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Department of Aeronautical engineering

School of Mechanical engineering
Vel Tech Dr RR & SR Technical University
Course Material
U4MEA10- Fluid Mechanics



























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U4MEA10 FLUID MECHANICS
Unit - I Basic Concepts And Properties 9
Fluid definition, distinction between solid and fluid - UNIT Is and dimensions - Properties of fluids
- density, specific weight, specific volume, specific gravity, temperature, viscosity, compressibility,
vapour pressure, capillary and surface tension - Fluid statics: concept of fluid static pressure, absolute
and gauge pressures - pressure measurements by manometers and pressure gauges.

Unit II Bernoullis Equation And Boundary Layer Concepts 9
Fluid Kinematics - Flow visualization - lines of flow - types of flow - continuity equation (one
dimensional differential forms)- fluid dynamics - equations of motion - Eulers equation along a
streamline - Bernoullis equation applications - Venturi meter, Orifice meter, Pitot tube - Boundary
layer flows, boundary layer thickness, boundary layer separation - drag and lift coefficients.

Unit - III Flow Through Pipes 9
Viscous flow - Navier - Stokes equation (Statement only) - Shear stress, pressure gradient
relationship - laminar flow between parallel plates - Laminar flow through circular tubes (Hagen
poiseulles) - Hydraulic and energy gradient - flow through pipes - Darcy -weisbacks equation - pipe
roughness -friction factor-minor losses - flow through pipes in series and in parallel - power
transmission.

Unit - IV Dimensional Analysis And Hydraulic Turbines 9
Dimensional analysis - Buckinghams p theorem- applications - similarity laws and models.Hydro
turbines: definition and classifications - Pelton turbine Francis turbine - Kaplan turbine - working
principles - velocity triangles - work done - specific speed - efficiencies -performance curve for
turbines.

Unit - V Pumps 9
Pumps: definition and classifications - Centrifugal pump: classifications, working principles, velocity
triangles, specific speed, efficiency and performance curves - Reciprocating pump: classification,
working principles, indicator diagram, work saved by air vessels and performance curves -
cavitations in pumps -priming- slip- rotary pumps: working principles of gear, jet and vane pump.
Text Books
1 1. . 1.Streeter, V.L., and Wylie, E.B., Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, 1983.
2 2. . Kumar, K.L., Engineering Fluid Mechanics, Eurasia Publishing House (P) Ltd., New Delhi
(7
th
edition), 1995.
3 3. . Bansal, R.K., Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics Machines, (5
th
edition), Laxmi publications (P)
Ltd., New Delhi, 1995.

Reference Books

1 1. . White, F.M., Fluid Mechanics, Tata McGraw-Hill, 5
th
Edition, New Delhi, 2003.
2 2. . Ramamirtham, S., Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics and Fluid Machines, Dhanpat Rai and
Sons, Delhi, 1998.
3 3. . Som, S.K., and Biswas, G., Introduction to fluid mechanics and fluid machines, Tata
McGraw-Hill, 2
nd
edition, 2004.









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UNIT I

Fluid definition, distinction between solid and fluid
Units and dimensions
Properties of fluids - density, specific weight, specific volume,
specific gravity, temperature, viscosity, compressibility, vapour
pressure, capillary and surface tension
Fluid statics: concept of fluid static pressure, absolute and gauge
pressures
Pressure measurements by manometers and pressure gauges.





















4
BASIC CONCEPTS AND PROPERTIES

PART A

1. Define the following properties.

Density, weight density, specific volume and specific gravity of fluid

(i)Density (or) specific mass (or) Mass Density:

The mass density of a fluid is the mass which is possesses per unit volume

3
Mass of fluid
Mass density ( )= ( / )
Volume of the fluid
=
g
m
K m
v


(ii) Weight density (or) specific weight (w)

The weight density or specific weight of a fluid is the weight it posses per unit
volume.

3
Weight of fluid mass Acceleration due to gravity
Weight density(w) = (N/m )
Volume of fluid Volume of fluid
w= g

(iii) Specific volume (v)

Specific volume is the reciprocal of specific density. The specific volume of a
fluid is the volume occupied by the unit mass of the fluid.

1
Volume of fluid 1
Mass of fluid
Specific volume (v)=
Mass of fluid Volume
= =


2. Differentiate between i) ideal fluid & Real Fluid.

(ii) Specific weight and specific volume of a fluid

Ideal Fluid:

A fluid which is incompressible and is having no viscosity is known as ideal fluid.








5
Ideal fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all fluids, have some viscosity.

Real Fluid:

A fluid which possess viscosity is known as real fluid

Specific Weight:

The Specific weight of a fluid is the weight it possesses per unit volume.

Weight density Weight of Fluid (w)
(or)
Specific weight Volume of Fluid (v)
w = g

Specific volume:

Specific Volume is the reciprocal of specific density. The specific volume of a
fluid is the volume occupied by the unit mass of the fluid.

3. State the Newtons law of Viscosity.

It states that the shear stress () on a fluid element layer is directly proportional
to the rate of shear strain. The constant of proportionality is called the coefficient of
viscosity.
Mathematically, it is expressed by equation
du
dy
=
Fluids which obey the above relation are known as Newtonian fluids

Fluids which do not obey the above relation are called Non-Newtonian Fluid.
4. Distinguish Between Surface Tension and capillarity.

SURFACE TENSION CAPILLARITY
Surface tension is defined as the tensile
force acting on the surface of a Liquid in
contact with a gas or on the surface
between two immiscible Liquids such
that contact surface behaves like a
membrane under tension.
Capillarity is defined as a
phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid
surface in a small tube relative to the
adjacent general level of Liquid when
the tube is held vertically in the fluid.


Surface tension is expressed in N/m (or) The rise of Liquid surface is known as








6
dyne/Cm capillary raise while the fall of the
Liquid surface is known as capillary
depression capillary rise or fall, h=
4cos / gd

5. Define Kinematics Viscosity and drive its unit.

It is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density of fluid. It is
denoted by the Greek symbol () (Nu)

= Dynamic Viscosity
Density

2
[ / ]

= m s


6. What is the difference between dynamic viscosity and kinematic viscosity?

State their units
Dynamic Viscosity: ( )

Dynamic viscosity (or) coefficient of dynamic viscosity is defined as the ratio
between to the shear stress and rate of shear deformation.
2
s
N
d u
m
d y

= =

Kinematic Viscosity:

It is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density of fluid. It is
denoted by the Greek symbol () (Nu).

= Dynamic Viscosity Density
2
/

= v m s


7. Define Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids.

Newtonian Fluid:

A fluid which the shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of shear stain [or
viscosity gradient] is known as a Newtonian fluid.

Non-Newtonian Fluid:








7

A real fluid in which is not proportional to the rate of shear strain [(or) velocity
gradient] is known as a Non-Newtonian fluid.

8. Define the term Viscosity.

Viscosity: ( )

Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the
movement of one layer of fluid over another adjacent Layer of the fluid.


du
dy

=

This property is due to cohesion and interaction between molecules of the fluid.


9. State Newtons law of viscosity.

Newtons Law of viscosity:

It states that the shear stress on a fluid element layer is directly proportional to
the rate of shear strain. The constant of proportionality is called the coefficient of
viscosity.
. ;
du
dy du
dy

= =
| |
|
\

The fluid viscosity is due to cohesion and interaction between molecules of
the fluid.

For example
High viscosity Fluid Tar and caster op
Low viscosity fluid Kerosene, Petrol and water



10. What is the effect of temperature on viscosity of water and that of air?

When the viscosity of the liquid decreases with increase in temperature since the
molecules present in the Liquid is less.








8

When the viscosity of the air increases with increases in temperature.

11. Explain the importance of compressibility in fluid flow.

Compressibility is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus of Elasticity, K which is
defined as the ratio of compressive stress to volumetric strain.

Increase of Pressure
Bulk Modulus K=
Volumetric strain
-dpV
=
dv


Compressibility is given by =1/K

12. Explain the phenomenon of capillarity obtain an expression for capillary rise
of a Liquid.

Capillarity is defined as a phenomenon of rise or fall of of a Liquid surface in a
small tube relative to the adjacent general level of liquid when the tube is held
vertically in the Liquid.

The rise of liquid surface is known as capillary rise. While the fall of liquid
surface is known as capillary depression. It is expressed in terms of cm (or ) mm of
Liquid.

Expression for Capillary rise:

Consider a glass tube of small diameter d opened at both ends and is inserted
in a liquid say water, the Liquid will rise in the tube above the level of liquid.

Let h-height of the Liquid in the tube. Under a state of equilibrium, the weight of
Liquid height h is balanced by the force at the surface of the liquid in the tube. But
the force at the surface of the Liquid in the tube is due to surface tension.


Let = surface tension of liquid, =Angle of contact between liquid glass tube.
The weight of liquid of height h in the tube =(Area of tube x h) x g.









9
=
2
(1)
4
d h g

Where,
= Density of liquid
Vertical component of surface tensile force
= ( x Circumference) x Cos
= ( x d x cos) 2

Equating the equation (1) & (2) we get,
/4d
2
h g = x d x cos

2
0
cos
/ 4
4 cos
when =
4 cos
Capillary Rise of Liquid h=
d
h
d g
h
gd
gd

=

=


13. What are the types of the fluids?

Types of the fluids:

1. Ideal Fluid
2. Real Fluid
3. Newtonian Fluid
4. Non-Newtonian Fluid
5. Ideal Plastic Fluid.

14. Define Pascals Law.

It states that the pressure or intensity of pressure at a point in a static fluid is
equal is equal in all directions.

Px = Py = P2

15. Define Hydraulic Law.

It states that rate of increase of pressure in a vertical direction is equal to
weight density of the fluid at that point.








10

P = gZ.

16. Define Manometer.

It is defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure at a point in a
fluid by balancing the column of fluid by the same or another column at the fluid.

17. Define absolute pressure.

It is defined as the pressure which is measured with reference to absolute
vacuum pressure.

18. Define Gauge pressure.

It is defined as the pressure which is measured with the help of a pressure
measuring instrument, in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as datum. The
atmospheric pressure on the scale is marked as zero.

19. Define vacuum pressure.

It is defined as the pressure below the atmospheric pressure.

20. What are the different types of mechanical gauges?

There are different types of mechanical gauges.

Mechanical gauges are best suitable for measuring very high fluid pressure.
Incase of steam boilers where manometer can not be used, a mechanical gauge can
be conveniently used.

1. Bourdon tube pressure gauge
2. Diaphragm pressure gauge
3. Dead weight pressure gauge.


21. What are units and dimension?

S.No Quantity Unit DIMENSIONS








11
generally
adopted
MLT SYSTEM FLT SYSTEM
Geometric
1. Length M L L
2. Area M
2
L
2
L
2

3. Volume M
3
L
3
L
3

4. Slope
Kinematic
5 Time Sec T T
6 Velocity
(linear)
M/sec LT
-1
LT
-1

7 Velocity
(angular)
Rad / sec
2
T
-1
T
-1

8 Acceleration
(linear)
M/sec LT
-2
LT
-2

9 Acceleration
(angular)
Rad /sec
2
T
2
T
2

10 Discharge Cum /sec L
3
T
-1
L
3
T
-1

11 Gravitationa
l
acceleration
M/sec
2
LT
-2
LT
-2

12 Kinematic
velocity
M/sec
2
L
2
T
-1
L
2
T
-1

Dynamic
13 Mass Kg M FL
-1
T
2

14 Force Newton MLT
-2
F
15 Weight Newton MLT
-2
F
16 Mass
density
Kg /cum ML
-3
FL
-4
T
2

17 Specific
weight
Newton/cu
m
ML
-2
T
2
FL
-3

18 Dynamic
viscosity
Newton
/cum
ML
-1
T
-1
FL
-3
T
19 Surface
tension
Newton/m MT
-2
FL
-1

20 Elastic
modulus
Newton/m
2
ML
-1
T
2
FL
-2
21 Pressure Newton/m
2
ML
-1
T
2
FL
-2

22 Shear
intensity
Newton/m
2
ML
-1
T
2
FL
-2









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23 Work,
energy
Newton m ML
2
T
2
FL
24 Impulse
momentum
Newton sec MLT
-1
FT
25 Torque Newton m ML
2
T
-2
FL
26 Power Newton /sec ML
2
T
3
FLT
-1


22. Differentiate between fundamental units and derived units.

The fundamental or primary units are the simplest in their form possessing a
single dimension. When the units of measurements of the primary quantities are
defined, the measurements of all other quantities can be easily obtained.
Example: Length (L), Time (T), Mass (M), Temperature ()

The derived secondary quantities possess more than one dimension, and are
expressed by a combination of dimensions.

Example: Velocity (LT
-1
), linear acceleration (LT
-2
), force (MLT
2
) etc.












13
PART - B

1. Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of one litre of a
liquid which weights 7 N.

Solution: Given:

Volume
= 1 litre
3 3 3
1 1
1 1 1000
1000 1000
m litre m or litre cm
| |
= = =
|
\

Weight = 7 N.

(i) Specific weight (w)
3
7
1
1000
Weight N
Volume
m
= =
| |
|
\

(ii) Density () =
3 3
7000
/ 713.5 / .
9.81
w
kg m kg m
g
= =

(iii) Specific gravity


{ }
3
713.5
1000 /
1000
Density of liquid
Density of water kg m
Density of water
= = =
= 0.7135.

2. Calculate the density, specific weight and weight of one litre of petrol of
specific gravity = 0.7.

Solution:

Given:

Volume = 1 litre
= 1x 1000 cm
3

3 3
6
1000
0.001
10
m m = =
Sp. Gravity, = S = 0.7

(i) Density ()

Using equation (1.1A),
Density () = S x 1000 kg/m
3
= 0.7 x 1000 = 700 kg/m
3
.








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(ii) Specific weight (w)

Using equation (1.1) w = xg
= 700x9.81 N/m
3
= 6867 N/m
3
.

We know that specific weight
Weight
Volume
=

or 6867
0.001 0.001
W W
w or = =

6867 0.001 6.867 . W N = =

3. A flat plate area 1.5x10
6
mm
2
is pulled with a speed of 0.4 m/s relative to another
plate located at a distance of 0.15 mm from it. Find the force and power required
to maintain this speed, if the fluid separating them is having viscosity as 1 poise.

Solution:
Given:

Area of the plate, A = 1.5 x 10
6
mm
2
= 1.5m
2

Speed of plate relative to another plate, du = 0.4 m/s
Distance between the plates, dy = 0.15 mm = 0.15 x 10
-3
m
Viscosity = 1 poise
2
1
.
10
s
N
m


Using equation (1.2), we have
3 2
1 0.4
266.66
10 015 10
du N
dy m

= = =

(i) Shear force, F= x area =266.66 x 1.5 = 400 N.
(ii) Power* required to move he plate at the speed 0.4 m/sec
= F x u = 400 x 0.4 = 160 W.
4. Calculate the dynamic viscosity of an oil, which is used for lubrication between
a square plate of size 0.8 m x0.8 m and an inclined plane with angle of inclination
30 as shown in Fig. The weight of the square plate is 300 N and it slides down
the inclined plane with a uniform velocity of 0.3 m/s. The thickness of oil film is
1.5 mm.

Solution:

Given:








15

Area of plate, A = 0.8 x 0.8 = 0.64 m
2

Angle of plane, = 30
Weight of plate, W = 300 N
Velocity of plate, u = dy
Thickness of oil film, t = dy
= 1.5 mm = 1.5 x 10
-3
m

Let viscosity of fluid between plate and inclined plane is . Component of
weight W, along the plane = W cos 60 =150 N

Thus the shear force, F, on the bottom surface of the plate = 150 N

And shears stress,
2
150
/
0.64
F
N m
Area
= =
Now using equation (1.2), we have

du
dy
=

where du = Change of velocity = u-0=u=0.3 m/s

dy = t = 1.5 x 10
-3
m

3
150 0.3
0.64 1.5 10

3
2
150 1.5 10
1.17 / 1.17 10 11.7 .
0.64 0.3
Ns m poise

= = = =

5. The space between two square flat parallel plates is filled with oil. Each side of
the plate is 60 cm. The thickness of the oil film is 12.5 mm. The upper plate,
which moves at 2.5 meter per see requires a force of 98.1 N to maintain the speed.
Determine:

(i) the dynamic viscosity f the oil in poise, and
(ii) the kinematic viscosity of the oil in stokes if the specific gravity of the
oil is 0.95. (AMIE, Winter 1977)

Solution:

Given:

Each side of a square plate = 60 cm = 0.60 m








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Area, A = 0.6 x 0.6 = 0.36 m
2


Thickness of oil film, dy = 12.5 mm = 12.5 x10
-3
m

Velocity of upper plate, u = 2.5 m/sec

Change of velocity between plates, du = 2.5 m/sec

Force required on upper plate, F = 98.1 N

Shear stress,
2
98.1
0.36
Force F N
Area A m
= = =

(i) Let = Dynamic viscosity of oil

Using equation (1.2),
3
98.1 2.5

0.36 12.5 10
du
or
dy

3
2 2
98.1 12.5 10 1Ns
1.3635 10
0.36 2.5 m
1.3635 10 13.635 .
s
N
poise
m
poise

| |
= = =
|
\
= =

(ii) Sp. gr. of oil, S = 0.95

Let =kinematic viscosity of oil

Using equation (1.1 A),

Mass density of oil, = S x1000 = 0.95 x1000 = 950 kg/m
3


Using the relation,
2
1.3635
,
950
s
N
m
we get

| |
|
\
= =

= .001435 m
2
/sec = .001435 x 10
4
cm
2
/s
= 14.35 stokes. ( cm
2
/s = stoke)


6. The dynamic viscosity of an oil, used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve
is 6 poise. The shaft is diameter 0.4 m and rotates at 190 r.p.m. Calculate the
power lost in the bearing for a sleeve length of 90 mm. The thickness of the oil








17
film is 1.5 mm.

Solution:

Given:

Viscosity = 6 poise

=
2 2
6
0.6
10
s s
N N
m m
= fig

Dia. of shaft, D = 0.4 m
Speed of shaft, N = 190 r.p.m.
Sleeve length, L = 90 mm = 90 x 10
-3
m
Thickness of oil film, t = 1.5 mm = 1.5 x 10
-3
m

Tangential velocity of shaft,
0.4 190
3.98 /
60 60
DN
u m s

= = =
Using the relation
du
dy
=
Where du = Change of velocity = u 0 = u = 3.98 m/s
dy = Change of distance = t = 1.5 x 10
-3
m

2
3
3.98
10 1592 /
1.5 10
N m

= =

This is shear stress on shaft

Shear force on the shaft, F = Shear stress x Area
= 1952 x D x L = 1592 x x .4 x 10
-3
= 180.05N
Torque on the shaft,
2
D
T Force =

0.4
180.05 36.01
2
Nm = =
Power lost
2 2 190 36.01
716.48 .
60 60
NT
W

= = =




7. A vertical gap 2.2 cm wide of infinite extent contains a fluid of viscosity 2.0 N
s/m
2
and specific gravity 0.9. A metallic plate 1.2 m x 0.2 cm is to be lifted up with
a constant velocity of 0.15 m/sec, through the gap. If the plate is in the middle of








18
the gap, find the force required. The weight of the plate is 40 N.

Solution:

Given:

Width of gap = 2.2 cm, viscosity, = 2.0 N s/m
2

Sq.gr. of fluid = 0.9
Weight density of fluid = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kgf/m
3
= 900 x 9.81 N/m
3

( 1 kgf = 9.81 N)
Volume = 1.2 m x 1.2 m x 0.2 cm
= 1.2 x 1.2 x .002 m
3
= .00288 m
3

Thickness of plate = 0.2 cm
Velocity of plate = 0.15 m /sec
Weight of plate = 40 N.

When plate is in the middle of the gap, the distance of the plate from vertical
surface, of the gap


( ) 2.2 0.2
1 .01 .
2 2
Width of gap thickness of plate
cm m

| |
= = = =
|
\

Now the shear force on the left side of the metallic plate,

F1 = Shear stress x Area

( )
2
1
0.15
2.0 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
.01
43.2 .
du
Area N Area m
dy
N

| |
| |
= = =
| |
\
\
=


Similarly, the shear force on the right side of the metallic plate,

F2 = Shear stress x Area

.15
2.0 1.2 1.2 43.2
.01
N
| |
= =
|
\

Total shear force = F1 + F2 = 43.2 + 43.2 = 86.4 N.

In this case the weight of plate (which is acting vertically downward) and
upward thrust is also to be taken into account.

The upward thrust = Weight of fluid displaced
= (Weight density of fluid) x Volume of fluid displaced








19
= 9.81 x 900 x .00288 N

( ) .00288 Volume of fluid displaced Volume of plate = =
= 25.43 N.
The net force acting in the downward direction due to weight of the plate and
upward thrust

= Weight of plate - Upward thrust
= 40-25.43 = 14.57 N
Total force required to lift the plate up
= Total shear force + 14.57 = 86.4+14.57 = 100.97 N.

8. The surface tension of water in contact with air at 20 C is 0.0725 N/m. The
pressure inside a droplet of water is to be 0.02 N/cm
2
greater than the outside
pressure. Calculate the diameter of the droplet of water.

Solution:

Given:

Surface tension, = 0.0725 N/m
Pressure intensity, p in excess of outside pressure is

2 4
2
0.02 / 0.02 10
N
p N cm
m
= =
Let d = dia. of the droplet
Using equation (1.14), we get
4
4 4 0.0725
0.02 10 p or
d d

= =

( )
4
4 0.0725
.00145 .00145 1000 1.45 .
0.02 10
d m mm

= = = =

9. Find the surface tension in a soap bubble of 40 mm diameter when the inside
pressure is 2.5 N/m
2
above atmospheric pressure.

Solution:

Given:

Dia. of bubble, d = 40 mm = 40 x 10
-3
m
Pressure in excess of outside, p = 2.5 N/m
2

For a soap bubble, using equation (1.15), we get

3
8 8
2.5
40 10
p or
d

= =

20

3
2.5 40 10
/ 0.0125 / .
8
N m N m

= =




10. The pressure outside the droplet of water of diameter 0.04 mm is 10.32 N/cm
2

(atmospheric pressure). Calculate the pressure within the droplet if surface
tension is given as 0.0725 N/m of water.

Solution:
Given:

Dia. of droplet, d = 0.04 mm = .04 x 10
-3
m
Pressure outside the droplet = 10.32 N/cm
2

= 10.32 x 10
4
N/m
2

Surface tension, = 0.0725 N/m

The pressure inside the droplet, inn excess of outside pressure is given by
equation

or
2
3
4 4 0.0725
7250 /
.04 10
p N m
d

= = =

2
4 2
7250
0.725 /
10
N
N cm
cm
= =
Pressure inside the droplet = p + Pressure outside the droplet

= 0.725 + 10.32 = 11.045 N/cm
2
.

11. Calculate the capillary rise in a glass tube of 2.5 mm diameter when immersed
vertically in (a) water and (b) mercury. Take surface tension = 0.0725 N/m for
water and =0.52 N/m for mercury in contact with air. The specific gravity for
mercury is given as 13.6 and angle of contact = 130 .

Solution:
Given:

Dia. of tube, d = 2.5 mm = 2.5 x 10
-3
m
Surface tension, for water = 0.0725 N/m
for mercury = 0.52 N/m
Sp. gr. of mercury = 13.6








21
Density = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m
3
.
(a) Capillary rise for water ( = 0)

Using equation (1.20), we get
3
4 4 0.0725
1000 9.81 2.5 10
h
g d

= =


= .0118 m = 1.18 cm.

(b) For mercury

Angle of constant between mercury and glass tube, = 130
Using equation (1.21), we get
3
4 cos 4 0.52 cos130
13.6 1000 9.81 2.5 10
h
g d

= =


= - .004 m = -0.4 cm.
The negative sign indicates the capillary depression.

12. Calculate the capillary effect in millimeters in a glass tube of 4 mm diameter,
when immersed in (i) water, (ii) mercury. The temperature of the liquid is 20 C
and the values of the surface tension of water and mercury at 20 C in contact with
air are 0.073575 N/m respectively. The angle of contact for water is zero that for
mercury. 1.30 . Take density of water at 20 C as equal to 998 kg/m
3
. (U.P.S.C.
Engg. Exam., 1974)

Solution:
Given:

Dia of tube, d = 4 mm = 4 x 10
-3
m

The capillary effect (i.e., capillary rise or depression) is given by equation
(1.20) as


4 cos
h
p g d

=



where = surface tension in kgf/m

= angle of contact, and = density
(i) Capillary effect for water

= 0.073575 N/m, = 0
= 998 kg/m
3
at 20C








22

3
4 0.073575 cos0
13600 9.81 10
h


=


= - 2.45 x 10
-3
m = - 2.46 mm.

The negative sign indicates the capillary depression.

13. Find out the minimum size of glass tube that can be used to measure water
level if the capillary rise in the tube is to be restricted to 2 mm. Consider surface
tension of water in contact with air as 0.073575 N/m. (Converted to SI Units,
A.M.I.E., Summer 1985)

Solution:

Given:

Capillary rise, h = 2.0 mm = 2.0 x 10
-3
m
Surface tension, = 0.073575 N/m
Let dia. of tube = d
The angle for water = 0
The density for water, = 1000 kg/m
3

Using equation (1.20), we get


3
4 4 0.073575
2.0 10
1000 9.81
h or
g d d

= =



3
4 0.073575
0.015 1.5 .
1000 9.81 2 10
d m cm

= = =



Thus minimum diameter of the tube should be 1.5 cm.






14. A hydraulic press has a ram of 30 cm diameter and a plunger of 4.5 cm
diameter. Find the weight lifted by the hydraulic press when the force applied at
the plunger is 500 N.

Solution:

Given:








23

Dia. of ram, D = 30 cm 0.3 m
Dia. of plunger, d = 4.5 cm = 0.045 m
Force on plunger, F = 500 N
Find weight lifted = W

Area of ram, ( )
2
2 2
0.3 0.07068
4 4
A D m

= = =
Area of plunger, ( )
2
2 2
0.045 .00159
4 4
a d m

= = =

Pressure intensity due to plunger


2
500
/ .
.00159
Force on plunger F
N m
Area of plunger a
= = =

Due to Pascals law, the intensity of pressure will be equally transmitted in all
directions. Hence the pressure intensity at the ram


2
500
314465.4 /
.00159
N m = =

But pressure intensity at ram


2
/
.07068
Weight W W
N m
Area of ram A
= = =
314465.4
.07068
W
=
Weight = 314465.4 x .07068 = 22222 N = 22.222 kN.




15. The diameters of a small piston and a large piston of a hydraulic jack at 3 ate 3
cm and 10 cm respectively. A force of 80 N is applied on the small piston. Find
the load lifted by the large piston when:

(a) The piston is 40 cm above the large piston.
(b) Small piston is 40 cm above the large piston.

The density of the liquid in the jack is given as 1000 kg/cm
3
.








24

Solution:

Given:

Dia. of small piston, d = 3 cm
Area of small piston, ( )
2
2 2
3 7.068
4 4
a d cm

= = =
Dia. of large piston, D = 10 cm
Area of larger piston, ( )
2
2
10 78.54
4
p
A cm = =
Force on small piston, F = 80 N
Let the load lifted = W.

(a) When the piston are at the same level.

Pressure intensity on small piston


2
80
/
7.068
F
N cm
a
=

This is transmitted equally on the large piston.
Pressure intensity on the large piston

80
7.068
=
Force on the large piston = Pressure x Area

80
78.54 888.96 .
7.068
N N = =
(b) When the small piston is 40 cm above the large piston.
Pressure intensity on the small piston

2
80
7.068
F N
a cm
= =
Pressure intensity at section A A
Pr int 40 . = +
F
essure ensity due to height of cm of liquid
a

But pressure intensity due to 40 cm of liquid
= x g x h = 1000 x 9.81 x 0.4 N/m
2


2 2
4
1000 9.81 .40
/ 0.3924 / .
10
N cm N cm

= =
Pressure intensity at section

80
0.3924
7.068
A A = +








25
= 11.32 + 0.3924 = 11.71 N/cm
2

Pressure intensity transmitted to the large piston = 11.71 N/cm
2

Force on the large piston = Pressure x Area of the large piston
= 11.71 x A = 11.71 x 78.54 = 919.7 N.

