mlbaker.

org presents
PMATH 445/745
Groups and Representations
Dr. David McKinnon Fall 2013 (1139) University of Waterloo
www.math.uwaterloo.ca/dmckinno
Disclaimer: These notes are provided as-is, and may be incomplete or contain errors.
Contents
1 Representations 2
1.1 Direct sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Decomposition of representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Tensor products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 Characters 6
2.1 Class functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Symmetric groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Almost abelian groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4 Induced representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3 Modules 14
3.1 C[G] and its modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2 Tensor products of modules over commutative rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3 Integrality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.4 Frobenius divisibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.5 Frobenius reciprocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.6 Mackey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1
1 Representations
1.1 Denition. Let G be a group. A representation of G in a vector space V is a homomorphism : G GL(V ).
V is always taken to be a nite-dimensional C-vector space. There are such things as innite-dimensional represen-
tations; theyre not that useful since they dont end up being matrices. Why C? Because other elds are harder.
In practice, it will happen a lot that the matrices entries lie in R or Q.
Here, GL(V ) is the group of invertible linear transformations V V . If V = C
n
, this is just the group of n n
matrices. We want invertible matrices, because group elements are invertible. There is always a nite-dimensional
subspace of V that captures all the information of , so this restriction is usually superuous.
1.2 Example. The trivial homomorphism G GL(C
1
) is called the trivial (or unit) representation of G.
1.3 Example. Let G = D
4
, the group of symmetries of the square. There are 8 elements in this group. Note that
rotations and reections are linear maps. Hence there is a representation of G in C
2
corresponding to its description
as symmetries of a square.
1.4 Example. Let G = S
n
, and V = C
n
. The permutation representation of S
n
is the homomorphism that
takes a permutation to the corresponding permutation matrix.
The last two examples above are injective homomorphisms. We have a special name
1
for these.
1.5 Denition. A representation is called faithful i it is injective.
1.6 Example. Let G be a nite group acting on a nite set X. There is a permutation representation corresponding
to this action, on the vector space
V =

xX
Cv
x
.
1.7 Example. Every group G acts on itself by left multiplication. If G is nite, the corresponding permutation
representation is called the left regular representation.
It turns out that this representation, for a nite group, is the most important representation of them all. Basically,
all the representation-theoretic information about G can be obtained from this one.
Sometimes, emphasis is placed on the vector space V rather than the homomorphism . Hence a representation
can also be thought of as a vector space with an extra piece of information (the action of G).
1.8 Denition. Let : G GL(V ) be a representation of G. A subspace W V is G-stable, or G-invariant, or
a subrepresentation of V i (g)( w) W for all g G, w W. In other words, i (g)(W) W for all g G.
In other other words, i (g)[
W
GL(W) for all g G. In other other other words, i (G)[
W
GL(W).
1.9 Example. Let G = Z
2
, V = C
2
, and : G GL
2
(C) be given by
(0) =
_
1 0
0 1
_
, (1) =
_
0 1
1 0
_
.
Let W = span(1, 1). Then W is G-invariant. Also, 0 and V are (always) G-invariant. W

= span(1, 1) is
also G-invariant.
1.10 Fact. It is easy to see that to check the G-invariance of W, it suces to check that (g
i
)( w
j
) W for
generators g
i
of G and a basis w
j
of W.
1.11 Denition. Let : G GL(V ) and : G GL(W) be representations of G. A morphism (or intertwiner)
from to (or from V to W) is a linear transformation T : V W such that for all g G, the following naturality
square commutes:
V
(g)
V

_T

_T
W
(g)
W
that is, T((g)(v)) = (g)(T(v)) for all g G, v V . In other words, T commutes with the G-actions on V and
W.
1
Since a group G can be thought of as a (locally small!) category in which every morphism is invertible (i.e. a groupoid) with only
one object, and representations can be thought of as functors from G to the category of vector spaces over some eld, the use of this
terminology is unsurprising (although historically, the terminology for representations may have preceded the terminology for functors).
If you know what Im talking about, then by now you can probably guess what the morphisms between representations will turn out to
be.
2
1.12 Example. G = Z
4
, (n) = i
n
and (n) =
_
0 1
1 0
_
n
. Dene T : C C
2
by T(z) = (z, iz). T is a morphism
from to (or C to C
2
): check (g)(T(v)) = T((g)(v)) on a generating set for G and a basis of V . We have
(1)(T(1)) =
_
0 1
1 0
__
1
i
_
=
_
i
1
_
T((1)(1)) = T(i 1) = (i, i i) = (i, 1).
So we win.
1.13 Theorem. Let : G GL(V ) and : G GL(W) be representations of a group G, and let T : V W be
a morphism from to . Let V
1
V and W
1
W be subrepresentations of V and W respectively. Then T(V
1
) is
a subrepresentation of W and T
1
(W
1
) V is a subrepresentation of V .
Proof. Boring.
1.14 Denition. Let : G GL(V ) be a representation. Then is irreducible i the only subrepresentations
are 0 and .
1.15 Example. Every 1-dimensional representation is irreducible, because its only subspaces are zero or improper.
1.1 Direct sums
1.16 Denition. The direct sum of vector spaces V and W is the vector space
V W = v w : v V, w W
with (v
1
w
1
) + (v
2
w
2
) = (v
1
+v
2
) ( w
1
+ w
2
) and (v w) = v w.
Note that dim(V W) = dimV + dimW.
1.17 Denition. Let : G GL(V ) and : G GL(W) be representations of G. Dene : G GL(V W)
by
[( )(g)](v w) = [(g)](v) [(g)]( w)
1.18 Example. G = Z
2
, : G C

trivial, : G C

be given by (0) = 1, (1) = 1. The direct sum =

is : G GL
2
(C) = GL(C C) given by
(0) =
_
1 0
0 1
_
, (1) =
_
1 0
0 1
_
.
1.2 Decomposition of representations
1.19 Denition. A complex inner product space is a complex vector space V with a pairing , from V V
C satisfying
1. v
1
+v
2
, w = v
1
, w +v
2
, w
2. cv, w = cv, w
3. v, w = w, v
4. v, v R and v, v 0 with equality i v =

0.
1.20 Example. (x
1
, . . . , x
n
), (y
1
, . . . , y
n
) = x
1
y
1
+. . . +x
n
y
n
.
1.21 Denition. A linear transformation T : V V is unitary i for all v, w V , we have Tv, T w = v, w.
1.22 Denition. Let W be a subspace of a complex inner product space V . The orthogonal complement of
W in V is
W

= x V [ w, x = 0 for all w W.
1.23 Fact. W W

= 0 and dimW + dimW

= dimV .
1.24 Theorem. Let V be a nite-dimensional complex inner product space and G a group. Let : G GL(V )
be a representation such that (g) is unitary for all g G. Then there are irreducible representations
1
, . . . ,
n
of
G such that

=
1
. . .
n
.
3
1.25 Denition. A morphism T from to is an isomorphism i there is a morphism T

from to such that

T T

= id and T

T = id.
Proof. By a simple induction it suces to prove that if V is not irreducible then there are two proper subrepresen-
tations W, W

such that V

= W W

. Thus, assume V is reducible. Then there is a proper, nontrivial subrepre-

sentation W V . Let W

= W

. We just need to show that W

= W

is G-invariant. Thus, choose any w W

,
and any g G. (From now on, I will omit from the notation). We want to show that g( w) W

. To do this, we
must take any v W and show that v, g( w) = 0. Since is unitary, g
1
is unitary, so v, g( w) = g
1
(v), w = 0.
This means that g( w) W

so W

is G-invariant, so W, W

are both representations and V

= W W

, as
desired.
1.26 Theorem. Let G be a nite group, : G GL(V ) be a nite dimensional representation. Then there is
some complex inner product , on V such that (g) is unitary for all g G.
Proof. Let ,
dumb
be any old inner product on V . Dene a new pairing on V :
u, v
awesome
=

gG
g(u), g(v)
dumb
The pairing easily satises u
1
+u
2
, v
a
= u
1
, v
a
+u
2
, v
a
and cu, v
a
= cu, v
a
and u, v
a
= v, u
a
. If u = v
then u, u
a
R
0
because each summand is, and so the sum is 0 i g(u) =

0, which happens i u =

0, as desired.
Now (g) is unitary with respect to ,
a
for all g G:
g(u), g(v)
a
=

hG
h(g(u)), h(g(v))
d
=

hG
(hg)(u), (hg)(v)
d
=

hG
h(u), h(v)
d
= u, v
a
.
Note that these two theorems immediately imply that every nite dimensional representation of a nite group G is
isomorphic to a direct sum of irreducible representations.
1.27 Theorem. Let : G GL(V ) and : G GL(W) be irreducible representations of a group G. Let
T : V W be a morphism. Then T is either an isomorphism or 0.
Proof. The kernel of T is a subrepresentation of V , which by the irreducibility of must be either V or 0. If ker T
is V , then T = 0. If ker T = 0, then T is one-to-one, so since ImT = 0 or W, we have either T = 0 or T onto. So
either T = 0 or T is an isomorphism.
1.28 Theorem (Schurs Lemma). Let T : V V be a morphism of irreducible representations. Then T = id
for some scalar C.
Proof. Let be an eigenvalue of T. Then T I is a morphism from V to V (easy to check). Since T I is not
an isomorphism, it must be 0. So T = I.
1.29 Theorem. Let G be a nite abelian group, : G GL(V ) an irreducible representation. Then dimV = 1.
Proof. It turns out (check it!) that if G is abelian, then for every g G, (g) : V V is a morphism, so by Schur
(g) =
g
I for some
g
C. But this means every subspace is G-invariant, so since is irreducible, V cant have
any nontrivial subspaces and so dimV = 1.
In fact, G is abelian i all its irreducible representations are one-dimensional.
1.3 Tensor products
1.30 Denition. Let V and W be complex vector spaces. Let H be the vector space whose basis is v w [ v
V, w W. H is very large.
Dene a subspace R of H to be the span of all vectors in H of the following forms:
v
1
w+v
2
w(v
1
+v
2
) w v w
1
+v w
2
v ( w
1
+ w
2
) (v) w(v w) v ( w) (v w)
Dene V W = H/R.
1.31 Example. If V = W =

