial opposition. This opposing !orce which an inductor presents to the
%2* o! alternating current cannot be called resistance/ since it is not the result o! !riction within
a conductor. The name gi.en to it is inducti.e reactance because it is the 1reaction1 o! the
inductor to the changing .alue o! alternating current. Inducti.e reactance is measured in
ohms and its symbol is U%.
"s you know/ the induced .oltage in a conductor is proportional to the rate at which magnetic lines
o! !orce cut the conductor. The greater the rate Dthe higher the !requencyE/ the greater the back$
EM. "lso/ the induced .oltage increases with an increase in inductanceK the more
ampere$turns/ the greater the back$EM. @eactance/ then/ increases with an increase o!
!requency and with an increase o! inductance. The !ormula !or inducti.e reactance is as !ollowsH
U% R )?!%
Iher eH
U% is inducti.e reactance in ohms.
) + is a constant in which the 2r eekletter /
called 1pi1 r epr e s ents 3.(;(6 and ) + r F
6.)B appro+imately/
! is !requency o! the alternating current in LM/
n
% is inductance in henrys.
The !ollowing e+ample problem illustrates the computation o! U%.
<i.enH ! R 67 LM
%R)7L
Solution/U % R ) r!%
U% R6)B+67 LM+)7L
U % R 8/=36 S
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(;$B Module 3.(;
@esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
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%
&apacitors and "lternating &urrent
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The !our parts o! igure (;.3 show the .ariation o! the alternating .oltage and current in a
capaciti.e circuit/ !or each quarter o! one cycle. The solid line represents the .oltage across the
capacitor/ and the dotted line represents the current. The line running through the centre is the
Mero/ or re!erence point/ !or both the .oltage and the current. The bottom line marks o!! the time o!
the cycle in terms o! electrical degrees. "ssume that the "& .oltage has been acting on the
capacitor !or some time be!ore the time represented by the starting point o! the sine wa.e in the
!igure.
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DDE
igure (;.3 $ #hase relationship o! .oltage and current in a capaciti.e circuit.
"t the beginning o! the !irst quarter$cycle D7ato
C7C the .oltage has 3ust passed through Mero and
is increasing in the positi.e direction. Since the Mero point is the steepest part o! the sine wa.e/ the
.oltage is changing at its greatest rate. The charge on a capacitor .aries directly with
the .oltage/ and there!ore the charge on the capacitor is also changing at its greatest rate at the
%i
beginning o! the !irst quarter$cycle. In other words/ the greatest number o! electrons is mo.ing
o!! one plate and onto the other plate. Thus the capacitor current is at its ma+imum .alue/ as
part D"E o! the !igure shows.
"s the .oltage proceeds toward ma+imum at C7 degrees/ its rate o! change becomes less and
less/ hence the current must decrease toward Mero. "t C7 degrees the .oltage across the
capacitor is ma+imum/ the capacitor is !ully charged/ and there is no !urther mo.ement o!
electrons !rom plate to plate. That is why the current at C7 degrees is Mero.
"t the end o! this !irst quarter$cycle the alternating .oltage stops increasing in the positi.e
direction and starts to decrease. It is still a positi.e .oltage/ but to the capacitor the decrease in
.oltage means that the plate which has 3ust accumulated an e+cess o! electrons must lose
some electrons. The current !low/ there!ore/ must re.erse its direction. #art D'E o! the !igure
Module 3.(; @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
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shows the current cur.e to be below the Mero line Dnegati.e current directionE during the second
quarter$cycle DC7ato (B7C.
"t (B7 degrees the .oltage has dropped to Mero. This means that !or a brie! instant the
electrons are equally distributed between the two platesK the current is ma+imum because the
rate o! change o! .oltage is ma+imum. :ust a!ter (B7 degrees the .oltage has re.ersed polarity
and starts building up its ma+imum negati.e peak which is reached at the end o! the third
quarter$cycle D(B7ato )87E. During this third qua rter$cycle the rate o! .oltage change gradually
decreases as the charge builds to a ma+imum at )87 degrees. "t this point the capacitor is !ully
charged and it carries the !ull impressed .oltage. 'ecause the capacitor is !ully charged there is
no !urther e+change o! electronsK there!ore/ the current !low is Mero at this point. The conditions
are e+actly the same as at the end o! the !irst quarter$cycle DC7C but the polarity is re.ersed.
:ust a!ter )87 degrees the impressed .oltage once again starts to decrease/ and the capacitor
must lose electrons !rom the negati.e plate. It must discharge/ starting at a minimum rate o!
!low and rising to a ma+imum. This discharging action continues through the last quarter$cycle
D)87ato 367E until the impressed$.oltage has reac hed Mero. "t 367 degrees you are back at the
beginning o! the entire cycle/ and e.erything starts o.er again.
I! you e+amine the complete .oltage and current cur.es in part D/ you will see that the current
always arri.es at a certain point in the cycle C7 degrees ahead o! the .oltage/ because o! the
charging and discharging action. Pou know that this time and place relationship between the
current and .oltage is called the phase relationship. The .oltage$current phase relationship in a
capaciti.e circuit is e+actly opposite to that in an inducti.e circuit. The current o! a capacitor
leads the .oltage across the capacitor by C7 degrees.
Pou realiMe that the current and .oltage are both going through their indi.idual cycles at the
same time during the period the "& .oltage is impressed. The current does not go through part o!
its cycle Dcharging or dischargingE/ stop/ and wait !or the .oltage to catch up. The amplitude and
polarity o! the .oltage and the amplitude and direction o! the current are continually
changing. Their positions with respect to each other and to the Mero line at any electrical instant$
any degree between Mero and 367 degrees$can be seen by reading upwards !rom the time$
degree line. The current swing !rom the positi.e peak at Mero degrees to the negati.e peak at (B7
degrees is G2T a measure o! the number o! electrons/ or the charge on the plates. It is a picture
o! the direction and strength o! the current in relation to the polarity and strength o! the .oltage
appearing across the plates.
"t times it is con.enient to use the word 1&II1 to recall to mind the phase relationship o! the
current and .oltage in capaciti.e circuits. I is the symbol !or current/ and in the word &II it
leads/ or comes be!ore/ the symbol !or .oltage/ I. &/ o! course/ stands !or capacitor. This
memory aid is similar to the 1II%1 used to remember the current and .oltage relationship in an
inductor. The word 1&III%1 is help!ul in remembering the phase relationship in both the inductor
and capacitor.
Since the plates o! the capacitor are changing polarity at the same rate as the "& .oltage/ the
capacitor seems to pass an alternating current. "ctually/ the electrons do not pass through the
dielectric/ but their rushing back and !orth !rom plate to plate causes a current !low in the circuit.
It is con.enient/ howe.er/ to say that the alternating current !lows 1through1 the capacitor. Pou
know this is not true/ but the e+pression a.oids a lot o! trouble when speaking o! current !low in
a circuit containing a capacitor. 'y the same short cut/ you may say that the capacitor does not
(;$(7 Module 3.(; @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
I
n
:
! l
! l
use andAor disclosure is
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TTS Integrated Training System
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pass a direct current Di! both plates are connected to a dc source/ current will !low only long
%i
%i
s
%
enough to charge the capacitorE. *ith a capacitor type o! hook$up in a circuit containing both
"& and dc/ only the "& will be 1passed1 on to another circuit.
Pou ha.e now learned two things to remember about a capacitorH " capacitor will appear to
conduct an alternating current and a capacitor will not conduct a direct current.
&apaciti.e @eactance
So !ar you ha.e been dealing with the capacitor as a de.ice which passes "& and in which the
only opposition to the alternating current has been the normal circuit resistance present in any
conductor. Lowe.er/ capacitors themsel.es o!!er a .ery real opposition to current !low. This
opposition arises !rom the !act that/ at a gi.en .oltage and !requency/ the number o! electrons
which go back and !orth !rom plate to plate is limited by the storage ability$that is/ the capacitance$
o! the capacitor. "s the capacitance is increased/ a greater number o! electrons change plates
e.ery cycle/ and Dsince current is a measure o! the number o! electrons passing a gi.en point in a
gi.en timeE the current is increased.
Increasing the !requency will also decrease the opposition o!!ered by a capacitor. This occurs
because the number o! electrons which the capacitor is capable o! handling at a gi.en .oltage will
change plates more o!ten. "s a result/ more electrons will pass a gi.en point in a gi.en time Dgreater
current !lowE. The opposition which a capacitor o!!ers to "& is there!ore in.ersely
proportional to !requency and to capacitance. This opposition is called capaciti.e reactance.
Pou may say that capaciti.e reactance decreases with increasing !requency or/ !or a gi.en
!requency/ the capaciti.e reactance decreases with increasing capacitance. The symbol !or
capaciti.e reactance is Uc.
Gow you can understand why it is said that the Uc .aries in.ersely with the product o! the
!requency and capacitance. The !ormula isH
(
U&R
).!&
*hereH Uc is capaciti.e reactance in ohms ! is !requency in LertM & is capacitance in !arads
is 6.)B D) U 3.(;(6E The !ollowing e+ample problem illustrates the computation o! U c.
<i.enH
SolutionH
!R(77 LM
&R S2g
(
)8&!&
(
Uc
Uc
6/)B + (77 LM + =7/a
(
R/73(;7
U& R3(.BC or 3)S
Module 3.(; @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
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@eactance/ Impedance and #ower @elationships in "& &ircuits
,p to this point inductance and capacitance ha.e been e+plained indi.idually in "& circuits. The
rest o! this chapter will concern the combination o! inductance/ capacitance/ and resistance in
"& circuits.
To e+plain the .arious properties that e+ist within "& circuits/ the series @%& circuit will be
used. igure (;.; is the schematic diagram o! the series @%& circuit. The symbol shown in
igure (;.; that is marked E is the general symbol used to indicate an "& .oltage source.
igure (;.; $ Series @%& circuit.
8
@eactance
The e!!ect o! inducti.e reactance is to cause the current to lag the .oltage/ while that o!
capaciti.e reactance is to cause the current to lead the .oltage. There!ore/ since inducti.e
reactance and capaciti.e reactance are e+actly opposite in their e!!ects/ what will be the result
when the two are combined? It is not hard to see that the net e!!ect is a tendency to cancel each
other/ with the combined e!!ect then equal to the di!!erence between their .alues. This resultant
is called reactanceK it is represented by the symbol UK and e+pressed by the equation U R U%$
Uc or U R Uc $ U %. Thus/ i! a circuit contains =7 ohms o! inducti.e reactance and )= ohms o!
capaciti.e reactance in series/ the net reactance/ or U/ is =7 ohms $ )= ohms/ or )= ohms o!
inducti.e reactance.
or a practical e+ample/ suppose you ha.e a circuit containing an inductor o! (77 pL in series
with a capacitor o! 7.77( p/ and operating at a !requency o! ; MLM. *hat is the .alue o! net
reactance/ or U?
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,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
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6 &opyright )7(7
Integrated Training System
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,i
L
<i.enH !R;MLM
% R(77.L
& R.77( ".
Solution/ U% R ) !%
U% R6.)7+;MLM+(77p.L
U% R)=()=
(
U&R
)M!&
U&R
F
U&
(
6/)B + ; l.MLM + .77( 3
(
7)=()
U&R3C.B=
URU%$U&
UR)=()=$3C.B=
U R );8).) S Dinducti.eE
%
Gow assume you ha.e a circuit containing a (77pL inductor in series with
capacitor/ and operating at a !requency o! ( MLM. *hat is the .alue o! the
this case?
<i.enH ! R( M LM
% R(77.L
&R.777) .J
SolutionK U% R ) !%.
U% R6.)B + (MLM + (77piL
U% R6)B=
(
UTi&
(
a 7.777)p
resultant reactance in
U&R
U
6.)B + (MLM + .777)p
I
& 77()=6
Uc 8C67
URU&$U%
UR8C6=$6)B=
U R (6B S Dcapaciti.eE
Module 3.(; @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
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Pou will notice that in this case the inducti.e reactance is smaller than the capaciti.e reactance
and is there!ore subtracted !rom the capaciti.e reactance.
These two e+amples ser.e to illustrate an important pointH when capaciti.e and inducti.e
reactance are combined in series/ the smaller is always subtracted !rom the larger and the
resultant reactance always takes the characteristics o! the larger.
Impedance
rom your study o! inductance and capacitance you know how inducti.e reactance and
capaciti.e reactance act to oppose the !low o! current in an "& circuit. Lowe.er/ there is
another !actor/ the resistance/ which also opposes the !low o! the current. Since in practice "&
circuits containing reactance also contain resistance/ the two combine to oppose the !low o!
current. This combined opposition by the resistance and the reactance is called the impedance/
and is represented by the symbol V.
Since the .alues o! resistance and reactance are both gi.en in ohms/ it might at !irst seem
possible to determine the .alue o! the impedance by simply adding them together. It cannot be
done so easily/ howe.er. Pou know that in an "& circuit which contains only resistance/ the current
and the .oltage will be in step Dthat is/ in phaseE/ and will reach their ma+imum .alues at the same
instant. Pou also know that in an "& circuit containing only reactance the current will either lead or
lag the .oltage by one$quarter o! a cycle or C7 degrees. There!ore/ the .oltage in a purely reacti.e
circuit will di!!er in phase by C7 degrees !rom that in a purely resisti.e circuit and !or this reason
reactance and resistance are rot combined by simply adding them.
*hen reactance and resistance are combined/ the .alue o! the impedance will be greater than
either. It is also true that the current will not be in step with the .oltage nor will it di!!er in phase by
e+actly C7 degrees !rom the .oltage/ but it will be somewhere between the in$step and the C7$
degree out$o!$step conditions. The larger the reactance compared with the resistance/ the more
nearly the phase di!!erence will approach C7a The larger the resistance compared to the
reactance/ the more nearly the phase di!!erence will approach Mero degrees.
I! the .alue o! resistance and reactance cannot simply be added together to !ind the impedance/
or V/ how is it determined? 'ecause the current through a resistor is in step with the .oltage
across it and the current in a reactance di!!ers by C7 degrees !rom the .oltage across it/ the two
:
are at right angles to each other. They can there!ore be combined by means o! the same
method used in the construction o! a right$angle triangle.
"ssume you want to !ind the impedance o! a series combination o! B ohms resistance and =
ohms inducti.e reactance. Start by drawing a horiMontal line/ @/ representing B ohms resistance/
as the base o! the triangle. Then/ since the e!!ect o! the reactance is always at right angles/ or
C7 degrees/ to that o! the resistance/ draw the line U%/ representing = ohms inducti.e reactance/
as the altitude o! the triangle. This is shown in igure (;.=. Gow/ complete the hypotenuse
n
Dlongest sideE o! the triangle. Then/ the hypotenuse represents the impedance o! the circuit.
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r$55
b
@RB2LMS
igure (;.= $ Iector diagram showing relationship o! resistance/ inducti.e reactance/ and
impedance in a series circuit.
2ne o! the properties o! a right triangle isH
DhypotenuseE) R DbaseE) WDaltitudeE )
or/
hypotenuse
DbaseE) WDaltitudeE)
II
N$$(
%
%i
(
%
% :
"pplied to impedance/ this becomes/
DimpedanceE ) R Dr esis tan ceE ) WDr eactan ceE)
or/
impedance R Dresistance ) WDreactanceE)
or/
M R @)WU)
Gow suppose you apply this equation to check your results in the e+ample gi.en abo.e.
<i.enH @ R C S
U%R=S)
SolutionH VR @ ) U U % )
VR D E) WDSS M
V 6;W)=)
V R BC S DSee the "ppendi+ III
!or a square @oot
V RC.;S TableE
*hen you ha.e a capaciti.e reactance to deal with instead o! inducti.e reactance as in the
pre.ious e+ample/ it is customary to draw the line representing the capaciti.e reactance in a
downward direction. This is shown in igure (;.6. The line is drawn downward !or capaciti.e
reactance to indicate that it acts in a direction opposite to inducti.e reactance which is drawn
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upward. In a series circuit containing capaciti.e reactance the equation !or !inding the
impedance becomesH
V
W
@ R.B 2LMS
5b.1
lUcR = 2LMS
igure (;.6 $ Iector diagram showing relationship o! resistance/ capaciti.e reactance/ and
impedance in a series circuit.
In many series circuits you will !ind resistance combined with both inducti.e reactance and
capaciti.e reactance. Since you know that the .alue o! the reactance/ U/ is equal to the
di!!erence between the .alues o! the inducti.e reactance/ U%/ and the capaciti.e reactance/ Uc/ the
equation !or the impedance in a series circuit containing @/ U%/ and Uc then becomesH
VR @)WDU%$UcE)
or/
V R @) W U)
DGoteH The !ormulas V R @) W U%)/
VR @)WUc)/ and VR @ W WU) canoe
usedto calculate V onlyi! the resistance and
reactance are connected in series.E
In igure (;.8 you will see the method which may be used to determine the impedance in a
series circuit consisting o! resistance/ inductance/ and capacitance.
l
8
(;$(6
Module 3.(;
@esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
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TTS Integrated Training System
nn ..one 2..i/h &h nle.
Dt3
Dnn/rinht
C::
TTS Integrated Training System
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6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
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,
igure (;.8 $ Iector diagram showing relationship o! resistance/ reactance Dcapaciti.e and
inducti.eE/ and impedance in a series circuit.
%
%i
(
u
r. /
,
r /
"ssume that (7 ohms inducti.e reactance and )7 ohms capaciti.e reactance are connected in
series with ;7 ohms resistance. %et the horiMontal line represent the resistance @. The line
drawn upward !rom the end o! @/ represents the inducti.e reactance/ U%. @epresent the
capaciti.e reactance by a line drawn downward at right angles !rom the same end o! @. The
resultant o! U% and Uc is !ound by subtracting U% !rom Uc. This resultant represents the .alue o!
U.
ThusH
URU& $ U%
U R(7 ohms
The line/ V/ will then represent the resultant o! @ and U. The .alue o! V can be calculated as
!ollowsH
<i.enH U% R(7 n
U&R)7 7
@R;7 7
SolutionH U R U
c
$ U %
UR)7S $ (7=
UR(77
VR WUV
V R D;7= ) W D(7 =) E
V R (677 W (77 7
V (8 7 77
VR;(.)7
Module 3.(; @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
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2hms %aw !or "&
In general/ 2hm5s law cannot be applied to alternating$current circuits since it does not consider
the reactance which is always present in such circuits. Lowe.er/ by a modi!ication o! 2hm5s law
which does take into consideration the e!!ect o! reactance we obtain a general law which is
applicable to "& circuits. 'ecause the impedance/ V/ represents the combined opposition o! all
the reactances and resistances/ this general law !or "& is/
E
8
This general modi!ication applies to alternating current !lowing in any circuit/ and any one o! the
.alues may be !ound !rom the equation i! the others are known.
or e+ample/ suppose a series circuit contains an inductor ha.ing = ohms resistance and )=
ohms inducti.e reactance in series with a capacitor ha.ing (= ohms capaciti.e reactance. I! the
.oltage is =7 .olts/ what is the current? This circuit can be drawn as shown in igure (;.B.
igure (;.B $ Series %& circuit.
<i.enH @R=r)
U% R)=S
U& R(=7
E R =7
,$,
8
r$(
t :
/
n
(;$(B Module 3.(;
@esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
TTS integrated Training System
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,se andAor disclosure is
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TTS Integrated Training System
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Integrated Training System
%i.
taF 5 l
SolutionH UR U %$ U c
UR)=S $ (==)
U R(7H)
VR >=S " W D(7=7)
$:)= WW(77 )
VR ()==)
V R((.)=)
ITE
V
=7I
((.) S)
I R ;.;6 "
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%
%E
r
%
r/
u
%
Gow suppose the circuit contains an inductor ha.ing = ohms resistance and (= ohms inducti.e
reactance in series with a capacitor ha.ing (7 ohms capaciti.e reactance. I! the current is =
amperes/ what is the .oltage?
<i.enH @RSS
U % R(==)
U&R(7=)
I R ="
SolutionH UR U % $ U &
UR(=S$ (7=)
UR==)
V R @) W U)
V R )= W )= =)
M =7=)
VR8.78=
ERIV
ERS" + 8.78=)
E R 3=.3= I
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#ower in "& &ircuits
Pou know that in a direct current circuit the power is equal to the .oltage times the current/ or
# R E U I. I! a .oltage o! (77 .olts applied to a circuit produces a current o! (7 amperes/ the
power is (777 watts. This is also true in an "& circuit when the current and .oltage are in
phaseK that is/ when the circuit is e!!ecti.ely resisti.e. 'ut/ i! the "& circuit contains reactance/
the current will lead or lag the .oltage by a certain amount Dthe phase angleE. *hen the current
is out o! phase with the .oltage/ the power indicated by the product o! the applied .oltage and
the total current gi.es only what is known as the apparent power. The true power depends
upon the phase angle between the current and .oltage. The symbol !or phase angle is 7
DThetaE.
*hen an alternating .oltage is impressed across a capacitor/ power is taken !rom the source and
stored in the capacitor as the .oltage increases !rom Mero to its ma+imum .alue. Then/ as
the impressed .oltage decreases !rom its ma+imum .alue to Mero/ the capacitor discharges and
returns the power to the source. %ikewise/ as the current through an inductor increases !rom its
Mero .alue to its ma+imum .alue the !ield around the inductor builds up to a ma+imum/ and when
the current decreases !rom ma+imum to Mero the !ield collapses and returns the power to the
source. Pou can see there!ore that no power is used up in either case/ since the power alternately
!lows to and !rom the source. This power that is returned to the source by the
reacti.e components in the circuit is called reacti.e power.
In a purely resisti.e circuit all o! the power is consumed and none is returned to the sourceK in
a purely reacti.e circuit no power is consumed and all o! the power is returned to the
source. It !ollows that in a circuit which contains both resistance and reactance there must be
some power dissipated in the resistance as well as some returned to the source by the
reactance. In igure (;.C you can see the relationship between the .oltage/ the current/ and the
power in such a circuit. The part o! the power cur.e which is shown below the horiMontal
re!erence line is the result o! multiplying a positi.e instantaneous .alue o! current by a negati.e
instantaneous .alue o! the .oltage/ or .ice .ersa. "s you know/ the product obtained by
multiplying a positi.e .alue by a negati.e .alue will be negati.e. There!ore the power at that
instant must be considered as negati.e power. In other words/ during this time the reactance
was returning power to the source.
igure (;.C $ Instantaneous power when current and .oltage are out o! phase.
i:
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//// $$ C nr m nh.nm/ n &nn.rinht =b7 (7
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The instantaneous power in the circuit is equal to the product o! the applied .oltage and current
through the circuit. *hen the .oltage and current are o! the same polarity they are acting
together and taking power !rom the source. *hen the polarities are unlike they are acting in
opposition and power is being returned to the source. 'rie!ly then/ in an "& circuit which
contains reactance as well as resistance/ the apparent power is reduced by the power returned to
the source/ so that in such a circuit the net power/ or true power/ is always less than the
apparent power.
&alculating True #ower in "& &ircuits
"s mentioned be!ore/ the true power o! a circuit is the power actually used in the circuit. This
power/ measured in watts/ is the power associated with the total resistance in the circuit. To
calculate true power/ the .oltage and current associated with the resistance must be used.
Since the .oltage drop across the resistance is equal to the resistance multiplied by the current
through the resistance/ true power can be calculated by the !ormulaH
True #ower R <
@ () @
MereH
True #ower isrneasuredinwatts
I @ is resisti.e current in amperes @ is
resistance in ohms
ri
% or e+ample/ !ind the true power o! the circuit shown in igure (;.(7.
ER=77I
igure (;.(7 $ E+ample circuit !or determining power.
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%
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<i.enH
@R 67 =
U% R37=)
U&R((7=
ER=77((
SolutionH
URU& $ U%
UR((7= $ 37S
URB7S
VR @) WU)
V R D67= E) W DB77E)
V R 3677 W 6;77 S
V R (7/777 7
VR (77 S
E
IR$
V
I
RS77 *
(77=)
I R="
Since the current in a series circuit is the same in all parts o! the circuitH
True#ower RDI @E)@
True#ower R D= "E ) + 67 =)
True #ower
(=77 watts
E
(;$)) Module 3.(; @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
nn /// C nD ;h(
r$0$($
Dr.E D4nn..rinht oni n
TTS Integrated Training System
,se andAor disclosure is
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6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
"%I
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&alculating @eacti.e #ower in "& &ircuits
:
The reacti.e power is the power returned to the source by the reacti.e components o! the
circuit. This type o! power is measured in Iolt$"mperes$@eacti.e/ abbre.iated I"@.
@eacti.e power is calculated by using the .oltage and current associated with the circuit
reactance.
g q
(W
Wk
eeac 2nce mu ip iey te reacti.e current/r Itt d
reacti.e power can be calculated by the !ormulaH
r
i 5
@eacti.e #ower R DI+E)U
*hereH @eacti.e p o.er is me a s ur e d in .olt $
amperes $reacti.e.
I is reacti.e current in amper es.
Uis total reactance in ohms.
%
"nother way to calculate reacti.e power is to calculate the inducti.e power and capaciti.e
power and subtract the smaller !rom the larger.
@eacti.e #ower R
DI%E)U%
$
DI cE)Uc

or
DI&E)U& $ DI%E)U%
ThereH @eacti.e power is measuredin.olt$
amperes $reacti.e.
I cis capaciti.e curl entin amperes.
Uc is capaciti.e reactance in ohms.
I% is inducti.e curieri in amperes.
E
U% is inducti.e reactance in ohms.
Either one o! these !ormulas will work. The !ormula you use depends upon the .alues you are
gi.en in a circuit.
0
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or e+ample/ !ind the reacti.e power o! the circuit shown in igure (;.(7.
<i.enH
U% R37S
UcR((7n
UReon
I R="
Since this is a series circuit/ current DIE is the same in all parts o! the circuit.