16. What are the gauge pressure and absolute pressure at a point 3 m below the
free surface of a liquid having a density of 1.53 x 10
3
kg/m
3
if the atmospheric
pressure is equivalent to 750 mm of mercury? The specific gravity of mercury is
13.6 and density of water = 1000 kg/m
3
. (A.M.I.E., Summer 1986)

Solution:

Depth of liquid, Z1 = 3 m
Density of liquid, 1 = 1.53 x 10
3
kg/m
3

Atmospheric pressure head, Z0 = 750 mm of Hg

750
0.75
1000
m of Hg = =
Atmospheric pressure, patm = 0 x g x Z0
where 0 = density of Hg = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m
3

and Z0 = Pressure head in teams of mercury.
patm = (13.6 x 1000) x 9.81 x 0.75 N/m
2
( Z0 = 0.75)
= 100062 N/m
2

Pressure at a point, which is at a depth of 3 m from the free surface of the
liquid is given by,
p = 1 x g x Z1
= (1.53 x 1000) x 9.81 x 3 = 45028 N/m
2

Gauge pressure, p = 45028 N/m
2
.
Now absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure
= 45028 + 100062 = 145090 N/m
2
.


17. The right limb of a simple U-tube manometer containing mercury is open to
the atmosphere while left limb is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of sp. Gr.
0.9 is flowing. The centre of the pipe is 12 cm below the level of mercury in the
right limb. Find the pressure of fluid in the pipe if the difference of mercury level
in the two limbs is 20 cm.

Solution:

Given:









26
Sp.gr. of fluid, S1 = 0.9
Density of fluid, 1 = S1 x 1000 = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m
3

Sp.gr. of mercury, S2 = 13.6
Density of mercury, 2 = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m
3

Difference of mercury level h2 = 20 cm = 0.2 m
Height of fluid from A-A, h1 = 20 12 = 8 cm = 0.08 m
Let p = Pressure of fluid in pipe
Equating the pressure above A-A, we get
p + 1gh1 = 2gh2
or p + 900 x 9.81 x 0.08 = 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x .2
p = 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x .2 9.81 x 0.08
= 26683-706 = 25977 N/m
2
= 2.597 N/cm
2
.






18. A simple U-tube manometer containing mercury is connected to a pipe in
which a fluid of sp. gr. 0.8 and having vacuum pressure is flowing. The other end
of the manometer is open to atmosphere. Find the vacuum pressure in pipe, if the
difference of mercury level in the two limbs is 40 cm and the height of fluid in the
left from the centre of pipe is 15 cm below.

Solution:

Given:

Sp.gr. of fluid, S1 = 0.8,
Sp.gr. of mercury, S2 = 13.6
Density of fluid, 1 = 800
Density of mercury, 2 = 13.6 x 1000

Difference of mercury level, h2 = 40 cm = 0.4 m. Height of liquid in left limb,
h1 = 15 cm = 0.15 m. Left the pressure in pipe = p. Equating pressure above datum
line A-A, we get

2gh2 + 1gh1 + p = 0
p = -[2gh2 + 1gh1]
= - [13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x 0.4 + 800 x 9.81 x 0.15]








27
= - [53366.4 + 1177.2] = - 54543.6 N/m
2
= - 5.454 N/cm
2
.

19. A single column manometer is connected to a pipe containing a liquid of sp.gr.
0.9 as shown in Fig. Find the pressure in the pipe if the area of the reservoir is 100
times the area of the tube for the manometer reading shown in Fig. The specific
gravity of mercury is 13.6.

Solution:

Given:

Sp. gr. of liquid in pipe, S1 = 0.9
Density 1 = 900 kg/m
3

Sp. gr. of heavy liquid, S2 = 13.6
Density, 2 = 13.6 x 1000



100
lim
Area of reservoir A
Area of right b a
= =

Height of liquid, h1 = 20 cm = 0.2 m

Rise of mercury in right limb

h2 = 40 cm = 0.4 m

Let PA = Pressure in pipe

Using equation (2.9), we get
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
2 2 1 2 2 1 1
2 2 2
1
0.4 13.6 1000 9.81 900 9.81 0.4 13.6 1000 9.81 0.2 900 9.81
100
0.4
133416 8829 53366.4 1765.8
100
533.664 53366.4 1765.8 / 52134 / 5.21 / .
A
a
P h g g h g h g
A
N m N m N cm
= +
= +
= +
= + = =


20. A differential manometer is connected at the two points A and B of two pipes
as shown in Fig. The pipe A contains a liquid of sp. gr. = 1.5 while pipe B contains
a liquid of sp.gr. = 0.9. The pressures at A and B are 1 kgf/cm
2
and 1.80 kgf/cm
2









28
respectively. Find the difference in mercury level in the differential manometer.

Solution:
Given:

Sp. gr. of liquid at A, S1 = 1.5 1 = 1500
Sp. gr. of liquid at B, S2 = 0.9 2 = 900
Pressure at A, pA = 1 kgf/cm
2
= 1 x 10
4
kgf/m
2

= 1.8 x 9.81 N/m
2
( 1 kgf = 9.81 N)

Pressure at B, pB = 1.8 kgf/cm
2

= 1.8 x 10
4
kgf/cm
2

= 1.8 x 10
4
x 9.81 N/m
2
( 1 kgf = 9.81 N )

Density of mercury = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m
3

Taking X-X as datum line.
Pressure above X-X in the left limb
= 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x h + 1500 x 9.81 x (2+3) pA
= 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x h + 7500 x 9.81 + 9.81 x 10
4

Pressure above X-X in the right limb = 900 x 9.81 x (h+2) + pB
= 900 x 9.81 x (h+2) + 1.8 x 10
4
x 9.81
Equating the two pressures, we get
13.6 x 1000 x 9.81h + 7500 x 9.81 + 9.81 x 10
4

= 900 x 9.81 x (h+2) +1.8 x 10
4
x 9.81
Diving by 1000 x 9.81, we get
13.6h + 7.5 + 10 = (h+2.0) x .9 + 18
or 13.6h + 17.5 = 0.9h + 1.8 + 18 = .9h + 19.8
or (13.6-0.9)h=19.8-17.5 or 12.7h = 2.3

2.3
0.181 18.1 .
12.7
h m cm = = =


20. A differential manometer is connected at the two points A and B as shown in
Fig. At B air pressure is 9.81 N/cm
2
(abs), find the absolute pressure at A.

Solution:

Air pressure at B = 9.81 N/cm
2

or pB = 9.81 x 10
4
N/m
2

Density of oil = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m
3

Density of mercury = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m
3










29
Let the pressure at A is pA
Taking datum line at X-X
Pressure above X-X in the left limb

= 1000 x 9.81 x 0.6 + pB
= 5886 + 98100 = 103986

Pressure above X-X in the left limb

= 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x 0.1 + 900 x 9.81 x 0.2 + pA
= 13341.6 + 1765.8 + pA

Equating the two pressure head

103986 = 13341.6 + 1765.8 + pA

pA = 103986-15107.4 = 88876.8
pA = 88876.8 N/m
2
=
2 2
88876.8
8.887 .
10000
N N
cm cm
=
Absolute pressure at A = 8.887 N/cm
2
.

22. Find out the differential reading h of an inverted U-tube manometer
containing oil of specific gravity 0.7 as the manometric fluid when connected
across pipes A and B as shown in Fig. below, conveying liquids of specific
gravities 1.2 and 1.0 and immiscible with manometric fluid. Pipes A and B are
located at the same level and assume the pressures at A and B to be equal.
(A.M.I.E., Winter 1985)

Solution:

Given:

Fig. shows the arrangement. Taking X-X as datum line.

Let PA = Pressure at A
PA = Pressure at B

Density of liquid in pipe A
= Sp. gr. x 1000
= 1.2 x 1000
= 1200 kg/m
2








30
Density of liquid in pipe B

= 1 x 1000 = 1000 kg/m
3

Density of oil = 0.7 x 1000 = 700 kg/m
3

Now pressure below X-X in the left limb.
= pA 1200 x 9.81 x 0.3 700 x 9.81 x h
Pressure below X-X in the right limb
pA 1200 x 9.81 x 0.3 700 x 9.81 x h = pB 1000 x 9.81 (h+0.3)
But pA = pB (given)

-1200 x 9.81 x 0.3 700 x 9.81 x h = -1000 x 9.81 (h+0.3)
Dividing by 1000 x 9.81,
1.2 x 0.3-0.7h =-(h+0.3)

or 0.3 x 1.2 + 0.7h = h+0.3 or 0.36-0.3 = h-0.7h = 0.3h


0.36 0.30 0.06
0.30 0.30
h m

= =


1 1
100 20 .
5 5
m cm = = =













31
UNIT II
Fluid Kinematics
Flow visualization
Lines of flow
Types of flow
Continuity equation (one dimensional differential forms)-
Fluid dynamics
Equations of motion
Eulers equation along a streamline
Bernoullis equation-applications
Venturi meter, Orifice meter, Pitot tube - Boundary layer flows,
Boundary layer thickness,
Boundary layer separation
Drag and lift coefficients.




























32
BERNOULLIS EQUATION AND BOUNDARY LAYER CONCEPTS

PART A

1. Define Kinematics of flow.

It is defined as that branch of science which deals with motion of particles
without considering the forces causing the motion.

2. What are the methods of describing fluid flow?

The fluid motion is described by two methods they are
(i) Lagrangian method and
(ii) Eulerian method

In the Langrangian Method, a single fluid particle is followed during its motion
and its velocity, acceleration , density etc are described . In case of Eulerian method
the velocity, acceleration, density pressure and density etc. are described at a point
in flow field. The eulerian method is commonly used in fluid mechanics.

3. Distinguish between; steady flow and Un steady flow

Steady flow is defined as that type flow in which the fluid characteristics like
velocity , pressure , density etc at a point do not change with time. Thus for steady
flow, mathematically.


( )
0 0 0
0 0 0
, ,
, ,
p
0, 0
t
| |
| |
= =
|
|
|

\
\
x y z
x y z
v
t


Unsteady flow is that type of flow in which the velocity pressure and density
at a point changes with respect to time
( )
0 0 0
0 0 0
, ,
, ,
0 , 0
| |
| |

|
|
|

\
\
x y z
x y z
v p
t t

4. Distinguish between uniform Non uniform flows.

Uniform flow is defined as that type of flow in which the velocity at any given time
does not change with respect to space [i.e. Length of direction of the flow]









33
t=constant
=0
| |
|

\
v
s

v= Changes of velocity
s= length of flow in the direction s
Non-Uniform Flow:

Non-uniform flow is that type of flow in which the velocity at any given time
changes with respect to space. Thus, mathematically for non- uniform flow.

t=constant
0
v
s

| |

|

\


5. Distinguish between Laminar and Turbulent flow

Laminar flows is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid particles
move along well defined path or stream line and all the stream lines are straight
and parallel. Thus, the particles move in laminas or layers gliding smoothly over the
adjacent layer. This type of flow is called stream line flow or viscous flow.

Turbulent flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles move in a Zig-
Zag way. Due to the movement of fluid particles in a Zig-Zag way, the eddies
formation takes place which are responsible for high energy loss.

6. Distinguish between compressible and in compressible flow.

Compressible flow is that type of flow in which the density of the fluid
changes from point to point ie. density is not constant for the fluid. Thus
mathematically, for compressible flow.
constant


In compressible flow is that type of flow in which the density is constant for
the fluid flow. Liquids are generally incompressible. Mathematically for
compressible flow.
constant

7. Distinguish between rotational and in rotational flow

Rotational flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles while flowing
along stream lines, also rotate about their own axis . And if the fluid particles while








34
flowing along stream Lines, do not rotate about their own axis, that type of flow is
called irrotational flow.

8. Define the equation of continuity obtain an expression for continuity equation
for three dimensional flow.

According to Law of Conservation of mass. Rate of flow at section 1-1 =rate of flow
at section 2.2
1A1V1=2A2V2

The above equation is applicable to compressible as incompressible fluids and
is called continuity equation. If the fluid is incompressible then 1 = 2 and continuity
equation reduces to.

A1V1 = A2V2

9. Explain the term local Acceleration and convective Acceleration.

Local acceleration: is designed as the rate of increase of velocity with respect
to time at a given point in a flow field.

, , is known as local acceleration
u v w
t t t



Convective Acceleration:

It is defined as the rate of change of velocity due to the change of position of fluid
particles in a fluid flow.
10. Type of flow line

Path line
Stream line
Streak line or filament lines
Potential lines or Equi-potential lines
Flow net

11. Explain the terms:

(i) Path Line
(ii) Stream Line









35
Path Line:

A path line time is defined as , the path or line traced by a single particle of
fluid during a period of time. Path line shows the direction of velocity of the same
fluid.

Stream Line:

This is an imaginary curve drawn through a flowing fluid in such a way that
the tangent of which at any point . the pattern of flow of fluid may be represented by
a series of stream Lines obtained by drawing a series of curves into the following
fluid such that the velocity vector at any point is tangential to the curves.

12. Define Equipotential line.

A line along which the velocity potential is constant, is called equipotential line.

13. Define flow net.

A grid obtained by drawing a series of equipotential lines and stream lines is
called Flow net.


14. What is the Eulers equation of motion? How will you obtain Bernoullis
equation from if equation of motion.

According to Newtons second law of motion, the net force Fx acting on a
fluid element in the direction of x is equal to mass m of the fluid element multiplied
by the acceleration ax in the x direction

Fx = M.ax

(i) Fg Gravity force
(ii) Fp The pressure force
(iii) Fv Force due to viscosity
(iv) Ft force due to turbulence
(v) Fc force due to compressibility

Thus in equation, the net force,









36
Fx = (Fg)x + (Fp)x + (Fv)x + (Ft)x + (Fc)x
(i) If the force due to compressibility, Fc is negligible, the resulting net force Fx = (Fg)x
+ (Fp)x + (Fv)x + (Ft)x and equation of motions are called Reynolds equation of
motion.

(ii) For flow, where Ft is negligible the resulting equations of motion are known as
Navier Stoles equation

(iii) If the flow is assumed to be ideal, viscous force (Fp) is zero and equation of
motions are known as Eulers equation of motion.

15. State the Bernoullis theorem?

It states that in a steady ideal flow of an incompressible fluid, the total energy
at any point of the fluid is constant. The total energy consists of pressure energy,
kinetic energy and potential energy or datum energy. These energies per unit weight
of the fluid are;

Pressure energy =
p
g
=
p
w

Kinetic energy =
2
2
v
g

Datum energy = z
So,
2
p V
+Z = constant
2g
+


16. What is a venturi meter?

A venture meter is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid flowing
through a pipe. It consists of three parts;
(i) A short converging part
(ii) Throat and
(iii) Diverging part

17. What is a orifice meter?

It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of fluid through a pipe. It is
a cheaper device as compared to venturi meter. It is also works on the same
principle as that of venture meter. It consists of a flat circular plate which has a
circular sharp edged hole called orifice which is concentric with the pipe.









37
18. What is pitot tube?

It is a device used for measuring the velocity of flow at any point in a pipe or
a channel. It is based on the principle that, if the velocity of flow at appoint becomes
zero, the pressure there is increased due to the conversion of kinetic energy into
pressure energy. In its simplest form, the pitot tube consists of a glass tube, bent at
a right angles.

19. What is the Eulers equation of motion? How will you obtain Bernoullis
equation from if equation of motion.

According to Newtons second law of motion, the net force Fx acting on a
fluid element in the direction of x is equal to mass m of the fluid element multiplied
by the acceleration ax in the x direction.
Fx = M.ax

(vi) Fg Gravity force
(vii) Fp The pressure force
(viii) Fv Force due to viscosity
(ix) Ft force due to turbulence
(x) Fc force due to compressibility

Thus in equation, the net force,

Fx = (Fg)x + (Fp)x + (Fv)x + (Ft)x + (Fc)x
1. If the force due to compressibility, Fc is negligible, the resulting net force Fx =
(Fg)x + (Fp)x + (Fv)x + (Ft)x and equation of motions are called Reynolds
equation of motion.
2. For flow, where Ft is negligible the resulting equations of motion are known
as Navier Stoles equation
3. If the flow is assumed to be ideal, viscous force (Fp) is zero and equation of
motions are known as Eulers equation of motion.

20. Types of flows

Uniform flow, non uniform flow, stream line flow, turbulent flow, steady
flow, unsteady flow, compressible flow, incompressible flow, rotational flow,
irrigational flow, one dimensional flow, two dimensional flow, three dimensional
flow etc

21. Define Drag.








38

The component of the total Force (FR) in the direction of motion is called drag.
It I denoted by FD.

22. Define Lift.

The component of the total force (FR) in the direction perpendicular to the
direction of motion is known as lift. It is denoted by FL.

PART - B

1. Derive the Bernoullis equation from Eulers equation.

EULERS EQUATION OF MOTION

This is equation of motion in which the forces due to gravity and pressure are
taken into consideration. This is derived by considering the motion of a fluid
element along a stream-line as:

Consider a stream-line in which flow is taking place in S-direction. Consider
a cylindrical element of cross-section dA and length dS. The forces acting on the
cylindrical element are:

Pressure force pdA in the direction of flow.

1. Pressure force
p
p ds dA
s
| |
+
|

\
opposite to the direction of flow.
2. Weight of element gdAds.

Let is the angle between the direction of flow and the line of action of the
weight of element.

The resultant force on the fluid element in the direction of S must be equal to
the mass of fluid element acceleration in the direction S.


s
p
pdA - p + ds dA gdAds cos
s
= pdAds a ..... (1)
| |

|

where as is the acceleration in the direction of S.








39

Now as =
dv
,
dt
where v is a function of s and t.


v ds v v v v ds
v
s dt t s t dt

= + = + =
`

)


If the flow is steady,
v
0
t

s
v v
a
s

Substituting the value of as in equation (1) and simplifying the equation, we get


p v v
dsdA g dAds cos = dAds
s s




Dividing y dsdA,
p v v
g cos =
s s




or
p v v
g cos + v 0
s s

+ =



we have
dz
cos =
ds


1 p dz v v p
g 0 or gdz vdv 0
s ds s
p
or gdz vdv 0 ....(2)

+ + = + + =

+ + =

Equation (2) is known as Eulers equation of motion.

Bernoullis equation is obtained by integrating the Eulers equation of motion
(2) as


dp
gdz vdv = constant + +

If flow is incompressible, is constant and









40
2
p v
gz + constant
2
+ =

or
2
p v
z constant
g 2g
+ + =

or
2
p v
z constant .....(3)
g 2g
+ + =

Equation (3) is a Bernoullis equation in which


p
pressure energy per unit weight of fluid or pressure Head.
g
=

V
2
/2g = Kinetic energy per unit weight or kinetic Head.
z = potential energy per unit weight or potential Head.

2. The water is flowing through a pipe having diameters 20 cm and 10 cm at
sections 1 and 2 respectively. The rate of flow through pipe is 35 litres/s. The
section 1 is 6m above datum and section 2 is 4 m above datum. If the pressure at
section 1 is 39.24 N/cm
2
, find the intensity of pressure at section 2.

Solution:- Given

At section 1, D1 = 20 cm = 0.2 m


( )
2
2
1
2
1
4 2
1
A .2 0.0314m
4
p 39.24 N/cm
= 39.24 10 N/ m
z 6.0 m

= =
=

=


At section 2, D2 = 0.10 m

( )
2
2
2
2
2
A 0.1 .00785 m
4
z 4 m
p ?

= =
=
=

Rate of flow,
3
35
Q 35lit / s 0.035 m / s.
1000
= = =









41
Now Q = A1V1 = A2V2


1
1
Q 0.035
V 1.114 m/s
A .0314
= = =
and
2
2
Q 0.035
V 4.456 m/s
A .00785
= = =

Applying Bernoullis equation at sections 1 and 2, we get


2 2
2 1 1 2 2
1
p v p v
z z
g 2g g 2g
+ + = + +



or
( ) ( )
2 2
4
2
1.114 4.456
p 39.24 10
6.0 4.0
1000 9.81 2 9.81 1000 9.81 2 9.81

+ + = + +



or
2
p
40 0.063 6.0 1.012 4.0
9810
+ + = + +
or
2
p
46.063 5.012
9810
= +

2
p
46.063 5.012 41.051
9810
= =
p2 = 41.051 9810 N/m
2



2 2
4
41.051 9810
N/ cm 40.27 N/cm .
10

= =



3. Water is flowing through a pipe having diameter 300 mm and 200 mm at the
bottom and upper end respectively. The intensity of pressure at the bottom end is
24.525 N/cm
2
and the pressure at the upper end is 9.81 N/cm
2
. Determine the
difference in datum head if the rate of flow through pipe is 40 lit/s.

Solution:
Given:

Section 1, D1 = 300 mm = 0.3 m
p1 = 24.525 N/cm
2
= 24.525 10
4
N/m
2

Section 2, D2 = 200 mm = 0.2 m
p2 = 9.81 N/cm
2
= 9.81 10
4
N/m
2









42

Rate of flow = 40 lit/s.

or
3
40
Q 0.04 m / s.
1000
= =

Now A1V1 = A2V2 = rate of flow = 0.04


( )
( ) ( )
1
2
2
1
1
2
2 2
2
2
.04 .04 0.04
V 0.5658 m/ s.
A
D 0.3
4 4
0.566 m/s.
.04 .04 0.04
V 1.274 m/s
A
D .2
4 4
= = = =

= = = =



Applying Bernoullis equation at (1) and (2), we get


2 2
2 1 1 2 2
1
p v p v
z z
g 2g g 2g
+ + = + +


or
( )
2
4 4
1 2
1.274
24.525 10 .566 .566 9.81 10
z z
1000 9.81 2 9.81 1000 9.81 2 9.81

+ + = + +



or 25 + .32 + z1 = 10 + 1.623 + z2
or 25.32 + z1 = 11.623+ z2

z2 z1 = 25.32 11.623 = 13.697 = 13.70 m

Difference in datum head = z2 z1 = 13.70 m.

4. Explain the working principle of venturimeter.

Venturimeter. A venturimeter is a device used for measuring the rate of a flow of a
fluid flowing through a pipe. It consists of three parts:

(i) A short converging part, (ii) Throat, and (iii) Diverging part. It is based on
the Principle of Bernoullis equation.

Expression for Rate of Flow through Venturimeter









43
Consider a venturimeter fitted in a horizontal pipe through which a fluid is
flowing (say water), as shown in figure.

Let d1 = diameter at inlet or at section (1),
p1 = pressure at section (1)
v1 = velocity of fluid at section (1),

a = area at section (1) =
2
1
d
4

and d2, p2, v2, a2 are corresponding values at section (2).

Applying Bernoullis equation at sections (1) and (2), we get


2 2
1 1 2 2
1 2
p v p v
z z
g 2g g 2g
+ + = + +



As pipe is horizontal, hence z1 = z2

2 2 2 2
1 1 2 2 1 2 2 1
p v p v p p v v
or
g 2g g 2g g 2g 2g

+ = + =


But
1 2
p p
g

is the difference of pressure heads at sections 1 and 2 and it is equal to h

or
1 2
p p
g

= h

Substituting this value of
1 2
p p
g

in the above equation, we get

2 2
2 1
v v
h ...(1)
2g 2g
=
Now applying continuity equation at sections 1 and 2


2 2
1 1 2 2 1
1
a v
a v a v or v
a
= =
Substituting this value of v1 in equation (1)


2
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 2 2 2 2 1 2
2 2
1 1
a v
a v v a v a a
h 1
2g 2g 2g a 2g a
| |
|
( (
\
= = =
( (


or
2
2 1
2 2 2
1 2
a
v 2gh
a a
=

44

2
1 1
2 2 2
2 2
1 2
1 2
a a
v 2gh 2gh
a a
a a
= =

Discharge, Q = a2v2


1 1 2
2
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2
a a a
a 2gh 2gh
a a a a
= =

(2)

Equation (2) gives the discharge under ideal conditions and is called
theoretical discharge. Actual discharge will be less than theoretical discharge.


1 2
act d
2 2
1 2
a a
Q C 2gh ....(3)
a a
=

where Cd = Co-efficient of venturimeter and its value is less than 1.
Value of h given by differential U-tube manometer

Case I. Let the differential manometer contains a liquid which is heavier than the
liquid flowing through the pipe. Let

Sh = sp. Gravity of the heavier liquid
So = sp. Gravity of the liquid flowing through pipe
x = difference of the heavier liquid column in U-tube

Then
h
o
S
h x 1
S
(
=
(

(4)

Case II. If the differential manometer contains a liquid which lighter than the liquid
flowing through the pipe, the value of h is given by


h
o
S
h x 1
S
(
=
(

.(5)
where S1 = sp. gr. Of lighter liquid in U-tube
So = sp. Gr. Of fluid flowing through pipe
x = difference of the lighter liquid columns in U-tube.

Case III. Inclined Venturimeter with Differential U-tube manometer.

The above two cases are given for a horizontal venturimeter. This case is
related to included venturimeter having differential U-tube manometer. Let the








45
differential manometer contains heavier liquid then h is given as


1 2 h
1 2
o
p p S
h z z x 1
g g S
( | | | |
= + + =
( | |

\ \
.(6)

Case IV

Similarly, for inclined venturimeter in which differential manometer contains
a liquid which is lighter than the liquid flowing through the pipe, the value of h is
given as

1 2 l
1 2
o
p p S
h z z x 1
g g S
( | | | |
= + + =
( | |

\ \
. (7)

5. A horizontal venturimeter with inlet and throat diameters 30 cm and 15 cm
respectively is used to measure the flow of water. The reading of differential
manometer connected to the inlet and the throat is 20 cm of mercury. Determine
the rate of flow. Take Cd = 0.98.

Solution, Given:

Dia. at inlet, d1 = 30 cm
Area at inlet, ( )
2
2 2
1 1
a d 30 706.85 cm
4 4

= = =
Dia, at throat, d2 = 15 cm

2 2
2
a 15 176.7 cm
4

= =
Cd = 0.98

Reading of differential manometer = x = 20 cm of mercury.

Difference of pressure head is given by

or
h
o
S
h x 1
S
(
=
(



where Sh = sp. gravity of mercury = 13.6, So = sp. gravity of water = 1


13.6
20 1 20 12.6 cm 252.0 cm of water
1
(
= = =
(










46

The discharge through venturimeter is given by


( ) ( )
1 2
d
2 2
1 2
2 2
a a
Q C 2gh
a a
706.85 176.7
= 0.98 2 981 252
706.85 176.7
=

3
86067593.36 86067593.36
684.4
499636.9 31222.9
125756
125756 cm / s lit / s 125.756 lit / s.
1000
= =

= = =


6. A horizontal venturimeter with inlet diameter 20 cm and throat diameter 10 cm
is used to measure the flow of water. The pressure at inlet is 17.658 N/cm
2
and the
vacuum pressure at the throat is 30 cm of mercury. Find the discharge of water
through venturimeter. Take Cd = 0.98.

Solution Given:

Dia. at inlet, d1 = 20 cm
( )
2
2
1
a 20 314.16 cm
4

= =
Dia. at throat, d2 = 10 cm

2 2
2
a 10 78.74 cm
4

= =

2 4 2
1
p 17.658 N/cm 17.658 10 N/ m = =

for water
4
1
3
p kg 17.658 10
1000 and 18 m of water
m g 9.81 1000

= = =




2
p
30 cm of mercury
g
= -0.30 m of mercury = - 0.30 13.6 = -4.08 m of water
=

Differential head
( )
1 2
p p
h 18 4.08
g g
= = =


= 18 + 4.08 = 22.08 m of water = 2208 cm of water
The discharge Q is given by








47

1 2
d
2 2
1 2
a a
Q C 2gh
a a
=

( ) ( )
2 2
3
314.16 78.54
0.98 2 981 2208
314.16 78.74
50328837.21
165555 cm / s 165.555 lit/s.
304

= =


7. Explain the Working Principle of Orifice meter.

Orifice Meter or Orifice Plate

It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid through a pipe. It is
a cheaper device as compared to venturimeter. It also works on the same principle as
that of venturimeter. It consists of a flat circular plate which has a circular sharp
edged hole called orifice, which is concentric with the pipe. The orifice diameter is
kept generally 0.5 times the diameter of the pipe, though it may vary from 0.4 to 0.8
times the pipe diameter.

A differential manometer is connected at section (1), which is at a distance of
about 1.5 to 2.0 times the pipe diameter upstream from the orifice plate, and at
section (2), which is at a distance of about half the diameter of the orifice on the
down stream side from the orifice plate.