0 then V W =

0 because H = span

0, and (

0) = (

0)

0 =

0

0
for all .
1.32 Example. V =

0, W any vector space. Then V W =

0 because for any w W,

0 w +

0 w =
(

0 +

0) w =

0 w, so

0 w =

0.
4
1.33 Example. Say V = spanv, W = span w, with v, w nonzero. Then V W is spanned by elements of the
form (v) ( w). But (v) ( w) = (v w). So V W is spanned by v w. To see that v w is not zero,
we use a very useful trick.
Let q : H V W be the reduction mod R linear transformation. Then q is onto and H is nonzero, so it suces
to show that q is not identically 0. Dene T : H C by T(

a
i
(
i
v) (
i
w)) =

a
i

i
which is clearly a linear
transformation. The image of T is C, because T(v w) = 1. So T is onto. Moreover, R ker T, so by the Universal
Property of Quotients (UPQ), T : V W C is well-dened.
1.34 Theorem (UPQ). Let U be a vector space, K U any subspace, q : U U/K the reduce mod K linear
transformation. Let T : U V be a linear transformation. Then there is a linear transformation

T : U/K V
satisfying T =

T q i K ker T.
U V
U/K
T
q

T
Also, ImT = Im

T and ker

T = q(ker T).
In particular, T : V W C is well dened and onto, so dimV W = 1.
1.35 Theorem. Let V and W be nite-dimensional vector spaces. Let v
1
, . . . , v
n
and w
1
, . . . , w
m
be bases for
V and W, respectively. Then v
i
w
j
is a basis of V W. In particular, dim(V W) = (dimV )(dimW).
Proof. Span: Let

k
x
k
y
k
be an arbitrary element of V W. Then

x
k
y
k
=

k
_

i
a
ik
v
i
_

_
_

j
b
jk
w
j
_
_
=

a
ik
b
jk
(v
i
w
j
) spanv
i
w
j
.
Linear independence: dene a linear transformation T from H C
nm
by
T
_

c
k
_

a
ik
v
i
_

b
jk
w
j
__
=

c
k
a
ik
b
jk
e
ij
where e
ij
is the standard unit basis vector in C
nm
, C
nm
being viewed as nm matrices, and e
ij
the matrix with
all zeroes except for a one in the (i, j) entry. Since T(v
i
w
j
) = e
ij
, T is onto. It is easy to check that R ker T.
For example,
T(v
1
w +v
2
w (v
1
+v
2
) w) = T
_
_

a
i
v
i
_

b
j
w
j
_
+
_

i
v
i
_

b
j
w
j
_

(a
i
+a

i
)v
i

b
j
w
j
_
_
=

a
i
b
j
e
ij
+

i
b
j
e
ij

(a
i
+a

i
)b
j
e
ij
= 0.
By the UPQ, T : H/R C
nm
is well dened so T : V W C
nm
is well dened and onto. Therefore, since e
ij

is linearly independent in C
nm
, their preimages v
i
w
j
are linearly independent in V W.
Say T : U V , S : W X are linear transformations. We can dene T S : U W V X by
(T S)
_

u
i
w
i
_
=

T(u
i
) S( w
i
).
1.36 Example. M
1
=
_
a b
c d
_
, M
2
=
_
e f
g h
_
, in M
2
(C). Then the matrix of M
1
M
2
with respect to the basis
e
i
e
j
of C
2
C
2
is
_
aM
2
bM
2
cM
2
dM
2
_
=
_
_
_
_
ae af be bf
ag ah bg bh
ce cf de df
cg ch dg dh
_
_
_
_
.
5
1.37 Denition. Let : G GL(V ) and : G GL(W) be representations. Then : G GL(V W) is
given by
[( )(g)]
_

v
i
w
i
_
=

[(g)](v
i
) [(g)]( w
i
).
1.38 Example. Let G = S
3
, : G GL(C) trivial, : G GL(C) the sign representation. Then : G
GL(C C)

= GL(C) is ( )(g) = (g)(g) = (g).

1.39 Example. If : G GL(C) is one-dimensional and : G GL(V ) is any representation, then

=
1
,
where
1
(g) = (g)(g).
1.40 Question. If , are irreducible, is irreducible?
Answer. No. See Assignment 2.
1.41 Question. What if : G GL(V ) is irreducible? Is irreducible then?
Answer. Never, if dimV 2.
1.42 Theorem. Let : G GL(V ) be a representation with dimV 2. Then is reducible.
Proof. Dene : H V V (where H is the free vector space on V V ) by (

a
i
v
i
w
i
) =

a
i
w
i
v
i
. Then
R ker (easy check) so : V V V V is well-dened. Let Sym
2
V be the 1-eigenspace of , Alt
2
V be the
(1)-eigenspace of . We claim that Sym
2
V and Alt
2
V are G-invariant subspaces of V V . Note that Sym
2
V
and Alt
2
V have zero intersection and Sym
2
V + Alt
2
V = V V , so V V

= Sym
2
V Alt
2
V as vector spaces.
So if we show the claim, well be done. Say

a
i
(v
i
w
i
) Sym
2
V . Then
(( )(g))(

a
i
(v
i
w
i
)) = (

a
i
([(g)](v
i
) [(g)](w
i
)))
=

a
i
([(g)](v
i
) [(g)](w
i
))
=

a
i
[(g)](w
i
) [(g)](v
i
)
= [( )(g)](

a
i
w
i
v
i
)
= [( )(g)]((

a
i
v
i
w
i
))
= [( )(g)](

a
i
v
i
w
i
)
So [( )(g)](

a
i
(v
i
w
i
)) Sym
2
V . So Sym
2
V is G-invariant. (Alt
2
V is similar).
Note: if dimV = n, then dimV V = n
2
, and dimSym
2
V = n +
_
n
2
_
=
n(n+1)
2
and dimAlt
2
V =
_
n
2
_
=
n(n1)
2
.
2 Characters
2.1 Denition. Let : G GL(V ) be a representation. The character of is the function

: G C given by

(g) = Tr((g)).
If dim = 1, then =

. If is irreducible, then
p
is called an irreducible character.
If

= , then

. This is because trace is invariant under linear isomorphisms.

(1) = dimV and

(g
1
hg) =

(h).
Assume G is nite, dimV is nite. Then:

(because the matrices have and as blocks)

(g
1
) is the sum of the eigenvalues of (g
1
), which is the sum of the reciprocals of the eigenvalues of (g),
which is the sum of the complex conjugates of the eigenvalues of (g). Since the eigenvalues are roots of unity.
This is equal to (g).
2.2 Theorem. Let , be representations of G in V, W respectively. Let T : V W be any linear transformation.
Then T

g
(g
1
) T (g) is a morphism . In particular, if and are irreducible and not isomorphic,
then T

= 0.
6
Proof. On p. 20 of notes, or as Cor. 1 in section 2.2 of the textbook.
2.3 Denition. C[G] = f : G C is the complex group ring (or group algebra).
C[G] has a natural inner product
, =
1
[G[

gG
(g)(g).
This corresponds to the standard inner product on C
n
(divided by [G[) by
f (f(g
1
), . . . , f(g
n
)).
2.4 Theorem. Irreducible characters are an orthonormal subset of C[G].
Proof. We show that if , are irreducible representations, then

=
_
1 if

=
0 if ,

= .
: G GL(V ), : G GL(W). Choose bases for V, W. For each g G, write
(g) = (r
ij
(g)), (g) = (t
ij
(g))
as matrices. Then

=
1
[G[

g,i,j
r
ii
(g)t
jj
(g) =
1
[G[

g,i,j
r
ii
(g)t
jj
(g
1
)
Let T : V W be any linear transformation. Then
T

g
(g
1
) T (g)
is a morphism . If ,

= , then T

= 0, so if T = (T
ij
):

g,i,j
t
ki
(g
1
)T
ij
r
j
(g) = 0
for any k, . Set T
ij
= 0 except T
k
= 1. Then

g
t
kk
(g
1
)r

(g) = 0
so summing over k gives

= 0. If

= , then

, so we assume = . If = , then T

= I by
theorem, and
=
[G[ (Tr T)
dimV
.
Exactly the same argument as before gives

= 1.
This means there are only nitely many irreducible representations of G, up to isomorphism, because the corre-
sponding characters are an orthonormal set in a nite dimensional vector space.
Better: If = (m
1