SolutionH @ea cti.e p ower R DI UE ) U
@e acti.e power RD="E)
+ B7S
@eacti.e power R )/777 .at
To pro.e the second !ormula also works/
@eacti.e power RDIcE)Uc $ DI %E) U%
@ea cti.e power RD="E) + ((7=) $ DS"E ) +37
@eacti.e power R V8=7 .ar $ 8=7 .ar
@eacti.e power R )777 .ar
&alculating "pparent #ower in "& &ircuits
"pparent power is the power that appears to the source because o! the circuit impedance.
Since the impedance is the total opposition to "&/ the apparent power is that power the .oltage
source 1sees.1 "pparent power is the combination o! true power and reacti.e power. "pparent
power is not !ound by simply adding true power and reacti.e power 3ust as impedance is not !ound
by adding resistance and reactance.
To calculate apparent power/ you may use either o! the !ollowing !ormulasH
(;$);
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disclosure is go.erned by the statement
TTS Integrated Training System
n D5//.///rt[r/! onin
TTS Integrated Training System
,se andAor disclosure is
go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
,
Integrated Training System
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"pparentpower RDI) E)V
*hereK "pparent power is measured in
I" D.olt$amperesE
(M is impedance cur r ent in
amperes.
V is impedance in ohms.
or
"pparentpower R DTruepowerE) W Dreacti.e powerE)
or e+ample/ !ind the apparent power !or the circuit shown in igure (;.(7.
<i.enH V R(77 n
I R="
@ecall that current in a series circuit is the same in all parts o! the circuit.
SolutionH
"pparent#owei RDIME)V
"pparentpower R D= "E) + (77 S
"pparentpower R )=77 I"
or
<i.enH
True power R(=77 *
@eacti.e power R )777 .ar
"pparentpower R DTrue power E) W Dreacti.e powerE)
"pparentpower R D(=77*E) W D)777.arE)
"pparentpower R 6)= + (7 I"
"pp ar ent p ow er R )=77 I"
Module 3.(; @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
(;$)=
:
,se andAor disclosure is
go.erned by the statement
TTS Integrated Training System
./ $ 7 I! lhk r0.$. &cl &nn.rinht CD(( in
Integrated Training System
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#ower actor
The power !actor is a number Drepresented as a decimal or a percentageE that represents the
portion o! the apparent power dissipated in a circuit.
I! you are !amiliar with trigonometry/ the easiest way to !ind the power !actor is to !ind the cosine o!
the phase angle 7. The cosine o! the phase angle is equal to the power !actor.
Pou do not need to use trigonometry to !ind the power !actor. Since the power dissipated in a
circuit is true power/ thenH
"pparent #ower + # RTrue #ower/
There!ore/ #R True #ower
"pparent #ower
I! true power and apparent power are known you can use the !ormula shown abo.e.
<oing one step !urther/ another !ormula !or power !actor can be de.eloped. 'y substituting the
equations !or true power and apparent power in the !ormula !or power !actor/ you getH
#R @E5#4
DIME5 V
Since current in a series circuit is the same in all parts o! the circuit/ I@ equals lM. There!ore/ in a
series circuit/
#R @
8
or e+ample/ to compute the power !actor !or the series circuit shown in igure (;.(7/ any o!
the abo.e methods may be used.
8
(;$)6
Module 3.(; @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
TTS Integrated Training System
,se andAor disclosure is
go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
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<i.enH
True #ower R(=774
"pparent #ower R )=77 I"
SolutionH # R True #ower
"ppar ent #ower
(=77 *
,
%
%
#R
)=77 I"
#R .6
"nother methodH
<i.enH @R67 S
VR(77 n
SolutionH #R @
M
#R 67 S
i
%i
r$3
(
%
rI
(77=
#R .6
I! you are !amiliar with trigonometry you can use it to sol.e !or angleo and the power !actor by
re!erring to the tables in appendices I and II.
<i.enH @R67 7
URB7 7
SolutionH tan 7 R U
@
tan \ R B7 7
67=
tan BR(.333
B R =3.(a
#Rcos 7
# R .6
G2TEH "s stated earlier the power !actor can be e+pressed as a decimal or percentage. In this
e+ample the decimal number.6 could also be e+pressed as 67].
Module 3.(; @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
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#ower actor &orrection
The apparent power in an "& circuit has been described as the power the source 1sees1. "s !ar
as the source is concerned the apparent power is the power that must be pro.ided to the circuit.
Pou also know that the true power is the power actually used in the circuit. The di!!erence
between apparent power and true power is wasted because/ in reality/ only true power is
consumed. The ideal situation would be !or apparent power and true power to be equal. I! this
were the case the power !actor would be ( DunityE or (77 percent. There are two ways in which this
condition can e+ist. D(E I! the circuit is purely resisti.e or D)E i! the circuit 1appears1 purely resisti.e
to the source. To make the circuit appear purely resisti.e there must be no reactance.
To ha.e no reactance in the circuit/ the inducti.e reactance DU%E and capaciti.e reactance DUcE
must be equal.
@emember/ U RU% $ U
c
There!ore/ when
U% RU&/ UR7
The e+pression 1correcting the power !actor1 re!ers to reducing the reactance in a circuit.
The ideal situation is to ha.e no reactance in the circuit. This is accomplished by adding
capaciti.e reactance to a circuit which is inducti.e and inducti.e reactance to a circuit which is
capaciti.e. or e+ample/ the circuit shown in igure (;.(7 has a total reactance o! B7 ohms
capaciti.e and the power !actor was 7.6 or 67 percent. I! B7 ohms o! inducti.e reactance were
added to this circuit Dby adding another inductorE the circuit would ha.e a total reactance o! Mero
ohms and a power !actor o! ( Dor (77 percentE. The apparent and true power o! this circuit
would then be equal.
(;$)B Module 3.(; @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
l
(
TTS Integrated Training System
,se andAor disclosure is
,se andAor
disclosure is go.erned by the statement
TTS Integrated Training System
t cnn.rinht C((( n
6 &opyright )7(7
go.erned by the statement
on page ) o! this &hapter.
Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
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Series @%& &ircuits
The principles and !ormulas that ha.e been presented in this chapter are used in all "& circuits.
The e+amples gi.en ha.e been series circuits.
This section o! the chapter will not present any new material/ but will be an e+ample o! using all the
principles presented so !ar. Pou should !ollow each e+ample problem step by step to see how each
!ormula used depends upon the in!ormation determined in earlier steps.
!5
% The e+ample series @%& circuit shown in igure (;.(( will be used to sol.e !or U%/ Uc/ U/ V/ IT/
true power/ reacti.e power/ apparent power/ and power !actor.
r $
The .alues sol.ed !or will be rounded o!! to the nearest whole number.
irst sol.e !or U% and Uc.
<i.enH
L
SolutionH
! R 67 LM
% R )8mL
&R3B7 3.t
U% R)t!l
U % R 6. )B + 67 LM + )8 mL
U%R(7 s
(
UcR
) r!c
U r R
U
(
6/ )B U 67 LM + 3B7 it
(
c 7.
UcR8s
r
%
%
(;3
Module 3.(; @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
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Integrated Training System
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@
Gow sol.e !or U
<i.enH U & R 8 C
U% R(7=
;c
ER((7I
!R 67LM
igure (;.(( $ E+ample series
%
)8mL
&
3B2p
@%& circuit
8
%.(
SolutionH UR U %$ U &
UR(7S $ 8S)
U R 3 7 DInducti.eE
,se the .alue o! U to sol.e !or V.
<i.enH U R 3 S
@R;=)
SolutionH VRU )W @)
V R D3SE) W D;SE)
V CW(6=
V )=
VR =7
This .alue o! V can be used to sol.e !or total current DIT E.
<i.enH VR S S
ER ((7I
SolutionH
IT R
=o
IT R))"
(;$37 Module 3.(; @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and
nI
I T
Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
TTS Integrated Training System
,se andAor disclosure is
go.erned by the statement
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
n r .nn.rinht CM n
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
r..i
3
Integrated Training System
%3
Since current is equal in all parts o! a series circuit/ the .alue o! IT can
.arious .alues o! power.
<i.enH IT $))"
@R ;S
UR 3S
VR =S
SolutionH
True #ower RDI@E)@
True #ower R D)) "E
)
+ ;S
True #ower R(C36 *
@eacti.e power
RDI
RDI+E)U
@eacti.e power RD))"E) + 3n
@eacti.e power R(;=) .ar
"pparentpower RDIME)V
"pparent #ower R D))"E) + =7
"pparent #ower R );)7 I"
Designed in association with the
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be used to sol.e !or the
The power !actor can now be !ound using either apparent power a nd true power or resistance
and impedance. The mathematics in this e+ample is easier i! you use impedance and
resistance.
<i.enH
%
@ R ;S
V $ =Sa
#R @
V
#R ;&E
sn
# R/ Bcr B7]
Module 3.(; @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and inducti.e D%E &ircuits
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#arallel @%& &ircuits
*hen dealing with a parallel "& circuit/ you will !ind that the concepts presented in this chapter
!or series "& circuits still apply. There is one ma3or di!!erence between a series circuit and a
parallel circuit that must be considered. The di!!erence is that current is the same in all parts o!
a series circuit/ whereas .oltage is the same across all branches o! a parallel circuit. 'ecause o!
this di!!erence/ the total impedance o! a parallel circuit must be computed on the basis o! the
current in the circuit.
Pou should remember that in the series @%& circuit the !ollowing three !ormulas were used to
!ind reactance/ impedance/ and power !actorH
URU% $ U&orURU& $ U%
VR DI@E) WU)
#R @
V
*hen working with a parallel circuit you must use the !ollowing !ormulas insteadH
I+RI% $I& or IURI& $ I%
IM F DI@-) W DI-rE)
#R I@
I8
DThe impedance o! a
parallel cir cut is !ound
by the !ormula V R E E
M
G2TEH I! no .alue !or E is gi.en in a circuit/ any .alue o! E can be assumed to !ind the .alues o!
I%/ I&/ l+/ I@/ and IM. The same .alue o! .oltage is then used to !ind impedance.
or e+ample/ !ind the .alue o! V in the circuit shown in igure (;.().
<i.enH E R377 I
@ R(77 7
U%R =7H
U(R(=7 S
The !irst step in sol.ing !or V is to calculate the indi.idual branch currents.
(;$3) Module 3.(; @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
1 :
! i
,
,S Integrated Training System
,se andAor disclosure is
,se andAor disclosure is
go.erned by the statement
TTS Integrated Training System
F.. . &cE &nn.rinht #nin
go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) 7( this &hapter.
Integrated Training System
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Solution/
E
@R$
I@ R377 I
(77 S
I@ R3 "
E
%
l
%
M$/
I%
I T
I%
I&
&
I
I&
R
%
377 I
R
=7 S
R6 "
R E
"&
377 II
(=7 S
R)"
E R377I @
(77S
I@
igure (;.() $ #arallel @%& circuit.
r (
I
,sing the .alues !or I@/
I%/
and Ic/ sol.e !or l+ and IM.
IU RI % $ I&
I+R6"$)"
I+ R;"Dinducti.eE
F DI@E) W DIUE)
I M
(( ( IM F D3 "E)
I M R )="
IM R="
W D;"E)
Module 3.(; @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
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,sing this .alue o! IM/ sol.e !or V.
VR E
IM
VR
377 I
S"
5>?:2D
I! the .alue !or E were not gi.en and you were asked to sol.e !or V/ any .alue o! E could be
assumed. I!/ in the e+ample problem abo.e/ you assume a .alue o! =7
would beH
<i.enH @ R(77 S
U% =7 S
U< R(=7 7
E R =7 I DassumedE
irst sol.e !or the .alues o! current in the same manner as be!ore.
SolutionH
I#R
(77S
I@R ="
E
.olts !or E/ the solution
n
g..Fi
I%
U%
=7I
I%
I%
IrR
IcR
Sol.e !or I+ and lM.
(;$3;
so S
("
E
S2 I
(=7=
.33"
Module 3.(; @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
,se andAor disclosure
is
go.erned by the statement
TTS Integrated Training System
&cE cnn.rinht )7(7
TTS Integrated Training System
,se andAor disclosure is
go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
Integrated Training System
designed in association with the
club66pro.co.uk question practice aid
5U RI% $ I&
IUR("$.33"
I
+ R . 68 " DInducti.eE
(M F DI@E) WDI
I
M
R D7 . S"E) W D7. 68"E)
I R 7. 6CBC "
I) R7.B36"
Sol.e !or V.
VF E
I)
=7I
VR
B36 "
V R 67 Drounded o!!E
*hen the .oltage is gi.en/ you can use the .alues o! currents/
true power/ reacti.e power/ apparent power/ and power !actor.
(;.()/ the calculations would be as !ollows.
To !ind true power/
<i.enH @ R(77 S
I@ R 3"
SolutionH
True #ower RDI@E)U
True #ower R D3 "E ) + 8=H)
True #ower R C77 *
To !ind reacti.e power/ !irst !ind the .alue o! reactance DUE.
I @/ l+/ and IM/ to calculate !or the
or the circuit shown in igure
Module 3.(; @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
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<i.enH
Solution/
E R 377 I
I+ R ;"DInducti.eE
U R E
I+
U R 377I
;"
U R 8= S DInducti.eE
@eacti.e p o.er R DI UE
)
+
@eacti.e power R D; "E ) + 8= S
@eacti.e power R()77 .ar
To !ind apparent power/
<i.enH
VR67S
IM
="
SolutionH
"pparent #ower RDIM E)V
"pparent #ower RDS"E) + 67S
"pparent #ower R (=77 I"
The power !actor in a parallel circuit is !ound by either o! the !ollowing methods.
(;$36 Module 3.(;
@esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
TTS Integrated Training System
,se andAor disclosure is
,se andAor disclosure is
go.erned by the statement
TTS Integrated Training System
$$ FFFF .. $(.$ n$./..
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go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
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<i.enH
True #ower R C77 *
"pparent #ower R (=77 I"
SolutionH
# R true power
apparent power
C77 *
# R
(=77 I"
#R . 6
or
<i.enH
I @ R3 "
IV R= "
SolutionH
#R I@
IM
#R3"
S"
# R .6
Module 3.(; @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
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Intentionally 'lank
(;$3B
Module 3.(; @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
TTS Integrated Training System
,se andAor disclosure is
,se andAor disclosure is
go.erned by the statement
TTS Integrated Training System
Ar. A5 ...
.h. ;.W 5O!li rl
go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
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@esonant &ircuits
"n electric pendulum
&apacitors store energy in the !orm o! an electric !ield/ and electrically mani!est that stored
energy as a potentialH static .oltage. Inductors store energy in the !orm o! a magnetic !ield/ and
,
t i
%H
%i
electrically mani!est that stored energy as a kinetic motion o! electronsH current. &apacitors and
inductors are !lip$sides o! the same reacti.e coin/ storing and releasing energy in complementary
modes. *hen these two types o! reacti.e components are directly connected together/ their
complementary tendencies to store energy will produce an unusual result.
I! either the capacitor or inductor starts out in a charged state/ the two components will
e+change energy between them/ back and !orth/ creating their own "& .oltage and current
cycles. I! we assume that both components are sub3ected to a sudden application o! .oltage
Dsay/ !rom a momentarily connected batteryE/ the capacitor will .ery quickly charge and the
inductor will oppose change in current/ lea.ing the capacitor in the charged state and the
inductor in the discharged stateH Digure (;.(3E
'attery momentaril
connected to start the cycle eR e
Time
T :E
capacitor chargedH .oltage at DWE peak
inductor dischargedH Mero current
igure (;.(3 $ &apacitor chargedH .oltage at DWE peak/ inductor dischargedH Mero current
The capacitor will begin to discharge/ its .oltage decreasing. Meanwhile/ the inductor will begin
to build up a 1charge1 in the !orm o! a magnetic !ield as current increases in the circuitH Digure
(;.(;E
Time *
capacitor dischargingH .oltage decreasing
inductor chargingH current increasing
igure (;.(; $ &apacitor dischargingH .oltage decreasing/ Inductor chargingH current increasing
Module 3.(; @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
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The inductor/ still charging/ will keep electrons !lowing in the circuit until the capacitor has been
completely discharged/ lea.ing Mero .oltage across itH Digure (;.(=E
Ti me
#.
capacitor !ully dischargedH Mero .oltage
inductor!ully chargedH ma+imum current
igure (;.(= $ &apacitor !ully dischargedH Mero .oltage/ inductor !ully chargedH ma+imum
current.
The inductor will maintain current !low e.en with no .oltage applied. In !act/ it will generate a
.oltage Dlike a batteryE in order to keep current in the same direction. The capacitor/ being the
recipient o! this current/ will begin to accumulate a charge in the opposite polarity as be!oreH
Digure (;.(6E
Time
I.
capacitor chargingH .oltage increasing Din opposite polarityE i
ndu cto r dischargingH current decreasing
(;.(6 $ &apacitor chargingH .oltage increasing Din opposite polarityE/ inductor
dischargingH current decreasing
(;$;7 Module 3.(;
@esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
,se andAor
disclosure is D$I
go.erned by the statement
TTS Integrated Training System
7 &nn.rinht C7(7
TTS Integrated Training System
,se andAor disclosure is
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6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
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*hen the inductor is !inally depleted o! its energy reser.e and the electrons come to a halt/ the
capacitor will ha.e reached !ull D.oltageE charge in the opposite polarity as when it startedH
Digure (;.(8E
Time 7.
capacitor !ully chargedH .oltage atD$E peak
inductor !ully dischargedH Mero current
igure (;.(8 $ &apacitor !ully chargedH .oltage at D$E peak/ inductor !ully dischargedH Mero
current
Gow we5re at a condition .ery similar to where we startedH the capacitor at !ull charge and Mero
current in the circuit. The capacitor/ as be!ore/ will begin to discharge through the inductor/
causing an increase in current Din the opposite direction as be!oreE and a decrease in .oltage as
it depletes its own energy reser.eH Digure (;.(BE
l (
,r
capacitor dischargingH .oltage decreasing
inductor chargingH current increasing
Time $$$$2w
igure (;.(B $ &apacitor dischargingH .oltage decreasing/ inductor chargingH current increasing
i i
,
Module 3.(; @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
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E.entually the capacitor will discharge to Mero .olts/ lea.ing the inductor !ully charged with !ull
current through itH Digure (;.(CE
Time
capacitor !ully dischargedH Mero .oltage
inductor !ully chargedH current at D$E peak
igure (;.(C $ &apacitor !ully dischargedH Mero .oltage/ inductor !ully chargedH current at D$E
peak.
The inductor/ desiring to maintain current in the same direction/ will act like a source again/
generating a .oltage like a battery to continue the !low. In doing so/ the capacitor will begin to
charge up and the current will decrease in magnitudeH Digure (;.)7E
Ti me
capacitor chargingH .oltage increasing
inductor dischargingH current decreasing
igure (;.)7 $ &apacitor chargingH .oltage increasing/ inductor discharging/ current decreasing
i
D
n
(;$;) Module 3.(;
@esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
,se andAor disclosure Is
TTS Integrated Training System
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$ $$ nr rhk rJ.h$mr
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,se andAor disclosure is
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6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
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#$I
E.entually the capacitor will become !ully charged again as the inductor e+pends all o! its
% energy reser.es trying to maintain current. The .oltage will once again be at its positi.e peak
and the current at Mero. This completes one !ull cycle o! the energy e+change between the
8
,
%
!
k
capacitor and inductorH Digure (;.)(E
Time 7.
capacitor !ully chargedH .oltage at DWE peak
inductor !ully dischargedH Mero current
igure (;.)( $ &apacitor !ully chargedH .oltage at DWE peak/ inductor !ully dischargedH Mero
current
This oscillation will continue with steadily decreasing amplitude due to power losses !rom stray
resistances in the circuit/ until the process stops altogether. 2.erall/ this beha.iour is akin to that
o! a pendulumH as the pendulum mass swings back and !orth/ there is a trans!ormation o! energy
taking place !rom kinetic DmotionE to potential DheightE/ in a similar !ashion to the way energy is
trans!erred in the capacitorAinductor circuit back and !orth in the alternating !orms o! current
Dkinetic motion o! electronsE and .oltage Dpotential electric energyE.
"t the peak height o! each swing o! a pendulum/ the mass brie!ly stops and switches directions.
It is at this point that potential energy DheightE is at a ma+imum and kinetic energy DmotionE is at
Mero. "s the mass swings back the other way/ it passes quickly through a point where the string
is pointed straight down. "t this point/ potential energy DheightE is at Mero and kinetic energy
DmotionE is at ma+imum. %ike the circuit/ a pendulum5s back$and$!orth oscillation will continue
, with a steadily dampened amplitude/ the result o! air !riction DresistanceE dissipating energy.
"lso like the circuit/ the pendulum5s position and .elocity measurements trace two sine wa.es
i
DC7 degrees out o! phaseE o.er timeH Digure (;.))E .
$.(
,.
Module 3.(; @esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
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a
mass
Mero potential energy/
%
ma+imum potential energy/
Mero kinetic energy
ma+imum kinetic energy
potential energy R
kinetic energy R
igure (;.)) $ #endulum trans!ers energy between kinetic and potential energy as it swings low
to high
In physics/ this kind o! natural sine$wa.e oscillation !or a mechanical system is called Simple
Larmonic Motion Do!ten abbre.iated as 1SLM1E. The same underlying principles go.ern both the
oscillation o! a capacitorAinductor circuit and the action o! a pendulum/ hence the similarity in e!!ect.
It is an interesting property o! any pendulum that its periodic time is go.erned by the
length o! the string holding the mass/ and not the weight o! the mass itsel!. That is why a
pendulum will keep swinging at the same !requency as the oscillations decrease in amplitude.
The oscillation rate is independent o! the amount o! energy stored in it.
The same is true !or the capacitorAinductor circuit. The rate o! oscillation is strictly dependent on the
siMes o! the capacitor and inductor/ not on the amount o! .oltage Dor currentE at each
respecti.e peak in the wa.es. The ability !or such a circuit to store energy in the !orm o!
oscillating .oltage and current has earned it the name tank circuit. Its property o! maintaining a
single/ natural !requency regardless o! how much or little energy is actually being stored in it gi.es
it special signi!icance in electric circuit design.
Lowe.er/ this tendency to oscillate/ or resonate/ at a particular !requency is not limited to
n
circuits e+clusi.ely designed !or that purpose. In !act/ nearly any "& circuit with a combination o!
capacitance and inductance Dcommonly called an 1%& circuit1E will tend to mani!est unusual
e!!ects when the "& power source !requency approaches that natural !requency. This is true
regardless o! the circuit5s intended purpose.
I! the power supply !requency !or a circuit e+actly matches the natural !requency o! the circuit5s
%& combination/ the circuit is said to be in a state o! resonance. The unusual e!!ects will reach
(;$;; Module 3.(;
@esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
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ma+imum in this condition o! resonance. or this reason/ we need to be able to predict what the
resonant !requency will be !or .arious combinations o! % and &/ and be aware o! what the
e!!ects o! resonance are.
Simple parallel Dtank circuitE resonance
" condition o! resonance will be e+perienced in a tank circuit Digure (;.)3E when the
reactances o! the capacitor and inductor are equal to each other. 'ecause inducti.e reactance
increases with increasing !requency and capaciti.e reactance decreases with increasing
!requency/ there will only be one !requency where these two reactances will be equal.
r$/
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S5l
( 8
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,
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Li
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(22mL
igure (;.)3 $ Simple parallel resonant circuit Dtank circuitE
In the abo.e circuit/ we ha.e a (7 Y capacitor and a (77 mL inductor. Since we know the
equations !or determining the reactance o! each at a gi.en !requency/ and we5re looking !or that
point where the two reactances are equal to each other/ we can set the two reactance !ormulae
equal to each other and sol.e !or !requency algebraicallyH
,,
(;$;=
Module 3.(;
@esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
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U% R )M!%
. setting the two equal to each other@
representing a condition of e<ual reactance
DresonanceE .. .
)KMt% R
%
)rdt
(:
-ulti!lying both sides byf eliminates the f
term in the denominator o! the fraction
)n!5% R %
)rt&
0ividing lath sides /L lea ves+ by iirsetf
on the left$hand side o! the equation ...
)
iu)rt%&
Taking the square root of both sides o! the
e<uation leaves f by itsel! on the left side ...
!R
) rr)/ %&
sim!lifying .. .
!R
)/i
% ( 8
%&
This is a !ormula to tell us the resonant !requency o! a tank circuit/ gi.en the .alues o!
inductance D%E in Lenrys and capacitance D&E in arads. #lugging in the .alues o! % and & in
our e+ample circuit/ we arri.e at a resonant !requency o! (=C.(== LM.
*hat happens at resonance is quite interesting. *ith capaciti.e and inducti.e reactances equal
n
to each other/ the total impedance increases to in!inity/ meaning that the tank circuit draws no
./
current !rom the "& power source9 *e can calculate the indi.idual impedances o! the (7 p
capacitor and the (77 mL inductor and work through the parallel impedance !ormula to
demonstrate this mathematicallyH
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U% R )T&!%
U% R D)EDT&ED(=C.(== LMED(77 mLE
U
% R (77=?
!
4/F5
(
U& R
)8t!&
U&$$
(
D)E
DT&ED(=C.(== LMED(7 iiE
U&R (77=
"s you might ha.e guessed/ I chose these component .alues to gi.e resonance impedances that
were easy to work with D(77 S e.enE. Gow/ we use the parallel impedance !ormula to see what
happens to total VH
Vparallel R
%
%
I
!$$E
,
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Varallel R
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(77=) %C7a (77=( %$C7a
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Vparallel R
7.7( L $$C7a W 7.7( L C7a
Vpa%. (( l R ( 6ndeTnedL
7
*e cannot di.ide any number by Mero and arri.e at a meaning!ul result/ but we can say that the
result approaches a .alue o! in!inity as the two parallel impedances get closer to each other. *hat
this means in practical terms is that/ the total impedance o! a tank circuit is in!inite Dbeha.ing as an
open circuitE at resonance.