Let p1 = pressure at section (1),
v1 = velocity at section (1),
a1 = area of pipe at section 1), and

p2, v2, a2 are corresponding values at section (2). Applying Bernoullis
equation at sections (1) and (2) we get


2 2
1 1 2 2
1 2
p v p v
z z
g 2g g 2g
+ + = + +



or
2 2
1 2 2 1
1 2
p p v v
z z
g g 2g 2g
| | | |
+ + =
| |

\ \


But
1 2
1 2
p p
z z h Differential head
g g
| | | |
+ + = =
| |

\ \









48

2 2
2 2 2 1
2 1
v v
h or 2gh = v v
2g 2g
=
or
2
2 1
v 2gh v = + ..(i)

Now section (2) is at the vena contracts and a2 represents the area at the vena
contracts. If a0 is the area of orifice then, we have


2
c
o
a
C
a
=
where Cc = Co-efficient of contraction


2 o c
a a C = .(ii)

By continuity equation, we have


0 c 2
1 1 2 2 1 2 2
1 1
a C a
a v a v or v v v
a a
= = = .(iii)

Substituting the value of v1 in equation (i), we get


2 2 2
0 c 2
2 2
1
a C v
v 2gh
a
= +
or
2
2 2 2 2 2 0 0
2 c 2 2 c
1 1
a a
v 2gh C v or v 1 C 2hg
a a
(
| | | |
( = + = =
| |
(
\ \



2
2
2 0
c
1
2gh
v
a
1 C
a
=
| |

|
\

The discharge
{ }
2 2 2 0 c 2 0 c
Q v a v a C a a C from (ii) = = =

0 c
2
2 0
c
1
a C 2gh
....(iv)
a
1 C
a
=
| |

|
\


The above expression is simplified by using









49

2
0
1
d c
2
2 0
c
1
a
1
a
C C
a
1 C
a
| |

|
\
=
| |

|
\


2
2 0
c
1
c d
2
0
1
a
1 C
a
C C
a
1
a
| |

|
\
=
| |

|
\


Substituting this value of Cc in equation (iv), we get


2
2 0
c
1
0 d
2
2 0
0
c
1
1
d 0 d 0 1
2 2 2
1 0
0
1
a
1 C
a
2gh
Q a C
a
a
1 C
1
a
a
C a 2gh C a a 2gh
= ....(1)
a a
a
1
a
| |

|
\
=
| |
| |

|
|
\
\
=

| |

|
\


where Cd = Co-efficient of discharge for orifice meter.

The co-efficient of discharge for orifice meter is much smaller than that for a
venturimeter.
8. An orifice meter with orifice diameter 15 cm is inserted in a pipe of 30 cm
diameter. The pressure difference measured by a mercury oil differential
manometer on the two sides of the orifice meter gives a reading of 50 cm of
mercury. Find the rate of flow of oil of sp. gr. 0.9 when the co-efficient of
discharge of the meter = 0.64.

Sol. Given:

Dia. Of orifice, d0 = 15 cm

Area, ( )
2
2
o
a 15 176.7 cm
4

= = a
Dia. of pipe, d1 = 30 cm








50

Area, ( )
2
2
1
a 30 706.85 cm
4

= =
Sp. gr. of oil S0 = 0.9

Reading of Differential manometer, x = 50 cm of mercury

Differential head,
g
o
S
13.6
h x 1 50 1 cm of oil
S 0.9
(
(
= =
(
(



50 14.11 705.5 cm of oil = =

Cd = 0.64

The rate of the flow, Q is given equation


( ) ( )
0 1
d
2 2
1 0
2 2
3
a a
Q C . 2gh
a a
176.7 706.85
= 0.64 2 981 705.5
706.85 176.7
94046317.78
= 137414.25 cm / s 137.414 Litres/s.
684.4
=

= =

9. A sub-marine moves horizontally in sea and has its axis 15m below the surface
of water. A pitot-tube properly placed just in front of the sub-marine and along its
axis is connected to the two limbs of a U- tube containing mercury. The difference
of mercury level is found to be 170mm. Find the speed of the sub-marine knowing
that the sp. Gr. Of mercury is 13.6 and that of sea water is 1.026 with respect of
fresh water. (A.M.I.E., Winter, 1975)

Solution. Given:

Diff. of mercury level, x=170 mm=0.17m
Sp. Gr. Of mercury, Sg=13.6
Sp. Gr. Of sea water, So=1.026









51
g
o
S
13.6
h=x 1 0.17 1 2.0834m
S 1.026
V= 2gh 2 9.81 2.0834 6.393m/ s
6.393 60 60
= km/ hr 23.01km/ hr.
1000
(
(
= =
(
(


= =

=


10. A pitot-tube is inserted in a pipe of 300mm diameter. The static pressure in
pipe is 100mm of mercury (vacuum). The stagnation pressure at the centre of the
pipe, recorded by the pitot-tube is 0.981 N/cm
2
. Calculate the rate of flow of water
through pipe, if the mean velocity of flow is 0.85 times the central velocity. Take
Cv=0.98.
(Converted to S.I. Units, A.M.I.E., Summer, 1987)

Solution. Given:

Dia. of pipe, d=300mm=0.30m

2 2 2
Area, a= d (.3) 0.07068m
4 4

= =

Static pressure head =100mm of mercury (vacuum)

100
13.6 1.36m of water
1000
= =

Stagnation pressure =.981 N/cm
2
=.981 10
4
N/m
2


4 4
.981 10 .981 10
Stagnation Pressure head = 1m
g 1000 9.81

= =


h=Stagnation pressure head Static pressure head

=1.0-(-1.36)=1.0+1.36=2.36m of water

Velocity at centre =C 2gh
=0.98 2 9.81 2.36 6.668m/ s
Mean velocity, V 0.85 6.668 5.6678m/ s
Rate of flow of water = V area of pipe

=
= =

3 3
=5.6678 .07068m / s 0.4006m / s. =









52

11. A 30 cm diameter pipe, conveying water, branches into two pipes of diameters
20cm and 15cm respectively. If the average velocity in the 30cm diameter pipe is
2.5 m/s, find the discharge in this pipe. Also determine the velocity in 1.5 cm pipe
if the average velocity in 20cm diameter pipe is 2m/s.

Sol. Given:

D1=30cm=0.30m
2 2 2
1 1
A = D .3 0.07068m
4 4

= =
V1=2.5m/s
D2=20cm=0.20m
( )
2
2
2
A = .2 .4 0.0314m ,
4 4

= =
V2=2m/s
D3=15cm=0.15m
( )
2
2
3
A = .15 0.225 0.01767m
4 4

= =
Find (i) Discharge is pipe 1 or Q1
(ii) Velocity in pipe of dia. cm or V3

Let Q1,Q2 and Q3 are discharges in pipe , and respectively

Then according to continuity equation

Q1=Q2+Q3 (1)

(i) The discharge Q1 in pipe 1 is given by
(ii) Value of V3
Q2 = A2V2=.0314 2.0=.0628 m
3
/s

Substituting the values of Q1 and Q2 in equation (1)

0.1767-0.0628=0.1139m
3
/s
Q3=.1767-0.0628=0.1139m
3
/s
But Q3=A3 V3=.01767 V3 or .1139=.01767 V3
3
.1139
V 6.44m/ s.
.01767
= =

12. Water flows through a pipe AB 1.2m diameter at 3m/s and then passes through








53
a pipe BC 1.5m diameter. At C, the pipe branches. Branch CD is 0.8m in diameter
and carries one-third of flow in AB. The flow velocity in branch CE is 2.5 m/s.
Find the volume rate of flow in AB, the velocity in BC, the velocity in CD and the
diameter of CE. (AMIE, Winter 1982; Osmania University, 1990)

Sol. Given:

Diameter of pipe AB, DAB=1.2m
Velocity of flow through AB, VAB=3.0 m/s
Dia. of pipe BC, DBC=1.5m
Dia. of branched pipe CD, VCD=0.8m
Velocity of flow in pipe CE, VCE=2.5 m/s
Let the flow rate in pipe AB=Q m
3
/s
Velocity of flow in pipe BC=VBCm/s
Velocity of flow in pipe CD=VCDm/s
Diameter of pipe CE= DCE
Then flow rate through CD=Q/3
And flow rate through CE=Q-Q/3=
2Q
3


i) Now volume flow rate through AB=Q=VAB Area of AB
( ) ( )
2 2
AB
3.0 D 3.0 1.2
4 4

= =
=3.393 m
3
/s.

20. Explain Boundary Layer thickness.

Boundary Layer Thickness ( ): It is defined as the distance from the boundary of the
solid body measured in the y direction to the point, where the velocity of the fluid
is approximately equal to 0.99 times the free steam (U) velocity of the fluid. It is
denoted by the symbol. For laminar and turbulent zone it is denoted as:

1. lam = Thickness of laminar boundary layer,
2. tur = Thickness of turbulent boundary layer, and
3. =Thickness of laminar sub layer

Displacement Thickness ( *): It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular
to the boundary of the solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced to
compensate for the reduction in flow rate on account of boundary layer formation. It
is denoted by *. It is also defined as:









54
The distance, perpendicular to the boundary, by which the free stream is
displaced due to the formation of boundary layer

Expression for *:

Consider the flow of a fluid having free stream velocity equal to U over a
thin smooth plate as shown in figure. At a distance x from the leading edge. The
velocity of fluid at B is zero and at C, which lies on the boundary layer, is U. Thus
velocity varies from zero at B to U at C, where BC is equal to the thickness of
boundary layer i.e.,

Distance BC =

Let y = distance of elemental strip from the plate,
dy = thickness of the elemental strip,
u = velocity of fluid at the elemental strip
b = width of plate.

Then area of elemental strip, dA = b x dy

Mass of fluid per second flowing through elemental strip

= x Velocity x Area of elemental strip
= u x dA = u x b x dv (i)

If there had been no plate, then the fluid would have been flowing with a
constant velocity equal to free stream velocity (U). Then mass of fluid per second
flowing through elemental strip would have been

= x Velocity x Area = x U x b x dy (ii)

As U is more than, hence due to the presence of the plate and consequently
due to the formation of the boundary layer, there will be a reduction in mass flowing
per second through the elemental strip.

This reduction in mass / sec flowing through elemental strip

= mass / sec given by equation (ii) mass / sec given by equation (i)
= Ubdy - ubdy = b(U-u) dy
Total reduction in mass of fluid /s flowing through BC due to plate








55


( ) ( ) ( )
{ }
0 0
iii
if fluid is incompressible
= =


b U u dy b U u dy


Let the plate is displaced by a distance * and velocity of flow for the distance
* is equal to the free-stream velocity (i.e., U). Loss of the mass of the fluid / sec
flowing through the distance *
= x Velocity x Area
= x U x * x b {Area = * x b}

(iv) Equating equation (iii) and (iv), we get

( )
0
* b U u dy U b

Canceling b to both sides, we have

( )
0
* U u dy U

Or

( )
( )
0 0
0
U is constant and can
1
*
be taken inside the integral
* 1
U u dy
U u dy
U U
u
dy
U

= =
`

)
| |
=
|
\

22. A plate of 600 mm length and 400 mm wide is immersed in a fluid of sp.gr. 0.9
and kinematic viscosity (v=1) 10
-4
m
2
/s. The fluid is moving with a velocity of 6
m/s. Determine (i) boundary layer thickness, (ii) shear stress at the end of the
plate, and (iii) drag force on one side of the plate.

Solution:

As no velocity profile is given in the above problem, hence Blasiuss solution
will be used.

Given: Length of plate, L = 600 mm = 0.60 m
Width of plate, b = 400 mm = 0.40 m
Sp.gr.of fluid, S = 0.9
Density, = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg / m
3

Velocity of fluid, U = 6 m/s
Kinematic viscosity, v = 10
-4
m
2
/s








56
Reynold number
4
4
6 0.6
3.6 10
10
eL
U L
R
v


= = =

As ReL is less than 5 x 10
5
, hence boundary layer is laminar over the entire
length of the plate.

(i) Thickness of boundary layer at the end of the plate from Blasiuss solutions is

4
ex
4
4.91
, where x =0.6 m and R 3.6 10
4.91 0.6
0.0155 15.5
3.6 10
ex
x
R
m mm
= =

= = =

(ii) Shear stress at the end of the plate is

2 2
2
0
4
0.332 900 6
0.332 56.6 /
3.6 10
eL
U
N m
R

= = =

(iii) Drag force (FD) on one side of the plate is given by


2
1
2
D D
F AU C =

Where CD from Blasiuss solution is

{ }
4
2
2
1.328 1.328
0.00699
3.6 10
1
2
1
900 0.6 0.4 6 .00699 A=L b=0.6 0.4
2
26.78
D
eL
D D
C
R
F AU C
N

= = =

=
=
=

23. A flat plate 1.5m x 1.5m moves at 50 km/hour in stationary air of density 1.15
kg/m
3
. if the co-efficient of drag and life are 0.15 and 0.75 respectively,
determine:

i. The lift force,
ii. The drag force
iii. The resultant force, and
iv. The power required to keep the plate in motion (A.M.I.E, Winter 1997)









57
Solution : Given

Area of the plate, A = 1.5 x 1.5 = 2.25 m
2

Velocity of the plane, U = 50 km/hr =
50 1000
/ = 13.89m/s
60 60
m s

Density of air = 1.15 kg/m
3

Co-efficient of drag CD = 0.15
Co-efficient of lift CL = 0.75

i) Lift Force (FL) Using equation.

2 2
1.15 13.89
0.75 2.25 N=187.20N Ans.
2 2
L L
U
F C A

= =

ii) Drag Force (FD) using equation

2 2
1.15 13.89
0.15 2.25 N=37.44N Ans.
2 2
D D
U
F C A

= =
iii) Resultant Force (FR) Using equation

2 2 2 2
37.44 187.20 N
= 1400+35025 190.85 N
R D L
F F F = + = +
=


iv) Power Required to keep the Plate in Motion

Force in the direction of motion Velocity
P=
1000
37.425 13.89
0.519 kW. Ans
1000 1000
D
kW
F U
kW

= = =

24. A man weighting 90 kgf descends to the ground from an aeroplane with the
help of a parachute against the resistance of air. The velocity with which the
parachute, which is hemispherical in shape, comes down is 20 m/s. finds the
diameter of the parachute. Assume CD = 0.5 and density of air =1.25 kg/m
3
.

Solution, Given:

Weight of man W = 90 kgf = 90 x 9.81 N = 882.9 N ( 1 kgf = 9.81 N)
Velocity of parachute U = 20 m/s
Co-efficient of drag CD = 0.5
Density of air = 1.25 kg/m
3

Let the dia, of parachute = D
Area
2 2
4
A D m

=








58

When the parachute with the man comes down with a uniform velocity, U=20
m/s, the drag resistance will be equal to the weight of man, neglecting the weight
parachute. And projected are of the hemispherical parachute will be equal to
4

d
2
.

Drag, FD = 90 kgf = 90 x 9.81 = 882.9 N (using equation)


2
2
4
2 2
2
1.25 20
882.9=0.5
4 2
882.9 4 2.0
D 8.9946 m
0.5 1.25 20 20
8.9946 2.999 m. Ans
D D
U
F C A
D
D

= =

= =








25. A kite 0.8 m x 0.8 m weighing 0.4 kgf (3.924 N) assumes an angle, of 12 to the
horizontal. The string attached to the kite makes an angle of 45 to the horizontal.
The pull on the string is 2.5 kgf (24.525 N) when the wind is flowing at a speed of
30 km/hour. Find the corresponding co-efficient of drag and lift. Density of air is
given as 1.25 kg/m
3


Solution, Given:

Projected area of kite, A = 0.8 x 0.8 = 0.64 m
2

weight of kite, W = 0.4 kgf = 0.4 x 9.81 = 3.924 N
Angle made by kite with horizontal, 1 = 45
Pull on the string P = 2.5 kgf = 2.5 x 9.81 = 24.525 N
Speed of wind, U = 30 km/hr =
30 1000
/ = 8.333 m/s
60 60
m s

Density of air, = 1.25 kg/m
3

Drag force, FD = Force exerted by wind in the direction
of motion
(i.e. in the X-X direction)
= Component of pull, P along X-X








59
= P cos 45 = 24.525 cos 45 = 17.34 N

And Lift Force, FL = force excerted by wind on the kite perpendicular to the
direction of motion (i.e, along r-Y direction)
= Component of P in vertically downward
direction + Weight of kite (W)
= P sin 45 + W = 24.525 sin 45 + 3.924 N
= 17.34 + 3.924 = 21.264 N.

i) Drag co-efficient (CD). using equation, we have


2
2 2
2
2 2 17.34
0.624. Ans.
0.64 1.25 8.333
D D
D
D
U
F C A
F
C
A U

=

= = =




ii) Lift co-efficient (CL). using equation, we have


2
2 2
2
2 2 21.264
0.765. Ans.
0.64 1.25 8.333
L L
L
L
U
F C A
F
C
A U

=

= = =



26. A jet plane which weights 29.43 kN and having a wing area of 20m
3
flies at a
velocity of 950 km/hour, when the entire delivers 7357.5 kW power. 656% of the
power is used to overcome the drag resistance of the wing. Calculate the co-
efficients of lift and drag for the wing. The density of the atmospheric air is 1.21
kg/m
3
.

Solution, given :

Weight of plane, W = 29.43 kN = 29.43 x 1000 N = 29430 N
Wing area, A = 20 m
3
.
Speed of plane U = 950 km/hr =
950 1000
263.88 /
60 60
m s

Engine power, P = 7357.5 kW
Power used to overcome drag
Resistance = 65% of 7357.5 =
65
7357.5 4782.375
100
kW =
Density of air, = 1.21 kg/m
3









60

Let CD = Coefficient of drag and CL = coefficient of lift.
Now power used in kW to
over come drag resistance =
D
D
F 263.88
or 4782.375=
1000 1000
4782.375 1000
F
263.88
D
F U

=


But from equation, we have
2
. .
2
D D
U
F C A

=

2
D 3
4782.375 1000 263.88
20 1.21
263.88 2
4782.375 1000 2
C 0.0215. Ans.
20 1.21 263.88
D
C

=

= =



The lift force should be equal to weight of the plane FL = W = 29430 N

But
2 2
L
2
263.88
. . or 29430 = C 20 1.21
2 2
29430 2
0.0349. Ans.
20 1.21 263.88
L L
L
U
F C A
C

= =



























61
UNIT III
Viscous flow
Navier - Stokes equation (Statement only)
Shear stress, pressure gradient relationship
Laminar flow between parallel plates
Laminar flow through circular tubes (Hagen poiseulles)
Hydraulic and energy gradient
Flow through pipes
Darcy -weisbacks equation
Pipe roughness
Friction factor-
Minor losses
Flow through pipes in series and in parallel
Power transmission.














FLOW THROUGH PIPES








62

PART - A

1. What do you understand by the terms major energy loss and minor energy
losses in pipes?

The loss energy in pipe is classified as major energy loss and minor energy
lossed. Major energy loss is due to friction while minor energy losses are due to
sudden expansion of pipe, sudden contraction of pipe, bend in pipe and an
obstruction in pipe.

2. How will you determine the loss of head due to friction in pipes by using (i)
Darcy formula and (ii) chezys formula?

Energy loss due to friction is given by darcy formula, hfhf =
2
4fLV
2gd


The head loss due to friction in pipe can also be calculated by Chezys
formula V = c mi
Where,
C = chezys constant
m = hydraulic mean depth = d/4
V = velocity of flow
loss of head per unit length
f
h
i
L
= =

3. Derive an expression for the loss of due to

(i) Sudden enlargement (ii) Sudden contraction of a pipe
(i) Loss of head due to sudden expansion of pipe, hc =
2
1 2
(V - V )
2g

V1 = velocity in small pipe
V2 = velocity in large pipe
(ii) Loss of head due to sudden contraction of pipe,

hc =
2
2
2
c
V 1 -1

C 2g
| |
|
\


Ce = Coefficient of contraction
= 0.375
2
2
V
2g
[for Cc = 0.62]








63
= 0.5
2
2
V
2g
[if value of Cc is not given]

4. Define the terms:

(i) Hydraulic gradient line
(ii) Total energy line

(i) Hydraulic gradient line:

The line representing the sum of pressure head and datum head of a flowing
fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line is called hydraulic gradient line
(H.G.L)

(ii) Total Energy line:

The line representing the sum of pressure head, datum head and velocity
head of a following fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line is known as
total energy line [T.E.L]

5. What is a siphon? On what principle it works.

Siphon is a long bent pipe used to transfer liquid from a reservoir at a higher
level to another reservoir at a lower level, when the two reservoirs are separated by a
high level ground.


6. What is compound pipe? What will be loss of head when pipes are connected in
series?

When pipes of different lengths and different diameter are connected end to
end, (in series) it is called as compound pipe. The rate of flow through each pipe
connected is series is same.

7. Explain the terms (i) pipes in parallel (ii) equivalent pipe (iii) Equivalent size of
the pipe?

(i) Pipes in parallel:

When the pipes are connected in parallel, the loss of head in each pipe is








64
same. The rate of flow in main pipe is equal to sum of the rate of flow in each pipe,
connected in parallel.

(ii) Equivalent size of the pipe:

The diameter of equivalent pipe is called equivalent size of the pipe.

The equivalent size of the pipe is obtained from

3 1 2
5 5 5 5
1 2 3
L L L L
d d d d
= + +

L = Equivalent length of pipe = L1 + L2+L3 and d1, d2, d3 = are diameters of pipe
connected in series.

Equivalent size of the pipes = d

(iii) Equivalent pipe:

A single pipe of uniform diameter, having same discharge and same loss of
head as compound pipe consisting of several pipes of different lengths and
diameters is known as equivalent pipe

8. Explain the phenomenon of Water hammer?

When a liquid is flowing through a long pipe fitted with a valve at the end of
the pipe and the valve is closed suddenly a pressure wave of high intensity is
produced behind the valve. This pressure wave of high intensity is transmitted
along the pipe with sonic velocity. This pressure wave of high intensity is having
the effect of hammering action on the walls of the pipe. The phenomenon is known
as water hammer

9. Find the expression for the power transmission through pipe. What is the
condition for maximum transmission of power and corresponding efficiency of
transmission?

Let H = total head available at inlet of pipe
hf = Loss of head due to friction









65
Efficiency of power transmission through pipes =
f
H - h
H

Condition for maximum transmission of power through pipe hf =
3
H
and maximum
efficiency = 66.67%










66
PART B

1. Explain the flow of viscous fluid through circular pipe and derive Hagen
Poiseuilles.

FLOW OF VISCOUS FLUID THROUGH CIRCULAR PIPE

For the flow of viscous fluid through circular pipe, the velocity distribution
across a section, the ratio of maximum velocity to average velocity, the shear stress
distribution and drop of pressure for a given length is to be determined. The flow
through the circular pipe will be viscous or laminar, if the Reynolds number (Re*) is
less than 2000. The expression for Reynold number is given by


e
VD
R

=

where = Density of fluid flowing through pipe
V = Average velocity of fluid
D = Diameter of pipe and
= Viscosity of fluid.

Consider a horizontal pipe of radius R. The viscous fluid is flowing from left
to right in the pipe. Consider a fluid element of radius r, sliding in a cylindrical fluid
element of radius (r + dr). Let the length of fluid element be x. If p is the intensity
of pressure on the face AB, then the intensity of pressure on face CD will be
p
p x
x
| |
+
|

\
. Then the forces acting on the fluid element are:

1. The pressure force, p r
2
on face AB.
2. The pressure force,
2
p
p x r
x
| |
+
|

\
on face CD.
3. The shear force, 2rx on the surface of fluid element. As there is no
acceleration, hence the summation of all forces in the direction of flow must
be zero i.e.

2 2
p
p r p x r 2 r x 0
x
| |
+ =
|

\

or
2
p
x r 2 r x 0
x

67
or
p
.r 2 0
x

p r
....(1)
x 2

The shear stress across a section varies with r as
p
x

across a section is
constant. Hence shear stress distribution across a section is linear.

(i) Velocity Distribution. To obtain the velocity distribution across a section, the
value of shear stress
du
y
dy
= is substituted in equation (1).

But in the relation =
du
y
dy
, is measured from the pipe wall. Hence
y = R r and dy = -dr

du du
dr dr
= =

Substituting this value in (1), we get


du p r du 1 p
or r
dr x 2 dr 2 x

= =



Integrating this above equation w.r.t., r, we get


2
1 p
u r C
4 x

= +

.(2)

where C is the constant of integration and its value is obtained from the boundary
condition that at r = R, u = O.


2
1 p
O R C
4 x

= +



2
1 p
C R
4 x

=



Substituting this value of C in equation (2), we get









68

2 2
2 2
1 p 1 p
u r R
4 x 4 x
1 p
= - R r ....(3)
4 x

=

(




In equation (3), values of ,
p
x

and R are constant, which means the velocity,

u varies with the square of r. Thus equation (3) is a equation of parabola. This shows
that the velocity distribution across the section of a pipe is parabolic. This velocity
distribution is shown in figure (b).

(ii) Ratio of Maximum Velocity to Average Velocity

The velocity is maximum, when r = 0 in equation (3). Thus maximum velocity, Umax
is obtained as


2
max
1 p
U R
4 x

=

.(4)

The average velocity, u, is obtained by dividing the discharge of the fluid
across the section by the area of the pipe (R
2
). The discharge (Q) across the section is
obtained by considering the flow through a circular ring element of radius r and
thickness dr as shown in figure (b). The fluid flowing per second through this
elementary ring

dQ = velocity at a radius r area of ring element
= u 2r dr

2 2
1 p
R r 2 r dr
4 x

( =





( )
R R
2 2
0 0
1 p
Q dQ R r 2 r dr
4 x

= =











69

( )
( )
R
2 2
0
R
2 3
0
R
2 2 4 4 4
0
4
4
1 p
2 R r rdr
4 x
1 p
2 R r r dr
4 x
1 p R r r 1 p R R
2 2
4 x 2 4 4 x 2 4
1 p R p
2 R
4 x 4 8 x
| |
=
|

\
| |
=
|

\
( ( | | | |
= =
( ( | |

\ \

| | | |
= =
| |

\ \

Average velocity,
4
2
p
R
Q 8 x
u
Area R
| |
|

\
= =

or
2
p
u R ...(5)
8 x
| |
=
|

\


Dividing equation (4) by equation (5),


2
max
2
1 p
R
U 4 x
2.0
1 p
u
R
8 x

= =
| |

|

\


Ratio of maximum velocity to average velocity = 2.0.





(iii) Drop of pressure for a given Length (L) of a pipe

From equation (5), we have


2
2
1 p - p 8 u
u R or
8 x x R
| | | |
= =
| |

\ \


Integrating the above equation w.r.t. x, we get









70

1 1
2
2 2
8 u
dp dx
R

=


[ ] [ ] ( ) [ ]
1 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 2
8 u 8 u
- p p x x or p p x x
R R

= =

{ }
( )
2 1 2
2
8 u
L x x L from figure
R
8 uL D
R =
2
D/ 2

= =

=
`
)

or
( )
1 2 1 2 2
32 uL
p p , where p p is the drop of pressure.
D

=
Loss of pressure head
1 2
p p
g

1 2
f 2
p p 32 uL
h ....(6)
g gD

= =



Equation (6) is called Hagen Poiseuille Formula.

2. A crude oil of viscosity 0.97 poise and relative density 0.9 is flowing through a
horizontal circular pipe of diameter 100 mm and of length 10 m. Calculate the
difference of pressure at the two ends of the pipe, if 100 kg of the oil is collected
in a tank in 30 seconds.

Sol. Given:
2
0.97
0.97 poise = 0.097 Ns/m
10
= =
Relative Density = 0.9
0, or Density =
3
0.9 1000 900kg/ m =
Dia. Of pipe, D = 100 mm = 0.1 m
L = 10 m
Mass of oil collected, M = 100 kg
in time, t = 30 seconds

Calculate difference of pressure or (p1 p2).

The difference of pressure (p1 p2) for viscous or laminar flow is given by


1 2 2
32 uL Q
p p where u averagevelocity
D Area

= = =
Now, mass of oil/sec
100
kg/ s
30
=








71

( )
0 0
Q 900 Q 900 = = =

100
900 Q
30
=

3
100 1
Q 0.0037 m / s.
30 900
= =

( )
2
2
Q .0037 .0037
u 0.471 m/s.
Area
D .1
4 4
= = = =



For laminar or viscous flow, the Reynolds number (Re) is less than 2000. Let us
calculate the Reynolds number for this problem.