1
) . . . (m
r

r
) for m
i
Z and
i
pairwise nonisomorphic irreducible representations then
m
i
=

,
i
.
Even better, irreducible decompositions of representations are unique up to isomorphism.
Even more better, non-isomorphic representations have dierent characters, because the character determines the
irreducible decomposition.
Even more more better, with = (m
1

1
) . . . (m
r

r
) as above

= m
2
1
+. . . +m
2
r
, so

= 1 i is
irreducible.
7
2.5 Example. Representation of S
3
in C
2
:
1
_
1 0
0 1
_
2
(12)
_
0 1
1 0
_
0
(13)
_
1 0
1 1
_
0
(23)
_
1 1
0 1
_
0
(123)
_
0 1
1 1
_
1
(321)
_
1 1
1 0
_
1

=
1
6
(2
2
+ 0
2
+ 0
2
+ 0
2
+ (1)
2
+ (1)
2
) = 1 so is irreducible.
Begin shameless copying from Ehsaans notes.
2.6 Example. Let : S
3
GL(C
3
) be the permutation representation. Whats the character of ? Well,

() is
the number of xed points:

() =
_

_
3 if = 1
1 if is a 2-cycle
0 if is a 3-cycle.
Therefore

= 2, meaning that is not irreducible. Actually, since

is the sum of the squares of the

dimensions of the irreducible subrepresentations, the only way we could have

= 2 is if
= (2-dimensional) (1-dimensional).
Let be the representation from the above example. Then

=
1
6
(3 2 + 1 0 + 1 0 + 1 0 + 0 (1) + 0 (1)) = 1
implying that is (isomorphic to) a summand of . The other summand has to be 1-dimensional. But note that
C(1, 1, 1) is a 1-dimensional invariant subspace on which acts trivially, therefore

= (trivial).
2.7 Example. Let G be a nite group of n elements g
1
, . . . , g
n
. Let V :=

i
Cg
i
be the vector space with G as a
basis. Then G has a representation on V :
(g)g
i
:= gg
i
.
This is called the left regular representation of G. Just like in the above example, the character

is obtained
by nothing that

(g) is the number of xed points of (g). But in this case, if g ,= 1 then g cant have any xed
points!

(g) =
_
[G[ if g = 1
0 otherwise.
Therefore,

= [G[, so is not irreducible unless G = 1. If is any other representation of G, then

=
1
[G[
([G[ dim() + 0 +. . . + 0) = dim()
(because

(1) = dim()). So, if

= d
1

1
. . . d
r

r
is a sum of irreducible representations
i
and d
i
:= dim(
i
),
then
[G[ =

= d
2
1
+. . . +d
2
r
.
Perhaps a useful fact which follows from the above: if is an irreducible representation of G, then dim()
_
[G[.
8
2.1 Class functions
Recall that characters are constant on conjugacy classes (some proposition above). In general, a function f : G C
is called a class function on G if it is constant on conjugacy classes; that is, f(ghg
1
) = h for all g, h G. The
set of class functions on G is a subspace of C[G].
2.8 Proposition. The irreducible characters form an orthonormal basis for the space of class functions on G.
In particular, the number of irreducible representations of G is equal to the number of distinct conjugacy classes of
G.
Proof. Let V be the space of class functions on G and let W be the span of the irreducible characters of G (in
C[G]), so W V . We already know that irreducible characters are orthonormal, so it just needs to be shown that
W

V = 0.
End shameless copying from Ehsaans notes.
Proof. We will show that if W is the span of the irreducible characters then W

V = 0. This will imply W = V

(since W V ). Note that W = W and thus W

= W

, so f W

i f W

. So say f W

. Then f W

,
so , f = 0 for any (irreducible) character . Dene
T

f
(v) =

g
f(g)[(g)](v) for any representation of G.
( : G GL(V ), T

f
: V V .) It is straightforward to check that T

f
is a morphism . If is irreducible,
then T

f
= I for some C. But 0 = , f =

(g)f(g) =

g
f(g) Tr((g)) = Tr(T

f
), so = 0. So T

f
= 0
for any irreducible representation , and so by linearity, T

f
= 0 for any representation .
Let be the left regular representation, v = g
i
:
0 = T

f
(v) =

g
f(g)[(g)](v) =

g
f(g)gg
i
so since gg
i
= g is linearly independent, it follows that f(g) = 0 for all g G. This means W

V = 0, as
desired, so W = V and the irreducible characters span the space of class functions.
Let G = D
4
. Well write down a list of all irreducible characters of G. This is called a character table for G.
D
4
= x, y [ yx = x
1
y, x
4
= y
2
= 1 = 1, x, x
2
, x
3
, y, xy, x
2
y, x
3
y.
We can think of x as a 90 degree clockwise rotation, and y as reection in the vertical axis of symmetry. The
conjugacy classes are: 1, x
2
, x, x
3
, xy, x
3
y, y, x
2
y.
Aside: x
1
yx = x
2
y and y
1
xy = yxy = x
1
.
The trivial character is irreducible, so we can start the table:
1 x
2
x, x
3
xy, x
3
y y, x
2
y

triv
1 1 1 1 1

sgn
1 1 1 1 1

1
1 1 1 1 1

2
1 1 1 1 1

square
2 2 0 0 0
Have a homomorphism : D
4
Z
2
, (x
a
y
b
) = b mod 2. This gives a sign representation on D
4
by (g) =
(1)
(g)
. Have a homomorphism : D
4
(Z
2
)
2
, (x
a
y
b
) = (a mod 2, b mod 2). This gives two more irreducible
characters:

1
(x
a
y
b
) = (1)
a mod 2

2
(x
a
y
b
) = (1)
a+b mod 2
.
There are lots of ways to nd the last character of D
4
. The easiest is to use the fact that, with the other 4 chars,
it is an orthonormal basis for the space of class functions. Or you can just guess it; its the realisation of D
4
as the
symmetries of a square in C
2
.
9
2.9 Example. Compute a character table for A
5
.
[STUFF]
Need 5 representations; have permutation representation in C
5
:
perm
: (5, 2, 1, 0, 0).

perm
,
perm
= (5
2
1 + 2
2
20 + 1
2
15 + 0
2
12 + 0
2
12)/60 = 2.
Does perm have a subrepresentation isomorphic to triv?

perm
,
triv
= ((5 1) 1 + (2 1) 20 + (1 1) 15 + (0 1) 12)/60 = 1
so yes! Dene
pt
=
perm

triv
. Its irreducible. Need 3 more! Try Sym
2
(pt) and Alt
2
(pt). We need a formula
for the chars, though.
2.10 Theorem. Let : G GL(V ) be a representation of a nite group. Let
s
and
a
be Sym
2
() and Alt
2
()
respectively. Let ,
s
,
a
be chars for ,
s
,
a
respectively. Then

s
(g) =
1
2
((g)
2
+(g
2
))
a
(g) =
1
2
((g)
2
(g
2
))
Proof. Since G is nite (or since is unitary), (g) is diagonalizable. Let e
1
, . . . , e
n
be an eigenbasis for V , with
corresponding eigenvalues
1
, . . . ,
n
. Then (g) =

i
, and (g
2
) =

2
i
.
Now,
[
s
(g)](e
i
e
i
) = [(g)](e
i
) [(g)](e
i
) =
2
i
(e
i
e
i
), [
s
(g)] = (e
i
e
j
+e
j
e
i
) =
i

j
(e
i
e
j
+e
j
e
i
).
So

s
(g) =

2
i
+

i<j

j
=
1
2
((g)
2
+(g
2
))
A similar calculation works for
a
(g).
What are chars for Sym
2
and Alt
2
for = permtriv?

s
(g) :
1
2
(
pt
(g)
2
+
pt
(g
2
)) = (10, 1, 2, 0, 0)

s
,
s
=
1
60
(10
2
+ 1
2
20 + 2
2
15) = 3.

s
,
triv
=
1
60
(10 1 + 1 1 20 + 2 1 15) = 1

s
,
pt
=
1
60
(10 4 + 1 1 20) = 1
so
s
=
pt
+
triv
+
n
for some irreducible character
n
.

n
: (5, 1, 1, 0, 0)

a
(g) =
1
2
(
pt
(g)
2

pt
(g
2
)) : (6, 0, 2, 1, 1)

a
,
a
=
1
60
(6
2
+ (2)
2
15 + 1
2
12 + 1
2
12) = 2
so
a
is the sum of 2 dierent irreducible characters.

a
,
triv
= 0,
a
,
pt
= 0,
a
,
n
= 0
so
a
=
1
+
2
for 2 dierent irreducible characters not already in our table! They must have dimension 3, since
their dimensions squared must add to 60 1
2
4
2
5
2
= 18.

1
: (3, a, b, c, d),
2
: (3, a, 2 b, 1 c, 1 d). We know that
1
,
triv
=
1
,
pt
=
1
,
n
= 0, which is
linear equations in a, b, c, d. We also know
1
,
1
= 1, which is a quadratic equation in a, b, c, d. This gives 2
solutions (a, b, c, d), which correspond to
1
and
2
.