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Simple series resonance
" similar e!!ect happens in series inducti.eAcapaciti.e circuits. Digure (;.);E *hen a state o!
resonance is reached Dcapaciti.e and inducti.e reactances equalE/ the two impedances cancel
each other out and the total impedance drops to Mero9
(7 i(
(77mL
igure (;.); $ Simple series resonant circuit
.t I8.II M/2
V%R7W3(72I VcR7$3(77S)
Vseries R V%. W Vc
Vseries R D7 W 3 too S E W D7 $ 3 (77 nE
Vserles 7 S
*ith the total series impedance equal to 7 , at the resonant !requency o! (=C.(== LM/ the result .is
a short circuit across the "& power source at resonance. In the circuit drawn abo.e/ this would not
be good. It is normal to add a small resistor in series along with the capacitor and the inductor to
keep the ma+imum circuit current somewhat limited.
" word o! caution is in order with series %& resonant circuitsH because o! the high currents which
may be present in a series %& circuit at resonance/ it is possible to produce dangerously high
.oltage drops across the capacitor and the inductor/ as each component possesses
signi!icant impedance.
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"pplications o! resonance
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So !ar/ the phenomenon o! resonance appears to be a useless curiosity/ or at most a nuisance
to be a.oided Despecially i! series resonance makes !or a short$circuit across our "& .oltage
source9E. Lowe.er/ this is not the case. @esonance is a .ery .aluable property o! reacti.e "&
circuits/ employed in a .ariety o! applications.
2ne use !or resonance is to establish a condition o! stable !requency in circuits designed to
produce "& signals. ,sually/ a parallel DtankE circuit is used !or this purpose/ with the capacitor and
inductor directly connected together/ e+changing energy between each other. :ust as a pendulum
can be used to stabiliMe the !requency o! a clock mechanism5s oscillations/ so can a tank circuit be
used to stabiliMe the electrical !requency o! an "& oscillator circuit. "s was noted be!ore/ the
!requency set by the tank circuit is solely dependent upon the .alues o! % and &/ and
not on the magnitudes o! .oltage or current present in the oscillationsH Digure (;.)=E
./ to the rest o!
the 1oscillator1
circuit
the natural !requency
o! the 1tank circuit1
helps to stabiliMe
oscillations
igure (;.)= $ @esonant circuit ser.es as stable !requency source
"nother use !or resonance is in applications where the e!!ects o! greatly increased or decreased
impedance at a particular !requency is desired. " resonant circuit can be used to 1block1
Dpresent high impedance towardE a !requency or range o! !requencies/ thus acting as a sort o!
%
%:
!requency 1!ilter1 to strain certain !requencies out o! a mi+ o! others. In !act/ these particular
circuits are called !ilters/ and their design constitutes a discipline o! study all by itsel!H Digure
(;.)6E
Tank circuit presents a
"& source o! high impedance to a
mi+ed !requencies range o! !requencies/ blocking
them !rom getting to the load
load
igure (;.)6 $ @esonant circuit ser.es as !ilter
In essence/ this is how analogue radio recei.er tuner circuits work to !ilter/ or select/ one station
!requency out o! the mi+ o! di!!erent radio station !requency signals intercepted by the antenna.
(;$;C
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@esisti.e D@E/ &apaciti.e D&E and Inducti.e D%E &ircuits
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S and bandwidth o! a resonant circuit
The S/ quality !actor/ o! a resonant circuit is a measure o! the 1goodness1 or quality o! a
resonant circuit. " higher .alue !or this !igure o! merit corresponds to a more narrow bandwidth/
which is desirable in many applications. More !ormally/ S is the ratio o! power stored to power
dissipated in the circuit reactance and resistance/ respecti.elyH
S R
#stored
#dissipated
SRU
@
whereH
U R &apaciti.e or Inducti.e reactance at resonance
@ R Series resistance.
This !ormula is applicable to series resonant circuits/ and also parallel resonant circuits i! the
resistance is in series with the inductor. This is the case in practical applications/ as we are mostly
concerned with the resistance o! the inductor limiting the S. GoteH Some te+t may show U and @
interchanged in the 1S1 !ormula !or a parallel resonant circuit. This is correct !or a large .alue o! @
in parallel with & and %. 2ur !ormula is correct !or a small @ in series with %.
" practical application o! 1S1 is that .oltage across % or & in a series resonant circuit is 7 times
total applied .oltage. In a parallel resonant circuit/ current through % or & is S times the total
applied current.
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^t
Series resonant circuits
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" series resonant circuit looks like a resistance at the resonant !requency. Digure (;.)8E Since
the de!inition o! resonance is U%RU&/ the reacti.e components cancel/ lea.ing only the
resistance to contribute to the impedance. The impedance is also at a minimum at resonance.
Digure belowE 'elow the resonant !requency/ the series resonant circuit looks capaciti.e since the
impedance o! the capacitor increases to a .alue greater than the decreasing inducti.e
reactance/ lea.ing a net capaciti.e .alue. "bo.e resonance/ the inducti.e reactance increases/
capaciti.e reactance decreases/ lea.ing a net inducti.e component.
)7.7
(=.7
(7.7
=.7
7.7
j... .bn u.n.n...nu... .j.W. J... .n... .i// .. :. .u... ... I r.
(77
!requecy LM
(7X3
igure (;.)8 $ "t resonance the series resonant circuit appears purely resisti.e. 'elow
resonance it looks capaciti.e. "bo.e resonance it appears inducti.e
&urrent is ma+imum at resonance/ impedance at a minimum. &urrent is set by the .alue o! the
resistance. "bo.e or below resonance/ impedance increases.
V 2hms
377.7
)77.7
(77.7
=7.7
7.7
..r.r.r ..r.r.. .O.. N... F... . N...7..C..R..
(77 (7"3
!requency LM
igure (;.)B $ Impedance is at a minimum at resonance in a series resonant circuit
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The resonant current peak may be changed by .arying the series resistor/ which changes the
S. Digure (;.)CE. This also a!!ects the broadness o! the cur.e. " low resistance/ high S circuit has
a narrow bandwidth/ as compared to a high resistance/ low S circuit. 'andwidth in terms o! S and
resonant !requencyH
'* R !eAS
*here
!/ R resonant !requency
S R quality !actor
m"
3
(77.7
=7/7
7.7
.5... .i .. I... . I... . I... .: ... .:... y...:.. y.i
(77 (777
!requency LM
igure (;.)C $ " high S resonant circuit has a narrow bandwidth as compared to a low S
'andwidth is measured between the 7.878 current amplitude points. The 7.878 current points
correspond to the hal! power points since
p
R ()@/ D7.878E) R D7.=E. Digure (;.37E
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M
"
67.7
=7.7
;7.7
)7.7
%
! cR3)3 LM
!c
(77] R F $
87.8) ...
.. o/... . c...
!(R)C( LM !hR3== LM
7 7
I$
(77
d!R3==$)C(R6;
R6;
!requency
(777
LM
igure (;.37 $ 'andwidth/ "! is measured between the 87.8] amplitude points o! series
sH
%
%
S
%
in I !
,
,
%i
resonant circuit
'* R "! R !h$!l R !cAS
*here
!h R high band edge/
!i R low band edge
!i !c $ "!A)
!hR!cW"!A)
*here
!c R centre !requency Dresonant !requencyE
In igure abo.e/ the (77] current point is =7 m". The 87.8] le.el is 7878D=7 m"E R 3=.; m".
The upper and lower band edges read !rom the cur.e are )C( LM !or !l and 3== LM !or !h. The
bandwidth is 6; LM/ and the hal! power points are _ 3) LM o! the centre resonant !requencyH
'* R"! R!h $ !i R 3== $)C( R6;
!l R!c$2!A)R3)3$3)R)C(
!hR!eW"!A)R3)3W3)R3==
Since '* R !c A SH
S R !d '* R D3)3 LME A D6; LME R =
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#arallel @esonant &ircuits
" parallel resonant circuit is resisti.e at the resonant !requency. Digure belowE "t resonance
U%RU&/ the reacti.e components cancel. The impedance is ma+imum at resonance. Digure
(;.3(E. 'elow the resonant !requency/ the series resonant circuit looks inducti.e since the
impedance o! the inductor is lower/ drawing the larger proportion o! current. "bo.e resonance/
the capaciti.e reactance decreases/ drawing the larger current/ thus/ taking on a capaciti.e
characteristic.
M"
37.7
)7.7
(7.7
7.7
(77 (777
k5requencc9) LM
igure (;.3(
$ " parallel resonant circuit is resisti.e at resonance/ inducti.e below resonance/
capaciti.e abo.e resonance
Impedance is ma+imum at resonance in a parallel resonant circuit/ but decreases abo.e or
n
below resonance. Ioltage is at a peak at resonance since .oltage is proportional to impedance
DERIVE. Digure (;.3)E
V 2hms
677.7
;77.7
)77.7
7.7
(77 (777
!requenc3 LM
(777
igure (;.3) $ #arallel resonant circuitH Impedance peaks at resonance
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TTS Integrated
Training System
Module 3
%icence &ategory '(A')
Electrical undamentals
3.(= Trans!ormers
%
Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
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&opyright Gotice
6 &opyright. "ll worldwide rights reser.ed. Go part o! this publication may be reproduced/
stored in a retrie.al system or transmitted in any !orm by any other means whatsoe.erH i.e.
photocopy/ electronic/ mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission o!
Total Training Support %td.
0nowledge %e.els $ &ategory "/ (3(/ ') and & "ircra!t Maintenance
%icence
'asic knowledge !or categories "/ '( and ') are indicated by the allocation o! knowledge le.els indicators D(/ ) or
3E against each applicable sub3ect. &ategory & applicants must meet either the category '( or the category ')
basic knowledge le.els.
The knowledge le.el indicators are de!ined as !ollowsH
%EIE% (
J " !amiliarisation with the principal elements o! the sub3ect.
2b3ecti.esH
J The applicant should be !amiliar with the basic elements o! the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to gi.e a simple description o! the whole sub3ect/ using common words and
e+amples.
J The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
%EIE% )
J " general knowledge o! the theoretical and practical aspects o! the sub3ect.
J "n ability to apply that knowledge.
2b3ecti.esH
J The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical !undamentals o! the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to gi.e a general description o! the sub3ect using/ as appropriate/ typical
e+amples.
J The applicant should be able to use mathematical !ormulae in con3unction with physical laws describing the
sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches/ drawings and schematics describing the
sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
%EIE% 3
J " detailed knowledge o! the theoretical and practical aspects o! the sub3ect.
J " capacity to combine and apply the separate elements o! knowledge in a logical and comprehensi.e
manner.
2b3ecti.esH
J The applicant should know the theory o! the sub3ect and interrelationships with other sub3ects.
J The applicant should be able to gi.e a detailed description o! the sub3ect using theoretical !undamentals
and speci!ic e+amples.
J The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical !ormulae related to the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to read/ understand and prepare sketches/ simple drawings and schematics
describing the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manu!acturer5s
instructions.
J The applicant should be able to interpret results !rom .arious sources and measurements and apply
correcti.e action where appropriate.
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Table o! &ontents
Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
Introduction
'asic 2peration o! a Trans!ormer
The &omponents o! a Trans!ormer
&ore &haracteristics
Trans!ormer *indings
Schematic Symbols !or Trans!ormers
Low a Trans!ormer *orks
Turns and Ioltage @atios
E!!ect o! a %oad
Mutual lu+
Turns and &urrent @atios
Step$,p and Step$Down Trans!ormers
#ower @elationship between #rimary and Secondary *indings
Trans!ormer %osses
Trans!ormer E!!iciency
Trans!ormer @atings
Types and "pplications o! Trans!ormers
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=
=
=
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8
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Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
(=$3
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Module 3.(= Enabling 2b3ecti.es
2b3ecti.e
Trans!ormers
Trans!ormer construction principles and operation
Trans!ormer losses and methods !or o.ercoming them
Trans!ormer action under load and no$load conditions
#ower trans!er/ e!!iciency/ polarity markings
&alculation o! line and phase .oltages and currents
&alculation o! power in a three phase system
#rimary and Secondary current/ .oltage/ turns ratio/ power/
e!!iciency
"uto trans!ormers
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3.(= )
n
Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
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pt/
Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
-
Introduction
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The in!ormation in this chapter is on the construction/ theory/ operation/ and the .arious uses o!
trans!ormers. Sa!ety precautions to be obser.ed by a person working with trans!ormers are also
discussed.
,
" trans!ormer is a de.ice that trans!ers electrical energy !rom one circuit to another by
:
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electromagnetic induction Dtrans!ormer actionE. The electrical energy is always trans!erred
without a change in !requency/ but may in.ol.e changes in magnitudes o! .oltage and current.
'ecause a trans!ormer works on the principle o! electromagnetic induction/ it must be used with an
input source .oltage that .aries in amplitude. There are many types o! power that !it this
descriptionK !or ease o! e+planation and understanding/ trans!ormer action will be e+plained
using an ac .oltage as the input source.
In a preceding chapter you learned that alternating current has certain ad.antages o.er direct
current. 2ne important ad.antage is that when ac is used/ the .oltage and current le.els can be
increased or decreased by means o! a trans!ormer.
"s you know/ the amount o! power used by the load o! an electrical circuit is equal to the current in
the load times the .oltage across the load/ or # R El. I!/ !or e+ample/ the load in an electrical circuit
requires an input o! ) amperes at (7 .olts D)7 wattsE and the source is capable o!
deli.ering only ( ampere at )7 .olts/ the circuit could not normally be used with this particular
source. Lowe.er/ i! a trans!ormer is connected between the source and the load/ the .oltage can
be decreased Dstepped downE to (7 .olts and the current increased Dstepped upE to ) amperes.
Gotice in the abo.e case that the power remains the same. That is/ )7 .olts times ( ampere
equals the same power as (7 .olts times ) amperes.
'asic 2peration o! a Trans!ormer
In its most basic !orm a trans!ormer consists o!H
J " primary coil or winding.
J " secondary coil or winding.
J " core that supports the coils or windings.
@e!er to the trans!ormer circuit in igure (=.( as you read the !ollowing e+planationH The
primary winding is connected to a 67 hertM "& .oltage source. The magnetic !ield D!lu+E builds up
De+pandsE and collapses DcontractsE about the primary winding. The e+panding and
contracting magnetic !ield around the primary winding cuts the secondary winding and induces an
alternating .oltage into the winding. This .oltage causes alternating current to !low through the
load. The .oltage may be stepped up or down depending on the design o! the primary and
secondary windings.
(=$=
Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
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igure (=.( $ 'asic trans!ormer action.
The &omponents o! a Trans!ormer
Two coils o! wire Dcalled windingsE are wound on some type o! core material. In some cases the
coils o! wire are wound on a cylindrical or rectangular cardboard !orm. In e!!ect/ the core
material is air and the trans!ormer is called an air$core trans!ormer. Trans!ormers used at low
!requencies/ such as 67 hertM and ;77 hertM/ require a core o! low$reluctance magnetic material/
usually iron. This type o! trans!ormer is called an iron$core trans!ormer. Most power
trans!ormers are o! the iron$core type. The principle parts o! a trans!ormer and their !unctions
areH
J The core/ which pro.ides a path !or the magnetic lines o! !lu+.
J The primary winding/ which recei.es energy !rom the ac source.
J The secondary winding/ which recei.es energy !rom the primary winding and
deli.ers it to the load.
J The enclosure/ which protects the abo.e components !rom dirt/ moisture/ and
mechanical damage.
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Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
,se andAor disclosure is
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
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TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
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&ore &haracteristics
The composition o! a trans!ormer core depends on such !actors as .oltage/ current/ and
!requency. SiMe limitations and construction costs are also !actors to be considered. &ommonly
used core materials are air/ so!t iron/ and steel. Each o! these materials is suitable !or particular
applications and unsuitable !or others. <enerally/ air$core trans!ormers are used when the
.oltage source has a high !requency Dabo.e )7 kLME. Iron$core trans!ormers are usually used
when the source !requency is low Dbelow )7 kLME. " so!t$iron$core trans!ormer is .ery use!ul
where the trans!ormer must be physically small/ yet e!!icient. The iron$core trans!ormer pro.ides
better power trans!er than does the air$core trans!ormer. " trans!ormer whose core is
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constructed o! laminated sheets o! steel dissipates heat readilyK thus it pro.ides !or the e!!icient
trans!er o! power. The ma3ority o! trans!ormers you will encounter in aircra!t equipment contain
laminated$steel cores. These steel laminations Dsee igure (=.)E are insulated with a non$
conducting material/ such as .arnish/ and then !ormed into a core. It takes about =7 such
laminations to make a core an inch thick. The purpose o! the laminations is to reduce certain losses
which will be discussed later in this chapter. "n important point to remember is that the most
e!!icient trans!ormer core is one that o!!ers the best path !or the most lines o! !lu+ with the least loss
in magnetic and electrical energy.
%"MIG"TED &2@E
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igure (=.) $ Lollow$core construction.
Lollow$&ore Trans!ormers
There are two main shapes o! cores used in laminated$steel$core trans!ormers. 2ne is the
hollow$core/ so named because the core is shaped with a hollow square through the centre.
igure (=.) illustrates this shape o! core. Gotice that the core is made up o! many laminations o!
steel. igure (=.3 illustrates how the trans!ormer windings are wrapped around both sides o! the
core.
(=$8
Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
H:
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n
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igure (=.3 $ *indings wrapped around laminations.
Shell$&ore Trans!ormers
The most popular and e!!icient trans!ormer core is the shell core/ as illustrated in igure (=.;.
"s shown/ each layer o! the core consists o! E$ and I$shaped sections o! metal. These sections
n
are butted together to !orm the laminations. The laminations are insulated !rom each other and
then pressed together to !orm the core.
%"MIG"TED &2@E
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igure (=.; $ Shell$type core construction.
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Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
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TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
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Trans!ormer *indings
"s stated abo.e/ the trans!ormer consists o! two coils called windings which are wrapped
around a core. The trans!ormer operates when a source o! ac .oltage is connected to one o! the
windings and a load de.ice is connected to the other. The winding that is connected to the
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source is called the primary winding. The winding that is connected to the load is called the
secondary winding. DGoteH In this chapter the terms 1primary winding1 and 1primary1 are used
interchangeablyK the termH 1secondary winding1 and 1secondary1 are also used
interchangeably.E
igure (=.= shows an e+ploded .iew o! a shell$type trans!ormer. The primary is wound in layers
directly on a rectangular cardboard !orm.
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igure (=.= $ E+ploded .iew o! shell$type trans!ormer construction.
In the trans!ormer shown in the cutaway .iew in igure (=.6/ the primary consists o! many turns
o! relati.ely small wire. The wire is coated with .arnish so that each turn o! the winding is
insulated !rom e.ery other turn. In a trans!ormer designed !or high$.oltage applications/ sheets
% o! insulating material/ such as paper/ are placed between the layers o! windings to pro.ide
additional insulation.
,
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Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
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#"#E@ IGS,%"TI2G
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igure (=.6 $ &utaway .iew o! shell$type core with windings.
*hen the primary winding is completely wound/ it is wrapped in insulating paper or cloth. The
secondary winding is then wound on top o! the primary winding. "!ter the secondary winding is
complete/ it too is co.ered with insulating paper. Ge+t/ the E and I sections o! the iron core are
inserted into and around the windings as shown.
The leads !rom the windings are normally brought out through a hole in the enclosure o! the
trans!ormer. Sometimes/ terminals may be pro.ided on the enclosure !or connections to the
windings. The !igure shows !our leads/ two !rom the primary and two !rom the secondary. These
leads are to be connected to the source and load/ respecti.ely.
Schematic Symbols !or Trans!ormers
igure (=.8 shows typical schematic symbols !or trans!ormers. The symbol !or an air$core
trans!ormer is shown in igure (=.8 D"E. #arts D'E and D&E show iron$core trans!ormers. The
bars between the coils are used to indicate an iron core. requently/ additional connections are
made to the trans!ormer windings at points other than the ends o! the windings. These
additional connections are called taps. *hen a tap is connected to the centre o! the winding/ it is
called a centre tap. igure (=.8 D&E shows the schematic representation o! a tapped$tapped iron$
core trans!ormer.
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Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
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on page ) o! this &hapter.
Integrated Training System
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igure (=.8 $ Schematic symbols !or .arious types o! trans!ormers.
Low a Trans!ormer *orks
,p to this point the chapter has presented the basics o! the trans!ormer including trans!ormer
action/ the trans!ormer5s physical characteristics/ and how the trans!ormer is constructed. Gow
you ha.e the necessary knowledge to proceed into the theory o! operation o! a trans!ormer.
Go$%oad &ondition
Pou ha.e learned that a trans!ormer is capable o! supplying .oltages which are usually higher
or lower than the source .oltage. This is accomplished through mutual induction/ which takes
place when the changing magnetic !ield produced by the primary .oltage cuts the secondary
winding.
" no$load condition is said to e+ist when a .oltage is applied to the primary/ but no load is
connected to the secondary/ as illustrated by igure (=.B. 'ecause o! the open switch/ there is no
current !lowing in the secondary winding. *ith the switch open and an ac .oltage applied to the
primary/ there is/ howe.er/ a .ery small amount o! current called e+citing current !lowing in the
primary. Essentially/ what the e+citing current does is 1e+cite1 the coil o! the primary to
create a magnetic !ield. The amount o! e+citing current is determined by three !actorsH D(E the
amount o! .oltage applied DEaE/ D)E the resistance D@E o! the primary coil5s wire and core losses/ and
D3E the U% which is dependent on the !requency o! the e+citing current. These last two
!actors are controlled by trans!ormer design.
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Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
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igure (=.B $ Trans!ormer under no$load conditions.
This .ery small amount o! e+citing current ser.es two !unctionsH
J Most o! the e+citing energy is used to maintain the magnetic !ield o! the primary.
J " small amount o! energy is used to o.ercome the resistance o! the wire and core losses
which are dissipated in the !orm o! heat Dpower lossE.
E+citing current will !low in the primary winding at all times to maintain this magnetic !ield/ but no
trans!er o! energy will take place as long as the secondary circuit is open.
#roducing a 'ack$EM
*hen an alternating current !lows through a primary winding/ a magnetic !ield is established
around the winding. "s the lines o! !lu+ e+pand outward/ relati.e motion is present/ and a
'ackEM is induced in the winding. This is the same 'ack$EM that you learned about in the
chapter on inductors. lu+ lea.es the primary at the north pole and enters the primary at the
south pole. The 'ack$EM induced in the primary has a polarity that opposes the applied
.oltage/ thus opposing the !low o! current in the primary. It is the 'ack$EM that limits e+citing
current to a .ery low .alue.
Inducing a Ioltage in the Secondary
To .isualiMe how a .oltage is induced into the secondary winding o! a trans!ormer/ again re!er to
igure (=.B. "s the e+citing current !lows through the primary/ magnetic lines o! !orce are
generated.
During the time current is increasing in the primary/ magnetic lines o! !orce e+pand outward !rom
the primary and cut the secondary. "s you remember/ a .oltage is induced into a coil when
magnetic lines cut across it. There!ore/ the .oltage across the primary causes a .oltage to be
induced across the secondary.
#rimary and Secondary #hase @elationship
The secondary .oltage o! a simple trans!ormer may be either in phase or out o! phase with the
primary .oltage. This depends on the direction in which the windings are wound and the
arrangement o! the connections to the e+ternal circuit DloadE. Simply/ this means that the two
.oltages may rise and !all together or one may rise while the other is !alling.
(=$()
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Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
,se andAor disclosure is
,se andAor disclosure Is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
<l D4nnwrinht Cn( n
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7 on page ) o! this &hapter.
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&oe!!icient o! &oupling
The coe!!icient o! coupling o! a trans!ormer is dependent on the portion o! the total !lu+ lines
that cuts both primary and secondary windings.
Ideally/ all the !lu+ lines generated by the primary should cut the secondary/ and all the lines o! the
!lu+ generated by the secondary should cut the primary.
The coe!!icient o! coupling would then be one DunityE/ and ma+imum energy would be
trans!erred !rom the primary to the secondary. #ractical power trans!ormers use high$
permeability silicon steel cores and close spacing between the windings to pro.ide a high
coe!!icient o! coupling.
%ines o! !lu+ generated by one winding which do not link with the other winding are called
leakage !lu+. Since leakage !lu+ generated by the primary does not cut the secondary/ it cannot
induce a .oltage into the secondary.
The .oltage induced into the secondary is there!ore less than it would be i! the leakage !lu+ did
not e+ist. Since the e!!ect o! leakage !lu+ is to lower the .oltage induced into the secondary/ the
e!!ect can be duplicated by assuming an inductor to be connected in series with the primary.
This series
leakage inductance is assumed to drop part o! the applied .oltage/ lea.ing less .oltage across the
primary.
Turns and Ioltage @atios
The total .oltage induced into the secondary winding o! a trans!ormer is determined mainly by the
ratio o! the number o! turns in the primary to the number o! turns in the secondary/ and by the
amount o! .oltage applied to the primary. @e!er to igure (=.(7. #art D"E o! the !igure shows a
trans!ormer whose primary consists o! ten turns o! wire and whose secondary consists o! a single
turn o! wire. Pou know that as lines o! !lu+ generated by the primary e+pand and collapse/ they cut
both the ten turns o! the primary and the single turn o! the secondary. Since the length o! the wire
in the secondary is appro+imately the same as the length o! the wire in each turn in the primary/
EM induced into the secondary will be the same as the EM induced into each turn in the
primary. This means that i! the .oltage applied to the primary winding is (7 .olts/ the 'ack$EM
in the primary is almost (7 .olts. Thus/ each turn in the primary will ha.e an induced 'ack$EM o!
appro+imately one$tenth o! the total applied .oltage/ or one .olt. Since the same !lu+ lines cut the
turns in both the secondary and the primary/ each turn will ha.e an EM o! one .olt induced into it.