Reynolds number,
e
VD
R

=

where
0
900, V = u 0.471, D 0.1 m, = 0.097 = = = =

e
.471 0.1
R 900 436.91
0.097

= =
As Reynolds number is less than 2000, the flow is laminar.

( )
2
1 2 2 2
32 uL 32 0.097 .471 10
p p N/ m
D
.1

= =
= 1462.28 N/m
2
= 1462.28 10
-4
N/cm
2
= 0.1462 N/cm
2
.
3. A fluid of viscosity 0.7 Ns/m
2
and specific gravity 1.3 is flowing through a
circular pipe of diameter 100 mm. The maximum shear stress at the pipe wall is
given as 196.2 N/m
2
, find (a) the pressure gradient (b) the average velocity and (c)
Reynold number of the flow.

Sol. Given:
2
Ns
0.7
m
=
Sp. gr. = 1.3
Density =
3
1.3 1000 1300 kg/m =
Dia. Of pipe, D = 100 mm = 0.1 m
Shear stress, 0 = 196.2 N/m
2


Find

(i) Pressure gradient,
dp
dx

(ii) Average velocity, u
(iii) Reynold number, Re









72
(i) Pressure gradient,
dp
dx

The maximum shear stress (0) is given by


0
p R p D p 0.1
or 196.2 = -
x 2 x 4 x 4

= =



2
p 196.2 4
7848 N/m per m
x 0.1

= =

Pressure Gradient = -7848N/m
2
per m.

(ii) Average velocity, u


2 2
max max
1 1 1 p 1 p
u U R U R
2 2 4 x 8 x
(
= = =
`
(

)


2
1 p
R
8 x
| |
=
|

\


( ) ( )
2 1 D 1
7848 .05 R = .05
8 0.7 2 2
3.50 m/s.

= = =
`

)
=

(iii) Reynold number, Re


e
u D u D u D
R
v /
3.50 0.1
= 1300 650.00.
0.7

= = =

=


4. Calculate: (a) the pressure gradient along flow, (b) the average velocity, and (c)
the discharge for an oil of viscosity 0.02 Ns/m
2
flowing between two stationary
parallel plates 1 m wide maintained 10 mm apart. The velocity midway between
the plates is 2 m/s. (Delhi University, 1982)

Sol. Given:

Viscosity,
2
.02 Ns/m =
Width, b = 1 m
Distance between plates, t = 10 mm = .01 m
Velocity midway between the plates, Umax = 2 m/s.









73
(i) Pressure gradient
dp
dx
| |
|
\



( )
2
2
max
1 dp 1 dp
U t or 2.0 = - .01
8 dx 8 .02 dx
| |
=
|

\


2
dp 2.0 8 .02
3200 N/m per m.
dx .01 .01

= =

(ii) Average velocity ( u)

Using equation
max
U 3
2 u
=

max
2 U 2 2
u 1.33 m/s.
3 3

= = =

(iii) Discharge (Q) = Area of flow
3
u b t u 1 .01 1.33 .0133 m / s. = = =

5. Derive Darcy-Weisbach equation.

Expression for loss of head due to Friction in pipes

Consider a uniform horizontal pipe, having steady flow as shown in figure.
Let 1-1 and 2-2 are two sections of pipe.

Let p1 = Pressure intensity at section 1-1,
V1 = Velocity of flow at section 1-1,
L = length of the pipe between sections 1-1 and 2-2
d = diameter of pipe,
f = frictional resistance per unit wetted area per unit velocity,
hf = loss of head due to friction
and p2, V2 = are values of pressure intensity and velocity at section 2-2.

Applying Bernoullis equations between sections 1-1 and 2-2,

Total head at 1-1 = Total head at 2-2 + loss of head due to friction between 1-1
and 2-2









74
or
2 2
1 1 2 2
1 2 f
p V p V
z z h
g 2g g 2g
+ + = + + +



But z1 = z2 pipe is horizontal
V1 = V2 as dia. Of pipe is same at 1-1 and 2-2


1 2 1 2
f f
p p p p
h or h ....(i)
g g g g
= + =



But hf is the head lost due to friction and hence intensity of pressure will be
reduced in the direction of flow by frictional resistance.

Now frictional resistance = frictional resistance per unit wetted area per unit
velocity wetted area velocity
2


or F1 = f dL V
2
[ wetted area = d L velocity = V = V1 = V2]
= f P L V
2
[ d = Perimeter = P] .(ii)

The forces acting on the fluid between section 1-1 and 2-2 are:

1. Pressure force at section 1-1 = p1 A
where A = Area of pipe
2. Pressure force at section 2-2 = p2 A
3. Frictional force F1 as shown in figure.
Resolving all forces in the horizontal direction, we have
p1A p2A F1 = 0 (1)
or
( )
2 2
1 2 1 1
p p A F f ' P L V [ From (ii), F f ' PLV ] = = =
or
2
1 2
f ' P L V
p p
A

=
But from equation (i), p1 p2 = ghf
Equation the value of (p1 p2), we get

2
f
f ' P L V
gh
A

=








75
or
2
f
f ' P
h L V ...(iii)
g A
=

In equation (iii),
2
P Wetted perimeter d 4
A Area d
d
4

= = =

2
2
f
f ' 4 f ' 4LV
h L V ...(iv)
g d g d
= =


Putting
f ' f
,
g 2
=

where f is known as co-efficient of friction.

Equation (iv), becomes as
2 2
f
4.f LV 4f. L. V
h . ...(2)
2g d d 2g
= =

Equation (2) is known as Darcy-Weisbach equation. This equation is commonly used
for finding loss of head due to friction in pipes.

Sometimes equation (2) is written as


2
f
f. L. V
h
d 2g
=

.(2A)

Then f is known as friction factor.

6. Find the diameter of a pipe of length 2000 m when the rate of flow of water
through the pipe is 200 litres/s and the head lost due to friction is 4 m. Take the
value of C = 50 in Chezys formulae.

Sol. Given:

Length of pipe, L = 2000 m
Discharge, Q = 200 litre/s = 0.2 m
3
/s
Head lost due to friction hf = 4 m
Value of Chezys constant, C = 50
Let the diameter of pipe = d

Velocity of flow, V =
2
2 2
Discharge Q 0.2 0.2 4
Area d
d d
4 4

= = =



Hydraulic mean depth, m =
d
4









76
Loss of head per unit length,
f
h 4
i .002
L 2000
= = =

Chezys formula is given by equation as V = C mi

Substituting the values of V, m, I and C, we get


2 2 2
0.2 4 d d 0.2 4 .00509
50 .002 or .002
d 4 4 d 50 d

= = =



Squaring both sides,

2
5
4 4
d .00509 .0000259 4 .0000259
.002 or d 0.0518
4 d d .002

= = = =

( )
1/ 5
5
d 0.0518 .0518 0.553 m 553 mm. = = = =


7. An oil of sp.gr. 0.7 is flowing through a pipe of diameter 300 mm at the rate of
500 litres/s. Find the head lost due to friction and power required to maintain the
flow for a length of 1000 m. Take v = .29 stokes.

Sol. Given :

Sp.gr. of oil, S = 0.7
Dia. of pipe, d = 300 mm = 0.3 m
Discharge, Q = 500 litres/s = 0.5 m
3
/s.
Length of pipe, L = 1000 m
Velocity,
2
2
Q 0.5 0.5 4
V 7.073 m/s
Area 0.3
d
4

= = = =

Reynolds number, ( )
4
e 4
V d 7.073 0.3
R 7.316 10
v 0.29 10

= = =

Co-efficient of friction,
( )
1 1
4 4 4
e
.079 0.79
f .0048
R
7.316 10
= = =

Head lost due to friction,









77

2 2
f
4 f L V 4 .0048 1000 7.073
h 163.18 m
d 2g 0.3 2 9.81

= = =



Power required
f
g.Qh
kW
1000

=

where = density of oil =
3
0.7 1000 700 kg/m =

Power required
700 9.81 0.5 163.18
560.28 kW.
1000

= =


8. Find the loss of head when a pipe of diameter 200 mm is suddenly enlarged to a
diameter of 400 mm. The rate of flow of water through the pipe is 250 litres/s.

Sol. Given:

Dia. of smaller pipe, D1 = 200 mm = 0.20 m
Area, ( )
2
2 2
1 1
A D .2 0.03141 m
4 4

= = =
Dia. of large pipe, D2 = 400 mm = 0.4 m
Area, ( )
2
2
2
A 0.4 0.12564 m
4

= =
Discharge, Q = 250 litres/s = 0.25 m
3
/s
Velocity,
1
1
Q 0.25
V 7.96 m/ s
A .03141
= = =
Velocity,
2
1
Q 0.25
V 1.99 m/ s
A .12564
= = =



Loss of head due to enlargement is given by equation as


( ) ( )
2 2
1 2
e
V V 7.96 1.99
h 1.816 m of water.
2g 2g

= = =

9. At a sudden enlargement of a water main from 240 mm to 480 mm to 480 mm
diameter, the hydraulic gradient rises by 10 mm. Estimate the rate of flow.
(A.M.I.E., Summer, 1977)

Sol. Given:








78

Dia. of smaller pipe, D1 = 240 mm = 0.24 m
Area, ( )
2
2
1 1
A D .24
4 4

= =
Dia. of large pipe, D2 = 480 mm = 0.48 m
Area, ( )
2
2
A .48
4

=
Rise of hydraulic gradient*, i.e.,

2 1
2 1
p p 10 1
z z 10mm m
g g 1000 100
| | | |
+ + = = =
| |

\ \


Let the rate of flow = Q

Applying Bernoullis equation to both sections, i.e., smaller pipe section, and
large pipe section.

2 2
1 1 2 2
1 2
p V p V
z z Head loss due to enlargement ...(i)
g 2g g 2g
+ + = + + +



But head loss due to enlargement,

( )
2
1 2
e
V V
h
2g

=
From continuity equation, we have A1V1 = A2V2


2
2
2 2
2 2 2 2
1 2 2 2 2
2
1 1
1
D V
A V D .48
4
V V V 2V 4V
A D .24
D
4

| |
| |
= = = = = =
| |

\
\


Substituting this value in (ii), we get


( ) ( )
2 2
2
2 2 2
2
e
4V V 3V
9V
h
2g 2g 2g

= = =


Now substituting the value of he and V1 in equation (i),


( )
2
2 2
2
1 2 2 2
1 2
4V
p p V 9V
z z
g 2g g 2g 2g
+ + = + + +










79
or
2 2 2
2 2 2 2 1
2 1
16V V 9V p p
z z
2g 2g 2g g g
| | | |
= + +
| |

\ \


But hydraulic gradient rise =
2 1
2 1
p p 1
z z
g g 100
| | | |
+ + =
| |

\ \


2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
16V V 9V 6V 1 1
or
2g 2g 2g 100 2g 100
= =

2
2 9.81
V 0.1808 0.181 m/s
6 100

= = =

Discharge, Q = A2 V2
( )
2
2 3
2 1
D V .48 .181 0.03275 m / s.
4 4

= = =
= 32.75 litres/s.





10. A horizontal pipe of diameter 500 mm is suddenly contracted to a diameter of
250 mm. The pressure intensities in the large and smaller pipe is given as 13.374
N/cm
2
and 11.772 N/cm
2
respectively. Find the loss of head due to contraction if
Ce = 0.62. Also determine the rate of flow of water.

Solution:
Given:

Dia. of large pipe, D1 = 500 mm = 0.5 m
Area, ( )
2
2
1
0.5 0.1963
4
A m

= =
Dia. of smaller pipe, D2 = 250 mm = 0.25 m
Area, ( )
2
2
2
.25 0.04908
4
A m

= =
Pressure in large pipe, p1 = 13.734 N/cm
2
= 13.734 x 10
4
N/m
2

Pressure in smaller pipe, p2 = 11.772 N/cm
2
= 11.772 x 10
4
N/m
2

Cc = 0.62
Head lost due to contraction








80
2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
1 1
1.0 1.0 0.375
2 2 0.62 2
c
V V V
g C g g
(
(
= = =
(
(



From continuity equation, we have A1V1 = A2V2
or

2
2
2
2 2
2 2 2 2 2
1 2
2
1 1
1
0.25
4
0.50 4
4
D V
A V D V
V V V
A D
D

| |
| |
= = = = =
| |
\
\

Applying Bernoullis equation before and after contraction,

2 2
1 2 1 2
2
2 2
c
p p V V
z z h
g g g g
+ + = + + +
But z1 = z2 (pipe is horizontal)


2 2
1 2 1 2
2 2
c
p p V V
h
g g g g
+ = + +
But
2
2 2
1
0.375
2 4
c
V V
h and V
g
= =

Substituting these values in the above equation, we get


( )
2
4 4 2 2
2 2 2
/ 4 13.734 10 11.772 10
0.375
9.81 1000 2 1000 9.81 2 2
V V V
g g g

+ = + +


or
2 2
2 2
14.0 12.0 1.375
16 2 2
V V
g g
+ = +

or
2 2 2
2 2 2
1
14 12 1.375 1.3125
2 16 2 2
V V V
g g g
= =
or
2
2
2
2.0 2 9.81
2.0 1.3125 5.467 / .
2 1.3125
V
or V m s
g

= = =
(i) Loss of head due to contraction,
( )
2
2
2
0.375 5.467
0.375 0.571 .
2 2 9.81
c
V
h m
g

= = =

(ii) Rate of flow of water, Q = A2V2 = 0.04908 x 5.467 = 0.2683 m
3
/s = 268.3 lit/s.

11. Water is flowing through a horizontal pipe of diameter 200 mm at a velocity of
3 m/s. A circular solid plate of diameter 150 mm is placed in the pipe to obstruct
the flow. Find the loss of head due to obstruction in the pipe if Cc = 0.62.

Solution:
Given:








81

Dia, of pipe, D = 200 mm = 0.20 m
Velocity, V = 30. m/s

Area of pipe, ( )
2
2 2
0.2 0.03141
4 4
A D m

= = =
Dia. of obstruction d = 150 mm = 0.15 m
Area of obstruction, ( )
2
2
.15 0.01767
4
a m

= =
Cc = 0.62
The head lost due to obstruction is given by equation (11.10) as

( )
2
2
2
10
c
V g A
C A a
| |
=
|

\



[ ]
[ ]
2
2
3 3 .03141
1.0
2 9.81 0.62 .03141 .01767
9
3.687 1.0 3.311 .
2 9.81
m
(

=
(


= =

12. A horizontal pipe line 40 m long is connected to a water tank at one end and
discharges freely into the atmosphere at the other end. For the first 25 m of its
length from the tank, the pipe is 150 mm diameter and its diameter is suddenly
enlarged to 300 mm. The height of water level in the tank is 8 m above the centre
of the pipe. Considering all losses of head which occur, determine the rate of
flow. Take f = .01 for both sections of the pipe. (Osmania University, 1992;
A.M.I.E., Summer, 1978)

Solution:

Given:

Total length of pipe, L = 40 m
Length of 1
st
pipe, L1 = 25 m
Dia. of 1
st
pipe, d1 = 150 mm = 0.15 m
Length of 2
nd
pipe, L2 = 40 25 = 15 m
Dia. of 2
nd
pipe, d2 = 300 mm = 0.3 m
Height of water, H = 8 m
Co-efficient of friction, f = 0.01









82
Applying Bernoullis theorem to the free surface of water in the tank and
outlet of pipe as shown in Fig. and taking reference line passing through the centre
of pipe.


2
2 2
0 0 8 0
2
p V
all losses
g g
+ + = + + +
or ( )
2
2
1 2
8.0 0 ...... i
2
i f e f
V
h h h h
g
= + + + + +
where hi = loss of head at entrance = 0.5
2
1
2
V
g

hf1 = head lost due to friction in pipe
2
1 1
1
4
1
2
f L V
d g

=

he = loss head due to sudden enlargement
( )
2
1 2
2
V V
g

=

hf2 = Head lost due to friction in pipe
2
2 2
2
4
2
2
f l V
d g

=

But from continuity equation, we have A1V1=A2V2


2
2
2
2 2
2 2 2
1 2 2 2
2
1 1
1
0.3
4
4
.15
4
d V
A V d
V V V V
A d
d

| |
| |
= = = = =
| |
\
\


Substituting the value of V1 in different head losses, we have









83

( )
( )
( ) ( )
2
2 2
2 1 2
2
2
1
2 2
2 2
2 2
2
1 2 2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
2
0.5 4 0.5 8
2 2 2
4 0.01 25 4
0.15 2
4 .01 25 16
106.67
0.15 2 2
4 9
2 2 2
4 .01 15 4 .01 15
2.0
0. 2 0.3 2 2
i
f
e
f
V V V
h
g g g
V
h s
g
V V
g g
V V V V V
h
g g g
V V V
h
g g g

= = =

=


= =

= = =

= = =

Substituting the values of these losses in equation (i), we get


[ ]
2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
2 2
2 2
8 9
8.0 106.67 2
2 2 2 2 2
1 8 106.67 9 2 126.67
2 2
V V V V V
g g g g g
V V
g
= + + + +
= + + + + =



2
8.0 2 8.0 2 9.81
1.2391 1.113 /
126.67 126.67
g
V m s

= = = =

Rate of flow,

( )
2
3
2 2
0.3 1.113 0.07867 / 78.67 / .
4
Q A V m s litres s

= = = =

13. The difference in water surface levels in two tanks, which are connected by
three pipes in series of lengths 300m, 170m and 210m and of diameters 300mm,
200mm and 400 mm respectively, is 12m. Determine the rate of flow of water if co-
efficient of friction are. 005,0052 and .0048 respectively, considering: (i) minor
losses also (ii) neglecting minor losses. (Delhi University, 1987).

Sol. Given:









84
Difference of water level, H=12m
Length of pipe 1, L1=300m and dia., d1 = 300 mm = 0.3 m
Length of pipe 2, L2=170m and dia., d2 = 200 mm = 0.2 m
Length of pipe 3, L3=210m and dia., d3 = 400 mm = 0.4 m

Also, f1=.0025, f2=.0052 and f3 = .0048

(i) Considering Minor Losses, Let V1, V2 and V3 are the velocities in the 1
st
, 2
nd
and
3
rd
pipe respectively.

From continuity, we have A1V1=A2V2=A3V3

2
2 2
1
1 1 1
2 1 1 1 1 2
2
2 2
2
2 2
1 1 1
3 1 1 1 2
3 3
d
A V d 0.3
4
V V V V 2.25V
A d .2
d
4
A V d 0.3
and V V V 0.5625V
A d 0.4

| |
= = = = =
|

\
| |
= = = =
|
\


Now using equation, we have

( )
2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
1 2 3
V V 4f L V V 0.5V 4f L V 0.5V 4f L V
H
2g d 2g 2g d 2g 2g d 2g 2g

= + + + + + +



( )
( ) ( )
2
2 2
1
1 1
2 3
2 2
1 1 1
0.5 2.25V
0.5V 4 .005 300 V
Substituting V and V , 12.0
2g 0.3 2g 2g
2.25V 2.25V .562V
+4 .0052 170
0.2 2g 2g

= + +

( ) ( )
[ ]
2 2
1 1
2
1
4 .0048 210 .5625V .5625V
+
0.4 2g 2g
V
or 12.0= 0.5 20.0 2.53 89.505 2.847 3.189 0.316
2g

+

+ + + + + +










85
[ ]
( ) ( )
2
1
1
1 1
2 2
3
1 1
V
118.887
2g
12 2 9.81
V 1.407 m/s
118.887
Rate of flow, Q=Area velocity=A V
= d V .3 1.407 0.09945 m / s
4 4
=

= =


= =

= 99.45 lires/s.


2 2 2
3 3 3 1 1 1 2 2 2
1 2 3
4f L V 4f L V 4f L V
H
d 2g d 2g d 2g
= + +



( ) ( )
[ ]
2 2
2
1
2 2
1 1
1
4 .0052 170 2.25 4 .0048 210 .5625 V 4 .005 300
or 12.0=
2g 0.3 0.2 0.4
V V
= 20.0 89.505 3.189 112.694
2g 2g
2 9.81 12.0
V 1.445m/ s
112.694
Discharg
(

+ +
(

+ + =

= =
( )
2
3
1 1
e, Q=V A 1.445 .3 0.1021 m / s 102.1litres / s.
4

= = =


14. Three pipes of 400mm, 200mm and 300mm diameters have lengths of 400m,
200m and 300m respectively. They are connected in series to make a compound
pipe. The ends of this compound pipe are connected with tanks whose difference
of water levels is 16m. If co-efficient of friction for these pipes is same and equal
to 0.005, determine the discharge through the compound pipe neglecting first the
minor losses and then including them.

Sol. Given:

Difference of water levels, H=16m
Length and dia. of pipe 1, L1=400m and d1 = 400 mm = 0.4m
Length and dia. of pipe 2, L2=200m and d2 = 200 mm = 0.2m
Length and dia. of pipe 3, L3=400m and d3 = 300 mm = 0.3m

Also, f1=f2=f3 = 0.005








86

(i) Discharge through the compound pipe first neglecting minor losses.

Let V1, V2 and V3 are the velocities in the 1
st
, 2
nd
and 3
rd
pipe respectively.

From continuity, we have A1V1=A2V2=A3V3

2
2
2
1
1 1 1
2 1 1 1 1 2
2
2 2
2
2
2
2
1
1 1 1
3 1 1 1 1 2
2
3 3
3
d
A V d 0.4
4
V V V V 4V
A d 0.2
d
4
d
A V d 0.4
4
and V V V V 1.77V
A d 0.2
d
4

| |
= = = = =
|

| |
= = = = =
|

\


Now using equation, we have

2 2 2
3 3 3 1 1 1 2 2 2
1 2 3
4f L V 4f L V 4f L V
H
d 2g d 2g d 2g
= + +



( )
( )
2
2
2
1 1
1
2
1
4 0.005 200 4V 4 0.005 400 V 4 0.005 300
or 16 1.77V
0.4 2 9.81 0.2 2 9.81 0.3 2 9.81
V 4 0.005 400 4 0.005 200 16 4 0.005 300 3.157
=
2 9.81 0.4 0.2 0.3

= + +


| |
+ +
|
\


[ ]
( )
2 2
1 1
1
2
3
1 1
V V
16= 20 320 63.14 403.14
2 9.81 2 9.81
16 2 9.81
V 0.882m/ s
403.14
Discharge, Q=A V 0.4 0.882 0.1108 m / s.
4
+ + =


= =

= =


(ii) Discharge through the compound pipe considering minor losses also.

Minor losses are:

(a) At inlet,
2
1
i
0.5V
h
2g
=








87
(b) Between 1
st
pipe and 2
nd
pipe, due to contraction,

( )
( )
2
2
1
2
c 2 1
2 2
1 1
0.5 4V
0.5V
h V 4V
2g 2g
0.5 16 V V
= 8
2g 2g
= = =

=

(c) Between 2
nd
pipe and 3
rd
pipe, due to sudden enlargement,

( ) ( )
( )
( )
2 2
2 3 1 1
e 3 1
2 2
2
1 1
V V 4V 1.77V
h V 1.77 V
2g 2g
V V
= 2.23 4.973
2g 2g

= = =
=

(d) At the outlet of 3
rd
pipe,
( )
2
2 2 2
1 2 3 1 1
o
1.77V V V V
h 1.77 3.1329
2g 2g 2g 2g
= = = =

The major losses are


2 2 2
3 3 3 1 1 1 2 2 2
1 2
4f L V 4f L V 4f L V

d 2g d 2g 2g

= + +



( ) ( )
2 2
2
1 1 1
2
1
4 0.005 200 4V 4 0.005 300 1.77V 4 0.005 400 V

0.4 2 9.81 0.2 2 9.81 0.3 2 9.81
V
=403.14
2 9.81

= + +

Sum of minor losses and major losses

2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
0.5V V V V V V
8 4.973 3.1329 403.14 419.746
2g 2g 2g 2g 2g 2g
(
= + + + + =
(











88
( )
2
1
1
2
3
1 1
V
419.746 16
2g
16 2 9.81
V 0.864m/ s
419.746
Discharge, Q=A V 0.4 0.864 0.1085 m / s.
4
=

= =

= =


15. Three pipes of lengths 800m, 500m and 400m and of diameters 500mm,400mm
and 300mm respectively are connected in series. These pipes are to be replaced by
a single pipe of length 1700m. Find the diameter of the single pipe.

Sol. Given:

Length of pipe 1, L1=800m and dia., d1 = 500 mm = 0.5m
Length of pipe 2, L2=500m and dia., d2 = 400 mm = 0.4m
Length of pipe 3, L3=400m and dia., d3 = 300 mm = 0.3m

Length of single pipe, L=1700m

Let the diameter of equivalent single pipe = d

3 1 2
5 5 5 5
1 1 1
5 5 5 5
5
L L L L
Applying equation,
d d d d
1700 800 500 400
or 25600 48828.125 164609 239037
d .5 .4 .3
1700
d .007118
239037

= + +
= + + = + + =
= =
( )
0.2
d= .007188 0.3718 371.8 = =






16. A main pipe divides into two parallel pipes which again forms one pipe as
shown in fig. The length and diameter for the first parallel pipe are 2000 m and
1.0m respectively, while the length and diameter of 2
nd
parallel pipe are 2000m
and 0.8m. Find the rate of flow each parallel pipe, if total flow in the main is 3.0
m
3
/s. The co-efficient of friction for each parallel pipe is same and equal to .005.








89

Sol. Given:

Length of pipe 1, L1=2000 m
Dia. of pipe 1, d1=1.0 m
Length of pipe 2, L2=2000m
Dia. of pipe 2, d2=0.8m
Total flow, Q=3.0m
3
/s

f1=f2=f=.005
Let Q1=discharge in pipe 1
Q2=discharge in pipe 2
From equation, Q=Q1+Q3=3.0
Using equation, we have

2 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
1 2
4f L V 4f L V

d 2g d 2g
= =



2
1 2
4 0.005 2000 V 4 .005 2000 V

1.0 2 9.81 0.8 2 9.81

= =



2 2 2
2 1 2 2
1
2 2
1
V V V
or or V
1.0 0.8 0.8
V V
V .......(ii)
.894 0.8
= =
= =


2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
2 2
2 2 2 2 2
V V
Now Q d V (1) V
4 4 .894 .894
and Q d V (.8) V .64 V
4 4 4

(
= = =
(


= = =

Substituting the value of Q1 and Q2 in equation (i), we get


[ ]
2
2 2 2
2
V
.64 V 3.0 or 0.8785 V 0.5026 V 3.0
4 0.894 4
3.0
or V .8785 .5026 3.0 or V= 2.17m/ s
1.3811

+ = + =
+ = =


Substituting this value in equation (ii)









90
2
1
V 2.17
V 2.427 m/s
.894 0.894
= = =

2 2 3
1 1 1
3
1 1
Hence Q d V 1 2.427 1.906m / s.
4 4
Q Q Q 3.0 1.906 1.094m / s.

= = =
= = =


17. A pipe line of 0.6 m diameter is 1.5 km long. To increase the discharge, another
line of the same diameter is introduced parallel to the first in the second half of
the length. Neglecting minor losses, find the increase in discharge if 4f=0.04. The
head at inlet is 300mm. (A.M.I.E., December, 1975)

Sol. Given:

Dia. of pipe line, D=0.6m
Length of pipe line, L=1.5 km=1.5 1000 = 1500 m
4f=0.04 or f=.01
Head at inlet, h=300mm=0.3m
Head at outlet, = atmospheric head =0
Head lost, hf=0.3m
Length of another parallel pipe,
1
1500
L 750m
2
= =
Dia. of another parallel pipe, d1=0.6m
Fig shows the arrangement of pipe system.

Ist Case. Discharge for a single pipe of length 1500m and dia. =0.6m.
2
f
4fLV*
This head lost due to friction in single pipe is h
d 2g
=

where V* = velocity of flow for single pipe

( )
2
2
3
4 .01 1500 V*
or 0.3=
0.6 2g
0.3 0.6 2 9.81
V* 0.2426m/ s
4 01 1500
Discharge, Q*=V* Area=0.2456 .6 0.0685m / s....(i)
4

= =

= =


2
nd
Case. When an addition pipe of length 750m and diameter 0.6 m is connected in








91
parallel with the last half length of the pipe.