1
: (3, 0, 1, , 1/), where =
1+

5
2
.
2
: (3, 0, 1, 1/, ).
10
2.2 Symmetric groups
Question: What are all the irreducible representations of S
n
? The conjugacy classes of S
n
are the sets of permuta-
tions with the same cycle structure. Conjugacy classes in S
n
are in 1-1 correspondence with Young tableaux. The
Young tableau associated to a conjugacy class (r
1
, r
2
, . . . , r
k
) [r
1
+. . . +r
k
= n, r
1
r
2
. . . r
k
] is
[DIAGRAM]
[EXAMPLES]
2.11 Denition. A numbering of a Young tableau is an injective function from 1, . . . , n to the boxes in the
tableau. S
n
acts on the set of numberings of a xed tableau.
2.12 Denition. A tabloid is an equivalence class of numberings (of some xed tableau), where two numberings
are equivalent i for each row, both numberings contain the same set of numbers (albeit possibly in a dierent
order).
S
n
also acts on the set of tabloids of a given xed shape. Let s be a xed shape (Young tableau). Let M
s
be

T
CT, where T ranges over all tabloids of shape s. There is a permutation representation of S
n
in M
s
coming
from the S
n
-action on the tabloids.
Let T be a numbering of a tableau, and let C(T) be subgroup of S
n
of elements S
n
that preserve the columns
of T, i.e. m and (m) are in the same column for all m. Dene R(T) to be the same kind of thing, only with rows.
Let [T] be the tabloid associated to T. Dene
v
T
=

C(T)
(1)
sgn()
[(T)]
It is easy to check that v
T
does not depend on T, but only on [T]. Let S
s
= span
T
v
T
. We will show that S
s
is
an S
n
-invariant subspace of M
s
. For any S
n
:
(v
T
) =
_

(1)
sgn()
[(T)]
_
=

(1)
sgn()
[(T)] =

C((T))
(1)
sgn()
[
1
(T)]
because C((T)) = C(T)
1
=

C(T)
(1)
sgn()
[(T)] = v
(T)
.
So S
n
permutes the v
T
, meaning that S
s
is S
n
-invariant. S
s
is called the Specht module associated to the shape s.
Plan: We will show that S
s
is irreducible, and that S
s
,

= S
t
if s ,= t. This will imply that S
s
is a complete list
of irreducible representations of S
n
up to isomorphism.
2.13 Denition. Let s and t be Young tableaux of the same size (same number of boxes). Write s = (s
1
, . . . , s
k
),
t = (t
1
, . . . , t
k
) (set s
i
or t
i
to 0, if necessary, to give t and s the same number of rows). We say that s dominates t
i for all m,
s
1
+s
2
+. . . +s
m
t
1
+. . . +t
m
.
We say that s strictly dominates t i s dominates t and s ,= t.
[EXAMPLES]
2.14 Theorem. Let T, T

be numberings of shapes s and s

of the same size, with s not strictly dominating s

.
Then either:
1. There are 2 dierent numbers in the same row of T

and the same column of T, or

2. s = s

and there is some p

R(T

), q C(T) such that p

(T

) = q(T).
Proof. Assume (1) is not true. We will show that (2) holds. We want to nd p

R(T

) and q C(T) such that

p

(T

) = q(T). Choose q
1
C(T) so that all the numbers in the rst row of T

are in the rst row of q

1
(T) which
is possible because all those numbers are in dierent columns of T by (not (1)). Choose q
2
C(T) to x rst row
numbers from T

and permute second row numbers from T

to the second row (or higher) of q

2
q
1
(T). Keep going
until you get a q = q
k
q
1
C(T) such that for every i, all the numbers in the ith row of T

are in the ith row of

q(T), or higher.
This means that s dominates s

. By hypothesis, this means s = s

, and each row of T

has the same set of numbers

as the corresponding row of q(T). So there is some p

R(T

) such that p

(T

) = q(T).
11
Dene b
T
=

C(T)
(1)
sgn

g
Cg. Then v
T
= b
T
(T). Better yet, for any C(T),
b
T
= (1)
sgn
b
T
and b
T
b
T
=

(1)
sgn +sgn
= [#C(T)]b
T
.
2.15 Theorem. Let T, T

, s, s

be as in the previous theorem. If (1) holds, then b

T
(T

) = 0. Otherwise, b
T
(T

) =
v
T
.
Proof. If (1) holds, let be the transposition switching the two numbers. Then R(T

) and C(T). Then

b
T
= b
T
and
b
T
(T

) = b
T
((T

)) = (b
T
)(T

) = b
T
(T

).
So b
T
(T

) = 0.
If (2), then choose p R(T

) and q C(T) such that p

(T

) = q(T). Then
b
T
(T

) = b
T
(p

(T

)) = b
T
(q(T)) = (1)
sgn(q)
b
T
(T) = v
T
.
We will now show that S
s
is irreducible, with S
s
,

= S
t
if s ,= t.
Assume S
s
= V W for some subspaces V, W that are S
n
-invariant. Let T be any numbering of s. Then
b
T
(S
s
) = b
T
(span
T
v
T
) = spanv
T
, which is 1-dimensional. So (b
T
(V )) (b
T
(W)) is 1-dimensional, meaning
that (WLOG) b
T
(V ) = spanv
T
. But V is S
n
-invariant, so b
T
(V ) V , giving v
T
V . But S
s
= span

(v
T
) =
v
(T)
, and thus V = S
s
, and S
s
is irreducible.
If s ,= t, then WLOG s does not strictly dominate t. Then if T is any numbering of s, we get b
T
(S
t
) = 0, but
b
T
(S
s
) ,= 0. This means S
s
,

= S
t
if s ,= t, as desired. So weve found all the irreducible representations of S
n
!
2.16 Example. Compute a character table for S
4
. We know 5 permutation representations of S
4
:
[STUFF]
We saw on the assignment that a (nite) group G is abelian i all of its irreducible representations are one-
dimensional. Two ways for a group to be close to being abelian: it could have a large abelian subgroup, or it could
have a large abelian quotient. What can we say about the irreducible representations of groups that are close to
being abelian? We treat the latter case (quotients) rst.
2.3 Almost abelian groups
Let G be a group, H G a normal subgroup such that G/H is abelian. This means that there is a surjective
homomorphism q : G A such that A is abelian, and ker q = H. Then
q(xy) = q(x)q(y) = q(y)q(x) = q(yx), x, y G.
So q(xyx
1
y
1
) = q(xy)q(yx)
1
= 1 for all x, y G. This means xyx
1
y
1
H for all x, y G. The element
xyx
1
y
1
is called the commutator of x and y, and is sometimes written [x, y]. Let N be the subgroup generated
by all the commutators of G. Then N is a normal (indeed characteristic) subgroup of G, called the commutator
subgroup of G, sometimes written [G, G]. The preceding argument, together with its reverse, shows that
2.17 Fact. G/H is abelian i H contains the commutator subgroup of G.
Let N be the commutator subgroup of a nite group G, and A = G/N. Then every one-dimensional representation
: A GL(C) gives rise to a 1-dimensional representation q : G GL(C) where q : G A is the quotient
homomorphism. Conversely, if : G GL(C) is a 1-dimensional representation, then since GL(C) is abelian,
N ker . By the Universal Property of Quotients, induces a homomorphism : G/N GL(C) which is a
representation of A. We have therefore proven
2.18 Theorem. The one-dimensional representations of a nite group G are in one-to-one correspondence with the
1-dimensional representations of G/N, where N is the commutator subgroup of G.
2.19 Remark. G/N is called the abelianization of G.
2.20 Theorem. Let G be a nite group, A G an abelian subgroup. Then any irreducible representation of G
has dimension at most [G[/[A[.
12
Proof. Let : G GL(V ) be an irreducible representation of G. Let [
A
. Let W V be an A-invariant subspace
of V . Then dimW = 1. Let W = span w. Let W

= span(g)( w) : g G. Then W

is G-invariant. But if
g
1
, g
2
are in the same left coset xA of A in G, then g
1
= g
2
a for some a A, so g
1
( w) = (g
2
a)( w) = g
2
( w) for
some C, so the dimension of W

can be no greater than the number of left cosets of A in G, which is [G[/[A[.

Since V is irreducible (and if we choose W ,= 0) then W

= V and were done.