The trans!ormer in part D"E o! igure (=.(7 has only one turn in the secondary/ thus/ the EM across
the secondary is one .olt.
(=$(;
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Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7 on page ) o! this &hapter.
Integrated Training System
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igure (=.(7 $ Trans!ormer turns and .oltage ratios.
The trans!ormer represented in part D'E o! igure (=.(7 has a ten$turn primary and a two$turn
secondary. Since the !lu+ induces one .olt per turn/ the total .oltage across the secondary is
two .olts. Gotice that the .olts per turn are the same !or both primary and secondary windings.
Since the 'ack$EM in the primary is equal Dor almostE to the applied .oltage/ a proportion may be
set up to e+press the .alue o! the .oltage induced in terms o! the .oltage applied to the
primary and the number o! turns in each winding. This proportion also shows the relationship
between the number o! turns in each winding and the .oltage across each winding. This
proportion is e+pressed by the equationH
Es F GS
Ep Gp
Iher eH
G p R number o! turns in the primary
E p R .oltage applied to the primary
%
%i
Es R.okageinducedinthe secondary
G SRnumber o! turns in the secondarye c
Gotice the equation shows that the ratio o! secondary .oltage to primary .oltage is equal to the
ratio o! secondary turns to primary turns.
The equation can be written asH
EpGc RESG#
Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
(=$(=
%i
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The !ollowing !ormulas are deri.ed !rom the abo.e equationH
Transposing !or E S E S R Ep (S.
Gp
r1
Transpo sing !or E# H
E# R
E sGp
GS
I! any three o! the quantities in the abo.e !ormulas are known/ the !ourth quantity can be
calculated. E+ample. " trans!ormer has )77 turns in the primary/ =7 turns in the secondary/ and ()7
.olts applied to the primary DEpE. *hat is the .oltage across the secondary DE sE?
<i.enH Gp R )77 turns
G S R =7 turns
E p R()7 .olts
ESR?.olts
ouonH E S
SubstitutionH E
s
E
S
$ E#Gs
Gp
R ()7 .olts + =7 turns
)77 turns
R 37 .olts
E+ampleH There are ;77 turns o! wire in an iron$core coil. I! this coil is to be used as the primary o!
a trans!ormer/ how many turns must be wound on the coil to !orm the secondary winding o! the
trans!ormer to ha.e a secondary .oltage o! one .olt i! the primary .oltage is !i.e .olts?
l
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Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7 on page ) o! this &hapter.
#
%
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%
<i.enH Gp R ;77 turns
EpR = .olts
E S R ( .olt
GsR ? turns
SolutionH EpGs RESGp
Transposing !or GSH
ESGp
GsR
SubstitutionH
E #
Gs R(.ok + ;77 turns
= .olts
Gs R B7 turns
Turns @atio &on.entions
The ratio o! the .oltage D=H(E is equal to the turns ratio D;77HB7E. Sometimes/ instead o! speci!ic
.alues/ you are gi.en a turns or .oltage ratio.
Lowe.er/ there are two con.entions regarding the notation o! Turns @atio. The "merican
.ersion o! Turns @atio con.ention is
Turns @atio R Gprimary
Gsecondary
*hereas the 'ritish .ersion o! Turns @atio con.ention is
Turns @atio R
Gsecondary
Gprimary
The e!!ect o! ha.ing di!!erent notations is minimal/ pro.iding you know which one is being used
whene.er a turns ratio is being pro.ided in any question.
i! a turn ratio is gi.en as 6H(
D'ritish notationE/ you can assume a number o! turns !or the
primary and compute the secondary number o! turns D(7H67/ 6H36/ =H37/ etc.E/ or i! "merican
notation o! 6H( were used/ / you can assume a number o! turns !or the primary and compute the
secondary number o! turns D67H(7/ 36H6/ 37H=/ etc.E.
% i
%
Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
(=$(8
%
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A
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The trans!ormer in each o! the abo.e problems has !ewer turns in the secondary than in the
primary. "s a result/ there is less .oltage across the secondary than across the primary. "
trans!ormer in which the .oltage across the secondary is less than the .oltage across the
primary is called a step$down trans!ormer. The ratio o! a !our$to$one step$down trans!ormer is
written as ;H(
in "merican notation/ or (H; in 'ritish notation. " trans!ormer that has !ewer turns
in
the primary than in the secondary will produce a greater .oltage across the secondary than
the .oltage applied to the primary. " trans!ormer in which the .oltage across the secondary is
greater than the .oltage applied to the primary is called a step$up trans!ormer. The ratio o! a
one$to$!our step$up trans!ormer should be written as (H; in "merican notation/ or ;H( in 'ritish
notation. Gotice in the two ratios that the .alue o! the primary winding is always stated !irst !or
"merican notation/ and stated last in 'ritish notation.
E!!ect o! a %oad
*hen a load de.ice is connected across the secondary winding o! a trans!ormer/ current !lows
n
through the secondary and the load. The magnetic !ield produced by the current in the
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secondary interacts with the magnetic !ield produced by the current in the primary. This
interaction results !rom the mutual inductance between the primary and secondary windings.

Mutual lu+
The total !lu+ in the core o! the trans!ormer is common to both the primary and secondary
windings. It is also the means by which energy is trans!erred !rom the primary winding to the
secondary winding. Since this !lu+ links both windings/ it is called mutual !lu+. The inductance
which produces this !lu+ is also common to both windings and is called mutual inductance.
igure (=.(( shows the !lu+ produced by the currents in the primary and secondary windings o! a
trans!ormer when source current is !lowing in the primary winding.
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igure (=.((
$ Simple trans!ormer indicating primary$ and secondary$winding !lu+ relationship.
(=$(B
Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
,se andAor disclosure is
,se andAor disclosure is
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statement
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%
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*hen a load resistance is connected to the secondary winding/ the .oltage induced into the
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secondary winding causes current to !low in the secondary winding. This current produces a !lu+
!ield about the secondary Dshown as broken linesE which is in opposition to the !lu+ !ield about the
primary D%enM5s lawE. Thus/ the !lu+ about the secondary cancels some o! the !lu+ about the
primary. *ith less !lu+ surrounding the primary/ the 'ack$EM is reduced and more current is drawn
!rom the source. The additional current in the primary generates more lines o! !lu+/ nearly re$
establishing the original number o! total !lu+ lines.
Turns and &urrent @atios
The number o! !lu+ lines de.eloped in a core is proportional to the magnetiMing !orce Din
ampere$turnsE o! the primary and secondary windings.
The ampere$turn DI + GE is a measure o! magnetomoti.e !orceK it is de!ined as the
magnetomoti.e !orce de.eloped by one ampere o! current !lowing in a coil o! one turn. The !lu+
which e+ists in the core o! a trans!ormer surrounds both the primary and secondary windings.
Since the !lu+ is the same !or both windings/ the ampere$turns in both the primary and
secondary windings must be the same.
There!oreH
I#Gg R ISGS
her eH
I # G p R ampere $ turns in the primary winding
I S G S R ampere $ turns in the sec ondary
winding
'y di.iding both sides o! the equation by IpG S/ you obtainH
%
Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
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4( F Is
SinceH
ThenH
"ndH
*hey eH
G= Ip
Es Gs
Er Gp
Ep R Gp
ES GS
Ep IS
ES Ip
E p R .oltage applied to the primary in .olts
E s R .oltage across the secondary in .olts
I p R current in the primary in amperes
I s
R current in the secondary in amperes
Gotice the equations show the current ratio to be the in.erse o! the turns ratio and the .oltage
ratio. This means/ a trans!ormer ha.ing less turns in the secondary than in the primary would
step down the .oltage/ but would step up the current. E+ampleH " trans!ormer has a 6H( .oltage
ratio.
ind the current in the secondary i! the current in the primary is )77 milliamperes.
<i.enH
SolutionH
E p R 6IDassumedE
ESR( I
Ip R)77m"or 7. )"
IS R?
E# Is
Es P lp
Tr anspo sing !or Is H
Is R
SubstitutionH
Eplp
ES
IS
I
6 I +7.)"
I
R(. )"
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ao.erned by the statement n nnn[rinh! Cn( 7
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Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
,se andAor disclosure is
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on page ) o! this &hapter.
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The abo.e e+ample points out that although the .oltage across the secondary is one$si+th the
.oltage across the primary/ the current in the secondary is si+ times the current in the primary.
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The abo.e equations can be looked at !rom another point o! .iew.
,sing "merican notation/ the e+pression TpHTs is called the trans!ormer turns ratio and
may be e+pressed as a single !actor. @emember/ the turns ratio indicates the amount by which
the trans!ormer increases or decreases the .oltage applied to the primary. or e+ample/ i! the
secondary o! a trans!ormer has two times as many turns as the primary/ the .oltage induced
into the secondary will be two times the .oltage across the primary. I! the secondary has one$
hal! as many turns as the primary/ the .oltage across the secondary will be one$hal! the .oltage
across the primary. Lowe.er/ the turns ratio and the current ratio o! a trans!ormer ha.e an
in.erse relationship. Thus/ a (H) step$up trans!ormer will ha.e one$hal! the current in the
secondary as in the primary. " )H( step$down trans!ormer will ha.e twice the current in the
secondary as in the primary.
E+ampleH " trans!ormer with a turns ratio o! (H() has 3 amperes o! current in the secondary.
*hat is the .alue o! current in the primary?
<i.enH Gp R lturn DassumedE
G S R() turns
IS R3"
%p R?
Gp F Is
SolutionH
GS Ip
Transpo sing !or I p
I D R
SubstitutionH I p R
GSI S
Gp
() turns + 3"
I turn
ri
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Ip R36 "
Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
(=$)(
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Step$,p and Step$Down Trans!ormers
igure (=.() shows a trans!ormer with (7 times as many windings in the primary as in the
secondary.
igure (=.() $ Turns ratio o! (7H( D"merican notationE yields (7H( primary H secondary .oltage
ratio and (H(7 primaryHsecondary current ratio.
This is a .ery use!ul de.ice/ indeed. *ith it/ we can easily multiply or di.ide .oltage and current in
"& circuits. Indeed/ the trans!ormer has made long$distance transmission o! electric power a
practical reality/ as "& .oltage can be 1stepped up1 and current 1stepped down1 !or reduced
wire resistance power losses along power lines connecting generating stations with loads. "t
either end Dboth the generator and at the loadsE/ .oltage le.els are reduced by trans!ormers !or
sa!er operation and less e+pensi.e equipment. " trans!ormer that increases .oltage !rom
primary to secondary Dmore secondary winding turns than primary winding turnsE is called a step$
up trans!ormer. &on.ersely/ a trans!ormer designed to do 3ust the opposite is called a step$
down trans!ormer.
igure (=.(3 $ Trans!ormer cross$section showing primary and secondary windings is a !ew
inches tall Dappro+imately (7 cmE.
(=$)) Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
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TTS Integrated Training System
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,se andAor dlsclosuro is
TTS Integrated Training System
nnuarnori by tho ctatamanl
go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
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Integrated Training System
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igure (=.(3 is a step$down trans!ormer/ as e.idenced by the high turn count o! the primary
winding and the low turn count o! the secondary. "s a step$down unit/ this trans!ormer con.erts
high$.oltage/ low$current power into low$.oltage/ high$current power. The larger$gauge wire used in
the secondary winding is necessary due to the increase in current. The primary winding/ which
doesn5t ha.e to conduct as much current/ may be made o! smaller$gauge wire.
In case you were wondering/ it is possible to operate either o! these trans!ormer types
backwards Dpowering the secondary winding with an "& source and letting the primary winding
power a loadE to per!orm the opposite !unctionH a step$up can !unction as a step$down and .isa$
.ersa. Lowe.er/ as we saw in the !irst section o! this chapter/ e!!icient operation o! a
trans!ormer requires that the indi.idual winding inductances be engineered !or speci!ic
operating ranges o! .oltage and current/ so i! a trans!ormer is to be used 1backwards1 like this it
must be employed within the original design parameters o! .oltage and current !or each
winding/ lest it pro.e to be ine!!icient Dor lest it be damaged by e+cessi.e .oltage or current9E.
Trans!ormers are o!ten constructed in such a way that it is not ob.ious which wires lead to the
primary winding and which lead to the secondary. 2ne con.ention used in the electric power
industry to help alle.iate con!usion is the use o! 1L1 designations !or the higher$.oltage winding Dthe
primary winding in a step$down unitK the secondary winding in a step$upE and 1U1
designations !or the lower$.oltage winding. There!ore/ a simple power trans!ormer will ha.e wires
labelled 1L(1/ 1L)1/ 1U(1/ and 1U)1. There is usually signi!icance to the numbering o! the wires
DL( .ersus L)/ etc.E/ which we5ll e+plore a little later in this chapter.
The !act that .oltage and current get 1stepped1 in opposite directions Done up/ the other downE
makes per!ect sense when you recall that power is equal to .oltage times current/ and realiMe
that trans!ormers cannot produce power/ only con.ert it. "ny de.ice that could output more
power than it took in would .iolate the %aw o! Energy &onser.ation in physics/ namely that
energy cannot be created or destroyed/ only con.erted. "s with the !irst trans!ormer e+ample we
looked at/ power trans!er e!!iciency is .ery good !rom the primary to the secondary sides o! the
de.ice.
many turns !ew turns
load
high .oltage low .oltage
low current high current
igure (=.(; $ The e!!ect on current and .oltage o! a Step$down trans!ormerH Dmany turnsH!ew
turnsE.
% The step$upAstep$down e!!ect o! coil turn ratios in a trans!ormer Digure (=.(;E is analogous to
gear tooth ratios in mechanical gear systems/ trans!orming .alues o! speed and torque in much
the same wayH Digure (=.(=E
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Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
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%"@<E <E"@
Dmany teethE
SM"%% <E"@
D!ew teethE
low tor<ue
high tor<ue =
+ high s!eed
low s!eed
igure (=.(= $ Torque reducing gear train steps torque down/ while stepping speed up
Step$up and step$down trans!ormers !or power distribution purposes can be gigantic in
proportion to the power trans!ormers pre.iously shown/ some units standing as tall as a home.
The !ollowing photograph shows a substation trans!ormer standing about twel.e !eet tallH
l !
Digure (=.(6E
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igure (=.(6 $ Substation trans!ormer.
(=$);
Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
,se andAor disclosure is
,se andAor disclosu re is TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
t DHnn.rinht Cn( Dl
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
3?
Integrated Training System
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#ower @elationship between #rimary and Secondary *indings
"s 3ust e+plained/ the turns ratio o! a trans!ormer a!!ects current as well as .oltage. I! .oltage is
doubled in the secondary/ current is hal.ed in the secondary. &on.ersely/ i! .oltage is hal.ed in
the secondary/ current is doubled in the secondary. In this manner/ all the power deli.ered to
the primary by the source is also deli.ered to the load by the secondary Dminus whate.er power
is consumed by the trans!ormer in the !orm o! lossesE. @e!er again to the trans!ormer illustrated
in igure (=.((.
The turns ratio is )7H(. I! the input to the primary is 7.( ampere at 377 .olts/ the power in the
primary is # R E U I R 37 watts. I! the trans!ormer has no losses/ 37 watts is deli.ered to the
secondary. The secondary steps down the .oltage to (= .olts and steps up the current to )
amperes. Thus/ the power deli.ered to the load by the secondary is # R E U I R (= .olts U )
amps R 37 watts/
The reason !or this is that when the number o! turns in the secondary is decreased/ the
opposition to the !low o! the current is also decreased.
Lence/ more current will !low in the secondary. I! the turns ratio o! the trans!ormer is increased
to (H)/ the number o! turns on the secondary is twice the number o! turns on the primary. This
means the opposition to current is doubled. Thus/ .oltage is doubled/ but current is hal.ed due
,
to the increased opposition to current in the secondary. The important thing to remember is that
with the e+ception o! the power consumed within the trans!ormer/ all power deli.ered to
the primary by the source will be deli.ered to the load. The !orm o! the power may change/
but the power in the secondary almost equals the power in the primary.
"s a !orrnulaH
#SR## $ #%
her eH
#s R power deli.ered to the loadbythe
secondary
#p R power deli.ered to the p rim ar y by the
source
#% R power losses in the trans!ormer
Trans!ormer %osses
#ractical power trans!ormers/ although highly e!!icient/ are not per!ect de.ices. Small power
& &
trans!ormers used in electrical equipment ha.e an B7 to C7 percent e!!iciency range/ while
%%i large/ commercial powerline trans!ormers may ha.e e!!iciencies e+ceeding CB percent.
The total power loss in a trans!ormer is a combination o! three types o! losses. 2ne loss is due
r to the dc resistance in the primary and secondary windings. This loss is called copper loss or
()@ loss.
Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
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The two other losses are due to eddy currents and to hysteresis in the core o! the
trans!ormer. &opper loss/ eddy$current loss/ and hysteresis loss result in undesirable
con.ersion o! electrical energy into heat energy.
&opper %oss
*hene.er current !lows in a conductor/ power is dissipated in the resistance o! the conductor in the
!orm o! heat. The amount o! power dissipated by the conductor is directly proportional to the
resistance o! the wire/ and to the square o! the current through it. The greater the .alue o! either
resistance or current/ the greater is the power dissipated. The primary and secondary windings
o! a trans!ormer are usually made o! low$resistance copper wire.
The resistance o! a gi.en winding is a !unction o! the diameter o! the wire and its length. &opper
loss can be minimiMed by using the proper diameter wire. %arge diameter wire is required !or
high$current windings/ whereas small diameter wire can be used !or low$current windings.
&opper loss can be calculated using the !ormula !or power lost as heatH
&opper loss R ()@
The e!!ect o! this is that i! the current DIE is doubled/ !or e+ample/ the amount o! copper loss will
quadruple/ since the relationship between copper loss and current is one o! a square law.
Lowe.er/ i! the resistance o! the winding is hal.ed/ the copper loss is also hal.ed/ since the
relationship between copper loss and resistance is linear.
It must also be remembered that any change in resistance o! a winding Dby ad3acent wires !using
together in an o.erheating trans!ormer !or e+ampleE will ha.e an in.erse relationship on the
current !low through the winding. Thus/ i! an o.erheating trans!ormer has wires !using together/
such that its resistance hal.es/ the current will double D2hm5s %awE. The compound e!!ect on
the copper loss/ o! hal.ing resistance and doubling the current/ !rom the abo.e !ormula/ is to
increase the loss by a !actor o! ).
Eddy$&urrent %oss
The core o! a trans!ormer is usually constructed o! some type o! !erromagnetic material
because it is a good conductor o! magnetic lines o! !lu+.
*hene.er the primary o! an iron$core trans!ormer is energiMed by an alternating$current source/ a
!luctuating magnetic !ield is produced. This magnetic !ield cuts the conducting core material and
induces a .oltage into it. The induced .oltage causes random currents to !low through the core
which dissipates power in the !orm o! heat. These undesirable currents are called
To minimiMe the loss resulting !rom eddy currents/ trans!ormer cores are laminated. Since the
thin/ insulated laminations do not pro.ide an easy path !or current/ eddy$current losses are
greatly reduced.
Lysteresis %oss
*hen a magnetic !ield is passed through a core/ the core material becomes magnetiMed. To
become magnetiMed/ the domains within the core must align themsel.es with the e+ternal !ield. I!
the direction o! the !ield is re.ersed/ the domains must turn so that their poles are aligned with the
new direction o! the e+ternal !ield.
(=$)6
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Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
TTS Integrated Training System
,se andAor disclosure is
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
9rl r4nm.rinh; 2rt( n
go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
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#ower trans!ormers normally operate !rom either 67 LM/ or ;77 LM alternating current. Each tiny
domain must realign itsel! twice during each cycle/ or a total o! ()7 times a second when 67 LM
alternating current is used. The energy used to turn each domain is dissipated as heat within
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the iron core. This loss/ called hysteresis loss/ can be thought o! as resulting !rom molecular
!riction. Lysteresis loss can be held to a small .alue by proper choice o! core materials.
Eddy current loss and hysteresis loss are both losses !rom the magnetic core o! the
trans!ormer. Due to the e!!ect o! the back$EM increase/ when the trans!ormer load increases/
the magnetic !low within the core o! the trans!ormer is appro+imately constant/ regardless o! the
load on the trans!ormer/ there!ore the eddy current and hysteresis losses are also !airly
constant as trans!ormer load increases. &opper loss/ on the other hand/ is a heat loss in the
windings o! the trans!ormer/ and this increases on a square law/ with the current !lowing through
the windings.
Leat and Goise
In addition to unwanted electrical e!!ects/ trans!ormers may also e+hibit undesirable physical
e!!ects/ the most notable being the production o! heat and noise. Goise is primarily a nuisance
e!!ect/ but heat is a potentially serious problem because winding insulation will be damaged i!
allowed to o.erheat. Leating may be minimiMed by good design/ ensuring that the core does not
approach saturation le.els/ that eddy currents are minimiMed/ and that the windings are not
o.erloaded or operated too close to ma+imum ampacity.
%arge power trans!ormers ha.e their core and windings submerged in an oil bath to trans!er
heat and mu!!le noise/ and also to displace moisture which would otherwise compromise the
integrity o! the winding insulation. Leat$dissipating 1radiator1 tubes on the outside o! the
trans!ormer case pro.ide a con.ecti.e oil !low path to trans!er heat !rom the trans!ormer5s core to
ambient airH Digure (=.(8E
r$/
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#rimary Secondary
terminal s terminals
.W( 5G
@adiator @adiator
tube w tube
I ram I
igure (=.(8 $ %arge power trans!ormers are submerged in heat dissipating insulating oil. 2il$
less/ or 1dry/1 trans!ormers are o!ten rated in terms o! ma+imum operating temperature 1rise1
Dtemperature increase beyond ambientE according to a letter$class systemH "/ '/ / or L. These
letter codes are arranged in order o! lowest heat tolerance to highestH
Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
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J &lass "H Go more than ==a&elsius winding temperature rise/ at ;77 &elsius Dma+imumE r
ambient air temperature.
J &lass 'H Go more than B7a &elsius winding temperature rise/ at ;7a &elsius Dma+imumE
ambient air temperature.
J &lass H Go more than ((=a &elsius winding temperature rise/ at ;7a &elsius Dma+imumE
ambient air temperature.
J &lass LH Go more than (=7a &elsius winding temperature rise/ at ;7a &elsius Dma+imumE
ambient air temperature.
"udible noise is an e!!ect primarily originating !rom the phenomenon o! magnetostrictionH the
slight change o! length e+hibited by a !erromagnetic ob3ect when magnetiMed. The !amiliar
1hum1 heard around large power trans!ormers is the sound o! the iron core e+panding and
contracting at (77 LM Dtwice the system !requency/ which is =7 LM in the ,nited 0ingdomE $$ one
cycle o! core contraction and e+pansion !or e.ery peak o! the magnetic !lu+ wa.e!orm $$ plus noise
created by mechanical !orces between primary and secondary windings. "gain/
maintaining low magnetic !lu+ le.els in the core is the key to minimiMing this e!!ect/ which
e+plains why !erroresonant trans!ormers $$ which must operate in saturation !or a large portion o!
the current wa.e!orm $$ operate both hot and noisy.
"nother noise$producing phenomenon in power trans!ormers is the physical reaction !orce
between primary and secondary windings when hea.ily loaded. I! the secondary winding is
open$circuited/ there will be no current through it/ and consequently no magneto$moti.e !orce
Li
DMME produced by it. Lowe.er/ when the secondary is 1loaded1 Dcurrent supplied to a loadE/
the winding generates an MM/ which becomes counteracted by a 1re!lected1 MM in the
primary winding to pre.ent core !lu+ le.els !rom changing. These opposing MMs generated
between primary and secondary windings as a result o! secondary DloadE current produce a
repulsi.e/ physical !orce between the windings which will tend to make them .ibrate.
Trans!ormer designers ha.e to consider these physical !orces in the construction o! the winding
coils/ to ensure there is adequate mechanical support to handle the stresses. ,nder hea.y load
Dhigh currentE conditions/ though/ these stresses may be great enough to cause audible noise to
emanate !rom the trans!ormer.
Trans!ormer E!!iciency
To compute the e!!iciency o! a trans!ormer/ the input power to and the output power !rom the
trans!ormer must be known. The input power is equal to the product o! the .oltage applied to the
primary and the current in the primary. The output power is equal to the product o! the
.oltage across the secondary and the current in the secondary. The di!!erence between the input
power and the output power represents a power loss. Pou can calculate the percentage o!
e!!iciency o! a trans!ormer by using the standard e!!iciency !ormula shown belowH
(=$)B
Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
n 2n( n
TS Integrated Training System
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go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
r/
L$i
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E!!iciency Din ]E R #out + (77
#in
*hereH
%
r l
%
#//t/! R to tal output p ow er deli.ered to the load
#in Rtotal input powel
E+ample. I! the input power to a trans!ormer is 6=7 watts and the output power is 6(7 watts/
what is the e!!iciency?
SolutionH
# out
I
%
i %
%
! 9i
3
r
E!!iciency R + (77
#in
E!!iciency R 6(2 * + (77
6=7*
E!!iciency R C3/ B
Lence/ the e!!iciency is appro+imately C3.B percent/ with appro+imately ;7 watts being wasted due
to heat losses.
Trans!ormer @atings
*hen a trans!ormer is to be used in a circuit/ more than 3ust the turns ratio must be considered.
The .oltage/ current/ and power$handling capabilities o! the primary and secondary windings must
also be considered.
The ma+imum .oltage that can sa!ely be applied to any winding is determined by the type and
thickness o! the insulation used. *hen a better Dand thickerE insulation is used between the
windings/ a higher ma+imum .oltage can be applied to the windings.
The ma+imum current that can be carried by a trans!ormer winding is determined by the diameter o!
the wire used !or the winding. I! current is e+cessi.e in a winding/ a higher than ordinary amount o!
power will be dissipated by the winding in the !orm o! heat. This heat may be su!!iciently high to
cause the insulation around the wire to break down. I! this happens/ the trans!ormer may be
permanently damaged.