Let Q1= discharge in 1
st
parallel pipe
Q2=discharge in 2
nd
parallel pipe
Q=Q1+Q2

where Q= discharge in main pipe when pipes are parallel.
But as the length and diameters of each parallel pipe is same

Q=Q2=Q/2

Consider the flow through pipe ABC or ABD
Head loss through ABC = Head lost through AB + head lost through BC
..(ii)
But head lost due to friction through ABC = 0.3 m given

Head lost due to friction through AB=
2
4 f 750 V
0.6 2 9.81


where V= velocity of flow
through AB


( )
2
Q Q 40
Area .36
0.6
4
= = =

Head lost due to friction through AB

2
2
4 0.1 750 4Q
31.87 Q
0.6 2 9.81 .36

| |
= =
|
\


Head lost due to friction through BC


2
1 1
1
4 f L V
d 2g

=

( ) ( ) ( )
1
2 2 2
2 2
2 2
Discharge 4 0.1 750 Q Q
V
0.6 2 9.81
2 .6 .6 2 .6
4 4 4
4 0.1 750 16
Q 7.969 Q
0.6 2 9.81 4 .36
| | (
| (
= = =
| (


| (
\

= =

Substituting these values in equation (ii), we get








92

0.3=31.87 Q
2
+ 7.969 Q
2
=39.839 Q
2

3
0.3
Q= 0.0867m / s
39.839
=

Increase in discharge = Q-Q*=0.0867-.0685=0.0182 m
3
/s.









18. Two sharp ended pipes of diameters 50 mm and 100 mm respectively, each of
length 100 m are connected in parallel between two reservoirs which have a
difference of level of 10 m. If the co-efficient of friction for each pipe is (4f) 0.32,
calculate the rate of flow for each pipe and also the diameter of a single pipe 100
m long which would give the same discharge, if it were substituted for the
original two pipes. (A.M.I.E., Winter 1982, Summer 1987)

Solution:

Given:

Dia. of 1
st
pipe, d1 = 50 mm = 0.05 m
Length of 1
st
pipe, L1 = 100 m
Dia. of 2
nd
pipe, d2 =100 mm = 0.10 m
Length of 2
nd
pipe, L2 = 100 m
Difference in level in reservoirs, H = 10 m
Co-efficient of friction, 4f = 0.32

Let V1 = velocity of flow in pipe 1, and

V2 = velocity of flow in pipe 2.

When the pipes are connected in parallel, the loss of head will be same in both
the pipes. For the first pipe, loss of head is given as









93
( )
2 2
1 1 1
1
4 0.32 100
4f=.32
2 0.05 2 9.81
f L V V
H
d g

= =



or
2
1
10 32.619V =


1
10
0.5535 /
32.619
V m s = =
Rate of flow 1
st
pipe, ( )
2
1 1 1 1
0.5536
4
Q V A d

= =
( )
2
3
.5536 0.5 .001087 / 1.087 / .
4
m s litres s

= = =

For the 2
nd
pipe, loss of head is given by,


2 2
2 2 2
2
4 0.32 100
10
2 0.10 2 9.81
f L V V
H
d g

= = =




2
10 .10 2 9.81
0.783 /
.32 100
V m s

= =

Rate of flow in 2
nd
pipe,
2
2 2 2 2 2
4
Q A V d V

= =

( )
2
3
.1 .783 .00615 / 6.15 / .
4
m s litres s

= = =

Let D = diameter of a single pipe which is substitute for the two original
pipes

L = length of single pipe = 100 m

V = velocity through pipe

The discharge through single pipe,


3
1 2
1.087 6.15 7.237 / .007237 / Q Q Q litres s m s = + = + = =


2 2
2
.007237 4 .007237 .009214
/
4
Q
V m s
Area D D
D

= = = =








94

Loss of head through single pipe is


2
2
2
.009214
0.32 100
4
2 2 9.81
f L V
D
H
D g D
| |

|

\
= =



or
2
5 5
.32 100 .009214 .0001384
10.0
2 9.81 D D

= =



or
5
.0001384
.00001384
10
D = =

( )
1/ 5
.00001384 0.1067 106.7 . D m mm = = =

19. A pipe of diameter 300 mm and length 3500 m is used for the transmission of
power by water. The total head at the inlet of the pipe is 500 m. Find the
maximum power available at the outlet of the pipe, if the value of f = .006.

Solution:

Given:

Diameter of the pipe, d = 300 mm = 0.30 m
Length of the pipe, L = 3500 m
Total head at inlet, H = 500 m
Co efficient of friction f = 0.006

For maximum power transmission, using equation


500
1.667
3 3
f
H
h m = = =

Now
2 2
2
4 4 .006 3500
14.27
2 0.3 2 9.81
f
f L V V
h V
d g

= = =



Equating the two values of hf we get

166.7 = 14.27 V
2
or
166.7
3.417 /
14.27
V m s = =








95

Discharge, Q = V x Area


( ) ( )
2 2 3
3.417 3.417 .3 0.2415 /
4 4
d m s

= = =

Head available at the end of the pipe


2 2 500
333.33
3 3 3
f
H H
H h H m

= = = = =

Maximum power available



1000
1000 9.81 .2415 333.33
689.7
1000
g Q head at the end of pipe
kW
kW kW

=

= =


















UNIT - IV
Dimensional analysis
Buckinghams p theorem
Applications








96
Similarity laws and models.
Hydro turbines: definition and classifications
Pelton turbine Francis turbine - Kaplan turbine - working principles
- velocity triangles - work done - specific speed - efficiencies -
performance curve for turbines.














DIMENSION ANALYSIS AND HYDRAULIC TURBINES

PART A

1. What are units and dimension?

S.No Quantity Unit DIMENSIONS








97
generally
adopted
MLT SYSTEM FLT SYSTEM
Geometric
1. Length M L L
2. Area M
2
L
2
L
2

3. Volume M
3
L
3
L
3

4. Slope
Kinematic
5 Time Sec T T
6 Velocity
(linear)
M/sec LT
-1
LT
-1

7 Velocity
(angular)
Rad / sec
2
T
-1
T
-1

8 Acceleration
(linear)
M/sec LT
-2
LT
-2

9 Acceleration
(angular)
Rad /sec
2
T
2
T
2

10 Discharge Cum /sec L
3
T
-1
L
3
T
-1

11 Gravitationa
l
acceleration
M/sec
2
LT
-2
LT
-2

12 Kinematic
velocity
M/sec
2
L
2
T
-1
L
2
T
-1

Dynamic
13 Mass Kg M FL
-1
T
2

14 Force Newton MLT
-2
F
15 Weight Newton MLT
-2
F
16 Mass density Kg /cum ML
-3
FL
-4
T
2

17 Specific
weight
Newton/cu
m
ML
-2
T
2
FL
-3

18 Dynamic
viscosity
Newton
/cum
ML
-1
T
-1
FL
-3
T
19 Surface
tension
Newton/m MT
-2
FL
-1

20 Elastic
modulus
Newton/m
2
ML
-1
T
2
FL
-2
21 Pressure Newton/m
2
ML
-1
T
2
FL
-2

22 Shear
intensity
Newton/m
2
ML
-1
T
2
FL
-2

23 Work, energy Newton m ML
2
T
2
FL








98
24 Impulse
momentum
Newton sec MLT
-1
FT
25 Torque Newton m ML
2
T
-2
FL
26 Power Newton /sec ML
2
T
3
FLT
-1


2. Differentiate between fundamental units and derived units.

The fundamental or primary units are the simplest in their form possessing a
single dimension. When the units of measurements of the primary quantities are
defined, the measurements of all other quantities can be easily obtained.
Example: Length (L), Time (T), Mass (M), Temperature ()

The derived secondary quantities possess more than one dimension, and are
expressed by a combination of dimensions.

Example: Velocity (LT
-1
), linear acceleration (LT
-2
), force (MLT
2
) etc.

3. What do you mean by dimensional analysis?

The process of obtaining a relation between a number of quantities by the use
of dimension is known as dimensional analysis
Consider the equation, S = ut +1/2 at
2


Performing a dimensional analysis:
[L] = [LT
-1
] [T] + [LT
-2
][T
2
] = [L] + [L]

The above equation is a dimensionally homogeneous equation i.e. the
dimensions of every term on each side of the equation are identical.

4. What is a dimensionally homogeneous equation? Give examples?

An equation is said to be dimensionally homogeneous if the dimensions of
every term on each side of the equation are identical. Every equation representing a
physical phenomenon derived from an analytical approach will satisfy this
condition. Such equations are independent of the system of units.

Consider the equation V
2
= U
2
+ 2as

Where, V and u are the final initial velocities of a body moving along a straight line,
a is the acceleration and s is the corresponding displacement.








99

Performing dimensional analysis.

[LT
-1
]
2
= [LT
-1
]
2
+ [LT
2
] [L]
[L
2
T
-2
] = [L
2
T
2
] + [L
2
T
2
]

the above equation shows that term in the above equation has the same
dimension. Hence the above equation is a dimensionally homogeneous equation.

5. What are the two systems adopted to express derived units? (or) What are the
methods of dimensional analysis?

In dimensional analysis, if the number of variable involved in a physical
phenomenon is known, then the relation among the variables can be determined by
the following two methods.


1. Rayleighs method and
2. Bucking hams/ theorem

Rayleighs method is used for determining the expression for a variable of three
(M, L, T) or maximum four (M, L, T,). If the number of independent variables
becomes more than four, then it is very difficult to find the expression for the
dependent variable. But these difficulties can be overcome by Buckinghams
theorem.

6. Why Buckinghams - theorem is considered superior over the Rayleighs
method for dimensional analysis?

The rayleighs method of dimensional analysis becomes more laborious if the
variables are more than the number of fundamental dimensions (M, L, T). This
difficulty is overcome by using Buckinghams

- theorem in which dimensional analysis can be done for n variables. If
there are n variables (independent and dependent variables) in a physical
phenomenon and if these variables contain m fundamental dimensions (M, L, T),
then the variables are arranged into (n m) dimension less terms ( called as -
terms)

7. What do you mean by repeating variables? How are the repeating variables








100
selected for dimensional analysis?

Repeating variables those which are present in all terms used in
Buckingham - theorem. Number of repeating variables should be equal to number
of fundamental units.

Rules to follow for selection of repeating variable are:

1. These are to be selected taxing one from geometric characteristic [e.g. length (i),
area (A), breadth (b), depth (d), volume (v)], one from fluid characteristic [density
(T), dynamic viscosity () etc] and one from flow characteristic [velocity (v),
acceleration (a), acceleration due to gravity (g) discharge (Q), speed (N) etc]
2) T, L, V or L, d, V, or , I, v, or , d, v are the most preferable combination.
3) Dependent variable should never be chosen as repeating variables.
4) Any two repeating variables should not have the same dimensions.
5) The repeating variables together must have the same number of fundamental
dimensions.

8. What do you mean by dimensionless numbers? Name some of it.

Dimensionless numbers are those numbers which are obtained by dividing
the inertia force by viscos force or gravity force or pressure force or surface tension
force or elastic force. As this is a ratio of two forces, it will be dimensionless number.
These dimensionless numbers are also called non dimensional parameters.

The following are the important dimension less numbers:

1. Reynolds numbers
2. Froudes number
3. Eulers number
4. Webers number
5. Machs number

9. What are the different laws on which models are designed for dynamic
similarity?

Model laws or laws of similarity are the laws on which the models are
designed for dynamic similarity. Models are designed on the basis of ratio of the
force, which is dominating in the phenomenon.









101
The following are the model laws:

1. Reynolds model law
2. Froude model law
3. Euler model law
4. Weber model law
5. Mach model law


10. Explain the terms: distorted models and undistorted models. What is the use
of distorted models?

Undistorted Models: Undistorted models are those models which are geometrically
similar to their prototypes or in other words the scale ratio for the linear dimensions
of the model and its prototype is same. The behaviour of the prototype can be easily
predicted from the results of undistorted model.

Distorted Model:

A model is said to be distorted if it is not geometrically similar to its
prototyped model. Different scale ratios for the linear dimensions are adopted. For
example, incase to rivers, harbours, reservoirs etc. two different scale ratios, one for
horizontal dimensions and other for vertical dimensions are taken. Thus the models
of revivers, harbors and reservoirs will become distorted models.

The followings are the advantages of distorted models.

1. The vertical dimensions of the model can be measured accurately.
2. The cost of the model can be reduced.
3. Turbulent flow in the model can be maintained.

11. What do you mean by model analysis?

Model analysis is the means of asserting and eliminating certain undesirable
conditions through model experiments and research that results in improvements in
the existing works. Safe and economic design and construction of new works and
knowledge on many aspects of hydraulic engineering can be achieved.

Model analysis are made for two purposes:









102
(a) to obtain information about the likely performance of the prototype, and
(b) to help in the design and to avoid costly mistakes



12. Write the drawbacks of analytical methods.

The following are the disadvantages of analytical methods used for study and
analysis of many problems in fluid mechanics.

1. It involve a number of approximations and assumptions and hence
application of the analytical methods are restricted.
2. It involve highly complicated equations which cannot be solved.
3. The solutions to various complex flow patterns cannot be obtained by
analytical methods alone.
4. It is impossible or impracticable in some cases to make a satisfactory and
complete mathematical analysis of the problems

13. Models are the only resources to the nearest approach to the solution of some
hydraulic problems. Justify this statement?

In a model, there is ample scope to try several alternatives designs before
adopting a final one. These trails cost less. A model study provides not only
qualitative but also quantitative indication of the characteristics of the prototype. A
hydraulic model offers itself as a powerful design tool which establishes a valid
system from the observations on which the performance of the prototype could be
inferred. Models are very useful in studying the relative merits of alternative designs

Hence the statement Models are the only resource to the nearest approach to
the solution of some hydraulic problems is justified.

14. What are the various fields where models have great application?

The following are some examples where model studies have been of great value.

1. Dams: The design of every dam and all its connected works like spillways,
penstocks and gates are studied in order to get detailed information on the
flow of water and its effect on the structure. A model study can be helpful in
deciding locality and site of the dam.








103
2. Rivers and Harbours : Model analysis is devoted to the dredging of rivers
straightening of channels, protection of banks and bottoms from erosion,
various forms of river control and improvement.

Model design of harbour is necessary to duplicate the natural tidal cycles and to
study the wave action of harbour.

3. Hydraulic Machines : Models tests are useful to obtain performance data for
hydraulic turbines and other turbo machines and centrifugal pumps.
4. Structures : Many structural tests like deflection tests and destructive and
non-destructive testing of structures can be performed on models.
5. Ships : Models are helpful in investigating drag forces, and wake patterns of
naval vessels.
6. Seepage problems : Model studies of seepage flow is done to find out the
uplift pressures on hydraulic structures.

16. What you mean by hydraulic similitude?

The observations made on the performance of the model are useful to predict
the performance of the prototype. Hence it is very necessary that the model should
represent the prototype in every respect i.e the model should represent the prototype
should have similar properties. The similarity between a prototype and its model is
called similitude.

For absolute similitude between a model and the prototype the following
types of similarities should exist.

a) Geometric similarity
b) Kinematics similarity and
c) Dynamic similarity






17. What are the demerits of distorted models?

The following are the demerits of distorted models:









104
i) Due to unequal horizontal and vertical scales the pressure and velocity
distribution are not truly reproduced in the model.
ii) The wave pattern in the model will be different from that in the prototype
due to depth distortion.
iii) Slopes, bends and earth cuts are not truly reproduced.

18. What do you mean by scale effect?

This is a defect which occurs in certain models due to which the computed
properties of the prototype from model experiments deviate much from the actual
properties of the prototype.

For example, a model cannot match with prototype if it large depths, high
velocities, surface tension factor, flow conditions and force. Here the models do not
have exact properties with prototype. Hence, the scale effect occurs.

19. What are the different types of forces acting in moving fluid?

Types of Forces Acting in Moving Fluid :

For the fluid flow problems, the forces acting on fluid mass may be any one, or a
combination of several of the following forces :

1. Inertia Force Fi.
2. Viscous force Fv.
3. Gravity force Fg.
4. Pressure force Fp.
5. Surface tension force,
6. Fs Elastic force Fe.



1. Inertia Force (F1) :

It is equal to the product of mass and acceleration of the flowing fluid and
acts in the direction opposite to the direction of acceleration. It is always existing
in the fluid flow problems.

2. Viscous Force (Fv) :









105
It is equal to the product of shear stress () due to viscosity and surface area of
the flow. It is present in fluid flow problems where viscosity is having an important
role to play.

3. Gravity Force (Fg) :

It is equal to the product of mass and acceleration due to gravity of the flowing
fluid. It is present in case of open surface flow.

4. Pressure Force (Fp) :

It is equal to the product of pressure intensity and cross sectional area of the
flowing fluid. It is present in case pipe flow.

5. Surface Tension Force(Fs) :

It is equal to the product of surface tension and length of surface of the flowing fluid.

6. Elastic Force (Fe) :

It is equal to the product of elastic stress and area of the flowing fluid.

For a flowing fluid, the above mentioned forces may not always be present.
And also the forces, which are present in a fluid flow problem, are not of equal
magnitude. There are always one or two forces which dominate the other forces.
These dominating forces govern the flow of fluid.


20. What are Unit Quantity and Specific Quantity?

The rate of flow, speed, power etc., of hydraulic machines are all functions of
working head. To facilitate correlation, comparison and use of experimental data,
these quantities are usually reduced to unit heads. Each is expressed as a function of
head and its valve corresponding to a unit value of head is determined. These
reduced quantities are known as unit quantities. Eg. Unit discharge, unit speed, unit
power and unit torque etc. Thus two similar turbines having different data can be
compared by reducing the data of both turbines under unit head.

A specific quantity is obtained by reducing any quantity to a value
corresponding to unit head and some unit size. The unit size may be the inlet
diameter of runner in case of reaction turbine or least jet diameter in pelton wheels.








106
When two different turbines are to be compared, it can be done by reducing their
data to specific quantities.

21. Define the terms: Hydraulic machines, Turbines and pumps?

Hydraulic machines are those machines which convert either hydraulic
energy into mechanical energy or mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.

Turbines are the hydraulic machines which convert hydraulic energy into
mechanical energy.

Ex: Pelton turbine, Francis turbine, Kaplan turbine.

Pumps are the hydraulic machines which convert mechanical energy into
hydraulic energy.
Ex: Centrifugal pump, Reciprocating pump.

23. How will you classify the turbines?

1. According to the type of energy at inlet:

a. Impulse turbine
b. Reaction turbine
2. According to the direction of flow through runner:

a. Radial flow turbine
b. Axial flow turbine
c. Mixed flow turbine.

3. According to the head at the inlet of turbine:

a. High head turbine
b. Medium head turbine and
c. Low head turbine

4. According to the specific speed of turbine:

a. Low specific speed turbine
b. Medium specific speed turbine and
c. High specific speed turbine








107

24. Differentiate between:

(a) The impulse and reaction turbines
(b) Radial and axial flow turbines
(c) Inward and outward turbines.

(a) If the energy available at the inlet of turbine is only kinetic energy, the
turbine is known as impulse turbine. As the water flows over the vanes, the
pressure is atmospheric from inlet to outlet of turbine.

If water possesses kinetic energy as well as pressure energy, the turbine is
known as reaction turbine. As the water flows through the runner, the water is
under pressure and the pressure energy charges to kinetic energy. The runner is
completely enclosed in an air-tight casing and the runner and casing is full of water.

(b) If the water flows in the radial direction through the runner, the turbine is
called radial flow turbine.

If the water flows through the runner along the direction parallel to the axis of
rotation of the runner the turbine is called axial flow turbine.

Ex. Kaplan turbine

(c) If the water flows from outwards to inwards radially the turbine is known as
inward radial flow turbine.

If water flows radially from inwards to outwards the turbine is known as
outward radial flow turbine

25. Define the terms: speed ratio, flow ratio and jet ratio?

Speed Ratio: It is the ratio of tangential velocity of wheel at inlet (Ui) to the velocity
given by 2gH is known as speed ratio.

1
U
Speed ratio = where H = Head on turbine
2g H

+


Flow ratio:









108
It is the ratio of velocity of flow at inlet (Uf1) to the velocity given by 2g H +

f1
V
Flow ratio = where H = Head on turbine
2g H

+


Jet ratio (m): It is defined as the ratio of the pitch diameter (D) of the pelton wheel
to the diameter of the jet (d).

D
m
d
= ( = 12 for most cases)




26. What is the significance of specific speed in a turbine?

The significance of specific speed in a turbine are:

a. Plays an important role for selecting the type of turbine.
b. Performance of turbine can be predicted by knowing the specific speed of
a turbine.

The type of turbine for different specific speed is given below:

S.
No.
Specific speed (MKS) (S.I) Type of turbine
1. 10 to 35 8.5 to 30 Pelton wheel with single jet
2. 35 to 60 30 to 51 Pelton wheel two or more
jets
3. 60 to 300 51 to 225 Francis turbine
4. 300 to 1000 255 to 860 Kaplan or Propeller turbine

27. What is speciality in Francis Turbine?

The inward flow reaction turbine having radial discharge at outlet is known
as Francis Turbine. In modern Francis turbine, the water enters the number of the
turbine in the radial direction at outlet and leaves in the axial direction at the inlet of
the runner. Thus the modern Francis Turbine ia a mixed flow type turbine.

In case of Francis turbine, as the discharge is radial at outlet, the velocity of whirl at








109
outlet will be zero.

i. Vw2 = 0
Work done per second = Q [Vw1 V1 ] and

Hydraulic efficiency, =
1 i
h
VV
gH
=



28. Draw the general layout of a Hydro-electric power plant.

General Layout of a Hydro-Electric Power Plant :

Figure below shows a general layout of a hydro-electric power plant which consists
of,

i. A dam constructed across a river to store water,
ii. Pipes of large diameters called penstocks, which carry water under
pressure from the storage reservoir to the turbines. These pipes are made
of steel or reinforced concrete.
iii. Turbines having different types of varies fitted to the wheels.
iv. Tail race, which is a channel which carries water away from the turbines
after the water has worked on the turbines. The surface of water in the tail
race is also known as tail race.



PART B

1. A fluid flow field is given by

V=x
2
yi+y
2
zj-(2xyz+yz2)k.

Prove that it is a case of possible steady incompressible fluid flow. Calculate the
velocity and acceleration at the point (2,1,3).

Sol.









110
2
2
2
u
For the given fluid flow field u=x y 2xy
x
u
=y z 2xy
x
w
w=-2xyz-yz 2xy
z

2yz.

For a case of possible steady incompressible fluid flow, the continuity equation
should be satisfied.

i.e.,
u w
0.
x y z

+ + =



Substituting the values of
u w
, and , we get
x y z





u w
2xy 2yz 2xy 2yz 0
x y z

+ + = + =



Hence the velocity field V=x
2
yi+y
2
zj-(2xyz+yz
2
)k is a possible case of fluid flow.

Substituting the value x=2, y=1 and z=3 in velocity field, we get,
V=x
2
yi+y
2
zj-(2xyz+yz
2
)k
=2
2
1i + 1
2
3j (2213+13
2
)k
4i+3j-21k.

2 2 2
Resul tant velocity = 4 3 ( 21) 16 9 441 466 21.587 units. + + = + + = =

The acceleration components ax,ay and az for steady flow are

x
y
y
u u u
a u w
x y z
a u w
x y z
w w w
a u w
x y z

= + +


= + +


= + +











111
2 2
2 2
2 2
u u u
u x y, 2xy, x and 0
x y z
y z, 0, 2yz, y
x y z
w w w
w 2xyz yz , 2yz, 2xz z , 2xy 2yz.
x y z

= = = =


= = = =


= = = =



Substituting these values in acceleration components, we get acceleration at (2,1,3)

ax=x
2
y(2xy)+y
2
z(x
2
)-(2xyz+yz
2
)(0)
=2x
3
y
2
+x
2
y
2
z
=2(2)
3
1
2
+2
2
1
2
3=28+12
=16+12=28 units
ay=x
2
y(0)+y
2
z(2yz)-(2xyz+yz
2
)(y
2
)
=2y
3
z
2
+2xy
3
z-y
3
z
2

=21
3
+3
2
-2 21
3
3-1
3
3
2
=18-12-9=-3 units
az=x
2
y(-2yz)+y
2
z(-2xz-z
2
)-(2xyz+yz
2
)(-2xy-2yz)
=-2x
2
y
2
z-2xy
2
z
2
-y
2
z
3
+[4x
2
y
2
z+2xy
2
z
2
+4xy
2
z
2
+2y
2
z
3
]
=-2 2
2
1
2
3-221=23
2
-
1
2
3
3
+[42
2
1
2
3+221
2
4
2
+421
2
3
2
+21
2
3
3
]
=-24-36-9+[48+36+72+18]
=-24-36-9+48+36+72+18=105

Acceleration = axi+ayj+azk=28i-3j+105k.

( ) + + = + +
2
2 2
or Resultant acceleration = 28 3 105 784 9 11025
= 11818 =108.71 units.


2. The velocity potential function ( ) is given by an expression


3 3
3 2
xy x y
x y
3 3
= + +


(i) Find the velocity components in x and y direction.
(ii) Show that represents a possible case of flow.

Sol Given:








112


3 3
3 2
xy x y
x y
3 3
= + +

The partial derivatives of w.r.t. to x and y are
3 2
2 3
y 3x y
2x ........(1)
x 3 3
3xy x
and 2y........(2)
y 3 3

= +

= + +

(i) The velocity components u and v are given y by equation

3 2 3
2
2
2
2 2 3 3 3
2
y 3x y y
u 2x 2x x y
x 3 3 3
y
u= 2x x y
3
3x y 3x y x x x
=- 2y 2y xy 2y
y 3 3 3 3 3
(
= = + = +
(

+
(
= + + = =
(

(ii) The given value of , will represent a possible case of flow if it satisfies the
Laplace equation, i.e.,


2 2
2 2
0
x y

+ =







From equation (1) and (2), we have









113
( )
3 2
2
2
3
2
2
2
2 2
2 2
Now y / 3 2x x y
x
2 2xy
x
x
and xy 2y
x 3
2xy 2
y
2 2xy 2xy
x y

= +

= +

= + +

= +

+ = + + +

( ) 2 0
Laplace eqation is satisfied and hence represent a possible case of flow.
=



3. (a) State Buckinghams -theorem.
(b) The efficiency of an depends on density , dynamic viscosity of the fluid,
angular velocity diameter D of the rotor and the discharge Q. Express in terms of
dimensionless parameters. (A.M.I.E., Winter, 1976).

Sol. (a) Statement of Bucklinghams -theorem is given in Article

(b) Given: is a function of ,,,D and Q

( ) ( )
1
=f , , ,D,Q or f , , , , D, Q 0 =

Hence total number of variables, =6.

The value of m, i.e., number of fundamental dimensions for the problem is obtained
by writing dimensions of each variables. Dimensions of each variable are

=Dimensionless, =ML
-3
, =ML
-1
T
-1
, =T
-1
, D=L and Q=L
3
T
-1

m=3

Number of -terms = n-m = 6-3=3
Equation (i) is written as f1(1, 2, 3)=0

Each -term contains m+1 variables, where m is equal to three and is also repeating
variable.

Choosing D, and as repeating variables, we have








114


a1 b1 c1
1
a2 b2 c2
2
a3 b3 c3
3
D . . .
D . . .
D . . .Q
=
=
=


First -term (1).
a1 b1 c1
1
D . . . =

Substituting dimensions on both sides of 1,

M
0
L
0
T
0
=L
a1
.(T
-1
)
b1
.(ML
-3
)
c1
. M
0
L
0
T
0

Equating the powers of M,L,T on both sides

Power of M, 0=c1+0, c1=0
Power of L, 0=a1+0, a1=0
Power of T, 0=-b1+0, b1=0

Substituting the values of a1,b1 and c1 in 1, we get

1=D
0

0
.=

[If a variable is dimensionless, it itself is a -term. Here the variable is a
dimensionless and hence is a -term. As it exists in first -term and hence 1=.
Then there is no need of equating the powers. Directly the value can be obtained.



2
nd
-term. 2=D
a2
.
b2
.
c2
.