Since D
n
has an abelian (cyclic!) subgroup of order n, it follows that every irreducible representation of D
n
has
dimension 1 or 2.
Say G
1
, G
2
are nite groups. What are the irreducible representations of G
1
G
2
?
Let
i
: G
i
GL(V
i
) be two representations. Dene : G
1
G
2
GL(V
1
V
2
) by [(g
1
, g
2
)](

v
j
w
j
) =

[
1
(g
1
)](v
j
) [
2
(g
2
)](w
j
), for any g
i
G
i
, v
j
V
1
, w
j
V
2
. This is usually written =
1

2
. It is easy to
see that is a representation.
It is also true that if
1
and
2
are irreducible, then is also irreducible. To see this, note that the character

of
satises

(g
1
, g
2
) =
1
(g
1
)
2
(g
2
), so:

=
1
[G
1
G
2
[

(g1,g2)

(g
1
, g
2
)

(g
1
, g
2
) =
1
[G
1
[[G
2
[

(g1,g2)

1
(g
1
)
2
(g
2
)
1
(g
1
)
2
(g
2
)
=
1
[G
1
[
_

g1

1
(g
1
)
1
(g
1
)
_
1
[G
2
[
_

g2

2
(g
2
)
2
(g
2
)
_
=
1
,
1

2
,
2
= 1.
We know that if G
i
has a
i
conjugacy classes, then G
1
G
2
has a
1
a
2
conjugacy classes, so G
1
G
2
has a
1
a
2
irreducible representations, up to isomorphism, and weve constructed a
1
a
2
of them. To see that
1

2
,

2
if (
1
,
2
) ,

= (

1
,

2
) note that by a calculation similar to the one above,

=
1
,

2
,

so if
i
,

i
for some i, then
i
,

i
= 0, giving

= 0. (

2
). Everything below this is up to
date.
2.4 Induced representations
Let G be a nite group, H a subgroup. Let : H GL(V ) be a representation. We dene = Ind
G
H
by... well,
its complicated. Choose g
1
, . . . , g
n
G so that g
1
H, . . . , g
n
H is a complete and distinct set of left cosets of H in
G. Dene W = g
1
V . . . g
n
V , where g
i
V is just V with a decorative g
i
prexed.
Dene a hom : G GL(W) by
[(g)] (g
1
v
1
+. . . +g
n
v
n
) = g
j1
[(h
1
)](v
1
) +. . . +g
jn
[(h
n
)](v
n
)
where for each r, gg
r
= g
jr
h
r
. A straightforward check shows that = Ind
G
H
is a representation of G.
2.21 Example. Say G is any group, H is trivial, : H GL(C) trivial. Then Ind
G
H
is the left regular represen-
tation. This is because H = 1 and trivial means V = C and gg
r
= g
jr
for all r.
2.22 Example. Let G = H. Then Ind
G
H
= .
2.23 Example. Let G = Z
4
, H = 2. If : H GL
1
(C) is trivial then = Ind
G
H
is the permutation
representation of G acting on left H-cosets by left multiplication.
2.24 Example. Take the same G and H, but let : H GL
1
(C) be the sign representation; (0) = 1 and
(2) = 1. Let = Ind
G
H
. Note, in general, that dimInd
G
H
= [G : H] dim, where [G : H] is the index of H in G
(the number of left cosets).
In our case, dim = 2. A basis for W =

g
i
C, where g
1
= 0, g
2
= 1, is 0(1), 1(1). This turns (n) into a matrix:
(0) =
_
1 0
0 1
_
.
[(1)](0(1)) = (1 + 0)(1) = 1(1).
13
[(1)](1(1)) = (1 + 1)(1) = (0)[(2)](1) = (0)(1) = 0(1). So we have
(1) =
_
0 1
1 0
_
[(2)](0 (1)) = (2 + 0)(1) = 0([(2)](1)) = 0(1) = 0(1), so
[(2)](1 (1)) = (2 + 1)(1) = 1([(2)](1)) = 1(1) = 1(1)
(2) =
_
1 0
0 1
_
and now
(1) =
_
0 1
1 0
_
Notice that

=
1

2
, where
1
and
2
are the 2 extension of to G.
2.25 Theorem. If = Ind
G
H
, then

(g) =

g
1
i
ggiH

(g
1
i
gg
i
) =
1
[H[

x
1
gxH

(x
1
gx)
Proof. Choose a basis g
i
v
j
for

g
i
V . Pick g G. For each i, gg
i
= g
j
h
i
for some h
i
H and index j. The trace
of (g) is the sum of all the coecients of g
i
v
j
in [(g)](g
i
v
j
). If g
j
,= g
i
, then the coecient of g
i
v
j
in [(g)](g
i
v
j
)
is 0. But g
i
= g
j
i h
i
= g
1
i
gg
i
, so [(g)](g
i
v
j
) = g
i
[(g
1
i
gg
i
)](v
j
), thereby increasing the trace of (g) by the
trace

(g
1
i
gg
i
) of (g
1
i
gg
i
).
This establishes the rst formula. The second follows immediately by group theory.
2.26 Example. Let G = D
4
, H = y where y has order 4 (a 90 degree clockwise rotation, say). Let : H GL(C)
be (y
a
) = i
a
. What is Ind
G
H
? (Call it ).
W = C xC, where x G is a reection.
y(xv) = (yx)(v) = (xy
1
)(v) = x(y
1
(v)) = x(iv) = ixv.
(1) =
_
1 0
0 1
_
, (y) =
_
i 0
0 i
_
, (y
2
) =
_
1 0
0 1
_
, (y
1
) =
_
i 0
0 i
_
(x) =
_
0 1
1 0
_
, (xy) =
_
0 i
i 0
_
, (xy
2
) =
_
0 1
1 0
_
, (xy
1
) =
_
0 i
i 0
_
The character of is

(1, y, y
2
, y
1
, x, xy, xy
2
, xy
1
) = (2, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0).
This is the same answer that the theorem gives, which is nice.
3 Modules
3.1 Denition. Let G be a group. The complex group ring of G is
C[G] =

gG
Cg,
where the multiplication is (

a
i
g
i
)(

b
j
g
j
) =

i,j
a
i
b
j
g
i
g
j
.
This C[G] is a ring, commutative i G is abelian.
3.2 Denition. Let R be a ring (with 1, but not necessarily commutative). A left R-module is an abelian group
M with an operation : R M M satisfying:
1. r
1
(r
2
m) = (r
1
r
2
)m.
2. 1m = m.
3. (r
1
+r
2
)m = r
1
m+r
2
m.
14
4. r(m
1
+m
2
) = rm
1
+rm
2
.
For all r, r
1
, r
2
R, m, m
1
, m
2
M.
Bad news: there are way too many R-modules.
If R is a commutative eld, then an R-module is the same thing as an R-vector space.
3.3 Example. Z
n
is a Z-module. There are plenty of linearly independent subsets of n elements that do not span.
3.4 Example. Z
n
is a Z-module.
3.5 Example. Any abelian group is a Z-module and vice versa.
3.6 Example. Let R be any ring, I R any left ideal. Then I is an R-module. In fact, a left ideal of R is exactly
a left R-submodule of R.
Say : G GL(V ) is a representation of G. We can make V into a left C[G]-module by
_

a
i
g
i
_
(v) =

a
i
[(g
i
)](v)
In other words, to multiply v by

a
i
g
i
, use to turn the g
i
into matrices (linear transformations V V ) and
then plug v into the corresponding linear combination of those matrices.
Conversely, let V be a left C[G]-module. Then V is a C-vector space, and we can dene:
[(g)](v) = gv
for any g G. It is not hard to check (use module axioms) that (g) is linear for all g G, and that is a
homomorphism from G to GL(V ).
3.7 Example. Let G = Z
2
, and : G GL
1
(C) given by (1) = 1. Then C[G] = C 0 +C 1, and C is a module
over C[G], via:
(a (0) +b (1))z = a([(0)](z)) +b([(1)](z)) = az bz = z(a b).
Notice that (p(t)) = p(1) C[G] is a ring homomorphism from C[t] to C[G]. Note p(1) involves 1 Z
2
and not
1 C. is onto, since (at + b) = b (0) + a (1). The kernel of is (t
2
1). Since C[t]/(t
2
1) is 2-dimensional
as a C-vector space, and since

: C[t]/(t
2
1) C[G] is onto, and since dimC[G] = 2 as a C-vector space, we
conclude that

is an isomorphism, and so in particular C[G]

= C[t]/(t
2
1).
By the Chinese Remainder Theorem, C[t]/(t
2
1)

= C C, so C[G]

= C C, as rings.
3.8 Denition. Let R be a ring (with 1, not necessarily commutative) and let M, N be (left) R-modules. An
R-module homomorphism from M to N is a function f : M N such that f(m
1
+m
2
) = f(m
1
) +f(m
2
) and
f(m) = f(m) for all m, m
1
, m
2
M and R.
Note that if R = C[G] then an R-module homomorphism is exactly a morphism of representations.
An isomorphism of R-modules is a homomorphism of R-modules that has an inverse homomorphism.
3.1 C[G] and its modules
3.9 Denition. Let R be a ring, M an R-module. Then End
R
(M) is called the endomorphism ring of M over
R:
End
R
(M) := R-module homomorphisms f : M M
with pointwise function addition and composition as the operations. (An endomorphism of M is a homomorphism
M M).
Note that Schurs lemma says that End
C[G]
V

= C if V is an irreducible representation of G.
3.10 Denition. Let M, N be R-modules. Then Hom
R
(M, N) = f : M N, f is an R-module homomorphism.
Note that Hom
R
(M, N) is an R-module via (f
1
+f
2
)(m) = f
1
(m) +f
2
(m) and (rf)(m) = rf(m).
Recall also that if V
1
,

= V
2
with V
1
, V
2
irreducible, then Hom
C[G]
(V
1
, V
2
) = 0.
If M, N are R-modules, then M N is also an R-module, with (m
1
, n
1
) + (m
2
, n
2
) = (m
1
+ m
2
, n
1
+ n
2
) and
r(m, n) = (rm, rn). With this denition, direct sum of C[G]-modules corresponds to direct sum of representations.
15
3.11 Denition. An R-module M is simple i its only R-submodules are 0 and M.
Notice that simple C[G]-modules correspond precisely to irreducible representations of G. Thus, every C[G]-module
that is a nite dimensional C-vector space is isomorphic to a direct sum of simple C[G]-modules.
3.12 Denition. An R-module M is called semisimple i for every submodule N M, there is a submodule
N