The power$handling capacity o! a trans!ormer is dependent upon its ability to dissipate heat. I! the
heat can sa!ely be remo.ed/ the power$handling capacity o! the trans!ormer can be
increased. This is sometimes accomplished by immersing the trans!ormer in oil/ or by the use o!
cooling !ins. The power$handling capacity o! a trans!ormer is measured in either the .olt$ampere
unit or the watt unit.
Two common power generator !requencies D67 hertM and ;77 hertME ha.e been mentioned/ but the
e!!ect o! .arying !requency has not been discussed.
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I! the !requency applied to a trans!ormer is increased/ the inducti.e reactance o! the windings is
increased/ causing a greater ac .oltage drop across the windings and a lesser .oltage drop across
the load. Lowe.er/ an increase in the !requency applied to a trans!ormer should not
damage it. 'ut/ i! the !requency applied to the trans!ormer is decreased/ the reactance o! the
windings is decreased and the current through the trans!ormer winding is increased. I! the
decrease in !requency is enough/ the resulting increase in current will damage the trans!ormer.
or this reason a trans!ormer may be used at !requencies abo.e its normal operating !requency/
but not below that !requency.
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(=$37
Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
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( ,se andAor disclosure is
ITS Integrated Training System
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on page ) o! this &hapter.
,
% Types and "pplications o! Trans!ormers
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The trans!ormer has many use!ul applications in an electrical circuit. " brie! discussion o! some
%
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o! these applications will help you recogniMe the importance o! the trans!ormer in electricity and
electronics.
#ower Trans!ormers
#ower trans!ormers are used to supply .oltages to the .arious circuits in electrical equipment.
These trans!ormers ha.e two or more windings wound on a laminated iron core. The number o!
windings and the turns per winding depend upon the .oltages that the trans!ormer is to supply.
Their coe!!icient o! coupling is 7.C= or more.
igure (=.(B $ " #ower Trans!ormer
Pou can usually distinguish between the high$.oltage and low$.oltage windings in a power
trans!ormer by measuring the resistance. The low$.oltage winding usually carries the higher
current and there!ore has the larger diameter wire. This means that its resistance is less than the
resistance o! the high$.oltage winding/ which normally carries less current and there!ore may be
constructed o! smaller diameter wire.
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So !ar you ha.e learned about trans!ormers that ha.e but one secondary winding. The typical
power trans!ormer has se.eral secondary windings/ each pro.iding a di!!erent .oltage. The
schematic symbol !or a typical power$supply trans!ormer is shown in igure (=.(C. or any
gi.en .oltage across the primary/ the .oltage across each o! the secondary windings is
determined by the number o! turns in each secondary. " winding may be centre$tapped like the
secondary 3=7 .olt winding shown in the !igure. To centre tap a winding means to connect a
wire to the centre o! the coil/ so that between this centre tap and either terminal o! the winding
there appears one$hal! o! the .oltage de.eloped across the entire winding. Most power
trans!ormers ha.e coloured leads so that it is easy to distinguish between the .arious windings to
which they are connected. &are!ully e+amine the !igure which also illustrates the colour code !or a
typical power trans!ormer. ,sually/ red is used to indicate the high$.oltage leads/ but it is possible
!or a manu!acturer to use some other colourDsE.
//PE%%2*
((7 I2%TS "GD @ED
ST@I#ED
877 I2%TS
3=7 I2%TS
@ED
PE%%2*
= I2%TS
igure (=.(C $ Schematic diagram o! a typical power trans!ormer.
There are many types o! power trans!ormers. They range in siMe !rom the huge trans!ormers
weighing se.eral tons$used in power substations o! commercial power companies$to .ery small
ones weighing as little as a !ew ounces$used in electronic equipment.
"utotrans!ormers
It is not necessary in a trans!ormer !or the primary and secondary to be separate and distinct
windings. igure (=.)7 is a schematic diagram o! what is known as an autotrans!ormer.
Gote that a single coil o! wire is 1tapped1 to produce what is electrically a primary and secondary
winding. The .oltage across the secondary winding has the same relationship to the .oltage
across the primary that it would ha.e i! they were two distinct windings. The mo.able tap in the
secondary is used to select a .alue o! output .oltage/ either higher or lower than E p/ within the
I$"
range o! the trans!ormer.
(=$3)
Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
TTS Integrated Training System
,se andAor diS& osure is
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
/I
go.erned by the statement
to &nn.rinht C7(C
I
go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
Integrated Training System
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igure (=.)7 $ "utotrans!ormer
"udio$requency Trans!ormers
"udio$!requency D"E trans!ormers are used in " circuits as coupling de.ices. "udio$!requency
trans!ormers are designed to operate at !requencies in the audio !requency spectrum Dgenerally
considered to be (= LM to )7kLME.
They consist o! a primary and a secondary winding wound on a laminated iron or steel core.
'ecause these trans!ormers are sub3ected to higher !requencies than are power trans!ormers/
special grades o! steel such as silicon steel or special alloys o! iron that ha.e a .ery low
hysteresis loss must be used !or core material. These trans!ormers usually ha.e a greater number
o! turns in the secondary than in the primaryK common step$up ratios being ( to ) or ( to ;. *ith
audio trans!ormers the impedance o! the primary and secondary windings is as important as the
ratio o! turns/ since the trans!ormer selected should ha.e its impedance match the circuits to which
it is connected.
@adio$requency Trans!ormers
@adio$!requency D@E trans!ormers are used to couple circuits to which !requencies abo.e
)7/777 LM are applied. The windings are wound on a tube o! nonmagnetic material/ ha.e a
special powdered$iron core/ or contain only air as the core material. In standard broadcast radio
recei.ers/ they operate in a !requency range o! !rom =37 kLM to (==7 kLM. In a short$wa.e
recei.er/ @ trans!ormers are sub3ected to !requencies up to about )7 MLM $ in radar/ up to and
e.en abo.e )77 MLM.
Impedance$Matching Trans!ormers
or ma+imum or optimum trans!er o! power between two circuits/ it is necessary !or the
impedance o! one circuit to be matched to that o! the other circuit. 2ne common impedance$
matching de.ice is the trans!ormer.
To obtain proper matching/ you must use a trans!ormer ha.ing the correct turns ratio. The number
o! turns on the primary and secondary windings and the impedance o! the trans!ormer ha.e the
!ollowing mathematical relationship.
G#
GS
Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
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'ecause o! this ability to match impedances/ the impedance$matching trans!ormer is widely
used in electronic equipment.
n
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igure (=.)( $ "n impedance$matching trans!ormer can be seen on this printed
circuit board/ in
the upper right corner/ to the immediate le!t o! resistors @) and @(.
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Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
K$ / ,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
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TTS Integrated Training System
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6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
Integrated Training System
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Isolation Trans!ormers
"side !rom the ability to easily con.ert between di!!erent le.els o! .oltage and current in "& and
D& circuits/ trans!ormers also pro.ide an e+tremely use!ul !eature called isolation, which is the
ability to couple one circuit to another without the use o! direct wire connections.
% i
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igure (=.)) $ Isolation trans!ormer isolates power out !rom the power line.
>$5T
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"n isolation trans!ormer is a trans!ormer/ o!ten with symmetrical windings/ which is used to
decouple two circuits. "n isolation trans!ormer allows an "& signal or power to be taken !rom one
de.ice and !ed into another without electrically connecting the two circuits. Isolation
trans!ormers block transmission o! D& signals !rom one circuit to the other/ but allow "& signals to
pass. They also block inter!erence caused by ground loops. Isolation trans!ormers with
electrostatic shields are used !or power supplies !or sensiti.e equipment such as computers or
laboratory instruments.
In electronics testing/ troubleshooting and ser.icing/ an isolation trans!ormer is a (H( power
trans!ormer which is used as a sa!ety precaution. Since the neutral wire o! an outlet is directly
connected to ground/ grounded ob3ects near the de.ice under test Ddesk/ lamp/ concrete !loor/
oscilloscope ground lead/ etc.E may be at a haMardous potential di!!erence with respect to that
de.ice. 'y using an isolation trans!ormer/ the bonding is eliminated/ and the shock haMard is
entirely contained within the de.ice.
Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
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&urrent Trans!ormers
The &urrent Trans!ormer Dor &TE is a step$up de.ice Dwith respect to .oltageE/ which is what is
needed to step down the power line current. Suite o!ten/ &Ts are built as donut$shaped de.ices
through which the power line conductor is run/ the power line itsel! acting as a single$turn
primary windingH Digure (=.)3E
/hi
igure (=.)3 $ &urrent conductor to be measured is threaded through the opening. Scaled down
current is a.ailable on wire leads.
Some &Ts are made to hinge open/ allowing insertion around a power conductor without
disturbing the conductor at all.
igure (=.); $ " hand$held current trans!ormer !or measuring "& current le.els
The industry standard secondary current !or a &T is a range o! 7 to = amps "&. %ike #ower
Trans!ormers/ &Ts can be made with custom winding ratios to !it almost any application.
(=$36
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Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
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,se andAor disclosure is
1&TS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement Acl r nnr/rinht
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'ecause their 1!ull load1 secondary current is = amps/ &T ratios are usually described in terms o!
!ull$load primary amps to = amps/ like thisH
677H = ratio Efor measuring u! to ?:: . line currentC
(77H = ratio Efor measuring u! to :: . line currentC
(k H = ratio Efor measuring u! to (777 " line currentE
The 1donut1 &T shown in igure yyy has a ratio o! =7H=. That is/ when the conductor through the
centre o! the torus is carrying =7 amps o! current D"&E/ there will be = amps o! current induced in
the &T5s winding.
'ecause &Ts are designed to be powering ammeters/ which are low$impedance loads/ and they
are wound as .oltage step$up trans!ormers/ they should ne.er/ e.er/ be operated with an open$
circuited secondary winding. ailure to heed this warning will result in the &T producing e+tremely
high secondary .oltages/ dangerous to equipment and personnel alike.
%inear Iariable Di!!erential Trans!ormer
" linear .ariable di!!erential trans!ormer D%IDTE has an "& dri.en primary wound between two
secondaries on a cylindrical air core !orm. Digure belowE " mo.able !erromagnetic slug
con.erts displacement to a .ariable .oltage by changing the coupling between the dri.en
primary and secondary windings. The %IDT is a displacement or distance measuring
transducer. ,nits are a.ailable !or measuring displacement o.er a distance o! a !raction o! a
millimetre to a hal! a meter. %IDT5s are rugged and dirt resistant compared to linear optical
encoders.
center down
igure (=.)= $ %IDTH linear .ariable di!!erential trans!ormer.
The e+citation .oltage is in the range o! 7.= to (7 I"& at a !requency o! ( to )77 0LM. " !errite core
is suitable at these !requencies. It is e+tended outside the body by a non$magnetic rod. "s the core
is mo.ed toward the top winding/ the .oltage across this coil increases due to
increased coupling/ while the .oltage on the bottom coil decreases. I! the core is mo.ed toward
the bottom winding/ the .oltage on this coil increases as the .oltage decreases across the top
coil. Theoretically/ a centred slug yields equal .oltages across both coils. In practice leakage
inductance pre.ents the null !rom dropping all the way to 7 I.
Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
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*ith a centred slug/ the series$opposing wired secondaries cancel yielding I(3 R 7. Mo.ing the
slug up increases I(3. Gote that it is in$phase with I(/ the top winding/ and ( B7o out o! phase
with I)/ bottom winding.
Mo.ing the slug down !rom the centre position increases I(3. Lowe.er/ it is (B77 out o! phase
bottom shows a minimum at the centre point/ with a (B77 phase re.ersal in passing the centre.
(=$3B
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TTS Integrated Training System
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,se andAor disclosure Is
TTS Integrated Training System
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Three$phase Trans!ormers
Since three$phase is used so o!ten !or power distribution systems/ it makes sense that we
would need three$phase trans!ormers to be able to step .oltages up or down. This is only
partially true/ as regular single$phase trans!ormers can be ganged together to trans!orm power
between two three$phase systems in a .ariety o! con!igurations/ eliminating the requirement !or a
special three$phase trans!ormer. Lowe.er/ special three$phase trans!ormers are built !or
those tasks/ and are able to per!orm with less material requirement/ less siMe/ and less weight than
their modular counterparts.
" three$phase trans!ormer is made o! three sets o! primary and secondary windings/ each set
wound around one leg o! an iron core assembly. Essentially it looks like three single$phase
trans!ormers sharing a 3oined core as in igure (=.)6.
,
%
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igure (=.)6 $ Three phase trans!ormer core has three sets o! windings.
Those sets o! primary and secondary windings will be connected in either " or P con!igurations to
!orm a complete unit. The .arious combinations o! ways that these windings can be connected
together in will be the !ocus o! this section.
*hether the winding sets share a common core assembly or each winding pair is a separate
trans!ormer/ the winding connection options are the sameH
#rimary $ Secondary
P $ P
P $ "
" $ P
" $ "
The reasons !or choosing a P or " con!iguration !or trans!ormer winding connections are the
same as !or any other three$phase applicationH P connections pro.ide the opportunity !or
multiple .oltages/ while " connections en3oy a higher le.el o! reliability Di! one winding !ails open/
the other two can still maintain !ull line .oltages to the loadE.
ModuNe 3.(= Trans!ormers
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n
n
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igure (=.)8 $ Three$phase trans!ormers similarly connectedH DaE star$star $ !or the primary and
secondary one end !rom each winding is connected together !orming a neutralK DbE delta$delta $
one end o! each winding connected to the ne+t winding.
" three phase trans!ormer is e!!ecti.ely the same as three single$phase trans!ormers connected in
a three$phase arrangement and it is possible to use three separate single$phase
trans!ormers/ although it is !ar more usual to ha.e all the windings on the same core. Three$
phase trans!ormers ha.e si+ windings/ three primary and three secondary/ that can be connected
in star DPE or delta DDE con!igurations. The primary winding is commonly denote by a capital P or
D and the secondary windings are denoted by a lower case y or d.
igure (=.)8 DaE shows a trans!ormer where both primary and secondary windings are star
connected/ such a trans!ormer is called a star$star, wye$wye or Pytrans!ormer. igure (=.)8
DbE shows a delta$delta, mesh$mesh or 0d trans!ormer/ where both primary and secondary
cores are delta connected. The secondary and primary coils need not be connected in the same
con!iguration so that star$delta DPdE and delta$star DDyE are also possible and are shown in
!igure (=.)B. Trans!ormers with delta connected secondaries are seldom used to supply
consumer5s loads because there is no position !or a neutral wire/ such trans!ormers are used !or
high .oltage transmission between substations.
igure (=.)8 shows the standard method !or marking three$phase trans!ormer windings. The three
primary windings are labelled with a capital "/ ' and &. The three secondary windings are
labelled with a lower case a/ b and c. Each winding has two ends and labelled ( and ) so that the
ends o! the primary on the second winding are labelled '( and ').
I! the primary and secondary windings are connected similarly Di.e. star$star or delta$deltaE/
calculations are the same as those !or single phase trans!ormers/ as long as the system is
balanced Dsection (=.)BE. *hen the primary and secondary ha.e di!!erent types o! connection/
the o.erall turns ratio o! the trans!ormer is more complicated. or e+ample/ consider a single$
(=$;7
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Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
,se andtor disclosure Is
,se andAor disclosure is TTS Integrated Training System
I
( go.erned by the statement
&cE &nn.rinht C7(:
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
on page ) o! this &hapter.
i lH
Integrated Training System
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phase trans!ormer with a (H( turns ratio/ the input and output .oltages !rom the windings are the
same. This will also be true !or a three$phase trans!ormer with the primary and secondary
windings connected similarly. Lowe.er/ i! the three$phase trans!ormer is connected in star$delta
D!igure (=.)B DaEE/ and has a primary line .oltage o! E/ each o! the star connected primaries will ha.e
the phase .oltage across it/ which is EA5(3 Dthe .oltage between any line and the neutral pointE.
Each o! the secondary windings will then ha.e this same .oltage induced in it/ and since these
windings are delta$connected/ the .oltage EA;3 will be the secondary. Thus/ a star$delta
trans!ormer with a turns ratio o! (H( pro.ides a :3H( step$down. or !igure (=.)BH
Gi
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DaE DbE
igure (=.)B $ Three$phase trans!ormers with primary and secondary windings connected
di!!erentlyH DaE star$deltaK DbE delta$star.
or a delta$star trans!ormer a similar e!!ect happens but there is a (H;3 step$up !or line .oltage in
addition to the e!!ect o! the turns. Thus/ !rom !igure (=.)B DbEH
G i E/:
G) E)
2nly identical trans!ormers should e.er be connected in parallel. Trans!ormers are identical
when their turn ratios are the same and when the primary and secondary windings are
connected in the same way.
#hase shi!t
" 377 phase shi!t is introduced !rom primary to secondary o! a three$phase trans!ormer when
the winding con!igurations are not o! the same type. In other words/ a trans!ormer connected
either P$" or "$P will e+hibit this 377 phase shi!t/ while a trans!ormer connected P$P or " $" will
not.
Module 3.(= Trans!ormers
(=$;(
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Integrated Training System
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Intentionally 'lank
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TTS Integrated Training System
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Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
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TTS Integrated
Training System
Module 3
%icence &ategory '(A6)
Electrical undamentals
,
%
3.(6 ilters
Module 3.(6 ilters
(6$(
,se andAor disclosure Is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
rn rnn$inht 2n in
Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
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&opyright Gotice
6 &opyright. "ll worldwide rights reser.ed. Go part o! this publication may be reproduced/
stored in a retrie.al system or transmitted in any !orm by any other means whatsoe.erH i.e.
photocopy/ electronic/ mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission o!
Total Training Support %td.
0nowledge %e.els $ &ategory "/ (3(/ ') and & "ircra!t Maintenance
%icence
'asic knowledge !or categories "/ '( and ') are indicated by the allocation o! knowledge le.els indicators D(/ ) or
3E against each applicable sub3ect. &ategory & applicants must meet either the category '( or the category ')
basic knowledge le.els.
The knowledge le.el indicators are de!ined as !ollowsH
%EIE% (
J " !amiliarisation with the principal elements o! the sub3ect.
2b3ecti.esH
J The applicant should be !amiliar with the basic elements o! the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to gi.e a simple description o! the whole sub3ect/ using common words and
e+amples.
J The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
%EIE% )
J " general knowledge o! the theoretical and practical aspects o! the sub3ect.
J "n ability to apply that knowledge.
2b3ecti.esH
J The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical !undamentals o! the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to gi.e a general description o! the sub3ect using/ as appropriate/ typical
e+amples.
J The applicant should be able to use mathematical !ormulae in con3unction with physical laws describing the
sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches/ drawings and schematics describing the
sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
%EIE% 3
J " detailed knowledge o! the theoretical and practical aspects o! the sub3ect.
J " capacity to combine and apply the separate elements o! knowledge in a logical and comprehensi.e
manner.
2b3ecti.esH
J The applicant should know the theory o! the sub3ect and interrelationships with other sub3ects.
J The applicant should be able to gi.e a detailed description o! the sub3ect using theoretical !undamentals
and speci!ic e+amples.
J The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical !ormulae related to the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to read/ understand and prepare sketches/ simple drawings and schematics
describing the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manu!acturer5s
instructions.
J The applicant should be able to interpret results !rom .arious sources and measurements and apply
correcti.e action where appropriate.
(6$) Module 3.(6 ilters
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Table o! &ontents
Module 3.(6 ilters
=
*hat is a !ilter?
=
%ow$#ass ilters 6
Ligh$#ass ilters ((
'and$#ass ilters (;
'and$Stop ilters (6
@esonant ilters (B
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Module 3.(6 ilters
(6$3
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Module 3.(6 Enabling 2b3ecti.es
2b3ecti.e
E"S" 66 @e!erence %e.el
ilters
3.(6 (
2peration/ application and uses o! the !ollowing !ilters
%ow pass/ high pass/ band pass/ band stop
9 (
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Module 3.(6 ilters
TTS Integrated Training System
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,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
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Module 3.(6 ilters
*hat is a !ilter?
It is sometimes desirable to ha.e circuits capable o! selecti.ely !iltering one !requency or range o!
!requencies out o! a mi+ o! di!!erent !requencies in a circuit. " circuit designed to per!orm this
!requency selection is called a !ilter circuit/ or sim!ly a !ilter. " common need !or !ilter circuits is in
high$per!ormance stereo systems/ where certain ranges o! audio !requencies need to be
ampli!ied or suppressed !or best sound quality and power e!!iciency. Pou may be !amiliar with
equaliMers/ which allow the amplitudes o! se.eral !requency ranges to be ad3usted to suit the
listener5s taste and acoustic properties o! the listening area. Pou may also be !amiliar with
crosso.er networks/ which block certain ranges o! !requencies !rom reaching speakers. "
tweeter Dhigh$!requency speakerE is ine!!icient at reproducing low$!requency signals such as drum
beats/ so a crosso.er circuit is connected between the tweeter and the stereo5s output terminals to
block low$!requency signals/ only passing high$!requency signals to the speaker5s connection
terminals. This gi.es better audio system e!!iciency and thus better per!ormance.
'oth equaliMers and crosso.er networks are e+amples o! !ilters/ designed to accomplish !iltering o!
certain !requencies.
"nother practical application o! !ilter circuits is in the 1conditioning1 o! non$sinusoidal .oltage
wa.e!orms in power circuits. Some electronic de.ices are sensiti.e to the presence o!
harmonics in the power supply .oltage/ and so require power conditioning !or proper operation. I! a
distorted sine$wa.e .oltage beha.es like a series o! harmonic wa.e!orms added to the
!undamental !requency/ then it should be possible to construct a !ilter circuit that only allows the
!undamental wa.e!orm !requency to pass through/ blocking all Dhigher$!requencyE harmonics.
Module 3.(6 ilters
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%ow$#ass ilters
'y de!inition/ a low$pass !ilter is a circuit o!!ering easy passage to low$!requency signals and
di!!icult passage to high$!requency signals. There are two basic kinds o! circuits capable o!
accomplishing this ob3ecti.e/ and many .ariations o! each oneH The inducti.e low$pass !ilter in
igure (6.( and the capaciti.e low$pass !ilter in igure (6.).
igure (6.( $ Inducti.e low$pass !ilter
The inductor5s impedance increases with increasing !requency. This high impedance in series
tends to block high$!requency signals !rom getting to the load.
I
(.77
7/B7
7/67
7.;7
7.)7( ...
7.7
$ .rnD)E
...IO. .r. .. I...
.. r...
(77.7 )77.7
!requency LM
igure (6.) $ The response o! an inducti.e low$pass
!ilter !alls o!! with increasing !requency.
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Module 3.(6 ilters
TTS Integrated Training System ,se andAor disclosure is
,se andAor disclosure is TTS Integrated Training System
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igure (6.3 $ &apaciti.e low$pass !ilter.
The capacitor5s impedance decreases with increasing !requency. This low impedance in parallel
with the load resistance tends to short out high$!requency signals/ dropping most o! the .oltage
across series resistor @(. Digure (6.;E
MI
877.7
677.7 / .
=77.7
;77.7
377/7
)77.7( ...
7.7
$ .mD)E
.. l... ..;... i.. i... ... i
..//... .../.../
=7/7 (77.7 (=7/7
!requency LM
igure (6.; $ The response o! a capaciti.e lowpass
!ilter !alls o!! with increasing !requency.
The inducti.e low$pass !ilter is the pinnacle o! simplicity/ with only one component comprising
the !ilter. The capaciti.e .ersion o! this !ilter is not that much more comple+/ with only a resistor and
capacitor needed !or operation. Lowe.er/ despite their increased comple+ity/ capaciti.e
!ilter designs are generally pre!erred o.er inducti.e because capacitors tend to be 1purer1
reacti.e components than inductors and there!ore are more predictable in their beha.ior. 'y
44pure1 I mean that capacitors e+hibit little resisti.e e!!ects than inductors/ making them almost
(77] reacti.e. Inductors/ on the other hand/ typically e+hibit signi!icant dissipati.e Dresistor$likeE
e!!ects/ both in the long lengths o! wire used to make them/ and in the magnetic losses o! the
core material. &apacitors also tend to participate less in 1coupling1 e!!ects with other
components Dgenerate andAor recei.e inter!erence !rom other components .ia mutual electric or
magnetic !ieldsE than inductors/ and are less e+pensi.e.
Lowe.er/ the inducti.e low$pass !ilter is o!ten pre!erred in "&$D& power supplies to !ilter out the
"& 1ripple1 wa.e!orm created when "& is con.erted Drecti!iedE into D&/ passing only the pure
Module 3.(6 ilters
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D& component. The primary reason !or this is the requirement o! low !ilter resistance !or the
output o! such a power supply. " capaciti.e low$pass !ilter requires an e+tra resistance in series
with the source/ whereas the inducti.e low$pass !ilter does not. In the design o! a high$current
circuit like a D& power supply where additional series resistance is undesirable/ the inducti.e
low$pass !ilter is the better design choice. 2n the other hand/ i! low weight and compact siMe are
higher priorities than low internal supply resistance in a power supply design/ the capaciti.e lowpass
!ilter might make more sense.
"ll low$pass !ilters are rated at a certain cuto!! !requency. That is/ the !requency abo.e which
the output .oltage !alls below 87.8] o! the input .oltage. This cuto!! percentage o! 87.8 is not
really arbitrary/ all though it may seem so at !irst glance. In a simple capaciti.eAresisti.e low$
pass !ilter/ it is the !requency at which capaciti.e reactance in ohms equals resistance in ohms.
In a simple capaciti.e low$pass !ilter Done resistor/ one capacitorE/ the cuto!! !requency is gi.en
asH
!. tot F
MI $ um D)E
867.7 /
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877.7
. h
Gg ...
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6B7/7
667/7 K. ..
...K...