Substituting the dimensions on both sides

M
0
L
0
T
0
=L
a2
.(T
-1
)
b2
.(ML
-3
)
c2
. ML
-1
T
-1


Equating the powers of M,L,T on both sides

Power of M, 0=c2+1, c2=-1
Power of L, 0=a2-3c2-1, a2=3c2+1=-3+1=-2
Power of T, 0=-b2-1, b2=-1








115

Substituting the values of a2, b2 and c2 in 2,


2 b3 1
2 2
D . . .
D


= =

3
rd
-term.
a3 b3 c3
3
D . . .Q =

Equating the powers of M,L and T on both sides

Power of M, 0=c3, c3=0
Power of L, 0=a3-3c3+3, a3=3c3+1-3=-3
Power of T, 0=-b3-1, b3=-1

Substituting the values of a3,b3 and c3 in 3,


3 1 0
3 2
Q
D . . .Q
D

= =

Substituting the values of 1, 2 and 3 in equation (ii)


1 2 2 2 2
Q Q
f , , 0 or = , .
D D D D
| | (
=
| (

\




4. Using Buckinghams - theorem, show that the velocity through a circular
orifice is given by
D
V 2gH , ,
H VH
(
=
(

where H is the head causing flow, D is
the diameter of the orifice, is co-efficient of viscosity, is the mass density and g
is the acceleration due to gravity. (A.M.I.E., Winter, 1977)

Sol. Given:

V is a function of H, D, , and g

V=f(H,D, , , g) or f1 (V,H,D, , , g)=0

Total number of variable, n=6

Writing dimension of each variable, we have









116
V=LT
-1
, H=L,D=L,=ML
-1
T
-1
, =ML
-3
, g=LT
-2
.

Thus number of fundamental dimensions, m=3

Number of -terms = n-m6-3=3.

Equation (i) can be written as f1(1, 2, 3)=0

Each -term contains m+1 variables, where m=3 and is also equal to repeating
variables. Here V is a dependent variable and hence should not be selected as
repeating variable. Choosing H,g, as repeating variable, we get three -terms as

a1 b1 c1
1
a2 b2 c2
2
a3 b3 c3
3
H .g . .V
H .g . .D
H .g . .
=
=
=




First -term.
a1 b1 c1
1
H .g . .V =

Substituting dimensions on both sides

M
0
L
0
T
0
=L
a1
.(LT
-2
)
b1
.(MT
-3
)
c1
. (LT
-1
)

Equating the powers of M,L,T on both sides,

Power of M, 0=c, c1=0
Power of L, 0=a1+b1-3c1+1, a1=-b1+3c1-1=
1 1
1 1
2 2
=
Power of T, 0=-2b1-1, b1=-
1
2


Substituting the values of a1, b1 and c1 in 1,


1 1
0
2 2
1
V
H .g . .V .
gH

= =

Second -term.
a 2 b2 c2
2
H .g . .D =









117
Substituting the dimensions of both sides,

M
0
L
0
T
0
=L
a2
.(LT
-2
)
b2
.(ML
-3
)
c2
. L

Equating the powers of M,L,T,

Power of M, 0=c2, c2=0
Power of L, 0=a2+b2-3c2+1,a2=-b2+3c2-1=-1
Power of T, 0=-2b2, b2=0

Substituting the values of a2,b2,c2 in 2,

1 6 0
2
D
H .g . .D .
H

= =
Third -term.
a3 b3 c3
3
H .g . . =

Substituting the dimensions on both sides

M
0
L
0
T
0
=L
a3
.(LT
-2
)
a3
.(ML
-3
)
c3
. ML
-1
T
-1


Equating the powers of M,L,T on both sides

Power of M, 0=c3+1, c3=-1
Power of L, 0=a3+b3-3c3-1, a3=-b3+3c3+1=
1 1 3
1 1 3 1
2 2 2
= + =
Power of T, 0=-2b3-1, b3=-
1
2


Substituting the values of a3, b3 and c3 in 3,


[ ]
3 1
1
2 2
3 3
2
1 1
H .g . .
H g
V
= Multiply and Divide by V
H gH H V gH
V
= .
H V gH



= =

=



=
`

Substituting the values of 1,2 and 3 in equation (ii),









118
1 1 1
V D V D
f , , 0 or ,
H H V H H V gH gH
D
or V= 2gH , .
H VH
| |
(
= =
|
(
|


\
(

Multiplying by a constant does not change the character of -terms.


5. A pipe of diameter 1.5m is required to transport an oil of sp. Gr. 0.90 and
viscosity 3 10
-2
poise at the rate of 3000 litre/s. Tests were conducted on a 15cm
diameter pipe using water at 20
o
C. Find the velocity and rate of flow in the model.
Viscosity of water at 20
o
C=0.01 poise. (Delhi University, 1992)

Sol. Given:

Dis. Of prototype, Dp=1.5m
Viscosity of fluid, p=3 10
-2
poise
Q for prototype, Qp=3000 lit/s=3.0 m
3
/s
Sp.gr. of oil, SP=0.9
Density of oil, P=SP 1000 =0.9 1000 =900 kg/m
3

Dia. of the model, Dm=15cm=0.15 m
Viscosity of water at 20
o
C = 0.1 poise = 1 10
-2
poise or m=1 10
-2
poise
Density of water or m=1000 kg/m
3
.

For pipe flow, the dynamic similarity will be obtained if the Reynolds number in the
model and prototype are equal.

{ }
m m m P P P
m P
m P P m
P m m P
2
V D V D
Hence using equation, For pipe linear dimension is D
V D
. .
V D
900 1.5 1 10
=
1000 0.15 3 10

=


=

( ) ( )
2
P
2 2
P
900 1
10 3.0
1000 3
Rate of flow in prototype 3.0 3.0 3.0 4
But V 1.697 m/s
Area of prototype 2.25
D 1.5
4 4
=

= = = = =











119
( ) ( )
m P
2 2
3
m m m m m
3
V 3.0 V 3.0 1.697 5.091m/ s.
Rate of flow through model, Q A V D V 0.15 5.091m / s
4 4
0.0899m / s 0.0899 1000lit / s 89
= = =

= = =
= = .9lit / s.


6. A ship 300m long moves in sea- water, whose density is 1030 kg/m
3
, A1:100
model of this ship is to be tested in a wind tunnel around the model is 30m/s and
the resistance of the model is 60N. Determine the velocity of ship in sea- water
and also the resistance of the ship in sea water. The density of air is given as 1.24
kg/m
3
. Take the kinematic viscosity of sea water and air as 0.012 strokes and
0.018 strokes respectively.

Sol. Given:

For prototype,
Length, LP=300m
Fluid = Sea water
Density of water =1030kg/m
3

Kinematic viscosity, vP=0.018 strokes = 0.018 10
4
m
2
/s
Let velocity of ship =VP
Resistance =FP

For model

Length,
m
1
L 300 3m
100
= =
Velocity, Vm=30m/s
Resistance, Fm=60N
Density of air, m=1.24 kg/m
3

Kinematic viscosity of air, vm=0.018 stokes =.018 10
-4
m
2
/s.

For dynamic similarity between the prototype and its model, the Reynolds number
for both of them should be equal.

P P m m P m
P m
p m m P
4
4
V L V L v L
orV V
v v v L
.012 10 3 1 1
= 30 30 0.2m/ s.
.018 10 300 1.5 100

= =

120

Resistance = Mass Acceleration


3 2 2 2
V V L
L L L V
t 1 t
= =
( )
( )
2 2
2 2
P P P P
2 2
m m m m
P
m
2 2
P
m
P
L V P
F L V
Then
F L V L V m
1030
But
1.24
F 1030 300 0.2
369.17
F 1.24 3 30
F 369.

| | | |
= =
| |

\ \

| | | |
= =
| |
\ \
=
m
17 F 369.17 60 22150.2N. = =


7. The pressure drop in an airplane model of size
1
10
of its prototype is 80 N/cm
2
.
The model is tested in water. Find the corresponding pressure drop in the
prototype. Take density of air = 1.24 kg/m
3
. The viscosity of water is 0.01 poise
while the viscosity of air is 0.00018 poise.

Sol. Given:

Pressure drop in model, Pm=80N/cm
2
=8010
4
N.m
2

Linear scale ratio, Lr=40
Fluid in model =Water, while in prototype = Air
Viscosity of water, m=0.01 poise
Density of air, P=1.24 kg.m
3


Let the corresponding pressure drop in prototype = PP.

As the problem involves pressure force and viscous force and hence for
dynamic similarity between the model and prototype, Eulers number and Reynolds
number should be considered. Making first of all, Reynolds number equal, we get
from equation.









121
m m m P P P m P P m
m P P m m P
P
m
P m
r
m P
m
P
V D V D V L
or
V L
1.24
But
1000
L 0.01
L 40,
L .00018
V 1.24 .01
40 2.755
V 1000 .00018

= =

= = =

= =


Now making Eulers number equal, we get from equation as

m m m P m P P
P P m m P P P
m p
P V V V
or
V P P P /

= = =




( )
( ) ( )
m P
P m
m m
P P
m
P
2
m m
P 2 2
P
V 1.24
But 2.755 and
V 1000
P 1.24 P
2.755= .0352
P 1000 P
P 2.755
78.267
P .0352
P P 80
78.267 or P
P 78.267 78.267

= =

=
= =
= = =
2
=0.01306 N/cm .








8. Explain the following non dimensional numbers.
a) Reynolds number b) Froudes number
c) Eulers number d) Webers Number
e) Machs number









122
(a) Reynolds Number (Re):

It is defined as the ratio of inertia force of a flowing fluid and the viscous force
of the fluid. The expression for Reynolds number is obtained as

Inertia force (Fi) = Mass X Acceleration of flowing fluid velocity

= p X volume X time

=
Volume
p Velocity
Time



= p X AV X V {since volume per sec = Area X velocity = A X V}
= pAv2

Viscous force (Fv) = shear stress X Area

{Since = du / dy Force = X Area} = X A

du
. Since
dy
V V
A
L L
=

By definition, Reynolds number

2

( / )

= = = = =

i
e
v
F pAV pVL V L V L
R
V
F p V
A
L


{ Since /p = V = Kinematic Viscosity} in case of pipe flow, the linear dimension L is
taken as diameter, d Hence Reylods number for pipe flow.
e
V d pVd
R or
V

=

(b) Fraoudes Numbers (Fe) :

The Froudes number is defined as the square root of the ratio of inertia force of a
flowing fluid to the gravity forces mathematically, it is expressed as

i
e
g
F
F
F
=

where Fi = pAV
2








123
And Fg = Force due to gravity
= Mass X Acceleration due to gravity
= p X Volume X g
= p X L
3
X g {since Volume = L
3
}
= p X L
2
X L X G
= p X A X L X g {Since L
2
=A=Area}

2
1
g g
F pAV
Fe
F pAL
= =

(c) Eulers Number (Eu) : It is defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia
force of a flowing fluid to the pressure force. Mathematically it is expressed as,

1
u
p
F
E
F
=

where Fp = Intensity of pressure X area
= p X A
and Fi = p AV
2


2 2
/ /
u
pAV V V
E
p A p p p p
= =

webers number (we) it is defined as the square root of the ratio of the inertia force of
flowing fluid to the surface tension force. Mathematically it is expressed as webers
numbers
1
e
p
F
W
F


where fi = inertia force = pAV2
and Fs = surface tension force
= surface tension force
= surface tension per unit length X length
= X L









124
2= 2 2
2
2 2
2
pAV
we = {since A=L }
L
pL V
= {since A=L }
/
/
p L V
L
V
pL
V
pL

=
=


Machs Number (M) : Machs Number is defined as the square root of the ratio of the
inertia force of a flowing fluid to the elastic force. Mathematically, it is defined as

inertia force
i
e
F
M
Elastic force F
= =


where Fi = pAv
2

and Fe = Elastic force = Elastic stress X Area
= K X A = K X L
2
(Since K = Elastic Stress)

2 2 2
2 2
2 2
/ /
pAV p L V
M
K L K L
V V
K p K p

= =

= =


But


/ velocity of sound in the fluid
V
M=
C
K p C = =

9. Explain the parts and working principles of Pelton wheel / Turbine.

The pelton wheel of Pelton turbine is a tangential flow impulse turbine. The
water strikes the bucket along the tangent of the runner. The energy available at the
inlet of the turbine is only kinetic energy. The pressure at the inlet and outlet of the
turbine is atmosphere. This turbine is used for high heads and is named alter L.A.
Pelton, an American Engineer.

The following fig. shows the lay-out of a hydro-electric power plant which the
turbine is Pelton wheel. The water from the reservoir flows through the penstocks at








125
the outlet of which a nozzle id fitted. The nozzle increases the kinetic energy of the
water flowing through the penstock. At the outlet of the nozzle, the water comes out
in the form of a jet and strikes the buckets (vanes) of the runner. The main parts of
the Pelton turbine

1. Nozzle and flow regulating arrangement (spear)
2. Runner and buckets
3. Casing and
4. Breaking jet.

1. Nozzle and Flow Regulating Arrangement. The amount of water striking the
buckets (vanes) of the runner is controlled by providing a spear in the nozzle as
shown in fig. the spear is a conical needle which is operated either by a hand
wheel or automatically in an axial direction depending upon the size of the
unit. When the spear is pushed forward into the nozzle the amount of water
striking the runner is reduced. On the other hand, if the spear is pushed back,
the amount of water striking the runner increase.


2. Runner with Buckets. The following fig. shows the runner of a Pelton wheel.
It consists of a circular disc on the periphery of which a number of buckets
evenly spaced are fixed. The shape of the buckets is of a double hemispherical
cup or bowl. Each bucket is divided into two symmetrical part by a dividing
wall which is known as splitter.

The jet of water strikes on the splitter. The splitter divides the jet into two
equal parts and the jet comes out at the outer edge of the bucket. The buckets are
shaped in such a way that the jet gets deflected through 160 or 170. The buckets are
made of cast iron, cast steel bronze or stainless steel depending upon the head at the
inlet of the turbine.

3. Casing. A Pelton turbne with a casing. The function of the casing is to prevent
the splashing of the water and to discharge water to trail race. It also acts as a
safeguard against accidents. It is made of cast iron or fabricated steel plates.
The casing of the Pelton wheel does not perform any hydraulic function.

4. Breaking Jet. When the nozzle is completely closed by moving the spear in
the forward direction, the amount of water striking the runner reduces to
zero. But the runner due to inertia goes on revolving for a long time. To stop
the runner in a short time, a small nozzle is provided which directs the jet of








126
water on the back of the vanes. This jet of water is called breaking jet.

Velocity Triangles and Work done for Pelton Wheel: The shape of the vanes or
buckets of the Pelton wheel. The jet of water from the nozzle strikes the bucket at the
spilitter, which splits up the jet into two parts. These parts of the jet, glides over the
inner surfaces and comes out at the outer edge, fig. shows the section of the bucket at
z-z. The splitter is the inlet tip and outer edge of the bucket is the outlet tip of the
bucket . The inlet velocity triangle is drawn at the splitter and outlet velocity triangle
is drawn at the outer edge of the bucket.

Let H = net head acting on the Pelton wheel = Hg-hf

Where Hg = Gross head and
2
4
* 2
f
fLV
h
D g
=

Where D* = Dia. Of Penstock, N = Speed of the wheel in r.p.m
D = Diameter of the wheel, d = Diameter of the jet.

Then V1 = Velocity of jet at inlet = 2gH
u = u1 = u2 =
60
DN


The velocity triangle at inlet will be a straight line where,

Vr1 = V1 u1 = V1 u
Vw1 = V1
= 0 and = 0

From the velocity triangle at outlet, we have Vr2 = Vr1 and Vw2 = Vr2 cos - u2.

The force exerted by the jet of water in the direction of motion is given by
equation, as Fx = aV1[Vw1+Vw2]

As the angle is an acute angle, + ve sign should be taken. Also this is the case of
series of Vanes, the mass of water striking is aV1 and not aVr1. in equation, a is
the area of the jet which is given as

a = Area of jet
2
4
d

=

Now work done by the jet on the runner per second = Fx x u = aV1 [Vw1 + Vw2] x
Nm/s








127

Power given to the runner by the jet =
1 1 2
[ ]
1000
w w
aV V V u
kW
+


Work done /s per unit weight of water striking/s


1 1 2
1 1 2
1 2
1
[ ]
weight of water striking/s
[ ] 1
= [ ]
w w
w w
w w
aV V V u
kW
aV V V u
V V u
aV g g

+
=
+
= +

The energy supplied to the jet at inlet is in the form of kinetic energy and is
equal to
2
1
2
mV
2
1 1
h
1 1 2 1 2
2
2
1
1 1
1
K.E. of jet per second = ( )
2
work done per second
Hydraulic efficiency,
. . of jet per second
aV [ ] 2[ ]
=
1
( )
2
w w w w
aV V
K E
V V u V V u
V
aV V

=
+ +
=

Now Vw1=V1, Vr1 =V1-u1 = (V1-u)
Vr2 = (V1-u)
and Vw2 = Vr2 cos-u2 = Vr2 cos -u = (V1-u)cos-u

Substituting the values of Vw2 and vw2 in equation


1 1
2
1
1 1 1
2 2
1 1
2[ ( )cos ]
2[ ( )cos ] 2( )[1 cos ]
h
V V u u u
V
V u V u u V u u
V V

+
=
+ +
= =


The efficiency will be maximum for a given value of V1 when


2
1
d 2 ( 1 )(1 cos )
( ) 0 or 0
du
h
d u V u
du V

( +
= =
(



2 2
1 1 2 2
1 1
1
1
(1+cos ) d d 1+cos
or (2 2 ) 0 or [2 2 ] 0 0
du du V
V
or 2V 4 0 or u=
2
uV u uV u
V
u
| |
= = =
|
\
=

128

The above equation states that hydraulic efficiency of a Pelton wheel will be
maximum when the velocity of the wheel is half the velocity of the jet of water at
inlet. The expansion for maximum efficiency will be obtained by substituting the
value of
1
2
V
u = in equation.
1 1
1
h
1 1
2
1
2 (1 cos )
2 2
Max.
V
2 (1 cos )
(1 cos )
2 2
=
2
V V
V
V
V

| |
+
|
\
=
+
+
=


Points to be remembered for Pelton Wheel:

i. The velocity of the jet at inlet is given by V1=Cv 2gH where Cv = Co-efficiency of
velocity = 0.98 or 0.99 H = Net head on turbine.

ii. The velocity of wheel (u) is given by u= 2gH where speed ratio. The value of
speed ratio varies from 0.43 to 0.48.

iii. The angle of deflection of the jet through buckets is taken at 165 if no angle of
deflection is given

iv. The mean diameter or the pitch diameter d of the Pelton wheel is given by


60u
or D=
60 N
DN
u

=

v. Jet ratio. It is defined as the ratio of the pitch diameter (D) of the pelton wheel to
the diameter of the jet(). It is denoted by m and is given as

(= for most caes)
D
m
d
=
vi. Number of buckets on a runner is given by

15 =15+0.5 m
2
D
Z
d
= +

vii. Number of Jets. It is obtained by dividing the total rate if flow through the
turbine by the rate of flow of water through a single jet.









129

10. A pelton wheel has a mean bucket speed of 10 metres per second with a jet of
water flowing at the rate of 700 litres/s under a head of 30 metres. The buckets
deflect the je through an angle of 160 . Calculate the power given by water to the
runner and the hydraulic efficiency of the turbione. Assume co-efficient of
velocity as 0.98.

Solution, Given:

Speed of bucket, u = u1 = u2 = 10 m/s
Discharge Q = 700 litres/s = 0.7 m
3
/S, Head of water, H = 30 m
Angle of deflection = 160
Angle, = 180 160 = 20
Co-efficient of velocity Cv = 0.98
The velocity of jet, V1 = Cv 2 0.98 2 9.81 30 23.77 m/s gH = =
V1 = V1 u1 = 23.77 10 = 13.77 m/s
Vw1 = V1 = 23.77 m/s

From outlet velocity triangle,

Vr2 = Vr1 = 13.77 m/s
Vw2 = Vr2 cos - u2
= 13.77 cos 20 10.0 = 2.94 m/s

Work done by the jet per second on the runner is given by equation, as

= aV1 [Vw1 + Vw2] x u
= 1000 x 0.7 x [23.77 + 2.94] x 10
( aV1 = Q = 0.7 m
3
/s)

Power given to turbine =
186970
186.97 kW. Ans.
1000
=

The hydraulic efficiency of the turbine is given by equation, as


1 2
2
1
2[ ] 2[23.77 2.94] 10
0.9454 or 94.54%. Ans.
23.77 23.77
w w
h
V V u
V

+ +
= = =

11. The penstock supplies water from a reservoir to the Pelton wheel with a gross
head 500 m. one-third of the gross head is lost in friction in the penstock. The rate
of flow of water through the nozzle fitted at the end of the penstock is 2.0 m
3
/s. the








130
angle of deflection of the jet is 165 . Determine the power given by the water to
the runner and also hydraulic efficiency of the pelton wheel. Take speed ratio =
0.45 and Cv = 1.0.

Solution, Given:

Gross head, Hg = 500 m
Head lost in friction,
8
500
166.7 ,
3 3
f
H
h = = =

Net head H=Hg-hf = 500 166.7 = 333.30 m
Discharge, Q = 2.0 m
3
/s
Angle of deflection = 165
Angle = 180 165 = 15
Speed ratio = 0.45

Co-efficient of velocity, Cv = 1.0
Velocity of jet, V1 = Cv 2 = 1.0 2 9.81 333.3 80.86 m/s gH =
Velocity of wheel, u = Speed ratio x 2gH

1
1 1 1
2 0.45 2 9.81 333.3 36.387 /
80.86 36.387 44.473 m/s
r
u u u m s
V V u
= = = =
= = =


Also Vw1 = V1 = 80.86 m/s

From outlet velocity triangle, we have

2 1
2 2 2
w2
2
44.473
cos
44.73 cos 15 = 36.387 + V
44.473 cos 15-36.387 = 6.57 m/s
r r
r w
w
V V
V u v
V

= =
= +
=

Work done by the jet on the runner per second is given by equation, as
= aV1[Vw1+Vw2] x u=Q[Vw1 + Vw2] x u
( aV1 = Q)
= 1000 x 2.0 x [80.86 + 6.57] x 36.387 = 6362630 Nm/s

Power given by the water to the runner in KW








131


1 1
h 2
1
Work done per second 6362630
6362.63 kW. Ans
1000 1000
Hydraulic efficiency of the turbine is given by equation, as
2[ ] 2[80.86 6.57] 36.387
0.9731 or 97.31% Ans
80.86 80.86
w w
V V u
V

= = =
+ +
= = =

12. A Pelton wheel is working under a gross head of 400 m. the water is supplied
through penstock of diameter 1 m and length 4 km from reservoir to the Pelton
wheel. The co-efficient of friction for the penstock is given as .008. The jet of
water of diameter 150 mm strikes the buckets of the wheel and gets deflected
through an angle of 165 . The relative velocity of water at outlet is reduced by 15%
due to friction between inside surface of the bucket and water. If the velocity of
the buckets is 0.45 times the jet velocity at inlet and mechanical efficiency as 85%
determine,

i. Power given to the runner
ii. Shaft power
iii. Hydraulic efficiency and overall efficiency

Solution, Given:

Gross head, Hg = 400 m
Diameter of penstock D = 1.0 m
Length of penstock L = 4 km = 4 x 1000 = 4000 m
Co-efficient of friction f = .008
Diameter of jet d = 150 mm = 0.15 m
Angle of deflection = 165
Angle, = 180 165 = 15
Relative velocity at outlet Vr2 = 0.85 Vr1
Velocity of bucket u = 0.45 x Jet velocity
Mechanical efficiency m = 85 % = 0.85

Let V* = Velocity of water in penstock, and
V1 = Velocity of jet of water

Using continuity equation, we have area of penstock x V* = Area of jet x V1









132

2 2
1
2 2
1 1 1 2 2
*
4 4
0.15
* .0225 V (1)
1.0
D V d V
d
V V V
D

=
= = =


Applying Bernoullis equation to the free surface of water in the reservoir and outlet
of the nozzle, we get,

2
1
g
V
H Head lost due to friction+
2g
=

2 2 *2 *2
1 1
4 4 .008 4000
400
2 2 1.0 2 9.81 2
V V fLV V
D g g g

= + = +



Substituting the value of V* from equation (1) we get


2
2 1
1
2 2 2
1 1 1
1
4 .008 4000
400 (0.0225 )
2 9.81 2
.0033 V .051 V or 400=.0543 V
400
85.83 m/s
.0543
V
V
g
V

= +

= +
= =


Now velocity bucket, u1=0.45 V1=0.45 x 85.83 = 38.62 m/s
From inlet velocity triangle Vr1 = V1 - u1 = 85.83 38.62 = 47.21 m/s
Vw1 = Vr2 cos - u2 = 40.13 cos 15-38.62
= 0.143 m/s (
1 2
u=u 38.62) u = =

Discharge through nozzle is given as
Q = Area of jet x Velocity of jet = a x V1

2 2 3
1
(.15) 85.83 1.516 m /
4 4
d v s

= =

Work done on the wheel per second is given by equation (1) as


1 1 2 1 2
[ ] [ ]
1000 1.516[85.83 .143] 38.62 5033540 Nm/s
w w w w
aV V V u QV v a = + = +
= + =


i. Power given to the runner in kW
Work done per second 5033540
5033.54 kW Ans.
1000 1000
= = =

ii. Using equation (1) for mechanical efficiency,










133

Power at the shaft .
Power given to the runner 5033.54
. 5033.54 0.85 5033.54 4278.5 kW. Ans.
m
m
S P
S P

= =
= = =


iii. Hydraulic efficiency is given by equation is given by equation, as


1 2
2
1
2[ ]
2[85.83 1.43] 38.62
0.9014 90.14% .
85.83 85.83
w w
h
V V u
V
EAns

+
=
+
= = =

Overall efficiency is given by equation, as = = =
0
0.85 .9014 0.7662 or 76.62%
m h






13. A Pelton wheel is to be designed for a head of 60 m when running at 200 r.p.m.
the Pelton wheel develops 95.6475 kW shaft power. The velocity of the buckets =
0.45 times the velocity of this overall efficiency = 0.85 and co-efficient of velocity is
equal to 0.98.

Solution, Given :

Head, H=60m
Speed N = 200 r.p.m.
Shaft power, S.P = 95.6475 kW
Velocity of bucket u = 0.45 x Velocity of jet
Overall efficiency, 0=0.85
Co-efficient of velocity Cv=0.98

Design of Pelton wheel means to find diameter of jet (d), diameter of wheel (D),
Width and depth buckets and number of buckets on the wheel.

i. Velocity of jet, V1 = Cv 2 0.98 2 9.81 60 33.62 m/s gH = =
Bucket velocity, u = u1 = u2 = 0.45 x V1 = 0.45 x 33.62 = 15.13 m/s

But ; where D=Diameter of wheel
60
DN
u

=
D 200 60 15.13
15.13= D= =1.44 m, Ans
60 200
or

134

ii. Diameter of the jet (d)

overall efficiency 0 = 0.85

0
0
. 95.6475 95.6475 1000
But
. .
1000
95.6475 1000
=
1000 9.81 60
95.6475 1000 95.64
Q=
1000 9.81 60
S P
W P W P g Q H
Q

= = =
| |
|
\

=

2
75 1000
0.1912 m / 2
0.85 1000 9.81 60

=


But the discharge, Q = area of jet x Velocity of jet

2 2
1
0.1912 33.2
4 4
4 0.1912
0.085 m=85mm Ans.
33.62
d V d
d

= =

= =

iii. Size of buckets

Width of buckets =5 x d = 5 x 85 = 425 mm.
Depth of buckets =1.2 x d = 1.2 x 85 = 102 mm. Ans.

iv. Number of buckets on the wheel is given by equation, as


1.44
15 15 15 8.5 23.5 say 24. Ans.
2 2 .085
D
Z
d
= + = + = + =

14. The three- jet Pelton turbine is required to generate 10,000 kW under a net
head of 400 m. The blade angle at outlet is 15 and the reduction in the relative
velocity while passing over the blade is 5%. If the overall efficiency of the wheel
is 80%, Cv = 0.98 and speed ratio = 0.46, then find: (i) the diameter of the jet, (ii)
total flow in m
3
/s and (iii) the force exerted by a jet on the buckets.

If the jet ratio is not to be less than, 10, find the speed of the wheel for a
frequency of 50 hertz/sec and the corresponding wheel diameter.