M such that M

= N N

.
3.13 Theorem (Maschke). Every C[G]-module is semisimple if G is nite.
Note we have already proven this if the C[G]-module is a nite dimensional C-vector space.
Proof. Let V be a C[G]-module, W V any submodule. We want to nd a submodule W

V such that
V

= W W

as C[G]-modules.
Let f : V W be some C-linear projection (i.e. f( w) = w for all w W). If only f were a C[G]-module
homomorphism, then W

= ker f would win us the day. Sadly, f may not be a C[G]-module homomorphism, so we
have more work to do.
Dene h : V W by h(v) =
1
|G|

g
g
1
f(gv). Then h(v) W because f(gv) W and W is G-invariant. Notice
also that h( w) = w for all w W, so h is a projection onto W. Now we can show that h is a C[G]-module
homomorphism:
h
__

a
i
g
i
_
v
_
=

a
i
h(g
i
v) =
1
[G[

g,i
a
i
g
1
f(gg
i
v)
=
1
[G[

g,i
a
i
g
i
(g

i
)
1
f(g

i
v) where g

i
= gg
i
=
_

a
i
g
i
_
h(v).
So V

= Wker h as vector spaces, and W and ker h are both C[G]-modules. So V

= Wker h as C[G]-modules.
Our next goal is to understand the ring C[G] better.
As a left C[G]-module, C[G] corresponds to the left regular representation. So, as a C[G]-module, we have:
C[G]

= n
1
V
1
. . . n
r
V
r
where V
1
, . . . , V
r
are the simple C[G]-modules (corresponding to irreducible representations) with n
i
= dimV
i
,
where dimV
i
means dimension as a C-vector space.
3.14 Proposition. C[G] is isomorphic to End(C[G]) as a ring, if we make C[G] into a C[G]-module by left multi-
plication.
Proof. Let : C[G] End C[G] be given by

a
i
g
i
_
=
_

b
i
g
i

_

b
i
g
i
__

a
i
g
1
i
__
.
It is easy to see that is well dened and C[G]-linear. Its also clearly 1-1, so we just need to check that is
onto. Thus, let f End C[G] be an arbitrary endomorphism. We want to show that f = (

a
i
g
i
) for some

a
i
g
i
C[G]. Let a = f(1) C[G]. Then for all b C[G], we have f(b) = bf(1) = ba, so we conclude that
f Im, as desired.
As a left C[G]-module, C[G]

= d
1
V
1
. . . d
r
V
r
, where V
1
, . . . , V
r
are the irreducible representations of G, up
to isomorphism, and d
i
= dimV
i
. Since Schurs Lemma implies that Hom(V
i
, V
j
) = 0 if i ,= j we see that any
endomorphism of C[G] must be the sum of endomorphisms of d
i
V
i
for each i.
3.15 Theorem. Let V be a simple C[G]-module (i.e. a module corresponding to an irreducible representation) and
n any positive integer. Then End(nV )

= M
n
(C), where nV is the direct sum of n copies of V .
Proof. Dene : M
n
(C) End(nV ) by
(M) = (v
1
, . . . , v
n
) M
_
_
_
v
1
.
.
.
v
n
_
_
_ nV .
16
So, for example,
_
1 2
3 4
__
v
1
v
2
_
=
_
v
1
+ 2v
2
3v
1
+ 4v
2
_
It is easy to check that is a well dened ring homomorphism. It is also easy to see that the kernel of is zero,
so is 1-1. It remains only to show that is onto. Let f End(nV ) we want to show that f = (M) for some
matrix M.
Write f = (f
1
, . . . , f
n
) where each f
i
is a C[G]-module homomorphism from nV to V . By restricting f
i
to the jth
coordinate, we get a C[G]-module homomorphism f
ij
: V V . By Schurs Lemma, f
ij
= a
ij
I for some a
ij
C.
So
f(v
1
, . . . , v
n
) = (f
1
(v
1
, . . . , v
n
), . . . , f
n
(v
1
, . . . , v
n
))
= (f
11
(v
1
) +f
12
(v
2
) +. . . +f
1n
(v
n
), . . . , f
n1
(v
1
) +. . . +f
nn
(v
n
))
= (a
11
v
1
+. . . +a
1n
v
n
, . . . , a
n1
v
1
+. . . +a
nn
v
n
)
= M
_
_
_
v
1
.
.
.
v
n
_
_
_
where M = (a
ij
). So is onto, and therefore a bijection, and thus is an isomorphism of rings.
So C[G]

= End(C[G])

= End(d
1
V
1
. . . d
r
V
r
)

= End(d
1
V
1
) . . . End(d
r
V
r
)

= M
d1
(C) . . . M
dr
(C).
What is the isomorphism? Let
i
: G GL(V
i
) be the representation corresponding to V
i
. Dene : C[G]
M
d1
(C) . . . M
dr
(C) by
(

a
i
g
i
) =
_

a
i

1
(g
i
), . . . ,

a
i

r
(g
i
)
_
=

a
i
(
1
(g
i
), . . . ,
r
(g
i
))
It is clear that is a ring homomorphism. Its 1-1, because if (

a
i
g
i
) = 0, then the representations
i
would be
linearly dependent, meaning that their characters are linearly dependent too, but theyre orthonormal, so is 1-1.
Since we already know that
C[G]

= M
d1
(C) . . . M
dr
(C)
as C-vector spaces, we conclude that is also onto.
Notice that this means that the ith component
i
: C[G] M
di
(C) of is onto. That is, every linear transformation
f : C
di
C
di
can be realised as a linear combination of the matrices
i
(g) for g G. The centre of C[G] is
isomorphic to the centre of M
d1
(C) . . . M
dr
(C) = CI . . . CI

= C . . . C.
3.16 Proposition. As a subring of C[G], the centre is a complex vector space of dimension r (the number of
conjugacy classes of G).
Proof. Say (

a
i
g
i
)g = g(

a
i
g
i
) for all g G. This is the same as

a
i
g
i
g =

a
i
gg
i
. Thus, if

a
i
g
i
is in the
centre of C[G], then for every g, i, j such that gg
i
= g
j
g we must have a
i
= a
j
. But gg
i
= g
j
g g
1
g
j
g = g
i
so
in order for

a
i
g
i
to be in the centre of C[G], we need a
i
= a
j
if g
i
and g
j
are in the same conjugacy class.
Thus, every element of the centre of C[G] is in the span of the elements

gC
g for C a conjugacy class of G. This
span has dimension r, so it must equal the centre of C[G].
3.2 Tensor products of modules over commutative rings
Let R be a ring (must be commutative with 1). Let M, N be R-modules. Let B be the free R-module on the set
mn [ m M, n N. So
B =
_

a
i
(m
i
n
i
) [ m
i
M, n
i
N, a
i
R
_
Let Z be the set of R-linear combinations of elements of B of the following form:
(m
1
+m
2
)nm
1
nm
2
n m(n
1
+n
2
)mn
1
mn
2
(rm)nr(mn) m(rn)r(mn)
where m, m
1
, m
2
M, n, n
1
, n
2
N, r R are any elements. Dene M
R
N = B/Z, where the R-module B/Z
is the abelian group B/Z with the R-action r(b +Z) = rb +Z.
17
3.17 Example. M
R
R

= M, because every element M

R
R is equal to m1 for some m M.
3.18 Example. R
n

R
R
m
= R
nm
, same as for vector spaces.
3.19 Example. R = Z, M = Q, N = Z[

2] = a +b

2 [ a, b Z. M
R
N = Q
Z
Z[

2]

= Q(

2).
Dene : QZ[

2] Q(

2) by (

q
i
(a
i
+b
i

2)) =

q
i
(a
i
+b
i

2).
Then is a hom of Z-modules. To see that is onto note that Q(

2) = a + b

2 [ a, b Q so every element of
Q(

2) can be written as
a+b

2
c
for a, b, c Z, and (
1
c
(a +b

2)) =
a+b

2
c
.
To see that is one-to-one, its enough to show that QZ[

2] and Q(

2) are both 2-dimensional vector spaces,

and that is a Q-linear transformation. All of these facts are easy to see except dim
Q
Q Z[

2], which is
proven as follows. Any element of Q Z[

2] is of the form

q
i
(a
i
+ b
i

2) =

a
i
q
i
1 +

b
i
q
i

2 =
(

a
i
q
i
)(1 1) + (

b
i
q
i
)(1

2). So QZ[

2] is spanned by 1 1 and 1

2 as a Q-vector space. Since is

onto, and Q(

2) has dimension 2, we see that dimQZ[

2] = 2 and is an isomorphism, as desired.