;7.7 ;=/7 =7.7
!requency
LM
igure (6.= $ or the capaciti.e low$pass !ilter with @ R
=77 D( and & R 8 Y/ the 2utput should be 87.8] at
;=.;83 LM.
!cutot! R ( AD)Tr@&E R ( AD)TrD=77 2ED8 YEE R ;=.;83 LM
*hen dealing with !ilter circuits/ it is always important to note that the response o! the !ilter
depends on the !ilter5s component .alues and the impedance o! the load. I! a cuto!! !requency
equation !ails to gi.e consideration to load impedance/ it assumes no load and will !ail to gi.e
accurate results !or a real$li!e !ilter conducting power to a load.
2ne !requent application o! the capaciti.e low$pass !ilter principle is in the design o! circuits
ha.ing components or sections sensiti.e to electrical 1noise.1 "s mentioned at the beginning o! the
last chapter/ sometimes "& signals can 1couple1 !rom one circuit to another .ia capacitance
(6$B
Module 3.(6 ilters
TTS Integrated Training System
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,se andAor disclosure is
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D&strayE andAor mutual inductance DMstrayE between the two sets o! conductors. " prime e+ample
%i
o! this is unwanted "& signals D1noise1E becoming impressed on D& power lines supplying
sensiti.e circuitsH Digure (6.=E
&stray
%i
Vwi re Van re
1&l.ean1 D& power
1Dit1 1 i 1 D& power
supply
Eio
5d
igure (6.= $ Goise is coupled by stray capacitance and mutual inductance
into 1clean1 D& power.
The oscilloscope$meter on the le!t shows the 1clean1 power !rom the D& .oltage source. "!ter
coupling with the "& noise source .ia stray mutual inductance and stray capacitance/ though/ the
.oltage as measured at the load terminals is now a mi+ o! "& and D&/ the "& being
unwanted. Gormally/ one would e+pect Eioad to be precisely identical to Esource/ because the
uninterrupted conductors connecting them should make the two sets o! points electrically
common. Lowe.er/ power conductor impedance allows the two .oltages to di!!er/ which means the
noise magnitude can .ary at di!!erent points in the D& system.
I! we wish to pre.ent such 1noise1 !rom reaching the D& load/ all we need to do is connect a
low$pass !ilter near the load to block any coupled signals. In its simplest !orm/ this is nothing
%
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i
t
%9
more than a capacitor connected directly across the power terminals o! the load/ the capacitor
beha.ing as a .ery low impedance to any "& noise/ and shorting it out. Such a capacitor is
called a decoupling capacitorH Digure (6.6E
Module 3.(6 ilters
(6$C
Integrated Training System
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1&lean1 D& power
E Supply
D& power wt
decoupling capacitor
Elond
igure (6.6 $ Decoupling capacitor/ applied to load/ !ilters noise !rom D& >
power supply.
( (
" cursory glance at a crowded printed$circuit board D#&'E will typically re.eal decoupling
capacitors scattered throughout/ usually located as close as possible to the sensiti.e D& loads.
&apacitor siMe is usually 7.(
Y or more/ a minimum amount o! capacitance needed to produce
a
low enough impedance to short out any noise. <reater capacitance will do a better 3ob at
!iltering noise/ but siMe and economics limit decoupling capacitors to meager .alues.
(6$(7
Module 3.(6 ilters
TTS Integrated Training System
,se andAor disclosure is
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
6 &oD.riaht )7(7
6 &opyright )7(7
go.erned by the statement
on page ) o! this &hapter.
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Ligh$#ass ilters
" high$pass !ilter5s task is 3ust the opposite o! a low$pass !ilterH to o!!er easy passage o! a high$
!requency signal and di!!icult passage to a low$!requency signal. "s one might e+pect/ the
inducti.e Digure (6.8E and capaciti.e Digure (6.BE .ersions o! the high$pass !ilter are 3ust the
opposite o! their respecti.e low$pass !ilter designsH
&(
7.= %
7
7
igure (6.8 $ &apaciti.e high$pass !ilter.
The capacitor5s impedance Digure (6.8E increases with decreasing !requency. Digure (6.BE
This high impedance in series tends to block low$!requency signals !rom getting to load.
mI $ .mD)E
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677.7
;77.7
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)77/7
o ...
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a7
7/7
(77.7 )77.7
!requency LM
igure (6.B $ The response o! the capaciti.e high$pass !ilter
increases with !requency.
L
:
Module 3.(6 ilters
(6$((
Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
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n
.(
7
S
igure (6.C $ Inducti.e high$pass !ilter.
The inductor5s impedance Digure (6.CE decreases with decreasing !requency. Digure (6.(7E
This low impedance in parallel tends to short out low$!requency signals !rom getting to the load
resistor. "s a consequence/ most o! the .oltage gets dropped across series resistor @(.
n
:
MI $ .mD)E
677.7
;77W7 ./
)77.7 S ...
7 71.
7.7 (77.7 )77.7
!requency LM
igure (6.(7 $ The response o! the inducti.e high$pass
!ilter increases with !requency.
This time/ the capaciti.e design is the simplest/ requiring only one component abo.e and beyond
the load. "nd/ again/ the reacti.e purity o! capacitors o.er inductors tends to !a.or their use in
!ilter design/ especially with high$pass !ilters where high !requencies commonly cause inductors
to beha.e strangely due to the skin e!!ect and electromagnetic core losses.
"s with low$pass !ilters/ high$pass !ilters ha.e a rated cuto!! !requency/ abo.e which the output
.oltage increases abo.e 87.8] o! the input .oltage. :ust as in the case o! the capaciti.e low$
pass !ilter circuit/ the capaciti.e high$pass !ilter5s cuto!! !requency can be !ound with the same
!ormulaH
(
/utott R
n
:
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) it@&
(6$()
Module 3.(6 ilters
TTS Integrated Training System
,se andAor disclosure is
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
r' &nnvrinht
8::
6 &opyright )7(7
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%
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In the e+ample circuit/ there is no resistance other than the load resistor/ so that is the .alue !or
@ in the !ormula.
,sing a stereo system as a practical e+ample/ a capacitor connected in series with the tweeter
DtrebleE speaker will ser.e as a high$pass !ilter/ imposing a high impedance to low$!requency bass
signals/ thereby pre.enting that power !rom being wasted on a speaker ine!!icient !or
reproducing such sounds. In like !ashion/ an inductor connected in series with the woo!er DbassE
speaker will ser.e as a low$pass !ilter !or the low !requencies that particular speaker is designed to
reproduce. In this simple e+ample circuit/ the midrange speaker is sub3ected to the !ull
spectrum o! !requencies !rom the stereo5s output. More elaborate !ilter networks are sometimes
used/ but this should gi.e you the general idea. "lso bear in mind that I5m only showing you one
channel Deither le!t or rightE on this stereo system. " real stereo would ha.e si+ speakersH )
woo!ers/ ) midranges/ and ) tweeters.
low$pass
*oo!er
Stereo
E
%
igure (6.((
Midrange
high$pass
"
Tweeter
G
$ Ligh$pass !ilter routes high !requencies to tweeter/
while low$pass !ilter routes lows to woo!er.
or better per!ormance yet/ we might like to ha.e some kind o! !ilter circuit capable o! passing
!requencies that are between low DbassE and high DtrebleE to the midrange speaker so that none o!
the low$ or high$!requency signal power is wasted on a speaker incapable o! e!!iciently
reproducing those sounds. *hat we would be looking !or is called a band$pass !ilter/ which is
the topic o! the ne+t section.
%
(6$(3
Module 3.(6 ilters
Integrated Training System
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'and$#ass ilters
There are applications where a particular band/ or spread/ or !requencies need to be !iltered
!rom a wider range o! mi+ed signals. ilter circuits can be designed to accomplish this task by
combining the properties o! low$pass and high$pass into a single !ilter. The result is called a
band$pass !ilter. &reating a bandpass !ilter !rom a low$pass and high$pass !ilter can be
illustrated using block diagramsH Digure (6.()E
Signal
input
%ow$pass !ilter
blocks !requencies
that are too high
Ligh$pass !ilter
blocks !requencies
that are too low
Si nal n
ou put
n
igure (6.() $ System le.el block diagram o! a band$pass !ilter.
*hat emerges !rom the series combination o! these two !ilter circuits is a circuit that will only allow
passage o! those !requencies that are neither too high nor too low. ,sing real
components/ here is what a typical schematic might look like igure (6.(3. The response o! the
band$pass !ilter is shown in Digure (6.(;E
Source
I
7
%ow$pass
!ilter section
@(
a )7
( I
<(
7
Ligh$pass
!ilter section
( !i
).= N. @load ( kS
igure (6.(3 $ " band$pass !ilter circuit
(6$(;
Module 3.(6 ilters
,se andAor disclosure is TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
&cE &nn.rinht C7(7
TTS Integrated Training System ,se andAor disclosure is
6 &opyright )7(7
go.erned by the statement
on page ) o! this &hapter/
Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
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r
%e
mI $ .mD3E
677.7
==7.7
=77.7
;=7.7( ... H...
7.7 )77.7 ;77.7 677.7
!requency LM
igure (6.(; $ The response o! a capaciti.e bandpass
!ilter peaks within a narrow !requency range.
'and$pass !ilters can also be constructed using inductors/ but as mentioned be!ore/ the reacti.e
1purity1 o! capacitors gi.es them a design ad.antage. I! we were to design a bandpass !ilter using
inductors/ it might look something like igure (6.(=.
Source Ligh$pass %ow$pass
L
%
r$(
%i
u
!ilter section !ilter section
@t %/
igure (6.(= $ Inducti.e band$pass !ilter.
The !act that the high$pass section comes 1!irst1 in this design instead o! the low$pass section
makes no di!!erence in its o.erall operation. It will still !ilter out all !requencies too high or too
low.
*hile the general idea o! combining low$pass and high$pass !ilters together to make a
bandpass !ilter is sound/ it is not without certain limitations. 'ecause this type o! band$pass !ilter
works by relying on either section to block unwanted !requencies/ it can be di!!icult to design such a
!ilter to allow unhindered passage within the desired !requency range. 'oth the low$pass and high$
pass sections will always be blocking signals to some e+tent/ and their combined e!!ort makes !or an
attenuated Dreduced amplitudeE signal at best/ e.en at the peak o! the 1pass$band1 !requency range.
This signal attenuation becomes more pronounced i! the !ilter is designed to be more selecti.e
Dsteeper cur.e/ narrower band o! passable !requenciesE.
Module 3.(6 ilters (6$(=
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'and$Stop ilters
"lso called band$elimination/ band$re3ect/ or notch !ilters/ this kind o! !ilter passes all
!requencies abo.e and below a particular range set by the component .alues. Got surprisingly/ it
can be made out o! a low$pass and a high$pass !ilter/ 3ust like the band$pass design/ e+cept that
this time we connect the two !ilter sections in parallel with each other instead o! in series. Digure
(6.(6E
passes low !requencies
%ow$pass !ilter
Signal 3 Si n al
input output
o Ligh$pass !ilter
passes high !requencies
igure (6.(6 $ System le.el block diagram o! a band$stop !ilter.
&onstructed using two capaciti.e !ilter sections/ it looks something like Digure (6.(8E.
@/
source load
igure (6.(8 $ 1Twin$T1 band$stop !ilter.
The low$pass !ilter section is comprised o! @(i @)/ and &( in a 1T1 con!iguration. The high$pass
!ilter section is comprised o! &)/ &3/ and @3 in a 1T1 con!iguration as well. Together/ this
arrangement is commonly known as a 1Twin$T1 !ilter/ gi.ing sharp response when the
component .alues are chosen in the !ollowing ratiosH
#om!onent value ratios for
the ;Twin$T; band$sto! Tlter
@(R@/R)D.@3E
&/R
,
n
n
%i
%i
&aRD7.=E&(
<i.en these component ratios/ the !requency o! ma+imum re3ection Dthe 1notch !requency1E can
be calculated as !ollowsH
(6$(6
Module 3.(6 ilters
TTS Integrated Training System ,se andlor disclosure is
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
6 &opyright )7(7
go.erned by the statement
on page ) o! this &hapter.
L
Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
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%
r$
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677.7
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7.7
7/7 7/= (/7 (.=
!requency kLM
igure (6.(B $ @esponse o! 1twin$T1 band$stop !ilter.
Module 3.(6 ilters
(6$(8
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@esonant ilters
So !ar/ the !ilter designs we5.e concentrated on ha.e employed either capacitors or inductors/
but ne.er both at the same time. *e should know by now that combinations o! % and & will tend
to resonate/ and this property can be e+ploited in designing band$pass and band$stop !ilter
circuits.
Series %& circuits gi.e minimum impedance at resonance/ while parallel %& D54tank1E circuits gi.e
ma+imum impedance at their resonant !requency. 0nowing this/ we ha.e two basic strategies !or
designing either band$pass or band$stop !ilters.
or band$pass !ilters/ the two basic resonant strategies are thisH series %& to pass a signal
Digure (6.(CE/ or parallel %& Digure (6.)(E to short a signal. The two schemes will be
contrasted and simulated hereH
7
7
igure (6.(C $ Series resonant %& band$pass !ilter.
Series %& components pass signal at resonance/ and block signals o! any other !requencies
!rom getting to the load. Digure (6.(CE
I
(.77
7.B7
7.67
7.;7
7/)7( ...
7.7
$ .mD3E
l
...H..
(77.7 )77.7 377.7
!requency LM
igure (6.)7 $ Series resonant band$pass !ilterH
.oltage peaks at resonant !requency o! (=C.(= LM.
(6$(B
Module 3.(6 ilters
TTS Integrated Training System ,se andAor disclosure is
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
&&E &nn.rinht ?ni n
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" couple o! points to noteH see how there is .irtually no signal attenuation within the 1pass band1
Dthe range o! !requencies near the load .oltage peakE/ unlike the band$pass !ilters made !rom
L@
%$
((
((
capacitors or inductors alone. "lso/ since this !ilter works on the principle o! series %&
resonance/ the resonant !requency o! which is una!!ected by circuit resistance/ the .alue o! the load
resistor will not skew the peak !requency. Lowe.er/ di!!erent .alues !or the load resistor will change
the 1steepness1 o! the 'ode plot Dthe 1selecti.ity1 o! the !ilterE.
The other basic style o! resonant band$pass !ilters employs a tank circuit Dparallel %&
combinationE to short out signals too high or too low in !requency !rom getting to the loadH
Digure (6.)(E
t
%
r$
r$
!ilter $$$$$$
@( )
7( i I $$$5 7
7 7
igure (6.)( $ #arallel resonant band$pass !ilter.
The tank circuit will ha.e a lot o! impedance at resonance/ allowing the signal to get to the load
with minimal attenuation. ,nder or o.er resonant !requency/ howe.er/ the tank circuit will ha.e a
low impedance/ shorting out the signal and dropping most o! it across series resistor @(.
Digure (6.))E
MI $ .mD)E
B77.7 . I/... . I .. . I ... ... ell ...
677.7
;77.7
)77.7
7.7
J...
. !...
(77.7
. ".
. a... . G...
)77.7 377.7
i %
,
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LM
igure (6.)) $
#arallel resonant
!ilterH .oltage
peaks a
resonant !requency o!
(=C.(= LM.
:ust like the low$pass and high$pass !ilter designs relying on a series resistance and a parallel
1shorting1 component to attenuate unwanted !requencies/ this resonant circuit can ne.er pro.ide
(6$(C
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,se andAor disclosure is TTS Integrated Training System
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!ull input DsourceE .oltage to the load. That series resistance will always be dropping some
amount o! .oltage so long as there is a load resistance connected to the output o! the !ilter.
It should be noted that this !orm o! band$pass !ilter circuit is .ery popular in analog radio tuning
circuitry/ !or selecting a particular radio !requency !rom the multitudes o! !requencies a.ailable
!rom the antenna. In most analog radio tuner circuits/ the rotating dial !or station selection
mo.es a .ariable capacitor in a tank circuit.
%. : L
IE l
li
t. :
igure (6.)3 $ Iariable capacitor tunes radio recei.er tank
circuit to select one out o! many broadcast stations.
The .ariable capacitor and air$core inductor shown in igure (6.)3 photograph o! a simple radio
comprise the main elements in the tank circuit !ilter used to discriminate one radio station5s
signal !rom another.
:ust as we can use series and parallel %& resonant circuits to pass only those !requencies
within a certain range/ we can also use them to block !requencies within a certain range/
creating a band$stop !ilter. "gain/ we ha.e two ma3or strategies to !ollow in doing this/ to use
either series or parallel resonance. irst/ we5ll look at the series .arietyH Digure (6.);E
n
(6$)7
Module 3.(6 ilters
TTS Integrated Training System ,se andAor disclosure is
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go.erned by the statement
on page ) o! this &hapter.
go.erned by the statement
n rn./.. (i h; 2"( ((
9%t
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@t
=77 S
%
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%a
n.
7
( I @lond ( kS
3
(7 E%
7
igure (6.); $ Series resonant band$stop !ilter.
*hen the series %& combination reaches resonance/ its .ery low impedance shorts out the
%i
i
u
signal/ dropping it across resistor @( and pre.enting its passage on to the load. Digure (6.)=E
MI $$ .mD)E
;77.7
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7.7
.. r..y r.. r...
. ... .r... ... r.n...
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(77.7 )77.7
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.. rr...
.. I...
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igure (6.)= $ Series resonant band$stop !ilterH
Gotch !requency R %& resonant !requency D(=C.(=
LME.
8
Module 3.(6 ilters
(6$)(
I
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Integrated Training System
Designed in association with the
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Ge+t/ we will e+amine the parallel resonant band$stop !ilterH Digure (6.)6E
3( (
(kS
7 7
igure (6.)6 $ #arallel resonant band$stop !ilter/
The parallel %& components present a high impedance at resonant !requency/ thereby blocking the
signal !rom the load at that !requency. &on.ersely/ it passes signals to the load at any other
!requencies. Digure (6.)8E
I $ .mD)E
(.77
./...F
L
7.=7
. ../... .../.../../.../...
7.77
(77.7 (=7.7 )77.7
!requency LM
igure (6.)8 $ #arallel resonant band$stop
!ilterH Gotch !requency R %& resonant
!requency D(=C.(= LME.
2nce again/ notice how the absence o! a series resistor makes !or minimum attenuation !or all
the desired DpassedE signals. The amplitude at the notch !requency/ on the other hand/ is .ery
low. In other words/ this is a .ery 1selecti.e1 !ilter.
In all these resonant !ilter designs/ the selecti.ity depends greatly upon the 1purity1 o! the
inductance and capacitance used. I! there is any stray resistance Despecially likely in the
inductorE/ this will diminish the !ilter5s ability to !inely discriminate !requencies/ as well as
introduce antiresonant e!!ects that will skew the peakAnotch !requency.
(6$))
Module 3.(6 ilters
TTS Integrated Training System
,se andAor disclosure is
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
n !Hnn.rinht goi n
6 &opyright )7(7
go.erned by the statement
on page ) o! this &hapter.
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Designed in association with the
%(
/
%i
%
club66pro.co.uk question practice aid
" word o! caution to those designing low$pass and high$pass !ilters is in order at this point. "!ter
assessing the standard @& and %@ low$pass and high$pass !ilter designs/ it might occur to a
student that a better/ more e!!ecti.e design o! low$pass or high$pass !ilter might be realiMed by
combining capaciti.e and inducti.e elements together like igure (6.)B.
!ilter
%( )
(77mL (77atL
.( I &/ ( N% @l 2
T
7 7
igure (6.)B $ &apaciti.e Inducti.e low$pass !ilter.
The inductors should block any high !requencies/ while the capacitor should short out any high
I
!requencies as well/ both working together to allow only low !requency signals to reach the load.
"t !irst/ this seems to be a good strategy/ and eliminates the need !or a series resistance.
ri
Lowe.er/ the more insight!ul student will recogniMe that any combination o! capacitors and
inductors together in a circuit is likely to cause resonant e!!ects to happen at a certain
!requency. @esonance/ as we ha.e seen be!ore/ can cause strange things to happen.
%
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N
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I $ .mD3E
;.7 . I ... I...
3.7
)/7 A... ...(
(/7 . V... ./
7.75 $
7.77 7.=7 (.77
!requency kLM
igure (6.)C $ ,ne+pected response o! %$& low$pass !ilter.
*hat was supposed to be a low$pass !ilter turns out to be a band$pass !ilter with a peak
somewhere around =)6 LM9 The capacitance and inductance in this !ilter circuit are attaining
resonance at that point/ creating a large .oltage drop around &(/ which is seen at the load/
regardless o! %)5s attenuating in!luence. The output .oltage to the load at this point actually
e+ceeds the input DsourceE .oltage9 " little more re!lection re.eals that i! %( and &) are at
resonance/ they will impose a .ery hea.y D.ery low impedanceE load on the "& source/ which
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might not be good either. *e5ll run the same analysis again/ only this time plotting &(5s .oltage/
.mD)E in igure (6.37/ and the source current/ ID.(E/ along with load .oltage/ .mD3EH
,nites .mD)E .mD3E
,nits
5$ (77QmagD.(fbranchE
ma
;.7( ...
.ID I(HH... ./ .../..t
; 7
.mD)E
3.7( ...
.. ! H.H/k... ././
R 3 7
).7( ... . .m D3E .T...
) 7
../
( 7
7.=7 (.77 :
!requency kLM
igure (6.37 $ &urrent increases at the unwanted
resonance o! the %$& low$pass !ilter.
Sure enough/ we see the .oltage across &( and the source current spiking to a high point at the
same !requency where the load .oltage is ma+imum. I! we were e+pecting this !ilter to pro.ide a
simple low$pass !unction/ we might be disappointed by the results.
The problem is that an %$& !ilter has a input impedance and an output impedance which must be
matched. The .oltage source impedance must match the input impedance o! the !ilter/ and the !ilter
output impedance must be matched by 1rload1 !or a !lat response. The input and output impedance
is gi.en by the square root o! D,&E.
V
R D,&E(()
Taking the component .alues !rom Digure (6.3(E/ we can !ind the impedance o! the !ilter/ and
the required / @g and @load to match it. % :
or %R (77 mL/ &R (Y
8
V R D,&E(
A
)RDD(77 mLEAD( YEE(A) R 3(6 &E
In igure (6.3(
we ha.e added @g R 3(6 7 to the generator/ and changed the load @load !rom
(777 7 to 3(6 7. Gote that i! we needed to dri.e a (777 7 load/ the ,& ratio could ha.e been
I:
ad3usted to match that resistance.
n
n
(6$);
Module 3.(6 ilters
TTS Integrated Training System
,se andAor disclosure is
,se andAor disclosure is
TTS Integrated Training System
go.erned by the statement
7 &opyright )7(7
6 &opyright )7(7
go.erned by the statement
on page ) o! this &hapter/
n
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!ilter $$$
3(6 a / (77(((( (77 mL
(.7 t(
:1load
3(6S
(../
igure (6.3( $ &ircuit o! source and load matched %$& low$pass !ilter.
, igure (6.3) shows the 1!lat1 response o! the %$& low pass !ilter when the source and load
impedance match the !ilter input and output impedances.
Di.
$ wmD3E
=77.7
;77.7
.../.../.../../
%
377.7
)77.7
.o...
(77/7( ...
7.77 7.=7 (.77
!requency kLM
igure (6.3) $ The response o! impedance matched %$
& low$pass !ilter is nearly !lat up to the cut$o!!
!requency.
The point to make in comparing the response o! the unmatched !ilter Digure (6.)CE to the
matched !ilter Digure (6.3)E is that .ariable load on the !ilter produces a considerable change in
.oltage. This property is directly applicable to %$& !iltered power supplies$$ the regulation is
poor. The power supply .oltage changes with a change in load. This is undesirable.
This poor load regulation can be mitigated by a swinging choke. This is a choke/ inductor/
designed to saturate when a large D& current passes through it. 'y saturate/ we mean that the
D& current creates a 1too1 high le.el o! !lu+ in the magnetic core/ so that the "& component o!
current cannot .ary the !lu+. Since induction is proportional to doAdt/ the inductance is
decreased by the hea.y D& current. The decrease in inductance decreases reactance U%.
%I
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Decreasing reactance/ reduces the .oltage drop across the inductorK thus/ increasing the
.oltage at the !ilter output. This impro.es the .oltage regulation with respect to .ariable loads.
Despite the unintended resonance/ low$pass !ilters made up o! capacitors and inductors are
!requently used as !inal stages in "&AD& power supplies to !ilter the unwanted "& 1ripple1
.oltage out o! the D& con.erted !rom "&. *hy is this/ i! this particular !ilter design possesses a
potentially troublesome resonant point?
The answer lies in the selection o! !ilter component siMes and the !requencies encountered !rom
an "&AD& con.erter Drecti!ierE. *hat we5re trying to do in an "&AD& power supply !ilter is
separate D& .oltage !rom a small amount o! relati.ely high$!requency "& .oltage. The !ilter
inductors and capacitors are generally quite large Dse.eral Lenrys !or the inductors and
thousands o! Y !or the capacitors is typicalE/ making the !ilter5s resonant !requency .ery/ .ery
low. D& o! course/ has a 1!requency1 o! Mero/ so there5s no way it can make an %& circuit
resonate. The ripple .oltage/ on the other hand/ is a non$sinusoidal "& .oltage consisting o! a
!undamental !requency at least twice the !requency o! the con.erted "& .oltage/ with harmonics
many times that in addition. or plug$in$the$wall power supplies running on 67 LM "& power D67
LM ,nited StatesK =7 LM in EuropeE/ the lowest !requency the !ilter will e.er see is ()7 LM D(77
LM in EuropeE/ which is well abo.e its resonant point. There!ore/ the potentially troublesome
resonant point in such a !ilter is completely a.oided.
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igure (6.33 $ "&AD& power supply !ilter pro.ides
1ripple !ree1 D& power.