Solution:

Given:









135
No. of jets =3
Total power, P = 10,000 kW
Net head, H = 400 m
Blade angle at outlet, = 15
Relative velocity at outlet = 0.95 of relative velocity at inlet

or Vr2 = 0.95 Vr1
Overall efficiency, o = 0.80
Value of Cv = 0.98
Speed ratio = 0.46
Frequency, f = 50 hertz/s

Now using equation (18.6A),
1000
o
P
g Q H

=

| |
|
\


Where Q = Total discharge through three nozzles and = 1000 kg/m
3



10000
0.80
1000 9.81 400
1000
Q
=

| |
|
\



3
10000
3.18 / .
0.8 9.81 400
Q m s = =



Discharge through one nozzle =
3
3.18
1.06 / .
3
m s =

(i) Diameter of the jet (d).

Discharged through one nozzle = Area of one jet x Velocity

But velocity of jet,
1
2 0.98 2 9.81 400 87 /
v
V C gH m s = = =


2
1.06 87
4
d

=


4 1.06
0.125 125 .
87
d m mm

= = =

(ii) Total flow in m
3
/s = 3.18m
3
/s.








136

(ii) Force exerted by a jet on the wheel.
Speed ratio =
1
2
u
gH



1
2 0.46 2 9.81 400 40.75 / . u Speedratio gH m s = = =

Now Vr1 = V1 u1 = 87 -40.75 = 46.25 m/s
and Vr2 = 0.95 Vr1 = 0.95 x 46.25 = 44.0 m/s
Vw1 = V1 = 87 m/s

Vw2 = Vr2 cos - u2 = 44 x cos 15 - 40.75 ( u1=u2 = 40.75m/s)
= 1.75 m/s

Force exerted by a single jet on the buckets

= x discharge through one jet x (Vw1 + Vw2)
= 1000 x 1.06 (87+1.75) = 94075 N = 94.075 kN.

(iv) jet ratio 10 10
D
or
d
= =

Dia. of wheel, D = 10 x d = 10 x 0.125 = 1.25 m

But,
1
60
DN
u

=

1
60 60 40.75
620 . . .
1.25
u
N r p m
D

= = =



Now using the relation,
60 f
N
p

=

Where f = frequency in hertz per second,
p = pairs of poles, N = speed


60 60 50
4.85
620
f
p
N

= = =
Take the next whole number i.e. 5. Hence pairs of poles are 5.
Now corresponding to five pairs of poles, the speed of the turbine will become as
given below:








137


60 60 50
600 . . .
5
f
N r p m
p

= = =
But
60
DN
u

=

As the peripheral velocity is constant. Hence with the change of speed,
diameter of wheel will change.


60 60 40.75
1.3
600
u
D m
N

= = =


Jet ratio becomes
1.30
10
0.12
D
d
= = >
Hence the given condition is satisfied.

15. A Francis turbine with an overall efficiency of 75% is required to produce
148.25 kW power. It is working under a head of 7.62 m. The peripheral velocity =
0.26 2gH and the radial velocity of flow at inlet is 0.96 2gH . The wheel runs
at 150 r.p.m. and the hydraulic losses in the turbine are 22% of the available
energy. Assuming radial discharge, determine:

(i) The guide blade angle,
(ii) The wheel vane angle at inlet,
(iii) Diameter of the wheel at inlet, and
(iv) Width of the wheel at inlet.
(AMIE, Fluid Power-Winter, 1975.

Solution:

Given:

Overall efficiency, o = 75% = 0.75
Power produced, S.P. = 148.25 k.W
Head, H = 7.62 m
Peripheral velocity, u1 = 0.26
2 0.26 2 9.81 7.62 3.179 / gH m s = =

Velocity of flow at inlet,

1
0.96 2 0.96 2 9.81 7.62 11.738 / .
f
V gH m s = = =








138

Speed, N = 150 r.p.m.
Hydraulic losses = 22% of available energy
Discharge at outlet = Radial

Vw2 = 0 and Vf2 = V2

Hydraulic efficiency is given as




k
Total headat inlet Hydraulic loss
Head at inlet

=

=
.22 0.78
0.78
H H H
H H

= =

But
1 1 w
k
V u
gH
=

1 1
0.78
w
V u
gH
=

1
1
0.78
w
g H
V
u

=

0.78 9.81 7.62
18.34 / .
3.179
m s

= =

(i) The guide blade angle, i.e., . From inlet velocity triangle,

1
1
11.738
tan 0.64
18.34
f
w
V
V
= = =
= tan
-1
0.64 = 32.619 or 32 37.
(ii) The wheel vane angle at inlet, i.e.,


1
1 1
1
11.738
tan 0.774
18.34 3.179
tan .774 37.74 37 44.4.
f
w
V
V u
or

= = =

= =


(iii) Diameter of wheel at inlet (D1).

Using the relation,
1
1
60
D N
u

=








139

1
1
60 60 3.179
0.4047 .
50
u
D m
N

= = =



(iv) Width of the wheel at inlet (Bt)


. . 148.25
. . . .
o
S P
W P W P
= =

But
1000 9.81 7.62
. .
1000 1000 1000
g Q H WH Q
W P

= = =



148.25 148.25 1000
1000 9.81 7.62
1000 9.81 7.62
1000
o
Q
Q

= =




or
3
148.25 1000 148.25 1000
2.644 /
1000 9.81 7.62 1000 9.81 7.62 0.75
o
Q m s

= = =



Using equation (18.21), Q = D1 x B1 x Vf1

2.644 = x .4047 x B1 x 11.738


1
2.644
0.177 .
.4047 11.738
B m

= =



16. Francis turbine working under a head of 30 m has a wheel diameter of 1.2 m at
the entrance and 0.6 m at the exit. The vane angle at the entrance is 90 and guide
blade angle is 15 . The water at the exit leaves the vanes without any tangential
velocity and the velocity of flow in the runner is constant. Neglecting the effect of
draft tube and losses in the guide and runner passages, determine the speed of
wheel in r.p.m. and vane angle at the exit. State whether the speed calculated is
synchronous or not. If not, what speed would you recommend to couple the
turbine with an alternator of 50 cycles? (Fluid Power Engg., A.M.I.E., Summer
1986)

Solution:

Given:

Head on turbine, H = 30 m








140
Inlet dia, D1 = 1.2 m
Outlet dia., D2 = 0.6 m
Vane angle at inlet, = 90
Guide blade angle, = 15

The water at exit leaves the vanes without any tangential velocity.

Vw2 = 0 and V2 = Vf2

Velocity of flow is constant in runner.

Vf1 = Vf2

(i) Speed of turbine in r.p.m.

Using equation (18.24), we have

( )
2
2
1 1 2 2
1
2
w w
V
H V u V u
g g
=


( ) ( )
( )
1 1 w1
1 1 w1 1
1
V 0
1
V
w
V u
g
u u u
g
= =
= =

or
( )
( )
2
2 2
1 2 2 1
1
30 V .... i
2
f
f f
V
u V V
g g
= = =

But from inlet velocity triangle, we have

( )
1 1 1
1 1
1
tan 3.732 ii
tan tan15
f f f
f
V V V
or u V
u

= = = =

Substituting the values of u1 in equation (i), we get


( ) ( )
2 2 2
2 1 2
2
1 f2 1
13.928
1
30 3.732 30 V
2 2
f f f
f f
V V V
V or V
g g g g
= = =

or
2
1
14.928
30
f
V
g
=








141


1
30 9.81
4.44 / .
14.928
f
V m s

= =

Substituting the value of Vf1 in equation (ii), we get

u1 = 3.732 x 4.44 = 16.57 m/s

But
1
1
1.2 .
16.57
60 60
D N N
u or

= =


16.57 60
263.72 . . .
1.2
N r p m

= =

(ii)Vane angle at exit (i.e., )


2
2
2 1
0.6 263.72
8.285 /
60 60
4.44
f f
D N
u m s
V V

= = =
= =


Now from velocity triangle at outlet,


2
2
4.44
tan 0.5359
8.285
f
V
u
= = =
= 28.87

(iii) For a turbine, which is directly coupled to the alternator of 50 cycles the
synchronous speed (N*) is given by
. *
60
p N
f = where f = Frequency of alternator in
cycles/s, p = Number of pair of poles for the alternator.

Assuming the number of pair of poles = 12, we get


12 *
50
60
N
=


60 50
* 250 . . .
12
N r p m

= =









142
But the speed of turbine 263.72. And synchronous speed (N*) is equal to 250.
Hence the speed of turbine is not synchronous. The speed of turbine should be 250
r.p.m.







17. A Kaplan turbine working under a head of 20 m develops 11772 kW shaft
power. The outer diameter of the runner is 3.5 m and hub diameter 1.75 m. The
guide blade angle at the extreme edge of the runner is 35 . The hydraulic and
overall efficiencies of the turbines are 88% and 84% respectively. If the velocity of
what is zero at outlet, determine:

(i) Runner vane angles at inlet and outlet at the extreme edge of the runner,
and
(ii) Speed of the turbine.

Solution:

Given:

Head, H = 20 m
Shaft power, S.P. = 11772 kW
Outer dia. of runner Do = 3.5 m
Hub diameter, Db = 1.75 m
Guide blade angle, = 35
Hydraulic efficiency, k = 88%
Overall efficiency, o = 84%

Velocity of whirl at outlet = 0. Using the relation,
. .
. .
o
S P
W P
=

. . ,
1000 1000
g Q H WP
where W P we get

= =


11772
0.84
1000
g Q H
=










143

= ( )
11772 1000
= 1000
1000 9.81 20 Q

3
11772 1000
71.428 / .
0.84 1000 9.81 20
Q m s

= =


Using equation (18.25),
( )
2 2
1
4
o b f
Q D D V

=

or
( ) ( )
2 2
1 1 1
71.428 3.5 1.75 12.25 3.0625 7.216
4 4
f f f
V V V

= = =


1
71.428
9.9 / .
7.216
f
V m s = =

From inlet velocity triangle, tan
2
1
f
w
V
V
=


1
1
9.9 9.9
14.14 /
tan tan35 .7
f
w
V
V m s

= = = =

Using the relation for hydraulic efficiency,


( )
1 1
w2
1
V 0
14.14
0.88
9.81 20
w
k
V u
gH
u
= =

1
0.88 9.81 20
12.21 /
14.14
u m s

= =

(i) Runner vane angles at inlet and outlet at the extreme edge of the runner are given
as:


( )
1
1 1
9.9
tan 5.13
14.14 12.21
f
w
V
V u
= =




1
tan 5.13 78.97 78 58. or

= =

For Kaplan turbine, u1 = u2 = 12.21 m/s and Vf1 = Vf2 = 9.9 m/s









144
From outlet velocity triangle,
2
2
9.9
tan 0.811
12.21
f
V
u
= = =

1
tan .811 39.035 39 2. or

= =
(ii) Speed of turbine is given by
1 2
60
o
D N
u u

= =

3.5
12.21
60
N
=

60 12.21
66.63 . . .
3.50
N r p m

= =

18. The hub diameter of a Kaplan turbine, working under a head of 12 m, is 0.35
times the diameter of the runner. The turbine is running at 100 r.p.m. If the vane
angle of the extreme edge of the runner at outlet is 15 and flow ratio 0.6, find:

(i) Diameter of the runner,
(ii) Diameter of the boss, and
(iii) Discharge through the runner.

The velocity of whirl at outlet is given as zero.

Solution:
Given:

Head, H = 12 m
Hub diameter, Db = 0.35 x D0 where D0 = Dia . or runner
Speed, N = 100 r.p.m
Vane angle at outlet, = 15
Flow ratio
1
0.6
2
f
V
gH
= =

1
0.6 2 0.6 2 9.81 12
9.2 /
f
V gH
m s
= =
=


From the outlet velocity triangle, Vw2 =0

( )
2
f2
f2 1
2 2
V
tan = V 9.2
u
f
f
V
V
u
= = =

2
9.2
tan15
u
=

2
9.2
34.33 /
tan15
u m s = =









145
But for Kalpan turbine, u1 = u2 = 34.33

Now using the relation,
o
1
D 100
34.33=
60 60
o
D N
u or

=

60 34.33
100
o
D

= =

6.55m
Db = 0.35 x D0 = 0.35 x 6.35 = 2.3m

Discharge through turbine is given by equation as


[ ]
( )
2 2 2 2
1
3
6.55 2.3 9.2
4 4
42.9026 5.29 9.2 271.77
4
o b f
Q D D V
m
s

( = =

= =


18. A propeller reaction turbine of runner diameter 4.5 m is running at 40 r.p.m.
The guide blade angle of inlet is 145 and runner blade angle at outlet is 25 to the
direction of vane. The axial flow area of water through runner is 25 m
2
. If the
runner blade angle at inlet is radial determine:

(i) Hydraulic efficiency of the turbine,
(ii) Discharge through turbine,
(iii) Power developed by the runner, and
(iv) Specific speed of the turbine

Solution:
Given

Runner diameter, D0 = 4.5 m
Speed, N = 40 r.p.m
Guide blade angle, = 145
Runner blade angle at outlet, = 25
Flow area, a = 25 m
2

Runner blade angle at inlet is radial = 90, Vr1 = Vf1 and u1 = Vw1

For Kaplan turbine, the discharge is given by the product of area of flow and
velocity of flow.

As area of flow is constant and hence Vf1=Vf2 ( Q = Area of flow x Vf1 = Area
of flow x Vf2)









146
The tangential speed of turbine at inlet,
1
4.5 40
9.42 /
60 60
o
D N
u m s

= = =

Also u2 = u1 = 9.42 m/s.
From inlet velocity triangle

( )
( )
1
1
1
1
tan 180
or tan 180-145 tan35
f
f
V
u
V
u
=
= =

Vf1 = u1 tan 35 = 9.42 tan 35 = 6.59
Also Vw1 = u1 = 9.42 m/s.

From outlet velocity triangle,

( )
f2
f2 1 2 1
2 2
w2
w2
w2
V
tan = where V 6.59 u 9.42
u
6.59
tan25=
9.42+V
6.59
V 9.42 14.13
tan25
V 1
f
w
V and u
V
= = = =
+

+ = =
=
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
4.13 9.42 4.71 /
V 6.59 4.71 43.43 22.18 8.1 /
f w
m s
V V m s
=
= + = + = + =

Using equation,
[ ]
2
2
1 1 2 2
1
2
w w
V
H V u V u
g g
=

Here ve sign is taken as the absolute velocity at inlet and outlet (i.e., V1 and
V2) are in the same direction and hence change of velocity will be with a ve sign.


[ ]
[ ]
2
8.1 1
H- 9.42 9.42 4.71 9.42
2 9.81 9.81
1
H-3.344= 88.736-44.368 4.522
9.81
H=4.522+3.344=7.866m
=

m

(i) Hydraulic efficiency is given by equation as









147

( )
1 1 2 2
9.42 9.42 4.71 9.42
0.575 57.5%
9.81 7.866
w w
h
V u V u
g H

= = =

(ii) Discharge through turbine is given by,

Q = Area of flow x Velocity of flow
= 25 x Vf1 = 25 x 6.59 = 164.75 m
3
/s.

(iii) Power developed by turbine


[ ]
1 1 2 2
done per second
1000
1

1000
1 9.42 9.42 4.71 9.42
9.81 1000
1 9.42 9.42 4.71 9.42
1000 9.81 164.75 6867
9.81 1000
w w
Work
V u V u
Weight of water
g
g Q
kW

=

(
=
(


(
= =
(


(iv) Specific speed is given by the relation,


5 5 5
4 4 4
6867 40 6867
7.866 7.866
40 82.867
251.62 . .
13.173
s
N P N
N
H
r p m

= = =

= =


The pressure at the exit of the runner of a reaction turbine is generally less
than atmospheric pressure. Thus the water at the exit of the runner cannot be
directly discharged to the tail race. A pipe of gradually increasing area is used for
discharging water from the exit of the turbine to the tail race. This pipe of gradually
increasing area is called a draft tube. One end of the draft tube is connected to the
outlet of the runner while the other end is sub-merged below the level of water is the
tail race. The draft tube, in addition to serve a passage for water discharge, has the
following two purposes also:

1. The turbine may be place above the tail race and hence turbine may be
inspected properly.
2. The kinetic energy (V
2
2/2g) rejected at the outlet of the turbine is converted








148
into useful pressure energy.

19. A turbine is to operate under a head of 25 m at 200 r.p.m. The discharge is 9
cumec. If the efficiency is 90%, determine:

(i) Specific speed of the machine,
(ii) Power generated, and
(iii) Type of turbine. (AMIE, Winter, 1979)

Solution:
Given

Head, H = 25 m
Speed, N = 200r.p.m
Discharge, Q = 9 cumec = 9 m
3
/s

Efficiency, 0 = 90% = 0.90 (Take the efficiency as overall )

Now using relation

0

Water power
1000
1000
0.90 9.81 1000 9 25
1986.5
1000
o
Power developed P
g Q H
g Q H
P
kW

= =


=

= =


(i) Specific speed of the machine (Ns)

Using equation
5 5
4 4
200 1986.5
159.46 . .
25
s
N P
N r p m
H

= = =
(ii) Power generated
P = 1986.5 kW

(iii) As the specific speed lies between 51 and 255, the turbine is a Francis turbine


20. A Pelton turbine develops 3000 kW under a head of 300 m. The overall
efficiency of turbine is 83%. If speed ratio = 0.46, Cv = 0.98 and specific speed is
16.5, then find:








149

(i) Diameter of the turbine, and
(ii) Diameter of the jet

Solution:

Given:

Power, P = 3000 kW
Net head, H = 300 m
Overall efficiency, 0 = 83 % or 0.83
Speed ratio = 0.46
Value of Cv, = 0.98
Specific speed*, Ns = 16.5
Using equation,
5 5
4 4
5
4
16.5 300
375 . .
3000
s
s
N H N P
N orN r p m
P
H

= = = =

The velocity (V) at the outlet of nozzle is given by,

2 0.98 2 9.81 300 75.1 /
v
V C g H m s = = =

Now speed ratio

u = speed ratio 2gH
2
0.46 2 9.81 300 34.95 /
u
or
gH
m s
=
= =


(i) Diameter of the turbine (D)

Using
60 u 60 34.95
D = 1.78
60 N 375
DN
u or m

= = =


(ii) Diameter of the jet (d)

Let Q = Discharge through turbine in m
3
/s

Using the relation,









150

3
where g = 1000 9.81N/m3
1000
300
0.83
1000 9.81 300
1000
3000
1.23 /
9.81 300 0.83
o
P
for water
g Q H
Q
Q m s

=

| |
|
\
=

| |
|
\
= =



But discharge through a pelton turbine is given by,

Q = Area of jet x Velocity

Or

2
1.23 75.1
4
4 1.23
0.142 142
75.1
d
d m mm

= = =

21. Obtain an expression for the workdone per second by water on the runner of a
pelton wheel. Hence derive an expression for maximum efficiency of the pelton
wheel giving the relationship between the jet speed and bucket speed?

Velocity Triangles and Workdone for Pelton Wheel:

Figure shows the shape of the vanes or buckets of the pelton wheel. The jet of
water from the nozzle strikes the bucket at the splitter, which splits up the jet into
two parts. These parts of the jet, glides over the inner surfaces and comes out at the
outer edge. Figure shows the section of the bucket z-z. The splitter is the inlet tip and
outer edge of the bucket is the outlet tip of the bucket. The inlet velocity triangle id
drawn at the splitter and outlet velocity triangle is drawn at the outer edge of the
bucket.

Shape of Bucket

Let H = Net head acting on the Pelton wheel

= Hg hf









151
Where Hg = Gross head and


2
f
4fLV
h
D* 2g
=

Where D* = Dia of penstock

N = Speed of the wheel in r.p.m
D = Diameter of the wheel
d = diameter of the jet

Then V1 = Velocity of jet at inlet = 2gH ------ (1)
u = u1 = u2 =
DN
60

The velocity triangle at inlet will be a straight line where


1
r
V = V1 u1 = V1 u

1
w
V = V1
= 0 and = 0

From the velocity triangle at outlet, we have
2
r
V =
1
r
V and
2
w
V =
2
r
V cos - u2

The force exerted by the jet of water in the direction of motion is given by equation
(17.19) as

Fx = pa V1
1 2
w w
V V ( +

-------- (2)

As the angle is an acute angle, +ve sign should be taken. Also this is the case of
series of vanes, the mass of water striking is paV2 and not pa
1
r
V . In equation (2), a is
the area of the jet which is given as

A = Area of jet =
2
d
4

Now work done by the jet on the runner per second

= Fx x u








152
= p a V1
1 2
w w
V V ( +

--------- (3)
H.P given to the runner by the jet


1 2
1 w w
p a V V V u
75
( +

= --------- (4)

Work done/sec per unit weight of water striking


1 2
1 w w
p a V V V u
Weight of water striking
( +

=

1 2
1 w w
1
p a V V V u
paV g
( +

=

=
1 2
w w
1
V V u
g
( +

---------- (5)

The energy supplied to the jet at inlet is in the form of kinetic energy and is
equal to mV
2
.

K.E of jet per second = (paV1) x V1
2
Hydraulic Efficiency.

( )
1 2
1 2
h
1 w w
2
1
t 1 2
w w
2
1
Work done per second
K.E. of jet per second
paV V V u
paV V
2 V V u
V
=
( +

=

( +

=


Now
1
w
V = V1,
1
r
V = V1 u1 = (V1 u)

2
r
V = (V1 u)
and
2
w
V =
2
r
V cos - u2 =
2
r
V cos - u = (V1 u) cos - u
Substituting the values of
1
w
V and
2
w
V in equation.








153
( )
( )
( )
1 1
h 2
1
1 1
2
1
1
2
1
2[V V u cos u] u
V
2 V u V u cos u
V
2 V u (1 cos )u
----------- (7)
V
+
=
( +

=
+
=


The efficiency will be maximum for a given value of V1 when d/du (h) = 0

( )( )
( )
( )
1
2
1
2
1 2
1
2u V u 1 cos
d
Or 0
Du V
1 cos
d
Or 2uV 2u 0
V du
( +
=
(


=

2
1
d
Or 2uV 2u
Du
(

= 0 (since 1 + cos /V1
2
0)
Or 2 V1 4u = 0
1
V
Or u
2
=

Equation states that hydraulic efficiency of a Pelton wheel will be maximum
when the velocity of the wheel is half the velocity of the jet of water at inlet. The
expression for maximum efficiency will be obtained by substituting the value of u =
V1/2 in equation

( )
( )
( )
1 1
1
h 2
1
1 1
2
1
V V
2 V 1 cos
2 2
Max,
V
V V
2 1 cos
2 2
V
1 cos
------------ (9)
2
| |
+
|
\
=
+
=
+
=














154














UNIT V

PUMPS
Pumps: definition and classifications
Centrifugal pump: classifications, working principles, velocity
triangles, specific speed, efficiency and performance curves
Reciprocating pump: classification, working principles, indicator
diagram, and work saved by air vessels and performance curves
Cavitations in pumps
Priming- slip- rotary pumps
Working principles of gear, jet and vane pumps












155









PART A

1. Explain the main parts of a single stage centrifugal pump with sketches.

Main Parts of a Centrifugal Pump:

The following are the main parts of a centrifugal pump:

1. Impeller
2. Casing
3. Suction pipe with a foot valve and a strainer.
4. Delivery pipe.

1. Impeller: The rotating part of a centrifugal pump is called impeller. It consists
of a series of backward curved vanes. The impeller is mounted on a shaft which
is connected to the shaft of an electric motor.
2. Casing: The casing of a centrifugal pump is similar to the casing of a reaction
turbine. It is a air-tight passage surrounding the impeller and is designed in such
a way that the kinetic energy of the water discharged at the outlet of the impeller
is converted into pressure energy before water leaves the casing and enters the
delivery pipe.

3. Suction Pipe with a Foot-Valve and a Strainer:

A pipe whose one end is connected to the inlet of the pump and other end dips
into water in a sump is known as suction pipe. A foot valve which is a non-return
valve or one-way type of valve is fitted at the lower end of the suction pipe. The foot








156
valve opens in the upward direction. A strainer is also fitted at the lower end of the
suction pipe.

4. Delivery pipe: A pipe whose one end is connected to the outlet of the pump and
other end delivers the water at a required height is known as delivery pipe.

Main Parts of a centrifugal pump:

2. What are the different types of casings commonly used for centrifugal pumps?

The following three types of the castings are commonly adopted:

a. Volute casing as shown in figure. (Previous Q & A)
b. Vortex casing as shown in figure
c. Casing with guide blades as shown in figure.

(a) Volute Casing:

Figure above shows the volute casing which surrounds the impeller. It is of
spiral type in which area of flow increases gradually. The increase in area of flow
decreases the velocity of flow. The decrease in velocity increases the pressure of the
water flowing through the casing. It has been observed that in case of volute casing,
the efficiency of the pump increases slightly as a large amount of energy is lost to the
formation of eddies in this type of casing.

Different types of Casing

(b) Vortex Casing:

If a circular chamber is introduced between the casing and the impeller as
shown in figure. The casing is known as Vortex Casing. By introducing the circular
chamber, the loss of energy due to the formation of eddies is reduced to a
considerable extent. Thus the efficiency of the pump is more than the efficiency
when only volute casing is provided.

(c) Casing with Guide Blades:

This casing is shown in figure in which the impeller is surrounded by a series
of guide blades mounted on a ring which is known as diffuser. The guide varies are
designed in such a way that the water from the impeller enters the guide vanes








157
without stock. Also the area of the guide vanes increases, thus reducing the velocity
of flow through guide vanes and consequently increasing the pressure of water. The
water from the guide vanes then passes through the surrounding casing which is in
most of the cases concentric with the impeller.

3. Define the terms:

Suction head, Delivery head, Static head, Manometric head?

1. Suction Head (hs): It is the vertical height of the centre line of the
centrifugal pump above the water surface in the tank or sump from which
water is to be lifted. This height is also called lift and is denoted by hs.
2. Delivery Head (hd): The vertical distance between the centre line of the
pump and the water surface in the tank to which water is delivered is
known as delivery head. This is denoted by hd.
3. Static Head (Hs): The sum of suction head and delivery head is known as
static head. This is represented by Hs and is written as

Hs = hs + hd

4. Manometric head (Hm): The manometric head is defined as the head
against which a centrifugal pump has to work. It id denoted by Hm. It is
given by the following expressions:

(a) Hm = head imparted by the impeller to the water loss of head in the
pump

1
w 2
V u
g
= - Loss of head in impeller and casing
1
w 2
V u
g
= - if loss of pump is zero

(b) Hm = Total head at outlet of the pump Total head at the inlet of the
pump
| | | |
= + + + +
| |
\ \
2 2
0 0 i i
0 i
p V P V
Z Z
w 2g w 2g

Where
o
P
w
= Pressure head at outlet of the pump = hd

2
o
V
2g
= Velocity head at outlet of the pump








158
= Velocity head is delivery pipe =
2
d
V
2g

Zo = Vertical height of the outlet of the pump from datum line and

2
i i
P V
, , Zi
w 2g
= Corresponding values of pressure head, velocity head and datum head
at the inlet of the pump.

i.e. hs,
2
s
V
2g
and Zs respectively.

(c) Hm = hs + hd + hfs + hfd +
2
d
V
2g


Where hs = Suction head
hd = Delivery head
hfs = Frictional head loss in suction pipe
hfd = Frictional head loss in delivery pipe and
Vd = Velocity of water in delivery pipe.

4. What are the important functions of multistage pumps?

Multistage Centrifugal Pumps:

If a centrifugal pump consists of two or more impellers, the pump is called a
multistage centrifugal pump. The impellers may be mounted on the same shaft or on
different shafts. A multistage pump is having the following two important functions:


1. To produce a high head, and
2. To discharge a large quantity of liquid.

If a high head is to be developed, the impellers are connected in series (or on
the same shaft) while for discharging large quantity of liquid, the impellers (or
pumps) are connected in parallel.

5. Define specific speed of a centrifugal pump. Derive an expression for the same.

Specific Speed of a Centrifugal Pump (Ns): The specific speed of a centrifugal
pump is defined as the speed of a geometrically similar pump which would deliver








159
one cubic meter of liquid per second against a head of one meter. It is denoted by
Ns.