Let R be a ring (with 1, not necessarily commutative). Note that the previous construction works only if R is
commutative! Let T be a ring containing R as a subring, and M be an R-module.
Dene B to be the free abelian group on t m [ t T, m M =

t
i
m
i
[ t
i
T, m
i
M. Let Z be the
set of integer-linear combinations of all elements of B of the following forms:
(t
1
+t
2
) mt
1
mt
2
m, t (m
1
+m
2
) t m
1
t m
2
,
(tr) mt (rm)
Dene T
R
M = B/Z as abelian groups with a left T-module structure by
t
_

t
i
m
i
_
=

(tt
i
) m
i
.
3.20 Example. Let G = Z
2
, H = 0, V = C, with the trivial H-action. In other words, V is the trivial one-
dimensional representation of H, so V is a C[H]-module. Consider C[G]
C[H]
V . It is a C-vector space. An
arbitrary element of C[G]
C[H]
V is

(a
i
0 +b
i
1) z
i
=

(a
i
z
i
0 +b
i
z
i
1) 1 = (A 0 +B 1) 1 span
C
0 1, 1 1
so C[G]
C[H]
V = span0 1, 1 1.
Let W = C[G]
C[H]
V = span0 1, 1 1. Then W is a C[G]-module, with
0(0 1) = (0 + 0) 1 = 0 1
0(1 1) = (0 + 1) 1 = 1 1
1(0 1) = (1 + 0) 1 = 1 1
1(1 1) = (1 + 1) 1 = 0 1
So W corresponds to the (2-dimensional) left regular representation of G, as expected.
3.21 Example. Let H = Z
4
= y, G = D
4
, : H GL(C) given by (n) = i
n
, V = C the corresponding
C[H]-module. Lets compute W = C[G]
C[H]
V as a C[G]-module. An arbitrary element of C[G]
C[H]
V is of the
form

i
_
_

j
a
ij
g
j
_
_
v
i
=

i
_
_

j
A
ij
y
j
_
_
z
i
+

i
_
_

j
B
ij
xy
j
_
_
z

i
where B
ij
= a
ij
for j corresponding to xy
j
, and A
ij
= a
ij
for j corresponding to y
j
.
=

i
_
_

j
A
ij
(y
j
)z
i
_
_
+

i
_
_

j
B
ij
x (y
j
)z

i
_
_
= A(1 1) +B(x 1)
where A, B C.
18
Let : G GL
2
(C) be the representation associated to W. Then
[(y
n
)](1 1) = (y
n
1) 1 = y
n
1 = 1 (y
n
) 1 = 1 i
n
= i
n
(1 1)
[(y
n
)](x 1) = y
n
x 1 = xy
n
1 = x i
n
= i
n
(x 1)
[(xy
n
)](1 1) = xy
n
1 = x i
n
= i
n
(x 1)
[(xy
n
)](x 1) = xy
n
x 1 = xxy
n
1 = y
n
1 = 1 i
n
= i
n
(1 1)
3.22 Theorem. Let G be a nite group, H G a subgroup, : H GL(V ) a representation, : G GL(W)
the induced representation. Then corresponds to the C[G]-module C[G]
C[H]
V .
Proof. To construct , we choose g
1
, . . . , g
r
G so that g
1
H, . . . , g
r
H is a complete and irredundant list of left
H-cosets in G. Let W = g
1
V . . . g
r
V with [(g)] dened by [(g)](g
i
v) = g
j
[(h)](v), where gg
i
= g
j
h for
some h H. Dene W

= C[G]
C[H]
V with C[G]-module structure induced by multiplication on the left. Dene
: W W

by (

g
i
v
i
) =

g
i
v
i
. We will show that is an isomorphism of C[G]-modules. It is straightforward
to show that is a homomorphism of C[G]-modules. It is also onto because W

is spanned by elements of the form

g v, and g
i
h v = g
i
h(v). To show is an isomorphism, it is enough to show that dimW = dimW

,
because is a C-linear transformation. Well, dimW = [G : H] dimV . To compute dimW

, dene linear map

T : C[G]
C
V C[G]
C[H]
V by T( v) = v and extending linearly. It is not hard to see that T is a linear
transformation and that its onto. The kernel of T is the span of elements of the form ghv g hv. The kernel is
thus also spanned by elements of the form g
i
hv
j
g
i
hv
j
, where v
1
, . . . , v
n
is a basis of V . In this list, we may
further neglect terms with h = 1. So ker T is spanned by g
i
h v
j
g
i
hv
j
where h ranges over the nontrivial
elements of H. There are r ([H[ 1) dimV such elements, so ker T has dimension at most [G : H]([H[ 1) dimV ,
so
dimW

(dimV )(dimC[G]) dimker T

= (dimV )[G[ (dimV )[G : H]([H[ 1)
= (dimV )[G : H].
Since maps W onto W

, we conclude by counting dimensions that is an isomorphism.

3.3 Integrality
Question: Why are the numbers (g) always so nice? They are always sums of roots of unity.
Question 2: So?
3.23 Denition. A commutative ring R is Noetherian i every ideal of R is nitely generated.
3.24 Denition. Let R be a Noetherian ring, contained in some bigger commutative ring T. An element T is
integral over R i R[] is a nitely generated R-module.
3.25 Example. Say
a
b
Q is a rational number. If
a
b
Z, then Z[
a
b
] = Z is a nitely generated Z-module, so
a
b
is integral over Z. Conversely, assume that
a
b
/ Z. Then there is some prime p that divides b but not a. For any
nite set x
1
, . . . , x
n
Z[
a
b
] there is some maximal power of p dividing the denominator of any x
i
, so the Z-module
generated by x
1
, . . . , x
n
cannot contain
a
m
b
m
for m larger than that largest power.
So a rational number is integral over Z i it is an integer.
3.26 Theorem. Let T be a commutative ring, R T a subring, T any element. Then is integral over R i
there is some polynomial f(x) R[x] satisfying
(a) f() = 0.
(b) f(x) is monic.
Proof. Forwards: if is integral over R, then R[] is a nitely generated R-module. Consider the set 1, ,
2
,
3
, . . .
R[]. Since R[] is nitely generated, there is a nite subset a
1
, . . . , a
n
R[] such that every element R[]
can be written as = r
1
a
1
+ . . . + r
n
a
n
for some r
i
R. But each a
i
is a polynomial in with coecients in R,
so there is some N Z such that every a
i
is an R-linear combination of 1, , . . . ,
N1
. Then

N
= r
1
a
1
+. . . +r
n
a
n
19
for some r
i
R, so
N
= f() for some polynomial f(x) R[x] of degree < N. Thus, g(x) = x
N
f(x) is a monic
polynomial with coecients in R and g() = 0.
Backwards: We know f() = 0 for some monic polynomial f(x) R[x]. So if N = deg(f) we get
N
= r
N1

N1
+
. . . +r
0
. So R[] is generated by 1, ,
2
, . . . ,
N1
, so were done.
3.27 Example. Which elements of Q(

5) are integral over Z?

Solution. Q(

5) =
a
b
+
c
d

5 [ a, b, c, d Z.
What is the minimal polynomial for
a
b
+
c
d

5 over Q? If c = 0, weve got a rational number, and we already know

which rational numbers are integers. So assume c ,= 0. Then the minimal polynomial is
(x
a
b

c
d

5)(x
a
b
+
c
d

5) = x
2
(
2a
b
)x + (
a
2
b
2

5c
2
d
2
)
= x
2
(
2a
b
)x +
a
2
d
2
5c
2
b
2
b
2
d
2
When does this polynomial have integer coecients? Assume WLOG that gcd(a, b) = gcd(c, d) = 1. Then
2a
b
Z
implies b [ 2 so WLOG b = 1 or 2. If b = 1 then the polynomial is:
x
2
(2a)x +
_
a
2
d
2
5c
2
d
2
_
so d
2
[ 5, meaning d = 1. If b = 2, then the polynomial is x
2
ax + (
a
2
d
2
20c
2
4d
2
) so 4d
2
[ a
2
d
2
20c
2
. This means
4 [ a
2
d
2
, so 4 [ d
2
, since b = 2, so a is odd. So d is even, meaning that d = 2d

for some integer d

. Then
a
2
d
2
20c
2
4d
2
=
4a
2
(d

)
2
20c
2
16(d

)
2
=
a
2
(d

)
2
5c
2
4(d

)
2
Now d

must be odd, since otherwise the numerator is odd and 4(d

)
2
is even, so our fraction is not an integer.
Furthermore, we must have
(d

)
2
[ a
2
(d

)
2
5c
2
= (d

)
2
[ 5c
2
= (d

)
2
[ 5 = d

= 1 = d = 2.
Thus,
a
b
+
c
d

5 =
a+c

5
2
. We also need a and c to be odd, so that a
2
(d

)
2
5c
2
can be even. So in general, any
integral element of Q(

5) must be of the form x + y

_
1+

5
2
_
. All these elements are integral over Z because the
minimal polynomial of x +y
_
1+