*ith a !ull () .olts D& at the load and only 3;.() YI o! "& le!t !rom the ( .olt "& source
imposed across the load/ this circuit design pro.es itsel! to be a .ery e!!ecti.e power supply
!ilter.
The lesson learned here about resonant e!!ects also applies to the design o! high$pass !ilters
using both capacitors and inductors. So long as the desired and undesired !requencies are well to
either side o! the resonant point/ the !ilter will work 20. 'ut i! any signal o! signi!icant
magnitude close to the resonant !requency is applied to the input o! the !ilter/ strange things will
happen9
(6$)6 Module 3.(6 ilters
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TTS Integrated Training System ,se andAor disclosure is
,se andAor disclosure is
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r8
Summary
"s lengthy as this chapter has been up to this point/ it only begins to scratch the sur!ace o! !ilter
design. " quick perusal o! any ad.anced !ilter design te+tbook is su!!icient to pro.e this point. The
mathematics in.ol.ed with component selection and !requency response prediction is
daunting to say the least $$ well beyond the scope o! the E"S" #art$66 syllabus.
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TTS Integrated Training System ,se andAor disclosure is
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TTS Integrated Training System
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TTS Integrated
Training System
Module 3
%icence &ategory '(A6)
Electrical undamentals
3.(8 "& <enerators
Module 3.(8 "& <enerators
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&opyright Gotice
6 &opyright. "ll worldwide rights reser.ed. Go part o! this publication may be reproduced/
stored in a retrie.al system or transmitted in any !orm by any other means whatsoe.erH i.e.
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'asic knowledge !or categories "/ '( and ') are indicated by the allocation o! knowledge le.els indicators D(/ ) or
3E against each applicable sub3ect. &ategory & applicants must meet either the category 'i or the category ')
basic knowledge le.els.
The knowledge le.el indicators are de!ined as !ollowsH
%EIE% (
J " !amiliarisation with the principal elements o! the sub3ect.
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J The applicant should be !amiliar with the basic elements o! the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to gi.e a simple description o! the whole sub3ect/ using common words and
e+amples.
J The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
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J " general knowledge o! the theoretical and practical aspects o! the sub3ect.
J "n ability to apply that knowledge.
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J The applicant should be able to gi.e a general description o! the sub3ect using/ as appropriate/ typical
e+amples.
J The applicant should be able to use mathematical !ormulae in con3unction with physical laws describing the
sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches/ drawings and schematics describing the
sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
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J " detailed knowledge o! the theoretical and practical aspects o! the sub3ect.
J " capacity to combine and apply the separate elements o! knowledge in a logical and comprehensi.e
manner.
2b3ecti.esH
J The applicant should know the theory o! the sub3ect and interrelationships with other sub3ects.
J The applicant should be able to gi.e a detailed description o! the sub3ect using theoretical !undamentals
and speci!ic e+amples.
J The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical !ormulae related to the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to read/ understand and prepare sketches/ simple drawings and schematics
describing the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manu!acturer5s
instructions.
J The applicant should be able to interpret results !rom .arious sources and measurements and apply
correcti.e action where appropriate.
(8$) Module 3.(8 "& <enerators
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Table o! &ontents
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Modul
e 3.(8
"&
<ener
ators
=
In
tr
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uc
tio
n =
'asic "& <enerators =
@otating$"rmature "& <enerators =
@otating$ield "& <enerators 8
#ractical "& <enerators B
unctions o! "& <enerator &omponents C
"& <enerator &haracteristics and %imitations ((
Single$#hase "& <enerators ()
Two$#hase "& <enerators (3
Three$#hase "& <enerator (6
requency (C
Ioltage @egulation )(
#rinciples o! "& Ioltage &ontrol )(
#arallel 2peration o! "& <enerators )(
Module 3.(8 "& <enerators
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Module 3.(8 Enabling 2b3ecti.es
2b3ecti.e
"& <enerators
@otation o! loop in a magnetic !ield and wa.e!orm produced
2peration and construction o! re.ol.ing armature and
re.ol.ing !ield type "& generators
Single phase/ two phase and three phase generators
Three phase star and delta connections ad.antages and
uses
#ermanent Magnet <enerators
(8$;
Module 3.(8 "& <enerators
E"S" 66 @e!erence %e.el
3.(8 )
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%
Module 3.(8 "& <enerators
Introduction
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% Most o! the electrical power used aboard aircra!t is "&. "s a result/ the "& generator is the
most important means o! producing electrical power. "& generators/ generally called
k
generators/ .ary greatly in siMe depending upon the load to which they supply power. or
I e+ample/ the generators in use at hydroelectric plants/ such as Loo.er Dam/ are tremendous in
siMe/ generating thousands o! kilowatts at .ery high .oltage le.els. "nother e+ample is the
generator in a typical automobile/ which is .ery small by comparison. It weighs only a !ew
pounds and produces between (77 and )77 watts o! power/ usually at a potential o! () .olts.
Many o! the terms and principles co.ered in this chapter will be !amiliar to you. They are the
%
same as those co.ered in the chapter on D& generators. Pou are encouraged to re!er back/ as
needed/ and to re!er to any other source that will help you master the sub3ect o! this chapter. Go
one source meets the complete needs o! e.eryone.
'asic "& <enerators
@egardless o! siMe/ all electrical generators/ whether D& or "&/ depend upon the principle o!
magnetic induction. "n EM is induced in a coil as a result o! D(E a coil cutting through a
magnetic !ield/ or D)E a magnetic !ield cutting through a coil. "s long as there is relati.e motion
between a conductor and a magnetic !ield/ a .oltage will be induced in the conductor. That part
o! a generator that produces the magnetic !ield is called the !ield. That part in which the .oltage
is induced is called the armature. or relati.e motion to take place between the conductor and
%
the magnetic !ield/ all generators must ha.e two mechanical parts $ a rotor and a stator. The
rotor is the part that rotatesK the stator is the part that remains stationary. In a D& generator/ the
armature is always the rotor. In generators/ the armature may be either the rotor or stator.
@otating$"rmature "& <enerators
The rotating$armature generator is similar in construction to the D& generator in that the
armature rotates in a stationary magnetic !ield as shown in igure (8.(/ .iew ". In the D&
generator/ the EM generated in the armature windings is con.erted !rom "& to D& by means o!
the commutator. In the generator/ the generated "& is brought to the load unchanged by means o!
slip rings. The rotating armature is !ound only in generators o! low power rating and
generally is not used to supply electric power in large quantities.
%
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Module 3.(8 "& <enerators
(8$=
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@otating$ield "& <enerators
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The rotating$!ield generator has a stationary armature winding and a rotating$!ield winding as
shown in igure (8.(/ .iew ' The ad.antage o! ha.ing a stationary armature winding is that the
generated .oltage can be connected directly to the load.
" rotating armature requires slip rings and brushes to conduct the current !rom the armature to the
load. The armature/ brushes/ and slip rings are di!!icult to insulate/ and arc$o.ers and short
circuits can result at high .oltages. or this reason/ high$.oltage generators are usually o! the
rotating$!ield type. Since the .oltage applied to the rotating !ield is low .oltage D&/ the problem o!
high .oltage arc$o.er at the slip rings does not e+ist.
The stationary armature/ or stator/ o! this type o! generator holds the windings that are cut by the
rotating magnetic !ield. The .oltage generated in the armature as a result o! this cutting action is
the "& power that will be applied to the load.
The stators o! all rotating$!ield generators are about the same.
The stator consists o! a laminated iron core with the armature windings embedded in this core as
shown in igure (8.). The core is secured to the stator !rame.
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Module 3.(8 "& <enerators
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#ractical "& <enerators
The generators described so !ar in this chapter are elementary in natureK they are seldom used
e+cept as e+amples to aid in understanding practical generators.
The remainder o! this chapter will relate the principles o! the elementary generator to the
generators actually in use aboard aircra!t. The !ollowing paragraphs in this chapter will introduce
such concepts as prime mo.ers/ !ield e+citation/ armature characteristics and limitations/
singlephase and polyphase generators/ controls/ regulation/ and parallel operation.
(8$B
Module 3.(8 "& <enerators
TTS Integrated Training System
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unctions o! "& <enerator &omponents
" typical rotating$!ield "& generator consists o! an generator and a smaller D& generator built
into a single unit. The output o! the generator section supplies alternating .oltage to the load.
The only purpose !or the D& e+citer generator is to supply the direct current required to
maintain the generator !ield. This D& generator is re!erred to as the e+citer. " typical generator is
shown in igure (8.3/ .iew "K igure (8.3/ .iew '/ is a simpli!ied schematic o! the generator.
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The e+citer is a D&/ shunt$wound/ sel!$e+cited generator. The e+citer shunt !ield D)E creates an
n
area o! intense magnetic !lu+ between its poles. *hen the e+citer armature D3E is rotated in the
e+citer$!ield !lu+/ .oltage is induced in the e+citer armature windings. The output !rom the e+citer
commutator D;E is connected through brushes and slip rings D=E to the generator !ield. Since this
is direct current already con.erted by the e+citer commutator/ the current always !lows in one
direction through the generator !ield D6E. Thus/ a !i+ed$polarity magnetic !ield is maintained at all
times in the generator !ield windings. *hen the generator !ield is rotated/ its magnetic !lu+ is passed
through and across the generator armature windings D8E.
The armature is wound !or a three$phase output/ which will be co.ered later in this chapter.
@emember/ a .oltage is induced in a conductor i! it is stationary and a magnetic !ield is passed
across the conductor/ the same as i! the !ield is stationary and the conductor is mo.ed. The
alternating .oltage in the "& generator armature windings is connected through !i+ed terminals
to the "& load.
#rime Mo.ers
"ll generators/ large and small/ "& and D&/ require a source o! mechanical power to turn their
rotors. This source o! mechanical energy is called a prime mo.er.
#rime mo.ers are di.ided into two classes !or generators$high$speed and low$speed. Steam and
gas turbines are high$speed prime mo.ers/ while internal$combustion engines/ water/ and
electric motors are considered low$speed prime mo.ers.
The type o! prime mo.er plays an important part in the design o! generators since the speed at
which the rotor is turned determines certain characteristics o! generator construction and
operation.
"& <enerator @otors
There are two types o! rotors used in rotating$!ield generators.
They are called the turbine$dri.en and salient$pole/ rotors.
"s you may ha.e guessed/ the turbine$dri.en rotor shown in igure (8.;/ .iew "/ is used when the
prime mo.er is a high$speed turbine. The windings in the turbine$dri.en rotor are arranged to !orm
two or !our distinct poles. The windings are !irmly embedded in slots to withstand the tremendous
centri!ugal !orces encountered at high speeds.
(8$(7
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The salient$pole rotor shown in igure (8.;/ .iew '/ is used in low$speed generators. The
salient$pole rotor o!ten consists o! se.eral separately wound pole pieces/ bolted to the !rame o!
the rotor.
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I! you could compare the physical siMe o! the two types o! rotors with the same electrical
characteristics/ you would see that the salient$pole rotor would ha.e a greater diameter. "t the
same number o! re.olutions per minute/ it has a greater centri!ugal !orce than does the turbine$
dri.en rotor.
To reduce this !orce to a sa!e le.el so that the windings will not be thrown out o! the machine/ the
salient pole is used only in low$speed designs.
"& <enerator &haracteristics and %imitations
"& <enerators are rated according to the .oltage they are designed to produce and the
ma+imum current they are capable o! pro.iding. The ma+imum current that can be supplied by an
generator depends upon the ma+imum heating loss that can be sustained in the armature. This
heating loss Dwhich is an ()@ power lossE acts to heat the conductors/ and i! e+cessi.e/
destroys the insulation. Thus/ generators are rated in terms o! this current and in terms o! the
.oltage output $ the generator rating in small units is in .olt$amperesK in large units it is kilo.olt$
amperes.
Module 3.(8 "& <enerators
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*hen an generator lea.es the !actory/ it is already destined to do a .ery speci!ic 3ob. The speed at
which it is designed to rotate/ the .oltage it will produce/ the current limits/ and other
operating characteristics are built in. This in!ormation is usually stamped on a nameplate on the
case so that the user will know the limitations.
Single$#hase "& <enerators
" generator that produces a single/ continuously alternating .oltage is known as a single$
phase generator. "ll o! the generators that ha.e been discussed so !ar !it this de!inition. The
stator DarmatureE windings are connected in series. The indi.idual .oltages/ there!ore/ add to
produce a single$phase "& .oltage. igure (8.= shows a basic generator with its single$phase
output .oltage.
igure (8.= $ Single$phase generator.
The de!inition o! phase as you learned it in studying "& circuits may not help too much right
here. @emember/ 1out o! phase1 meant 1out o! time.1 Gow/ it may be easier to think o! the word
phase as meaning .oltage as in single .oltage. The need !or a modi!ied de!inition o! phase in this
usage will be easier to see as we go along.
Single$phase generators are !ound in many applications. They are most o!ten used when the
loads being dri.en are relati.ely light. The reason !or this will be more apparent as we get into
multiphase generators Dalso called polyphaseE.
#ower that is used in homes/ to operate portable tools and small appliances is single$phase
power. Single$phase power generators always generate single$phase power. Lowe.er/ all
single$phase power does not come !rom single$phase generators. This will sound more
reasonable to you as we get into the ne+t sub3ects.
(8$()
Module 3.(8 "& <enerators
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Two$#hase "& <enerators
Two phase implies two .oltages i! we apply our new de!inition o! phase. "nd/ it5s that simple. "
two$phase generator is designed to produce two completely separate .oltages. Each .oltage/ by
itsel!/ may be considered as a single$phase .oltage. Each is generated completely
independent o! the other. &ertain ad.antages are gained. These and the mechanics o!
generation will be co.ered in the !ollowing paragraphs.
<eneration o! Two$#hase #ower igure (8.6 shows a simpli!ied two$pole/ two$phase generator.
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Gote that the windings o! the two phases are physically at right angles DC7C to each other. Pou
would e+pect the outputs o! each phase to be C7aap art/ which they are. The graph shows the two
phases to be C7aapart/ with " leading '. Gote that by using our original de!inition o! phase D!rom
pre.ious modulesE/ we could say that " and ' are C7aout o! phase. There will always be
C7abetween the phases o! a two$phase generator. Th is is by design.
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igure (8.6 $ Two$phase generator.
,
7
Gow/ let5s go back and see the similarities and di!!erences between our original Dsingle$phaseE
generators and this new one Dtwo$phaseE. Gote that the principles applied are not new. This
generator works the same as the others we ha.e discussed.
The stator in igure (8.6 consists o! two single$phase windings completely separated !rom each
other. Each winding is made up o! two windings that are connected in series so that their
.oltages add. The rotor is identical to that used in the single$phase generator. In the le!t$hand
schematic/ the rotor poles are opposite all the windings o! phase ". There!ore/ the .oltage
induced in phase " is ma+imum/ and the .oltage induced in phase ' is Mero. "s the rotor
continues rotating anticlockwise/ it mo.es away !rom the " windings and approaches the '
(8$(3
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windings. "s a result/ the .oltage induced in phase " decreases !rom its ma+imum .alue/ and the
.oltage induced in phase ' increases !rom Mero. In the right$hand schematic/ the rotor poles are
opposite the windings o! phase '. Gow the .oltage induced in phase ' is ma+imum/
whereas the .oltage induced in phase " has dropped to Mero.
Gotice that a C7$degree rotation o! the rotor corresponds to one$quarter o! a cycle/ or C7
electrical degrees. The wa.e!orm picture shows the .oltages induced in phase " and ' !or one
cycle. The two .oltages are C7aout o! phase. Gotic e that the two outputs/ " and '/ are
independent o! each other.
Each output is a single$phase .oltage/ 3ust as i! the other did not e+ist.
The ob.ious ad.antage/ so !ar/ is that we ha.e two separate output .oltages. There is some
sa.ing in ha.ing one set o! bearings/ one rotor/ one housing/ and so on/ to do the work o! two.
There is the disad.antage o! ha.ing twice as many stator coils/ which require a larger and more
comple+ stator.
The large schematic in igure (8.8 shows !our separate wires brought out !rom the " and '
stator windings. This is the same as in igure (8.6. Gotice/ howe.er/ that the dotted wire now
connects one end o! '( to one end o! "). The e!!ect o! making this connection is to pro.ide a
new output .oltage. This sine$wa.e .oltage/ & in the picture/ is larger than either " or '. It is the
result o! adding the instantaneous .alues o! phase " and phase '. or this reason it appears
e+actly hal! way between " and '. There!ore/ & must lag " by ;=aand lead ' by ;=7/ as shown
in the small .ector diagram.
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(8$(;
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Gow/ look at the smaller schematic diagram in igure (8.8. 2nly three connections ha.e been
brought out !rom the stator. Electrically/ this is the same as the large diagram abo.e it. Instead
o! being connected at the output terminals/ the '($") connection was made internally when the
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stator was wired. " two$phase generator connected in this manner is called a two$phase/ three$
wire generator.
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The three$wire connection makes possible three di!!erent load connectionsH " and ' Dacross
each phaseE/ and & Dacross both phasesE. The output at & is always (.;(; times the .oltage o!
either phase. These multiple outputs are additional ad.antages o! the two$phase generator o.er
the single$phase type.
Gow/ you can understand why single$phase power doesn5t always come !rom single$phase
generators. It can be generated by two$phase generators as well as other multiphase
DpolyphaseE generators/ as you will soon see.
%
The two$phase generator discussed in the preceding paragraphs is seldom seen in actual use.
Lowe.er/ the operation o! polyphase generators is more easily e+plained using two phases than
three phases. The three$phase generator/ which will be co.ered ne+t/ is by !ar the most
common o! all generators in use today/ both in military and ci.ilian applications.
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Module 3.(8 "& <enerators
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Three$#hase "& <enerator
The three$phase generator/ as the name implies/ has three single$phase windings spaced such
that the .oltage induced in any one phase is displaced by ()7a!rom the other two. " schematic
diagram o! a three$phase stator showing all the coils becomes comple+/ and it is di!!icult to see
what is actually happening. The simpli!ied schematic o! igure (8.B/ .iew "/ shows all the
windings o! each phase lumped together as one winding. The rotor is omitted !or simplicity. The
.oltage wa.e!orms generated across each phase are drawn on a graph/ phase$displaced ()77
!rom each other. The three$phase generator as shown in this schematic is made up o! three
single$phase generators whose generated .oltages are out o! phase by ()7a The three phases are
independent o! each other.
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igure (8.B $ Three$phase generator connections.
@ather than ha.ing si+ leads coming out o! the three$phase generator/ the same leads !rom
each phase may be connected together to !orm a star DPE connection/ as shown in igure (8.B/
.iew '. It is called a star connection because/ without the neutral/ the windings appear as the
letter P/ in this case sideways or upside down.
The neutral connection is brought out to a terminal when a single$phase load must be supplied.
Single$phase .oltage is a.ailable !rom neutral to "/ neutral to '/ and neutral to &.
In a three$phase/ P$connected generator/ the total .oltage/ or line .oltage/ across any two o! the
three line leads is the .ector sum o! the indi.idual phase .oltages. Each line .oltage is (.83
8
(8$(6
Module 3.(8 "& <enerators
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times one o! the phase .oltages. 'ecause the windings !orm only one path !or current !low
between phases/ the line and phase currents are the same DequalE.
" three$phase stator can also be connected so that the phases are connected end$to$endK it is
now delta connected Digure (8.B/ .iew &E. DDelta because it looks like the <reek letter delta ".E
In the delta connection/ line .oltages are equal to phase .oltages/ but each line current is equal
to (.83 times the phase current. 'oth the star and the delta connections are used in generators.
The ma3ority o! all generators in use in aircra!t are three$phase machines. They are much more
e!!icient than either two$phase or single$phase generators.
Module 3.(8 "& <enerators
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requency
The output !requency o! generator .oltage depends upon the speed o! rotation o! the rotor and the
number o! poles. The !aster the speed/ the higher the !requency. The lower the speed/ the lower
the !requency. The more poles there are on the rotor/ the higher the !requency is !or a gi.en speed.
*hen a rotor has rotated through an angle such that two ad3acent rotor poles Da north and a
south poleE ha.e passed one winding/ the .oltage induced in that winding will ha.e .aried
through one complete cycle. or a gi.en !requency/ the more pairs o! poles there are/ the lower
the speed o! rotation. This principle is illustrated in igure (8.()K a two$pole generator must
rotate at !our times the speed o! an eight$pole generator to produce the same !requency o!
generated .oltage. The !requency o! any "& generator in hertM DLME/ which is the number o!
cycles per second/ is related to the number o! poles and the speed o! rotation/ as e+pressed by
the equation
R #
()7
where # is the number o! poles/ G is the speed o! rotation in re.olutions per minute D@#ME/ and
()7 is a constant to allow !or the con.ersion o! minutes to seconds and !rom poles to pairs o!
poles. or e+ample/ a )$pole/ 3677$@#M generator has a !requency o! 67 LMK determined as
!ollowsH
) U3677 R
67LM
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" ;$pole/ (B77$@#M generator also has a !requency o! 67 LM. " 6$pole/ =77$@#M generator
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6 + =77 R
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" ()$pole/ ;777$@#M generator has a !requency o!
() + & 777 X
()7
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;77LM
Module 3.(8 "& <enerators
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igure (8.() $ requency regulation.
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Ioltage @egulation
"s we ha.e seen be!ore/ when the load on a generator is changed/ the terminal .oltage .aries.
The amount o! .ariation depends on the design o! the generator.
The .oltage regulation o! an generator is the change o! .oltage !rom !ull load to no load/
e+pressed as a percentage o! !ull$load .olts/ when the speed and D& !ield current are held
constant.
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$E!% + (77 R #ercent o! regulation
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"ssume the no$load .oltage o! an generator is )=7 .olts and the !ull$load .oltage is ))7 .olts.
The percent o! regulation is
)=7 $ ))7
))7
+ (77 R(3.6]
@emember/ the lower the percent o! regulation/ the better it is in most applications.
#rinciples o! "& Ioltage &ontrol
In an "& generator/ an generator .oltage is induced in the armature windings when magnetic
!ields o! alternating polarity are passed across these windings. The amount o! .oltage induced in
the windings depends mainly on three thingsH D(E the number o! conductors in series per
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winding/ D)E the speed Dgenerator @#ME at which the magnetic !ield cuts the winding/ and D3E the
strength o! the magnetic !ield. "ny o! these three !actors could be used to control the amount o!
.oltage induced in the generator windings.
The number o! windings/ o! course/ is !i+ed when the generator is manu!actured. "lso/ i! the
output !requency is required to be o! a constant .alue/ then the speed o! the rotating !ield must be
held constant. This pre.ents the use o! the generator @#M as a means o! controlling the
.oltage output.
Thus/ the only practical method !or obtaining .oltage control is to control the strength o! the rotating
magnetic !ield. The strength o! this electromagnetic !ield may be .aried by changing the amount o!
current !lowing through the !ield coil. This is accomplished by .arying the amount o! .oltage applied
across the !ield coil.
#arallel 2peration o! "& <enerators
"& <enerators are connected in parallel to D(E increase the output capacity o! a system beyond that
o! a single unit/ D)E ser.e as additional reser.e power !or e+pected demands/ or D3E permit shutting
down one machine and cutting in a standby machine without interrupting power
distribution.
Module 3.(8 "& <enerators (8$)(
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*hen generators are o! su!!icient siMe/ and are operating at di!!erent !requencies and terminal
.oltages/ se.ere damage may result i! they are suddenly connected to each other through a
common bus. To a.oid this/ the machines must be synchroniMed as closely as possible be!ore
connecting them together. This may be accomplished by connecting one generator to the bus
Dre!erred to as bus generatorE/ and then synchroniMing the other Dincoming generatorE to it
be!ore closing the incoming generator5s main power contactor. The generators are synchroniMed
when the !ollowing conditions are setH
J Equal terminal .oltages. This is obtained by ad3ustment o! the incoming generator5s
!ield strength.
J Equal !requency. This is obtained by ad3ustment o! the incoming generator5s prime$
mo.er speed.
#hase .oltages in proper phase relation. The procedure !or synchroniMing generators is not
discussed in this chapter. "t this point/ it is enough !or you to know that the abo.e must be
accomplished to pre.ent damage to the machines.
(8$)) Module 3.(8 "& <enerators
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TTS Integrated
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Module 3
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%icence &ategory '(A')
Electrical undamentals
3.(B "& Motors
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Module 3.(B "& Motors
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0nowledge %e.els $ &ategory "/ (3(/ ') and & "ircra!t Maintenance
%icence
'asic knowledge !or categories "/ '( and ') are indicated by the allocation o! knowledge le.els indicators D(/ ) or
3E against each applicable sub3ect. &ategory & applicants must meet either the category '( or the category ')
basic knowledge le.els.
The knowledge le.el indicators are de!ined as !ollowsH
%EIE% (
J " !amiliarisation with the principal elements o! the sub3ect.
2b3ecti.esH
J The applicant should be !amiliar with the basic elements o! the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to gi.e a simple description o! the whole sub3ect/ using common words and
e+amples.
J The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
%EIE% )
J " general knowledge o! the theoretical and practical aspects o! the sub3ect.
J "n ability to apply that knowledge.
2b3ecti.esH
J The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical !undamentals o! the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to gi.e a general description o! the sub3ect using/ as appropriate/ typical
e+amples.
J The applicant should be able to use mathematical !ormulae in con3unction with physical laws describing the
sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches/ drawings and schematics describing the
sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
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J " detailed knowledge o! the theoretical and practical aspects o! the sub3ect.
J " capacity to combine and apply the separate elements o! knowledge in a logical and comprehensi.e
manner.
2b3ecti.esH
J The applicant should know the theory o! the sub3ect and interrelationships with other sub3ects.
J The applicant should be able to gi.e a detailed description o! the sub3ect using theoretical !undamentals
and speci!ic e+amples.