Expression for specific speed for a pump: The discharge, Q, for a centrifugal pump
is given by the relation

Q = Area x Velocity of flow
= D x B x Vf
Or Q D x B x Vf ------ (i)

Where D = Diameter of the impeller of the pump, and
B = Width of the impeller

We know that B D
From equation (i), we have
Q D
2
x Vf ----- (ii)

We also know that tangential velocity is given by

DN
u DN
60

= ------- (iii)

Now the tangential velocity (u) and velocity of flow (Vf) are related to the
manometer head (Hm) as u Vf
m
H ------- (iv)
Substituting the value of u in equation (iii), we get


m
H DN
or D
m
H
N


Substituting the valve of D in equation (ii)
Q
m
f 2
H
V
N



m
m 2
H
H
N
(Since From equation (iv) Vf
m
H )

3/ 2
m
2
H
N

Q = K
3/ 2
m
2
H
N
(v)








160

Where K is a constant of proportionality

If Hm = 1 m and Q = 1 m
3
/sec. N becomes = Ns
Substituting these values in equation (v) we get

3
2
2 2
s s
1 K
1 k
N N
= =
K = Ns
2

Substituting the value of K in equation (v), we get
=
=
=
3 / 2
2 m
s 2
2
2
s 3
2
m
s 3
4
m
H
Q N
N
N Q
N
H
N Q
N
H


6. What is priming? Why is it necessary?
Priming of a Centrifugal Pump:

Priming of a centrifugal pump is defined as the operation in which the suction
pipe, casing of the pump and a portion of the delivery pipe upto the delivery valve is
completely filled up from outside source with the liquid to be raised by the pump
before starting the pump. Thus the air from these parts of the pump is removed and
these parts are filled with the liquid to be pumped.

The work done by the impeller per unit weight of liquid per sec is known as
the head generated by the pump. The head generated by the pump Vw2 u2 /g metre.
This equation is independent of the density of the liquid. This means that when
pump is running in air, the head generated is in terms of metre of air. But as the
density of air is very low, the generated head of air in terms of equivalent metre of
water head is negligible and hence the water may not be sucked from the pump. To
avoid this difficulty, priming is necessary.

7. Define cavitation. What are the effects of cavitation? Give the necessary
precautions against cavitation?

Cavitation: Cavitation is defined as the phenomenon of formation of vapour bubbles
of a flowing liquid in a region where the pressure of the liquid falls below its vapour








161
pressure and the sudden collapsing of these vapour bubbles in a region of higher
pressure. When the vapour bubbles collapse, a very high pressure is created. The
metallic surface, above which the liquid is flowing, is subjected to these high
pressures, which cause pitting action on the surface. Thus cavities are formed on the
metallic surface and also considerable noise and vibrations are produced.

Cavitation includes formation of vapour bubbles of the flowing liquid and
collapsing of the vapour bubbles. Formation of vapour bubbles of the flowing liquid
take place only whenever the pressure in any region falls below vapour pressure.
When the pressure of the flowing liquid is less than its vapour pressure, the liquid
starts boiling and vapour bubbles are formed. These vapour bubbles are carried
along with the flowing liquid to higher pressure zones where these vapours
condense and bubbles collapse. Due to sudden collapsing of the bubbles on the
metallic surface, high pressure is produced and metallic surfaces are subjected to
high local stresses. Thus the surfaces are damaged.

Precaution against Cavitation: The following precautions should be taken against
cavitation:

i. The pressure of the flowing liquid in any part of the hydraulic system
should not be allowed to fall below its vapour pressure. If the flowing
liquid is water, then the absolute pressure head should not be below 2.5 m
of water.
ii. The special materials of coatings such as aluminium-bronze and stainless
steel, which are cavitation resistant materials, should be used.

Effects of Cavitation: The followings are the effects of cavitations:

i. The metallic surfaces are damaged and cavities are formed on the surfaces.
ii. Due to sudden collapse of vapour bubble, considerable noise and
vibrations are produced.
iii. The efficiency of a turbine decreases due to cavitation. Due to pitting
action the surface of the turbine blades becomes rough and the force
exerted by water on the turbine blades decreases. Hence the work done by
water or output horse power becomes less and thus efficiency decreases.

8. What are the different efficiencies of a centrifugal pump?

Efficiencies of a centrifugal pump: In case of a centrifugal pump, the power
is transmitted from the shaft of the electric motor to the shaft of the pump and then
to the impeller. From the impeller, the power is given to the water. Thus power is








162
decreasing from the shaft of the pump to the impeller and then to the water. The
followings are the important efficiencies of a centrifugal pump:

a. Manometric efficiency, mano
b. Mechanical efficiency, m and
c. Overall efficiency, o.

a. Manometric Efficiency ( mano): The ratio of the manometric head to the head
imparted by the impeller to the water is known as manometric efficiency.
Mathematically, it is written as

=
= =
| |
|
\
2 2
man
m m
w 2 w 2
Manometric head
head imparted by impeller to water
H gH
(1)
V u V u
g


b. Mechanical Efficiency ( m): The power at the shaft of the centrifugal pump is
more than the power available at the impeller of the pump. The ratio of the
power available at the impeller to the power at the shaft of the centrifugal
pump is known as mechanical efficiency. It is written as

m
Power at the impeller
Power at the shaft
=

The power at the impeller

=
Work done by impeller per second
kw
1000


=
| |
|
\
=
2
w 2
w2 2
m
V u
W
kw
g 1000
v u W
g 1000
---- (2)
S.P


Where W=weight of water lifted and S.P = shaft Power.

c. Overall Efficiency ( o): It is defined as the ratio of power output of the pump
to the power input to the pump. The power output of the pump.








163

=
=
m
m
Weight of water lifted H
kw
1000
WH
1000


Power input to the pump

= Power supplied by the electric motor
= S.P of the pump


| |
|
\
=
m
o
WH
1000
-------- (3)
S.P


Also o = mano x m ----------- (4)

9. What are the main characteristics and operating characteristic curves of a
centrifugal pump?

Main Characteristic curves of a pump

Main Characteristics Curves: The main characteristic curves of a centrifugal pump
consists of variation of head (manometric head, Hm), power and discharge with
respect to speed. For plotting curves of manometric head versus speed, discharge is
kept constant. For plotting curves of discharges versus speed, manometric head (Hm)
is kept constant. And for plotting curves of power versus speed, the manometric
head and discharge are kept constant Figure shows main characteristics curves of a
pump.

Operating Characteristics Curves of a pump

Operating Characteristic Curves: If the speed is kept constant, the variation of
manometric head, power and efficiency with respect to discharge gives the operating
characteristic curves of a pump.

10. What are the main parts of a reciprocating pump?

The main parts of a reciprocating pump are:









164
1. A cylinder with a piston, piston rod, connecting rod and a crank.
2. Suction pipe
3. Delivery pipe
4. Suction valve and
5. Delivery valve

11. Define Slip of a reciprocating pump.

Slip of a reciprocating pump is defined as the difference between the
theoretical discharge and actual discharge of the pump.

Slip = Qthe - Qact.

The actual discharge of a pump is less than the theoretical discharge due to
friction and leakage in the pipe.

12. What is the main difference between single acting and double acting
reciprocating pump?

In a single acting reciprocating pump, the liquid acts on one side of the piston
only. In a double acting reciprocating pump, the liquid acts on both sides of the
piston.

13. Define negative slip of the reciprocating pump.

If the actual discharge is greater than the theoretical discharge, then the slip of
the pump is called as negative slip.
Negative slip occurs when the delivery pipe is short and suction pipe is long
and the pump is running at high speed.

14. What are the uses of air vessels fitted in a reciprocating pump?

Air vessels are used in a reciprocating pump to obtain a continuous supply of
water at uniform rate, to save a considerable amount of work and to run the pump at
a high speed without separation.



15. Compare the reciprocating pump with the centrifugal pump.









165
Reciprocating Pump Centrifugal Pump
1. Suitable for small discharge and high
heads.
Suitable for large discharge and
smaller heads.
2. The discharge is fluctuating and
pulsating.
The discharge is continuous and
smooth.
3. It is used for lifting less viscous liquids.
It can be used for lifting highly viscous
liquids.
4. The reciprocating pump runs at low
speed.
The centrifugal pump runs at high
speed.
5. The efficiency is low. The efficiency is high.
6. It requires larger floor area for
installation.
It needs smaller floor area for
installation.
7. The initial and maintenance costs are
high.
The initial and maintenance are low.
8. Air vessels are required. Air vessels are not required.
9. No need of priming.
Priming is needed if it is not a self-
priming type.











166
PART B

1. A centrifugal pump delivers 1.27 m
3
of water per minute at 1200 r.p.m. The
impeller diameter is 350 mm and breadth at outlet 12.7 mm. The pressure
difference between inlet and outlet of pump casing is 272 kN/m
2
. Assuming
manometric efficiency as 63%, calculate exit blade angle.

Solution:

Given: Q =1.27 m
3
/min; N=1200 rpm; D2 =350 mm =0.35 m,
B2 =12.7 mm = 0.0127 m;mano = 63% = 0.63

Pressure difference between outlet and inlet of pump casin, (Pd = Ps) = 272 kN/m
2
.
Discharge,
3
1.27
Q 0.021 m / s
60
= =

Manometric head,

d s
m
3
P P
H
.g
272 10
=
1000 9.81
=27.73 m

Blade velocity at outlet,


2
2
D N 0.35 1200
u 21.99 m/ s
60 60


= = =


Discharge,


2 2 f 2
f 2 f2
Q D B .V
0.021 0.35 0.0127 V V =1.52 m/s
=
=


m
mano
w2 2
g.H
V .u
=









167
m
w2
mano 2
f2
2 w2
g H 9.81 27.73
V 19.64 m/ s
u 0.63 21.99
From outlet velocity diagram shown in Fig.
V 1.52
tan = 06468
u V 21.99 19.64
Exi t angle of impeller blade,

= = =

= =

2. The internal and external diameter of the impeller of a centrifugal pump are 20
cm and 40 cm respectively. The speed of the pump is 1400 rpm. Assuming a
constant velocity of flow of 5 m/s throughout, radial entry to impeller vanes and
the exit vane angle of 30
0
. Find:

i) Inlet vane angle.
ii) Work done by impeller per N Weight of water.

Solution:

Given : D1=20 cm = 0.2 m; D2=40 cm = 0.4 m; N = 1400 rpm, Vf1 = Vf2 = 5 m/s;

Radial entry i.e, =90
0
, VW1=0,=30
0
.

Vane velocity at inlet,
1
1
DN
60

=

0.2 1400

60
=14.66 m/s

=

Vane velocity at outlet,
2
2
D N
u
60

=

0.4 1400
=
60
=29.32 m/s




i) Inlet vane angle, :

From inlet velocity triangle,

o f1
1
V 5
tan = 0.341 =18.83
u 14.66
= =

ii) Workdone/N weight of water, W:









168
From outlet velocity diagram,

W2 2 f 2 o
w2 2
5
V u (V / tan ) 29.32 20.66 m/s
tan30
V .u 20.66 29.32
W= 61.75Nm/ N
g 9.81
= = =

= =


3. The external and internal diameter of the impeller of centrifugal pump are 0.6 m
and 0.3 m respectively and the width of impeller at outlet is 60 mm. The speed of
the pump is 1440 rpm and it is required to work against the head of 105 m. The
velocity of flow through the impeller is maintained at 4 m/s. The exit vane angle
is 35
0
. Determine the vane angle at inlet, workdone by impeller on water per
second and the manometric efficiency of the pump.

Solution: Refer the velocity diagram shown in Fig.

Given: D2 = 0.6 m, D1=0.3 m, B2=60 mm =0.06 m:
N=1440 rpm, Hm=105 m:
Vf1=Vf2 = 4 m/s; =35
0
.

i) Inlet vane angle. :

Vane velocity at inlet,


1
1
f1
1
o
D N 0.6 1440
u
60 60
= 22.62 m/s
V 4
tan = 0.1768
u 22.62
=10.03

= =
= =

ii) Work done by impeller per second, W:
Discharge,
2 2 f 2
Q D B .V =

3
0.6 0.06 4 0.452m / s = =

Vane velocity at exit,
2
2
D N 0.6 1440
u 45.24 m/s
60 60

= = =

From outlet velocity diagram,

f 2
w2 2 0
V 4
V u 45.24 39.53 m/s
tan tan35
= = =

workdone by impeller on waters,








169


3
w2 2
3
W QV u 10 0.452 39.53 45.24
= 808.33 10 W = 808.33 kW
= =

iii) Monometric efficiency of the pump, mano:


m
mano
w2 2
gH 9.81 105
0.576 or 57.6%
V u 39.53 45.24

= = =



4. A three stage centrifugal pump has impellers 40 cm diameter and 2 cm wide at
outlet. The varies are curved back at 45
0
and reduce the circumferential area by
10%. Its manometric efficiency is 90% and overall efficiency is 80%.

Determine, the head generated by the pump when running at 1000 r.p.m.
delivering 50 litre per second. What should be the shaft power in kW.

Solution:

Given:

Number of stages, n1=3; D2=40 cm=0.4 m, B2 = 2cm = 0.02 m; = 45
0
,
Reduction in circumferential area = 10% = 0.1, therefore, Kb = (1-0.1)=0.9;
mano = 90% = 0.9, 0=80%=0.8; N=1000 rpm;
Q=50 litre/s=
3
50
0.05 m / s
1000
=

(i) Total head generated, H:

Velocity of flow,

2
2 2
0.05
2.21
0.4 0.02 0.9
f
b
Q
m
V
s
D B K
= = =
i


Blade velocity at outlet,


2
2
0.4 1000
20.94
60 60
D N
m
u
s

= = =

From outlet velocity diagram shown in Figure.


2
2 2
2.21
20.94
tan tan45
f
w o
V
V u

= =








170

= 18.73 m/s


2 2
m
9.81 H
. . 0.9=
18.73 20.94
m
mano
w
g H
V u
i e
=

i
i


Hm = 35.98 m/stage

Since the pump is multistage pump in series,

Therefore,
Total head generated, H=Number of stages x H/ stage
= 3 x 35.98 = 107.94 m



(ii) Shaft power, Ps :

Overall efficiency,
o
s
g Q H
P

=
i i i


Ps =
0
1000 9.81 0.05 107.94
0.8
g Q H

=
i i i


= 66.18 x 10
-3
W = 66.18 kW

5. A centrifugal pump has to deliver 13.5 m
3
/min of water against a head of 30 m.
The speed of the pump is 1500 rpm. Manometric efficiency of the pump is 80%.
The breadth of impeller is 0.4 times the impeller diameter at outlet. The friction
head loss in pump is 0.03 times the square of absolute velocity of water at outlet.
Find:

(i) Impeller diameter (ii) Exit angle of vane.

Solution:-

Given: Q = 13.5 m
3
/min =
13.5
60
= 0.225 m
3
/s; Hm = 30 m; N = 1500 rpm;








171

mano = 80% = 0.8; B2 = 0.4 D2; hf = 0.03 x V2
2

(i) Impeller diameter, D2 :

Manometric efficiency is given by the equation,


2 2 w2 2
2 2
g 30
; or 0.8=
V .
. 30
37.5 m
0.8
m
mano
w
w
g H
V u u
V u
g

=
= =
i
i


(It represents the head required to be developed by the pump).
Friction losses in the pump,


2 2 w
f
V u
h
g
=
i
-Hm = 37.5 30 = 7.5 m
But, hf = 7.5 m = 0.03 V2
2
V2 = 15.81 m/s
Velocity of flow at outlet,
2
2 2
f
Q Q
V
A D B
= =

2
2 2
2 2
0.225
0.179/ /
0.4
f
V D m s
D D
= =


Blade velocity at outlet,


2 2
2 2
1500
78.54 / .
60 60
D N D
u D m s

= = =

Substituting the value of u2 in Equation (i) above, we get,


2 2
2
2
78.54
37.5
9.81
4.684
w
w
V D
V
D

=
=


From the outlet velocity diagram shown in figure.

( )
2 2 2
2 2 2
2
2
2
2 2 2 4
2 2 2
4.684 0.179 21.94 0.032
15.81 249.96=
D
f
V V V
D D D

= +
| |
| |
= + +
| |
\
\









172
249.96 D2
4
21.94 D2
2
0.032 = 0
On solving, D2 = 0.2963 m or 29.63 cm

(ii) Exit angle of vane,

V12=
2 2
2
0.179 0.179
2.039 m/s
(0.2963) D
= =

2
2
2
2
2
2 2
4.684 4.684
15.808 m/s
0.2963
u 78.54 7.54 0.2963 23.271 m/s
2.039
tan 0.273.
(23.271 15.808)
15.28 Ans
w
f
w
V
D
D
V
u V

= = =
= = =
= = =

=


6. A centrifugal pump while running 1000 rpm discharges 80 litres/sec. against a
net head of 16m. The manometric efficiency of the pump is 85% . If the vane angle
at the outlet is 35 and the velocity of flow is 1.5m/s, estimate the outer diameter
the impeller and its width at the outlet.

Solution:

Given N=1000rpm, q =80 litres/s =80 x 10
-3
=0.08m
3
/s; Hm=16 m;

mano=85=0.85;=35, Vf2=1.5 m/s
(i) Outer diameter of impeller , D2:

From outlet velocity diagram shown in fig P.5.7


2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
1.5
2.142 / ;
tan tan35
2.142
.
.
9.81 16
0.85
( 2.142)
f
w
w
m
mano
w
V
u V m s
V u
g H
V u
u u

= = =

=
=

173

2
2 2
2
2
2 2
2 2
2
2.142 184.66 0
2.142 (2.142) 4 184. 2.142 27.262
u
2 2
=14.702 m/s or (12.56m/s, which is not possible)
60 60 14.702
u ; D
60 1000
0.28208
u u
D N u
N
D

=
+
= =

= = =

= m or 28.08 cm Ans



(ii) width of impeller at outplet , B2

2 2 2 2
2
0.08= 0.808 B 1.5
0.0605 m or 6.05 cm
f
Q D B V
B
=
=


7. A centrifugal pump delivers 0.1 m
3
/s of water through a pipe of 0.2m diameter
of length 300m upto a height o 26m. Darcs coefficient for pipe, f=0.02, inlet losses
in suction pipe are estimated to e 0.4m. Calculate the power required to drive the
pump I its overall efficiency is 73%

Solution;

Given:


3
0
s 2
2
0.1 / , 0.2 , 300 ; 26 ; 0.4 0.4 ;
73% 0.73
4 0.1
V 3.183 /
0.2
.
4
d d s fs
d
d
Q m s d m I m H m f h m
Q Q
V m s
A
d

= = = = = =
= =

= = = = =

Head equivalent to kinetic energy in piple

2 2
2 2
3.183
0.52
2 2 9.81
. 0.02 300 (3.183)
15.49
2 0.2 2 9.81
d
d d
fd
d
V
m
g
fI V
h m
d g
= =

= = =


Manometric head,








174
2
s
3
0
3
26 0.4 15.49 0.52 42.41
2
Power required to drive the pump , P :
. . .
10
1000 9.81 0.1 42.41
= 10 56.992
0.73
d
s fs fd
m
s
V
Hlm H h h m
g
p g QH
P kW
kW

= + + + = + + + =
=

=


8. A double acting reciprocating pump with air vessel in suction pipe has 200 mm
piston diameter and 400 mm stroke. The suction pipe diameter is 160mm. Find
the crank angles at which there is no flow of water into or from the vessel. The
pump runs at 120 rpm. Assume motion of piston with S.H.M.

Solution:

Given:
p
s
2 2 2
p
D 200 mm 0.2 m, L 400 mm 0.4m,
D 160 mm 0.16m;
Area of piston .D x(0.2) 0.0314 m
4 4
= = = =
= =

= = =

Angular velocity of crank, w =
2 N 2 x120
4 rad/ s
60 60

=
Instant velocity of water from or into air vessel.
p
1 p
s
A
V .w r sin A . .r.sin
A
= =

Discharge from or into cylinder
p
1 s p.
s
A
r
Discharge Q A . x 2A
A

= =


Net discharge = 0 i.e. QI- Qm=0
p p
0 0
r
A . r sin 2xA . 0
9.54 or 140.46

= 3


9. A centrifugal pump of 20 cm diameter running at 1430 rpm delivers 0.1 m
3
/s of
water against a head of 40m with an efficiency of 90% what is its non-dimensional
specific speed? (AU,Nov 2002)

Given D=20cm, N=1430 rpm, Q=0.1m
3
/s H=40m, mo=90%









175
Solution:

s 3
4
3
4
N Q
Specific speed N
1
1430 0.1
=
40
=28.43 rpm.
=
+

Find the power required to drive a centrifugal pump which delivers 0.04m
3
/s of
water to a height of 20m through a 15 cm diameter pipe and 100m long. The
overall efficiency of the pump is 70% and coefficient of friction is 0.15 in the
formula
2
f
4flv
h
2gd
= (AU,Apr 04)

Given Q=0.04m
3
/s, h=20m, d=0.15m, l=100m, mo=70%, 4f=0.15

Solution:

( )
d
2
Q
Velocity of water in the pipe V
a
0.04
=
0.15
4
=2.26m/s
=

( )
2
d
f
4flv
Fraction head, h
2gd
0.15 100 2.26
=
2 9.81 0.15
=26.11m
=




2
d
m fd
2
V
Manometric head, H h h
2g
2.26
=20+26.11+
249.81
=46.37m
= + +


m
O
WQH
Power required to drive the pump=
m
1000 9.81 0.04 46.37
=
0.7
=25993.7W


=25.994 hW









176

10. Two geometrically similar pumps are running at the same speed of 750 r.p.m.
one pump has an impeller diameter of 0.25 m. and lifts water at the rate of 30
litres/sec against a head of 20m. Determine the head and impeller diameter of the
other pump to deliver half the discharge. (AU-Nov 2003)

Given:
N1=N2=750 rpm.
D1=0.25m
Q1=30lit/sec
H1=20m
Q2=
1
Q
2

Solution:

2
3
DN
Q AV D
4 60
Q D N

= =



For the first pump,

Q1 D
3
1 N1 ------(1)

For the second pump

Q2 D
3
2 N2 ------(2)

[ ]
3
1 1 1
3
2 2 1
3
1 1
1 2 3
2 2
3 3 1
2 1
2
1
Q D N 1
2 Q D N
Q D
N N
Q D
Q
D D
Q
Q
=
= =
= =
=

2
2 1
3
2 Q
0.25
D 0.198m
2

= =









177
1
TDN
Similarly, V=
60
V DN
Also V= 2gH
V H
DN H

For the first Pump

1 1 1
2 2 2
DN H (3)
D N H (4)



[ ]
1 1 1
2 2 2
1 1
1 2
2 2
2
2
2 1
1
2
DN H 3
4 D N H
D H
N N
D H
D
H H
D
0.198
= 20
0.25
12.55m
= =
= =
| |
=
|
\
| |

|
\
=

11. The diameter and stroke of a single acting reciprocating pump are 200mm and
400mm respectively. The pump runs at 60 rpm and lifts 12 litres of water per
second through a height of 25m. the delivery pipe is 20m long and 150mm in
diameter. Find (i) theoretical power required to run the pump (ii) percentage of
slip (iii) Acceleration head at the beginning and middle of the delivery
stroke.(AU-Nov 2003).

Given:

D=0.2m
L=0.4m

3
L 0.4
r 0.2m
2 2
N 60rpm.
Q actual =12 litres/s
=0.012m / s
= = =
=

hd=25m
ld=20m








178
dd=0.15m

Solution:


( )
th
2
3
ALN
Q
60
0.2 0.4 60
= 0.0126m / s
4 60
=

=


(i) Power & required =W x Qthx(hs+hd)
=1000x9.81x0.0126(0+25)
=3090.15W
=3.1 kw.
th act
th
Q Q
(ii) Percentage slip = 100
Q
0.126-0.12
= 100
0.126
=4.76%

(iii) Acceleration head of the beginning of stroke

( )
( )
( )
2 O d
ad
d
2
2
2
l A
h w r cosO 1
g a
0.2
20 2 60
4
= 0.2
9.81 60
015
4
=28.62 m of water.
= =

| |

|

(iv) Acceleration head at the middle of stroke,

2 o d
ad
d
l A
h w cos90
g a
=0
=


12. The length and diameter of a suction pipe of a single acting reciprocating
pump are 5m and 10cm respectively. The pmp has a plunger diameter of
150mm and stroke length of 300mm. the centre of the pump is 4 m above the
water surface in the sump. The atmospheric pressure head is 10.3m of water
and the pump is running at 40rpm. Determine
(i) Pressure head due to acceleration at the beginning of suction stroke.
(ii) Maximum pressure head due to acceleration .








179
(iii) Pressure head in the cylinder at the beginning and at the end of the
stroke (AU- Nov2004.

Given:

Ls=5m
Ds=0.1m
D=0.15m
L=0.3m
s
afm
L 0.3
r 0.15m
2 2
h 4m
H 10.3m of water
N=40 r.p.m
= = =
=
=

Solution:

Acceleration head on the suction stroke,
2 s
as
s
l A
H w r cos
g a
=

At the beginning of the strike, =O
o


( )
( )
( )
2 o s
as
s
2
2
2
l A
h w r cos 0 1
g a
0.15
5 2 40
4
= 0.15
9.81 60
0.1
4
=3.02m of water.
= =

| |

|

Maximum pressure head due to acceleration

=hs+has = 4+3.02
=7.02m of water

Absolute pressure head of the beginning of stroke,

=Hatn-(hs+has)
=10.3-7.02
=3.28 m of water.









180
Acceleration pressure head at the end of suction stroke,
2 o o s
as
s
l A
h w r ( =180 cos 180 1)
g a
=-3.02m of water.

= =

Absolute pressure head at the end of stroke.

=Hatn-(hs+has)
=10.3-(4-3.02)
=9.32m of water

13. The indicator diagram of a single acting reciprocating pump gives effective
delivery head of 5m and 23m with the crank at inner and other dead centres
respectively. What is the static delivery head of the reciprocating pump? (AU
April 2005)

Given:

Effective delivery head at IDC;
Hd-had=5m
Effective delivery head at ODC,
Hd+had=23m

Solution:

Hd-had=5 -----(1)
Hd+had=23 -----(2)
(1)+(2) 2hd=28
hd=14m.

14. A double acting reciprocating pump runs at 40 rpm. It has the cylinder of 200
mm diameter and stroke of 400 mm. It delivers water to a height of 1 m through a
pipe of 150 mm diameter and 40 m long. An air vessel is attached at 3 m height
from the centre of cylinder. The coefficient of friction for the pipe is 0.01. Find
the pressure head in the cylinder at the beginning and at the end of delivery
stroke. Assume motion of piston by SHM.

Solution:

Given:

N = 40 rpm; Dp = 200 mm = 0.2 m;








181
L = 400 mm = 0.4, therefore
d d
L
r 0.2 m
2
h 1m;d 150 mm 0.15 m;
= =
= = =


Height or air vessel,
dt
l 3m, = coefficient of friction, f = 0.01

d
l = Total length of pipe height of air vessel = 40 3 =37m.

Area of piston
2 2 2
p p
A D x0.2 0.03142 m
4 4

= = =


Area of delivery pipe,
d
A = ( )
2
2 2
d
xd 0.15 0.1767 m
4 4

= =

Angular speed of crank,
2 N 2 x40
4.19 rad/ s
60 60

= = =

Accelerating speed of crank

2 N 2 x40
4.19 rad/ s
60 60

= = =

Accelerating pressure head in delivery pipe up to the height of air vessel,

p 2 2 dl
ad1
d
A
l 3 0.01342
h . . r cos x 4.19 x0.2cos
g A 9.81 0.1767
= = =
= 1.909 cos

Mean velocity of water in delivery pipe,

p
d d
2LAN
Q 2x0.4x0.01342x40
v
A 60xA 60x0.01767
= = =


Head loss due to friction.

2
d 2
fd
d
4f.l .V 4x0.01x37x0.95
h 0.454 m
d .2g 0.15x2x9.81
= = =
Pressure head in delivery pipe,








182

d d ad1 fd
H h h h 11 1.909 cos 0.454
11.454 1.909 cos
= + + = + +
= +
Head at the beginning of delivery stroke
( ) 0 , =

d
H 11.454 1.909 cos 0 13.363 = + = m

Head at the end of delivery of stroke
( ) 180 =


d
H 11,454 1,909 cos 180 9.265 m = + =




***************