5
2
_
is
_
t
_
x +y
_
1 +

5
2
____
t
_
x +y
_
1

5
2
___
= t
2
(2x y)t + (x
2
+ 2xy +y
2
(2))
3.4 Frobenius divisibility
Where were going: to prove that if is an irreducible representation of a nite group G then dim [ [G[.
3.28 Theorem. Let T be a commutative ring, R T a subring. Assume R, T are Noetherian. Then the set of
elements of T that are integral over R is a subring of T.
Proof. The set S of R-integral elements of T is nonempty, so it suces to show that it is closed under +, , and .
Thus, let x, y S be any elements. Then x + y, x y, and xy are all elements of the ring R[x, y], which is a n.
gen. R-module by x
i
y
j
where i, j range over the same sets as those needed to ensure that x
i
generates R[x]
and y
j
generates R[y]. The proof now follows from the following lemma.
3.29 Lemma. If R is a Noetherian ring and M is a nitely generated R-module, then every R-submodule of M is
also nitely generated.
Proof. Say N M is an R-submodule. Since M is n. gen., by m
1
, . . . , m
n
, there is a surjective R-module hom.
: R
n
M given by (r
1
, . . . , r
n
) = r
1
m
1
+. . . +r
n
m
n
. If we can show that
1
(N) = v R
n
[ (v) N is a
n. gen. R-module, then N will also be n. gen., by the images (under ) of the generators for
1
(N). Thus, we
may assume that M = R
n
. If n = 1, then N is an ideal of R, so since R is Noetherian, N is n. gen. Now proceed
by induction on n. Dene R-module hom. : R
n
R by (r
1
, . . . , r
n
) = r
1
. Then ker

= R
n1
is a n. gen.
20
R-module. And Im is also n. gen. because its a submodule of R. Furthermore, ker N is n. gen. because
its a submodule of ker

= R
n1
and Im( [
N
) is n. gen. because its a submodule of R. Thus, N can be nitely
generated by the union of a set of gens for ker N and any nite set in N that maps (via ) to a nite generating
set for Im( [
N
).
So if G is nite, g G any element, any character, then (g) is always integral over Z.
3.30 Theorem (Frobenius divisibility). Let G be a nite group, and : G GL(V ) an irreducible
representation. Then dimV [ [G[.
Proof. For any conjugacy class C of G, let e
C
=

gC
g C[G]. Then e
C
is in the centre of C[G], and

C
Ze
C
is
a ring containing e
C
that is a f.g. Z-module, so e
C
is integral over Z. But C[G]

= M
n1
(C) . . . M
nr
(C), and its
centre is CId . . . CId, and the isomorphism maps

a
i
g
i
to
_

a
i

1
(g
i
), . . . ,

a
i

r
(g
i
)
_
where
i
: G GL(V
i
) is the ith irreducible representation of G, up to isomorphism. So
i
(e
C
) is a scalar multiple
of Id, meaning that
1
dimVi
Tr(
i
(e
C
)) is integral over Z. Thus, for any =

a
i
g
i
in the centre of C[G], we have
1
dimV

a
i

(g
i
) is integral over Z for any character

of any irrep of G. Moreover, the span of e

C
is just the
set

f(g
i
)g
i
[ f is a class fn. So for any class function f : G C, the sum
1
dimV

f(g
i
)

(g
i
) is integral over
Z for any irrep . If we choose f(g
i
) =

(g
1
i
) then
1
dimV

(g
1
i
)

(g
i
) is integral over Z. But this sum is just
|G|
dimV
Q, so dimV = dim divides [G[.
3.5 Frobenius reciprocity
Let G be a nite group, H G any subgroup, f : H C a class function. We dene the induced class function
on G by
[Ind
G
H
(f)](g) =
1
[H[

tG
s.t. t
1
gtH
f(t
1
gt)
It is a class function on G.
Note also that Ind
G
H
(

) =
Ind
G
H

.
3.31 Theorem (Frobenius reciprocity). Let be a class function on H, a class function on G. Then
, Res
H

H
= Ind
G
H
,
G
, where Res
H
is the restriction of to H.
Proof. Without loss of generality, we may assume that and are irreducible characters, corresponding to irre-
ducible representations and , respectively. Then , Res
H

H
is the number of copies of in the irreducible
decomposition of the representation associated to Res
H
, and similarly for Ind
G
H
,
G
. Notice that if

= a
1

1
+
. . . + a
r

r
, for irreps
i
with
i
,

=
j
if i ,= j, then dimHom(
i
, ) = a
i
. (We actually proved this before, when we
computed End(C[G])). So , Res
H

H
= dimHom
C[H]
(V, W) and Ind
G
H
,
G
= dimHom
C[G]
(C[G]
C[H]
V, W),
where : H GL(V ) and : G GL(W). Dene : Hom
C[H]
(V, W) Hom
C[G]
(C[G] V, W) by
(T) = g v [(g)](T(v)).
It is straightforward to check that is well-dened and 1-1. For surjectivity, let f : C[G] V W be any hom. of
C[G]-modules. Then f = ( f[
1V
). So is an isomorphism, and were done.
3.6 Mackey
Q: When is Ind
G
H
irreducible?
Say H, K are subgroups of a nite group G, : H GL(V ) a representation of H. What is Res
K
Ind
G
H
?
3.32 Denition. A double coset of (H, K) in G is a set of the form KgH for some g G.
Note that for any g
1
, g
2
G, either Kg
1
H = Kg
2
H or else Kg
1
HKg
2
H = : Let g
1
, . . . , g
n
be a set of double
coset representatives for (H, K) in G, and let H
i
= g
i
Hg
1
i
K.
Dene
i
: H
i
GL(V ) by
i
(x) = (g
1
i
xg
i
).
3.33 Theorem. Res
K
Ind
G
H

i
Ind
K
Hi
(
i
).
21
Proof. We have
Res
K
Ind
G
H
= (Ind
G
H
as a C[K] module)
= C[G]
C[H]
V
considered as a C[K]-module. We want to show that C[G]
C[H]
V

=

i
_
C[K]
C[Hi]
V
_
as C[K]-modules.
Dene : C[G]
C[H]
V

i
_
C[K]
C[Hi]
V
_
by
(kg
i
h v) = (0, . . . , k [(h)](v), . . . , 0)
where the nonzero entry is in the ith coordinate. To show that is well-dened, we need to show that if k
1
g
i
h
1
=
k
2
g
i
h
2
, then k
1
[(h
1
)](v) = k
2
[(h
2
)](v) for all v V . Well, k
1
g
i
h
1
= k
2
g
i
h
2
= k
1
= k
2
(g
i
h
2
h
1
1
g
1
i
). Then
k
1
[(h
1
)](v) = k
2
(g
i
h
2
h
1
1
g
1
i
) [(h
1
)](v)
= k
2
[
i
(g
i
h
2
h
1
1
g
1
i
)(h
1
)](v)
because g
i
h
2
h
1
1
g
1
i
= k
1
2
k
1
g
i
Hg
1
i
K = H
i
. So this is
= k
2
[(h
2
h
1
1
)(h
1
)](v) = k
2
[(h
2
)](v)
as desired. Thus, is a well-dened hom. of C[K]-modules. Dene :

i
_
C[K]
C[Hi]
V
_
C[G]
C[H]
V by
(k
1
v
1
, . . . , k
n
v
n
) =

i
k
i
g
i
v
i
. To see that is well dened, I must show that if g
i
hg
1
i
H
i
, then:
(kg
i
hg
1
i
v) = (k [
i
(g
i
hg
1
i
)](v)
But (0, . . . , kg
i
hg
1
i
v, . . . , 0) = kg
i
h v = kg
i
[(h)](v) and (k [
i
(g
i
hg
1
i
)](v)) = kg
i
[(h)](v), which
is good.
((kg
i
h v)) = (0, . . . , k [(h)](v), . . . , 0)
= kg
i
[(h)](v) = kg
i
h v
and
((k
1
v
1
, . . . , k
n
v
n
)) =
_

i
k
i
g
i
v
i
_
= (k
1
v
1
, . . . , k
n
v
n
)
So and are mutually inverse, and so is an isomorphism, as desired.
3.34 Theorem (Mackeys Irreducibility Criterion). Let G be a nite group, H G a subgroup,
: H GL(V ) a representation. Then Ind
G
H
is irreducible i
1. is irreducible, and
2. For all g GH,

g , Res
Hg

Hg
= 0
where H
g
= gHg
1
H and
g
: H
g
GL(V ) is
g
(t) = (g
1
tg).
Proof. Ind
G
H
is irreducible i Ind
G
H

, Ind
G
H

G
= 1, i

, Res
H
Ind
G
H

H
= 1 (choose g
1
, . . . , g
n
double coset
reps for (H, H), g
1
= 1), i

Ind
H
Hi

H
= 1, i

Res
Hi

,
i

Hi
= 1, i Res
H

H
= 1 (correspond-
ing to H
1
) and Res
Hi

,
i

Hi
= 0 for all i ,= 1, i

H
= 1 ( is irreducible) and Res
Hi

,
i

Hi
= 0 for
all i ,= 1, i is irreducible and Res
Hg

,
g

Hg
= 0 for all g GH.
3.35 Corollary. If H G is a normal subgroup, : H GL(V ) a representation, then Ind
G
H
is an irreducible
representation of G i
1. is irreducible, and
2.
g
,

= 0 for all g GH.

Proof. Immediate from MIC.
3.36 Example. G = D
4
= x, y [ x
2
= y
4
= 1, xy = y
1
x, H = y, : H GL(C) given by (y
a
) = i
a
. Is
Ind
G
H
irreducible?
Since dim = 1, its irreducible. Any g G H is g = xy
a
, so gHg
1
= xHx, so H
g
= H
x
and
g
=
x
. And

x
(y
a
) = (xy
a
x) = (y
a
) = i
a
, so
x
,

= . Thus, since
x
is also irreducible,

x,

= 0 so Ind
G
H
is irreducible
by MIC.
22