J The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical !ormulae related to the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to read/ understand and prepare sketches/ simple drawings and schematics
describing the sub3ect.
J The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manu!acturer5s
instructions.
J The applicant should be able to interpret results !rom .arious sources and measurements and apply
correcti.e action where appropriate.
(B$) Module 3.(B "& Motors
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Table o! &ontents
Module 3.(B "& Motors
=
Introduction =
Series "& Motor =
@otating Magnetic ields 8
@otor 'eha.iour in a @otating ield
()
Synchronous Motors ()
Induction Motors
(;
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Module 3.(B Enabling 2b3ecti.es
2b3ecti.e E"S" 66 @e!erence %e.el
"& Motors 3.(B )
&onstruction/ principles o! operation and characteristics o!H
"& synchronous and induction motors both single and
polyphase
Methods o! speed control and direction o! rotation
n
Methods o! producing a rotating !ieldH capacitor/ inductor/
shaded or split pole
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(B$;
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Module 3.(B "& Motors
Introduction
Most o! the power$generating systems on aircra!t produce "&.
or this reason a ma3ority o! the motors used throughout the aircra!t are designed to operate on
"&. There are other ad.antages in the use o! "& motors besides the wide a.ailability o! "& power.
In general/ "& motors cost less than D& motors. Some types o! "& motors do not use brushes and
commutators. This eliminates many problems o! maintenance and wear. It also eliminates the
problem o! dangerous sparking.
"n "& motor is particularly well suited !or constant$speed applications. This is because its
speed is determined by the !requency o! the "& .oltage applied to the motor terminals.
The D& motor is better suited than an "& motor !or some uses/ such as those that require
.ariable$speeds. "n "& motor can also be made with .ariable speed characteristics but only
within certain limits.
%i industry builds "& motors in di!!erent siMes/ shapes/ and ratings !or many di!!erent types o! 3obs.
These motors are designed !or use with either polyphase or single$phase power systems. It is
%not possible here to co.er all aspects o! the sub3ect o! "& motors. 2nly the principles o! the
most commonly used types are dealt with in this chapter.
In this chapter/ "& motors will be di.ided into D(E series/ D)E synchronous/ and D3E induction
motors. Single$phase and polyphase motors will be discussed.
Synchronous motors/ !or purposes o! this chapter/ may be considered as polyphase motors/ o!
constant speed/ whose rotors are energiMed with D& .oltage. Induction motors/ single$phase or
polyphase/ whose rotors are energiMed by induction/ are the most commonly used "& motor. The
series "& motor/ in a sense/ is a !amiliar type o! motor. It is .ery similar to the D& motor
that was co.ered in chapter ) and will ser.e as a bridge between the old and the new.
Series "& Motor
" series "& motor is the same electrically as a D& series motor. @e!er to igure (B.( and use the
le!t$hand rule !or the polarity o! coils. Pou can see that the instantaneous magnetic polarities
o! the armature and !ield oppose each other/ and motor action results. Gow/ re.erse the current
by re.ersing the polarity o! the input. Gote that the !ield magnetic polarity still opposes the
armature magnetic polarity. This is because the re.ersal a!!ects both the armature and the !ield.
The "& input causes these re.ersals to take place continuously.
Module 3.(B "& Motors
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igure (B.( $ Series "& motor.
The construction o! the "& series motor di!!ers slightly !rom the D& series motor. Special
metals/ laminations/ and windings are used. They reduce losses caused by eddy currents/
hysteresis/ and high reactance. D& power can be used to dri.e an "& series motor e!!iciently/ but
the opposite is not true.
! l
The characteristics o! a series "& motor are similar to those o! a series D& motor. It is a
.arying$speed machine. It has low speeds !or large loads and high speeds !or light loads. The
starting torque is .ery high. Series motors are used !or dri.ing !ans/ electric drills/ and other small
appliances.
Since the series "& motor has the same general characteristics as the series D& motor/ a
series motor has been designed that can operate both on "& and D&. This "&AD& motor is
called a uni.ersal motor. It !inds wide use in small electric appliances. ,ni.ersal motors operate at
lower e!!iciency than either the "& or D& series motor. They are built in small siMes only.
,ni.ersal motors do not operate on polyphase "& power.
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(B$6
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,/
@otating Magnetic ields
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The principle o! rotating magnetic !ields is the key to the operation o! most "& motors. 'oth
synchronous and induction types o! motors rely on rotating magnetic !ields in their stators to
cause their rotors to turn.
The idea is simple. " magnetic !ield in a stator can be made to rotate electrically/ around and
around. "nother magnetic !ield in the rotor can be made to chase it by being attracted and
repelled by the stator !ield. 'ecause the rotor is !ree to turn/ it !ollows the rotating magnetic !ield in
the stator.
%et5s see how it is done.
@otating magnetic !ields may be set up in two$phase or three$phase machines.
To establish a rotating magnetic !ield in a motor stator/ the number o! pole pairs must be the
same as Dor a multiple o!E the number o! phases in the applied .oltage. The poles must then be
displaced !rom each other by an angle equal to the phase angle between the indi.idual phases o!
the applied .oltage.
Two$#hase @otating Magnetic ield
" rotating magnetic !ield is probably most easily seen in a two$phase stator. The stator o! a two$
phase induction motor is made up o!. two windings Dor a multiple o! twoE. They are placed at right
angles to each other around the stator. The simpli!ied drawing in igure (B.) illustrates a
,
two$phase stator.
Module 3.(B "& Motors
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igure (B.) $ Two$phase motor stator.
I! the .oltages applied to phases ($(" and )$)" are C7aout o! phase/ the currents that !low in the
phases are displaced !rom each other by C7a Si nce the magnetic !ields generated in the coils
are in phase with their respecti.e currents/ the magnetic !ields are also C7aout o! phase with
each other. These two out$o!$phase magnetic !ields/ whose coil a+es are at right angles to each
other/ add together at e.ery instant during their cycle. They produce a resultant !ield that rotates
one re.olution !or each cycle o! "&.
To analyse the rotating magnetic !ield in a two$phase stator/ re!er to igure (B.3. The arrow
represents the rotor. or each point set up on the .oltage chart/ consider that current !lows in a
direction that will cause the magnetic polarity indicated at each pole piece. Gote that !rom one
point to the ne+t/ the polarities are rotating !rom one pole to the ne+t in a clockwise manner.
2ne complete cycle o! input .oltage produces a 367$degree rotation o! the pole polarities. %et5s
see how this result is obtained.
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igure (B.3 $ Two$phase rotating !ield.
The wa.e!orms in igure (B.3 are o! the two input phases/ displaced C7abecause o! the way
they were generated in a two$phase alternator. The wa.e!orms are numbered to match their
associated phase. "lthough not shown in this !igure/ the windings !or the poles ($i " and )$)"
would be as shown in the pre.ious !igure. "t position (/ the current !low and magnetic !ield in
winding ($( " is at ma+imum Dbecause the phase .oltage is ma+imumE. The current !low and
magnetic !ield in winding )$)" is Mero Dbecause the phase .oltage is MeroE. The resultant
magnetic !ield is there!ore in the direction o! the ($( " a+is. "t the ;=$degree point Dposition )E/
the resultant magnetic !ield lies midway between windings ($( " and )$)". The coil currents and
magnetic !ields are equal in strength. "t C7a Dposition 3E/ the magnetic !ield in winding ($( " is
Mero. The magnetic !ield in winding )$)" is at ma+imum.
Gow the resultant magnetic !ield lies along the a+is o! the )$)" winding as shown. The resultant
magnetic !ield has rotated clockwise through C7ato get !rom position ( to position 3. *hen the two$
phase .oltages ha.e completed one !ull cycle Dposition CE/ the resultant magnetic !ield has rotated
through 367a Thus/ by placing two windings at right angles to each other and e+citing these
windings with .oltages C7a out o! phase/ a rotating magnetic !ield results.
Two$phase motors are rarely used e+cept in special$purpose equipment.
They are discussed here to aid in understanding rotating !ields. Pou will/ howe.er/ encounter
many single$phase and three$phase motors.
Module 3.(B "& Motors
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Three$#hase @otating ields
The three$phase induction motor also operates on the principle o! a rotating magnetic !ield. The
!ollowing discussion shows how the stator windings can be connected to a three$phase "&
input and has a resultant magnetic !ield that rotates.
igure (B.;/ .iews "$& show the indi.idual windings !or each phase. igure (B.;/ .iew D/ shows
how the three phases are tied together in a P$connected stator. The dot in each diagram
indicates the common point o! the P$connection. Pou can see that the indi.idual phase windings are
equally spaced around the stator. This places the windings ()7aapart.
igure (B.; $ Three$phase/ P$connected stator.
The three$phase input .oltage to the stator o! igure (B.; is shown in the graph o! igure (B.=.
,se the le!t$hand rule !or determining the electromagnetic polarity o! the poles at any gi.en
instant. In applying the rule to the coils in igure (B.;/ consider that current !lows toward the
terminal numbers !or positi.e .oltages/ and away !rom the terminal numbers !or negati.e
.oltages.
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igure (B.= $ Three$phase rotating$!ield polarities and input .oltages.
The results o! this analysis are shown !or .oltage points ( through 8 in igure (B.=. "t point (/ the
magnetic !ield in coils ($( " is ma+imum with polarities as shown. "t the same time/ negati.e
.oltages are being !elt in the )$)" and 3$3" windings. These create weaker magnetic !ields/
which tend to aid the ($( " !ield. "t point )/ ma+imum negati.e .oltage is being !elt in the 3$3"
windings. This creates a strong magnetic !ield which/ in turn/ is aided by the weaker !ields in ($
(" and )$)". "s each point on the .oltage graph is analysed/ it can be seen that the resultant
magnetic !ield is rotating in a clockwise direction. *hen the three$phase .oltage completes one !ull
cycle Dpoint 8E/ the magnetic !ield has rotated through 3677
Module 3.(B "& Motors
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@otor 'eha.iour in a @otating ield
or purposes o! e+plaining rotor mo.ement/ let5s assume that we can place a bar magnet in the
centre o! the stator diagrams o! igure (B.=. *e5ll mount this magnet so that it is !ree to rotate in
this area. %et5s also assume that the bar magnet is aligned so that at point ( its south pole is
opposite the large G o! the stator !ield.
Pou can see that this alignment is natural. ,nlike poles attract/ and the two !ields are aligned so
that they are attracting. Gow/ go !rom point ( through point 8. "s be!ore/ the stator !ield rotates
clockwise. The bar magnet/ !ree to mo.e/ will !ollow the stator !ield/ because the attraction
between the two !ields continues to e+ist. " sha!t running through the pi.ot point o! the bar
magnet would rotate at the same speed as the rotating !ield.
This speed is known as synchronous speed. The sha!t represents the sha!t o! an operating
motor to which the load is attached.
@emember/ this e+planation is an o.ersimpli!ication. It is meant to show how a rotating !ield can
cause mechanical rotation o! a sha!t. Such an arrangement would work/ but it is not used. There
are limitations to a permanent magnet rotor. #ractical motors use other methods/ as we shall
see in the ne+t paragraphs.
Synchronous Motors
The construction o! the synchronous motors is essentially the same as the construction o! the
salient$pole alternator. In !act/ such an alternator may be run as an "& motor. It is similar to the
drawing in igure (B.6. Synchronous motors ha.e the characteristic o! constant speed between
no load and !ull load. They are capable o! correcting the low power !actor o! an inducti.e load
when they are operated under certain conditions.
They are o!ten used to dri.e D& generators. Synchronous motors are designed in siMes up to
thousands o! horsepower. They may be designed as either single$phase or multiphase
machines. The discussion that !ollows is based on a three$phase design.
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igure (B.6 $ @e.ol.ing$!ield synchronous motor.
To understand how the synchronous motor works/ assume that the application o! three$phase
"& power to the stator causes a rotating magnetic !ield to be set up around the rotor. The rotor
is energiMed with D& Dit acts like a bar magnetE. The strong rotating magnetic !ield attracts the
strong rotor !ield acti.ated by the D&. This results in a strong turning !orce on the rotor sha!t.
The rotor is there!ore able to turn a load as it rotates in step with the rotating magnetic !ield.
It works this way once it5s started. Lowe.er/ one o! the disad.antages o! a synchronous motor is
that it cannot be started !rom a standstill by applying three$phase "& power to the stator.
*hen "& is applied to the stator/ a high$speed rotating magnetic !ield appears immediately.
This rotating !ield rushes past the rotor poles so quickly that the rotor does not ha.e a chance to get
started. In e!!ect/ the rotor is repelled !irst in one direction and then the other. " synchronous motor
in its purest !orm has no starting torque. It has torque only when it is running at
synchronous speed.
" squirrel$cage type o! winding is added to the rotor o! a synchronous motor to cause it to start.
The squirrel cage is shown as the outer part o! the rotor in igure (B.8. It is so named because it
is shaped and looks something like a turnable squirrel cage. Simply/ the windings are hea.y copper
bars shorted together by copper rings. " low .oltage is induced in these shorted
windings by the rotating three$phase stator !ield. 'ecause o! the short circuit/ a relati.ely large
current !lows in the squirrel cage.
This causes a magnetic !ield that interacts with the rotating !ield o! the stator. 'ecause o! the
interaction/ the rotor begins to turn/ !ollowing the stator !ieldK the motor starts. *e will run into
squirrel cages again in other applications/ where they will be co.ered in more detail.
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igure (B.8 $ Sel!$starting synchronous "& motor.
To start a practical synchronous motor/ the stator is energiMed/ but the D& supply to the rotor !ield
is not energiMed. The squirrel$cage windings bring the rotor to near synchronous speed. "t that
point/ the D& !ield is energiMed. This locks the rotor in step with the rotating stator !ield. ull torque
is de.eloped/ and the load is dri.en. " mechanical switching de.ice that operates on centri!ugal
!orce is o!ten used to apply D& to the rotor as synchronous speed is reached.
The practical synchronous motor has the disad.antage o! requiring a D& e+citer .oltage !or the
rotor. This .oltage may be obtained either e+ternally or internally/ depending on the design o!
the motor.
Induction Motors
The induction motor is the most commonly used type o! "& motor. Its simple/ rugged
construction costs relati.ely little to manu!acture. The induction motor has a rotor that is not
connected to an e+ternal source o! .oltage.
The induction motor deri.es its name !rom the !act that "& .oltages are induced in the rotor
circuit by the rotating magnetic !ield o! the stator. In many ways/ induction in this motor is similar to
the induction between the primary and secondary windings o! a trans!ormer.
%arge motors and permanently mounted motors that dri.e loads at !airly constant speed are
o!ten induction motors. E+amples are !ound in washing machines/ re!rigerator compressors/
bench grinders/ and table saws.
The stator construction o! the three$phase induction motor and the three$phase synchronous
motor are almost identical. Lowe.er/ their rotors are completely di!!erent Dsee igure (B.BE. The
induction rotor is made o! a laminated cylinder with slots in its sur!ace. The windings in these slots
are one o! two types Dshown in igure (B.CE. The most common is the squirrel$cage
winding. This entire winding is made up o! hea.y copper bars connected together at each end
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by a metal ring made o! copper or brass. Go insulation is required between the core and the
bars. This is because o! the .ery low .oltages generated in the rotor bars. The other type o!
winding contains actual coils placed in the rotor slots. The rotor is then called a wound rotor.
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@egardless o! the type o! rotor used/ the basic principle is the same.
The rotating magnetic !ield generated in the stator induces a magnetic !ield in the rotor. The two
!ields interact and cause the rotor to turn. To obtain ma+imum interaction between the !ields/ the air
gap between the rotor and stator is .ery small.
"s you know !rom %enM5s law/ any induced EM tries to oppose the changing !ield that induces it.
In the case o! an induction motor/ the changing !ield is the motion o! the resultant stator !ield. "
!orce is e+erted on the rotor by the induced EM and the resultant magnetic !ield. This !orce tends
to cancel the relati.e motion between the rotor and the stator !ield. The rotor/ as a result/ mo.es in
the same direction as the rotating stator !ield.
It is impossible !or the rotor o! an induction motor to turn at the same speed as the rotating
magnetic !ield. I! the speeds were the same/ there would be no relati.e motion between the
stator and rotor !ieldsK without relati.e motion there would be no induced .oltage in the rotor. In
order !or relati.e motion to e+ist between the two/ the rotor must rotate at a speed slower than that
o! the rotating magnetic !ield. The di!!erence between the speed o! the rotating stator !ield and the
rotor speed is called slip. The smaller the slip/ the closer the rotor speed approaches
the stator !ield speed.
The speed o! the rotor depends upon the torque requirements o! the load.
The bigger the load/ the stronger the turning !orce needed to rotate the rotor.
The turning !orce can increase only i! the rotor$induced EM increases. This EM can increase
only i! the magnetic !ield cuts through the rotor at a !aster rate. To increase the relati.e speed
between the !ield and rotor/ the rotor must slow down. There!ore/ !or hea.ier loads the induction
motor turns slower than !or lighter loads. Pou can see !rom the pre.ious statement that slip is
directly proportional to the load on the motor. "ctually only a slight change in speed is
necessary to produce the usual current changes required !or normal changes in load. This is
because the rotor windings ha.e such a low resistance. "s a result/ induction motors are called
constant$speed motors.
Single$#hase Induction Motors
There are probably more single$phase "& induction motors in use today than the total o! all the
other types put together.
It is logical that the least e+pensi.e/ lowest maintenance type o! "& motor should be used most
o!ten. The single$phase "& induction motor !its that description.
,nlike polyphase induction motors/ the stator !ield in the single$phase motor does not rotate.
Instead it simply alternates polarity between poles as the "& .oltage changes polarity.
Ioltage is induced in the rotor as a result o! magnetic induction/ and a magnetic !ield is
produced around the rotor. This !ield will always be in opposition to the stator !ield D%enM5s law
appliesE. The interaction between the rotor and stator !ields will not produce rotation/ howe.er.
The interaction is shown by the double$ended arrow in igure (B.(7/ .iew ". 'ecause this !orce
is across the rotor and through the pole pieces/ there is no rotary motion/ 3ust a push andAor pull
along this line.
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igure (B.(7 $ @otor currents in a single$phase "& induction motor.
Gow/ i! the rotor is rotated by some outside !orce Da twist o! your hand/ or somethingE/ the push$
pull along the line in igure (B.(7/ .iew "/ is disturbed. %ook at the !ields as shown in igure
(B.(7/ .iew '. "t this instant the south pole on the rotor is being attracted by the le!t$hand pole. The
north rotor pole is being attracted to the right$hand pole. "ll o! this is a result o! the rotor being
rotated C7aby the outside !orce. The pull th at now e+ists between the two !ields becomes a rotary
!orce/ turning the rotor toward magnetic correspondence with the stator. 'ecause the two !ields
continuously alternate/ they will ne.er actually line up/ and the rotor will continue to turn once
started. It remains !or us to learn practical methods o! getting the rotor to start.
There are se.eral types o! single$phase induction motors in use today. 'asically they are
identical e+cept !or the means o! starting. In this chapter we will discuss the split$phase and
shaded$pole motorsK so named because o! the methods employed to get them started. 2nce
they are up to operating speed/ all single$phase induction motors operate the same.
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Split$#hase Induction Motors
2ne type o! induction motor/ which incorporates a starting de.ice/ is called a split$phase
induction motor. Split$phase motors are designed to use inductance/ capacitance/ or resistance to
de.elop a starting torque. The principles are those that you learned in your study o!
alternating current.
&apacitor$Start $ The !irst type o! split$phase induction motor that will be co.ered is the
capacitor$start type. igure (B.(( shows a simpli!ied schematic o! a typical capacitor$start
motor. The stator consists o! the main winding and a starting winding Dau+iliaryE. The starting
winding is connected in parallel with the main winding and is placed physically at right angles to it.
" C7$degree electrical phase di!!erence between the two windings is obtained by connecting the
au+iliary winding in series with a capacitor and starting switch. *hen the motor is !irst
energiMed/ the starting switch is closed. This places the capacitor in series with the au+iliary
winding. The capacitor is o! such .alue that the au+iliary circuit is e!!ecti.ely a resisti.e$
capaciti.e circuit Dre!erred to as capaciti.e reactance and e+pressed as UcE. In this circuit the
current leads the line .oltage by about ;=aDbecaus a Uc about equals @E. The main winding has
enough resistance$inductance Dre!erred to as inducti.e reactance and e+pressed as U%E to
cause the current to lag the line .oltage by about ;=a Dbecause U/ about equals @E. The
currents in each winding are there!ore C7aout o! p hase $ so are the magnetic !ields that are
generated. The e!!ect is that the two windings act like a two$phase stator and produce the
rotating !ield required to start the motor.
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*hen nearly !ull speed is obtained/ a centri!ugal de.ice Dthe starting switchE cuts out the starting
winding. The motor then runs as a plain single$phase induction motor. Since the au+iliary winding
is only a light winding/ the motor does not de.elop su!!icient torque to start hea.y loads. Split$phase
motors/ there!ore/ come only in small siMes.
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@esistance$Start $ "nother type o! split$phase induction motor is the resistance$start motor/
This motor also has a starting winding Dshown in !ig. ;$()E in addition to the main winding. It is
switched in and out o! the circuit 3ust as it was in the capacitor$start motor. The starting winding is
positioned at right angles to the main winding. The electrical phase shi!t between the currents in the
two windings is obtained by making the impedance o! the windings unequal.
The main winding has a high inductance and a low resistance. The current/ there!ore/ lags the
.oltage by a large angle. The starting winding is designed to ha.e a !airly low inductance and a high
resistance. Lere the current lags the .oltage by a smaller angle/ or e+ample/ suppose the current
in the main winding lags the .oltage by 87a. The current in the au+iliary winding lags the .oltage by
;7a. The currents are/ there!ore/ out o! phase by 37a. The magnetic !ields are out o! phase by the
same amount. "lthough the ideal angular phase di!!erence is C7a!or ma+imum starting torque/ the
37$degree phase di!!erence still generates a rotating !ield. This supplies enough torque to start the
motor. *hen the motor comes up to speed/ a speed$controlled switch disconnects the starting
winding !rom the line/ and the motor continues to run as an induction motor. The starting torque is
not as great as it is in the capacitor$start.
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Shaded$#ole Induction Motors
The shaded$pole induction motor is another single$phase motor.
It uses a unique method to start the rotor turning. The e!!ect o! a mo.ing magnetic !ield is
produced by constructing the stator in a special way. This motor has pro3ecting pole pieces 3ust
like some D& motors. In addition/ portions o! the pole piece sur!aces are surrounded by a
copper strap called a shading coil. " pole piece with the strap in place is shown in igure (B.(3.
The strap causes the !ield to mo.e back and !orth across the !ace o! the pole piece. Gote the
numbered sequence and points on the magnetiMation cur.e in the !igure. "s the alternating
stator !ield starts increasing !rom Mero D(E/ the lines o! !orce e+pand across the !ace o! the pole
piece and cut through the strap. " .oltage is induced in the strap. The current that results
generates a !ield that opposes the cutting action Dand decreases the strengthE o! the main !ield.
This produces the !ollowing actionsH "s the !ield increases !rom Mero to a ma+imum at C7a a
large portion o! the magnetic lines o! !orce are concentrated in the unshaded portion o! the pole
D(E. "t C7athe !ield reaches its ma+imum .alue. Si nce the lines o! !orce ha.e stopped
e+panding/ no EM is induced in the strap/ and no opposing magnetic !ield is generated. "s a
result/ the main !ield is uni!ormly distributed across the pole D)E. rom C7ato (B7a the main !ield
starts decreasing or collapsing inward. The !ield generated in the strap opposes the collapsing
!ield. The e!!ect is to concentrate the lines o! !orce in the shaded portion o! the pole !ace D3E.
Pou can see that !rom 7ato (B7a the main !ield ha s shi!ted across the pole !ace !rom the
unshaded to the shaded portion. rom (B7ato 367a the main !ield goes through the same change
as it did !rom 7ato (B7a howe.er/ it is no w in the opposite direction D;E. The direction o! the !ield
does not a!!ect the way the shaded pole works. The motion o! the !ield is the same during the
second hal!$cycle as it was during the !irst hal! o! the cycle.
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igure (B.(3 $ Shaded poles as used in shaded$pole "& induction motors.
The motion o! the !ield back and !orth between shaded and unshaded portions produces a weak
torque to start the motor. 'ecause o! the weak starting torque/ shaded$pole motors are built only in
small siMes. They dri.e such de.ices as !ans/ clocks/ blowers/ and electric raMors.
Speed o! Single$#hase Induction Motors
The speed o! induction motors is dependent on motor design. The synchronous speed Dthe
speed at which the stator !ield rotatesE is determined by the !requency o! the input "& power
and the number o! poles in the stator.
The greater the number o! poles/ the slower the synchronous speed. The higher the !requency o!
applied .oltage/ the higher the synchronous speed. @emember/ howe.er/ that neither !requency
nor number o! poles are .ariables. They are both !i+ed by the manu!acturer. The relationship
between poles/ !requency/ and synchronous speed is as !ollowsH
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%et5s use an e+ample o! a ;$pole motor/ built to operate on 67 hertM. The synchronous speed is
determined as !ollowsH
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&ommon synchronous speeds !or 67$hertM motors are 3677/ (B77/ ()77/ and C77 @#M/
depending on the number o! poles in the original design.
"s we ha.e seen be!ore/ the rotor I s ne.er able to reach synchronous speed. I! it did/ there
would be no .oltage induced in the rotor. Go torque would be de.eloped. The motor would not
operate. The di!!erence between rotor speed and synchronous speed is called slip. The
di!!erence between these two speeds is not great. or e+ample/ a rotor speed o! 3;77 to 3=77
@#M can be e+pected !rom a synchronous speed o! 3677 @#M.
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The !ollowing diagrams !rom the main chapters o! these notes ha.e been reproduced here in
!ull colour due to the essential nature o! the colour$code in!ormation.
Type
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7 to W((77
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